€ Introduction: what do we mean by development? In September 2000 United Nations members adoped tte Millennium Declaration, out of which came the Millennium Development Goals” MDGs) (oe Box 11. Since thn, these goals have ben widely tse by milter agencies, govemments and non-gevemmental ‘organizatins (NGOs), in framing development poles in order 10 ‘chieve the arose targets by 2015. Sach clearly sted gols Saar tv defining “developmen easy and that wat is. important the end pont that society gts a, nt ow thse goals are achieved Box 14 Millennium Development Goals ‘While tee goals wee ope by he UN i 200, ty wee ucone ‘intone sree thought th 190. Thre eight ols bat {or er go tea s be of res andes. Thee ls, 2 ieee prinuy econ 3 promote pdr eq nd enpover women: 4 ten ile mony2+ motto | 5 impose ma el SSE vat; maria nd te eases 5 Sure even tis 1 Sivcopa gta praetor deveopmest. “eres re mich morse ae ince: 1 terwceo 1990 an 2015, he he proprio of pole win ines (ethan US 2 tec by twos, betes 4 ney 2015, gu ete nen ESS 205, te poor of peopl witout uit ‘Siding wea sc stain. coats eet 10 ‘| 190 a 2015, he mata oY of ml sd tee mor In this bck we wil be considering theres abou development and 1a estncores inform polity formulation ad paces achiev to ment goal, However, before we embark ons jouney. We eo pat dnvelopmen means. Dest the seemingly | Meron sen’ naure ofthe MDG “development targets this chapter wl ighight Tn poricuar, we wil nome pola! and cultural dyaarism,l ses about development and ‘on and practces 10 achieve mark om this jourey, We tans, Despite the seeming welopment target this te ofthe ter development opment has ben defines sha eal development bas are ne wo wove of sense means the condor of tn iden of "modernity 30), Because of social vis, what is moder i at is ‘modern in one pe ty own used a8 tem, yan ciety Based of ‘Damon recently the USA In cemomictems,'modernity’ encompasses industritization, lubaiaton and te increased use af technology within ll sector (ofthe economy, This application of tchnalogy and sone Principles is also reflected within soil and classes. ‘What as been tenned the “Elighenmen period in Western Europe inthe late seventeenth and eightzenh centuries involved ‘he going impomtce of rational ahd scene appraches tndestanding the world and progress (Sheppard et a, 2009: 54-6), “This was contested wilh previous understandings that were often rooted in eligious explanations (Power 2003: 72-6). Approaches to matin, the legal and polities systems and econo development were ll affected by this shift in perspective, “The sil and temporal context of these ideas about modernity i imporant inthis understanding of what “moder” was, but a5 we _shal te throughout the book, these ideas were taken at of their ‘context and spread throughout the word (Lara 2008. Fr some, ‘hi afsion of modernity interpreted x “development” and progress, while for others it is associated with the erl-ation of

trom the inva t he lea community, the eon, the ee dueal and the global farpong others) How development i defined aay ifr by male ann ation the approaches w development sree anilany scale dependent a we shal seine next ston, nequalies can be revealed at paricwar pais scales /For example Pate tonsder national evel development figures we gt no idea of thoterthere are differences between pons within the county. Re hu se throughout the book, sail nequalties area Key ‘ator tn any discussion of development Some form of development Ae de nceasing eqs betwen places, while oer TTeelopment appaaches may expleily atempt fo reduce spatial inoquaits. _Abthe subnational selet is also important to reccpnize ‘ddtnbatoot anus) The Gin oefcents a measue of inequality (pox Ta), Ata rational lve, whe income pe capita levels and {Sr may besaisactry. according to interationa noms, tis ttporant 0 revagire that no everyone in the coty wil haveSinlarty, most Souther ridleincome counties St pe and low Bevel of Sinden much of Central sent gs withthe sme Treason to wse te nore ber of reasons why this may plete overlay For example, stgoed Towa the etegary of "med lack of complete oveap, by felopment& more tan just a seae appropiste measures of such measures do 0 sng Blow) oF sei the vet mnoiy ofthe soul Tike thee ives nb of pti sels Tse {uni the ego ne Tow development dered ¢ aproach fo development {af oe the next tion, esp ele For exale, En ius we geno en of ris wine cy atime ray WiSome fms of development ween ples, wl ter Yate fo ede spatial ati a mesure of inequality {income ex cpt eves and ‘imteraton! poms. in inte courte il have Iniodocte + accesso that evel of icame or standadof living (ee Table 1). ‘AS this able shows, these issues of equality aes important the, Global North as inthe Gnbal South ~ high levels of economic development do not necessarily mean great equality (se Box 1.5). 19 aattion, experiences of marginalization, poverty and disadvantage Se not rerced to cerisn pats ofthe World (Jones 2000), ‘A key substi pater of sail inequity bstsen ra fd ban ares If We consider indiatos of economic and sci Box 1.4 Gini coefficient and Gini index Bot of hes ne asus of eit ad mame fer eon Satsiian who fouled te cect i 912. They mse her incom neat or nsiliies nnn etc nin, Gin coticent Tis mesure ae fm 0 which means et iy, to which epsens prt inegaty. This he ea the Cote io Othe more he icone ditto. Coons wit Oi petit of eveen 30a 070 coal be dese sng hy ewe | ncn dbo, fle ne wih Gi cet of 20 fo 035 hve restely equa cartons, Gin index This mesure, sly he UNDP, gs oe Oo 10.8 gre 0 means pres yea and 100 mes pert ini Box 18 Inequality In the USA ‘Wah GN? fame of USSETS40 in 200, he USA i ang he chest ratios nth wo, However, tse vee mata res ie asin nealtis in nce ad very ie i expanses WA Gi inex of 408 tle ft ot al Anes havea gl she of the aon’. According tbe US Cee Bue 73 the tp 20 percent of carr inthe US ho percent tine. By 200, ‘show sia pater of nego th he wae | prcet20 ttt ose contig 38 er et fhe os! wet whe be btn To parce thon ony conald17 eee “secon ney as apparent osc ina Amaya Sk TRSSR Destpmen or Pee (199) rn tearing oe [ups iat US tosses a he etal Sesh denon hat ‘Korcasene in wee positon han ti coomer in ere ‘AeSron Whe Afsam Ansncans abe USA car i mare hn poe Teena oc Kea (Wns) ey ve a flover cane of eachng ‘Shtocd ag Seals wes the resto medial sesh by McCord od Fiecmas (190) se “Bangles men ea Bt boc of ving 1 Te yond ry yeas than Afam-Amerian men fo te Hale ‘Barone pees yo New You (199-23). eee ere ee | “tle 4 Measures of nae ney Hotraning ‘Renew JOM de Sooo poor 108. nee 7» 82 a8 i wellbeing, there sem fo be‘anal we, ile blo en ar Se voce | arco poet Ske noe hn el Be tones ores eleven et weet ae ten i950", wes ou | indo } However, sch distinctions ten 1995). Fest ior example i ural ae, own Papasan wth Paani Dowie etweme a i Ger” Ging wane) Sama ices a doos) 008) axe Sea oe eo 8 & angen 253 See merece ‘monetary income maybe lower than in the towns and cits, bu the ‘tof living is lower andthe availability of food fom subsistence farming may bep save on food costs. Second, rayne 2010; Lynch 2005 us, while povery levels may be higher in rl ‘Habitat 2010), As wil be dicised in much more detail in Chapter 5, inequalities te not just experienced in spatial terms alse ‘ery important Throughout the world ve tended o be exlaed fom many of the benefits oferta forms brings (Momsen 2010), Parca regioalornatina contents may also be deprived of opps,‘oc CRE Eumpe pea Stes Asia Paste oo 2 2 © © @ 7 #0 an population 200%) rere 13. Utaiton lore by en 2030. cor may be dened dession-makng power inthe framing of evelopment projec. Tis very is dealt wih thoughout th book, but particu in Chapter 8. Measuring ‘development’ contested, Ik isnot only defining ‘development which Course, hs asues that “evelopment is something Which eos 1 be measured or assessed. For various acts in development (Get pp. 26-7) mearuring development could be important For txanple, policy-makers may want to find out what te soca ‘Sevelopment postion (as defined by te policy-makers of & population isn ordr fo inform policy formulition, Goverment or rernatonal agentes my want oases the impact of pacar {development intiatve and therfore want to have measurements from both before and afer he projec Finally, campaigning> 6 o& m w wer in the faming of to desvetons of carl 1 dele in slfsespec! and lives is a key theme in ‘ng to implement development {tis meant by “development ‘out the book, but pricularly which comes, he a a 1s measured is abo probit et i someting Which SPraous scr develope Sh cold be imponsnt For ind ot what the scl the poleymakers) ofa formulation. Covermen 0 het the input paren want o have measurements Finally, campaigning organizations eecking t9 impro¥e ling conditions for aginalized ‘grup, may want information about he nature of marginalization, Because of he aiferen conceptions of developement anne range oF seals at which t canbe considered, easing "development ‘oguies proxies (Morse 2008), For example, i the case af the Word Bank focus on sconomic development, the indicator used is GNI pet capita. This at now been widely adopted as an appropri measire ‘of economic development, but other indcaars or proxies could be sed, suchas te conbuon of non-agricultural atv ie 0 GDP. Inthe cas of the HDI, the UNDP decided tha ite undentanding of| ‘man development insaded thew main features: health education and economic satus. To measur each ofthese the UNDP needed o| ‘choose indicates (Box 13) Thi hoe af indieston ertinly ot straightforward Por example, Hicks and Steten (1979 iscus the issues around tying to find proxy measures fr “asic neds (see Chapter 4). Wise there may be agreement on wht tse neds are, including adequate shee, fod, clothing and employment tis ‘much more dffcult to workout how these element are be ressured. Another problen with measuring development is companbity. This fm be over tne, oF Between different counties. Collecting large amounts of nfrmaton, for example though national crass, requires significant resources ems of rine personne nt technology for analysing the results, These ae clearly no quay ‘vailble ol ptional goverment (Bulmer and Warwick 1993), Tn advo, dat collection can be disrupted by politcal nest or war, and some communities or groups may be excluded fom Surveys and oir studies because they are socially, econeielly ‘or geographically marginal (Chambers 1997 Finally, development measures are nearly alvays quanttve, ie they can be expressed in numerical frm. This focus i understandable ven the need 0 make comparisons across tne and space, and also to deal wit large amoonts of information, However, by fusing ot ‘quanfaive menarerent, the subjective quaitive dimensions of ‘evelopment are etlided. The means exuding the fens, experiences an opinions of individuals and groups. Thi approach so leds fo reinforce outsiders’ ideas about “development” "ather than wt leal people think “development i should be (Chapter ‘A good exam ofthis debate isthe dfniton of povery (Wetwaine 202; White 2008). The Millenium Development Goalseee eee eeeanae ave peverty reduction at their core. The definition of poverty usd in these argets isan economic one andthe easement sedis» poverty line, Tae orginal MDO target used USSI per dy as the Fntemasonal poery line, bt in 2008 this was revised to USS1.25. pr day to reflect east of living increases (Wort Bank 2008. However, cease ofthis, the UNDP devised the Human Pove Index two sligly Aliferert measures; HPL-2 for 31 Organisation for Economie Co- ‘operation and Development (OECD) counties (mainly Norther ‘hunts and HPI- for 138 developing counties and areas, but bath encompass indicators of health, edoaton and standard of ving (Table 3) These measures of poverty tend to be applied at 2 ational see ‘A more cent stem to measure povery isthe Multdimensonel over Index (MPI. This deties bealth, education an ving. standas a8 key aspects and ust en indicators to measire housed povey. These indicators include nuiinal level, cess to santion services and school enrolment. However, an ation featur ofthis measre i an assessment ofthe intensity of poverty, {aking into account how many ofthe poverty indiestore foune in 1 pariularhovseold, Because ofthe household evel daa the MPL ate £3 umn Poe ldo Pe to eg ns) ind ety may ot ty ft tne 9 ge 60 voowge Ewe nape 1-5 sg cre ry hres thine ‘peop ng bow abe median apse Mtl sie wean Fate tng fe 32 rie anenlamerrect 18 he definition of poverty used an be uses fo ass iferences within countries and also betveen the measurement wed i itferet social group (Alkie and Santos 2010) The MPI hes used USS! per day a he been sed ty the UNDP inthe Hirmn Development Report 2010 this was evied to USS125 (UNDP 2010, os (Wold Bank 2068). DP devised the Huran Poverty 1997, There are two slightly ‘sation for Esonomie Co- Form, ing oo saving owes res ht ae oa i frm eee ote Uo ers, Caner C9) 1g countries and aes, but ail ) $Weation and standard of ling Poverty makes mycin gt ich and they st wore Bose we ‘end be appliedat 2 ‘eo prio buy meds” (Anon yal. Catala). 1's poy ht aks ik nl 1 ve, king wt sional fa oer nese poe Crd, 35 yer, Goma) ng ry isthe Muli salt, education an luge mutiional eel access ‘pet. However, an editor patie Une ulpeatl (ee Chape 4) and represents a move avay from national-leve ‘very indiestore fur i considerations. Although the Word Bank usually uses quanta Household lve da, the MPL ‘measures of development, i preparation forthe 2000/2001 Wovtd Declopmen Report which was on “Attacking Poverty’ it ‘commissioned large study ented "Voices of Poor which atempled to examine the expenances of poverty throughout the ‘word (Parnvel 2003), While the information gathered in hi ty ‘vas incorprated into the 2000/2001 arld Dexeopment Report, there sooms to have been reteat back o quantitative measures since then (Wiliams and Meliwsine 2003 mee? Terminology set aed tres Fae union sg Rel ey ts ‘The UNDP categorization of counties a having “very high’, tg ‘medium’ or “low human development based on HDI sn the World Bank use of GNI per capita to place counts into one of our ‘lasses, are two examples of how the word can be divided wp scconding wo levels of" developmen. There fe, However any‘other forms of classifi anda range of erms to describe grours tf countes. Rather than merely being debate about einology re has ben growing awareness of how ‘nual and textual representations of popes and places both reflect prevailing power clations and reinforce cerain ways of perceiving {he world (Wiliams el 2009: Chapter 2). Pstolonial and pos- ‘evelopment approaches (discussed ltr inthis chapter are parcatarly engaged with examining Bow certain forms of knowledge Ue validated while oters are ignored, and he reali effects of these processes. In this book I wll generally use the terms “Glokal No or ‘Noth to descr the countries of Europe, Japan, Austali, New Zealand UUSA and Canad, andthe ‘Global South or "South’ to describe the remaining counties of Aca, Asi, Latin America, the Caribbean nd the Pas. While there are clearly problems with using these terms, not east he fact hat ot all ‘Norther countries are north ‘ofthe eqaior and no all ‘Southern oes south ofthe equator, | prefer o se these fers rather tan other common ditnetions Tacursed below. tn addition, the NorhSouth dsinetion was sed bythe Brandt Commission init report onthe nature of global Interdependence (Brandt Commision 1980), The Commission, tlso known asthe Independent Commision on International Development lsues, was setup n 1977 to consider issues of bal inequality and povey twas chaired bythe ex-Chancellr fof West Germany, Wily Brand. “The term “Third World’ has often been used to refer to the nation of | ‘Afi, Asia, Latin Areic and the Caribbean. I was originally used to describe those counties which were part of the Nor-Alignes Movement (NAM), they od ot ofall suppor ether the Capitalist USA orth commit USSR during the col war, instead rfersng a thi way’ Under his interpetation the ‘First World onsite ofthe indutilzed capitalist ations of Westem Europ, ReUSA, Canada, Jpan, Neve Zealand and Austaia while tbe ‘Second Word" was the communist boc ofthe USSR and Eastern Europe. However, despite not orginally having a sense of hierarchy, the dea of Fist, “Sevond” and "hid was often inerpreted 35 ‘meaning the cout in the "Thied Word” were in hid pase. Thestems to describe groups lebate about terminology Mes and places both retest tevin ways of perceiving 2), Postcolonial and pos jn thi chapter are eee forms of owed tah eal ie effects of “Global Non or ‘North th Australia, New Zealand, or Sout to deserbe the fin America, the Caribbean probleme with using these her coun ae not fen south ofthe equator, det conmon distinctions "South distintion was sed om the nature of soba 1980) The Commission ‘ion on Internationa Tio consider baves of ied by the «e-Chancello used to refer to the nations of ibean,H was originally sed pat ofthe Non-Aligned filly suppor either he LR during the col war, ised serpreation the First Wo [stations of Westem Eure, and Asai, while te Soe of he USSR and Easera dy having sense of hieeachy, re vas often interpreted ‘Moe were in thi pace. The collapse ofthe ‘Second Workin the late 1980lerty 1990, with the mansion rom sate-socialim, has meant tha the basis fi he ‘dtincton has been removed (se Chapter 3) (Friedmann 1912). ‘Another poplar form of constructing categories is the “developed ceveloping’ binary. This was felt tobe beter thn distinguishing between developed’ and ‘undeveloped’ 35 the tater phase implied being unable to escape from te condition of luck of development, ae than the more postive sentiment lubich “developing” sugges. However, for some theorist (sch 8 Frank 1969) tne conept of Being ‘Exe or unable to escape fom 2 positon of disadvantage braus of global inequalities means thatthe tenn undeveloped of underdeveloped js eral = ‘Chapter 3). le both “developed developin” and “developed “undeveloped the fist term resins the sme and seems to mply that "development isan endpoint, once you each cern, andar of ving or anomie postion then you ae ‘develops ‘Agnin, such rotons are important in some theorizing (such 3 modernization approaches Gincused in Chapter 2), Howevet, this fils fecogie the dypamisn oF al societies andthe continued esc by population fr improvements (ot necessarily n materi (ods), Tals fil to consider he experiences of soil exclusion hat ae found within supposedly developed” counties or regions (ones 2000) “The terms "More Economically Developed Counties” (MEDCS) and ‘Tes Eeonomielly Developed Counties’ (LEDCs) have abo gine in poplaty The explicit reference to economic development does tot asume fat development i automatically economic, or that ‘Ceonomie developments necessarily associated with fer fos of ‘Eevetopment While thi spect weleome he emphasis onthe conomie, ate than other possible mensions of development, ould be reared as implying tat economic factors are the most Sporn aspects of “developmen As with all he categones used, ‘where the boundary between groupings spaced is igh omtentous, nt las bcaute ofthe rise of certain counties ‘ncloding the Gulf States sna Brazil, Rusia, India and Chi (ollecively known a8 the BRIS). Finally, some politica activists working for greater global utice refer 1 Aca, Asia Latin Amerce andthe Caribbean ase "Majority Wor andthe ext ofthe word asthe ‘Minors World “The New Inernationalis magazine uses tis ermiology orexample to sess the fact hat in population rms, the mary i rls popultion Gust aver 80 percent in 2008 according West Bank 2010e: 379) Hives in the nations of what have {Game the South, This is 28 portant point to make si varets the Eurocentric assumptions which unre many ts se. in sme cass, this is because pare approuch avery content specific and hati fact hee foul be eer interpretations, but Seay not tre even the ange of nations making Fatale becaue of ditintions based on pend ethnicity cis fd many other socal characte Tis not only teminology which can reveal biases and assumptions, Rape areas important bearers of des because they Tape Eaton ofthe word Because we al ave frente of veer, how we choose f presen our workd ina map cael 2 ‘eal abou eur own parcular bases (Wood 2010) A rep ss fon ia way of praying a te-diensionl globe on 2 Fat rer papr arent aps sch shoe drawn asingtbe rr tor projet, place Europe tthe cent of the map a sient te eowtinnts in th sare shapes as they ae in ety ‘Tota 1a) However becase th Earth sa pee this ends othe (ree Mer nearer the poles appearing much age eave to other land masses ee the equator. The Petes projection is an atempt 10 SPulenge this Euocetre image The Peters projection i 8 tal cae, meaning tat the land area epesented on he map ar elton to othe land areas. This meas that Aft, ASK SA ain Ameca are much more significant in the Peters Ajeton,refcting the importance nae trms in eli Peery Because ofthis the Peters projection bas oes been (rea dovelopment edition schemes oy and countersation terms, the majority 2 per ent n 2008 according se naons of what Thave on point to make, ast hich andre many terms ssf and that infact there reveal biases and assumptions, es because they ae ‘we all have diferent views of ‘ur word it 3 map can reveal 2 fakes (Wood 2010). A map rroe-dimensonal globe ona fat Shas hore drawn using the the conte ofthe map and shapes a they ae in rely "arth isa apere this leads Yo he ri ch frger relative to other “ex ojcon nae «Peters projection is an equ area represented onthe ma Eurocentric bias (Vujakovc 1989, The Peters projection has, This means that Aiea, Ast however, been ercized for making the continent appear lng and iifleant inthe Peter, ‘hin, very unlice ther sapes on the globe. this book the weld in ares tern reality maps are dawn using the Eckert IV projsstion, This san equal area frs projection has often Been | projection whic tres to minimize dstrtns tothe shapes of the ‘neo try and counter ‘continents.20+ hin Colonialism [At the sa of the twenty-first century there are very few colonies ft ‘nthe word following widespread decolonization processes aftr th ‘Sevond World War (however, see MeEwan 2009: 19 for ist of “Suerseasteritres’). Despite this, ny consideration of development theories and practices neds to ncude a discussion of the importance tnd nature of colonialiam, Before elaborating on hese reasons, ‘fntion of colonialism’ is needed. Bemsten (2000; 24) dines ‘oll the poifelconrol of peoples and tenitories by foreign sates, wheter accompanied by agnifeant permanent mt or not this poe cone pest global power ‘Tfercias and tg asst with dominance fn other spheres soch ts the economy and cultural proces “The main reasons for sossng colonialism inthe context of evelopment theory can be identi; First, from the mie of he ‘intoom century onwards, European colonialism created more and ‘howe linkages between diffrent parts ofthe world. As we shal see Throughout the remainder of he Book interactions at» global eae tthe bonds between diferent regions and counties are refered tx Ia ange of ways ina numberof development theories. While the Tnkages between diferent pars ofthe word cannot be solely “buted tothe operation of colonialism, twas a key element i developing the basis for whl we now eal “loblition” (ce Chip ‘second important reason for considering colonialism ina book on evelopment those ste nature of power elation embeded ny clonal processes The expansion of Euxopean poli, economic) nd socal contol over oho pars ofthe word represented the peat power hel by these nations (Sce pp 21-3). In some ‘Evetopment theories, thse power inequalities between North and South help exptin diferental development experiences, with cloniatinm bringing beneficial changes to Nore countries, a the = apenaeof those in he South (see Chapter 3. tis angued that these . ‘teguaites ls contin to limi he autonomy of Souther counties tnd poptes to determine thei wn futures hough processes of wha ts Goon termed “neo-colnialiem’ This term is used to deserbe [bat relationships whick reflec the dominance of the Noch over {he South, despite legal independence. I is used, for examen Felton tthe influence of transnational corporations (TNCS) vet the economies ofthe South (se Chaper 7), o the ability ofthere ae very few clones lf soloizntion process ater the wan 2099; 19 fora list of ¢y consideration of development discutsion ofthe importance dorating on these reson 3 Bemstein (2000: 282) defines F peoples and teritries by syrspnicam permanent ‘ont represen plobal powst tinace in oter spheres such Ionian in the context of First, fom the muddle ofthe ‘colonia created more and of the wold As we shall = teractions at a global sale fe and counties are refered to welopment theories. Wile the te world cannot be solely Ts i was ey element i veil globalization (ee She et Noor oui, a he rere Soe eee nevtetn + 22 es, Mtoe [Northem government to itervene in Southem governments! ‘decision-making trough the workings of mulilsteral organizations ‘sch asthe Weeld Bank (sce Chapter 2 Finally, tbe clonal experience varied across the word, depending ‘on he colonial power, pre-exaing socal, economic and plies! ‘Sretues in the eolny, andthe timing ofthe colonial encounter (Bemsten 2000, Whatever te expenene, is ler that colonial changed the social structures, politeal and economic ‘Stems, and cull norms in many places both North and South “The legacy ofthese changes coninsd into independence While colonialism is usualy considered tobe a Europeanted phenomenon, the dominance of some societies over aber tes fiom before European excursions into Asa, Affi, Latin Ameria andthe Caribbean (Willams er a 2008: Chapter 3). For example, the Aztec and Inca empires in Latin America Were able to dominate tothe groups and tertores and use them for resources. Simialy ‘he Mogul empice (1526-1761) in what i now northwest fia tne but onthe gathering of write and taxes frm peasants (Bua 2000) Throughout Africa there wre significant empire, such as the empire ofthe Kush nthe Nile Valley anda numberof Islamic temples in West Aca (Stock 2008. The expansion of Westen European inlunce had, however, mich more widespread nd lonprtaning fies“Tre frt main period of European colonia expansion was led by the Spanish and Portuguese in Latin America and the Caribbean Flowing Columba aival the Ameras in 1492 [nthe ‘Syne century, Spanish influence also extended northwards © St ae now the southern sates ofthe USA (Pate 1.3). During Uhrsatenth and seventeenth centres, the Spanish and Poroguese ste what they ealed the ‘New Word as a source of raw materi, Weerin particular. There was some setement, bt overall ne ‘Mona! project of Both hese nations was focused on mercantile sxtvites rade), Irth later part of he severteeath century, the Dutch and British tae tothe fore, While they id have some activities in Latin ‘Aris and the Caribbean much o tei activity was foes in oh Amerie and South and Eas Asia, While he imporasce of trade for these colorial endeavours wa ill high in particle Intacee frm Noth America ad spices and sks From Asi 95 ronfectrng became mre important ip Briain, the provision of Taw mates for these industries tok on more signfeanee. Imports Totes fom North Amecea were ranspoted 10 the burgeoning)onl expansion was Ted bY “america an he Caribbean ‘Americas in 1492. Inthe iho exterded nothwards fe USA (Plate 13). During sien: the Spanish and Portaguse TT aa source of ew mater, ‘eatement, but overall he twas foesed on mercantile century, the Dutch and Bath “Shee activity was fused 2 Casie While the importanee Sen til ig, in pariclar {pices ond ik fom Asi, a rian Briain, he provision of {ook on more significance. Imports ‘eefomporte 4 the tarEcning Inueurton +23 textile fctresof Northern England and tobaeco and sugar were tho proceed “he slave trade was Key in the expansion of cotton fotmcco and supe production as slaves were the manny of he Plantation workire, Within Sub-Saharan Aiea European claves were found along the western cost whee slave taing faok place For example, the Bish had bases in Gambia, Sema sone, andthe Hench in Seneyal. Europeans (Brits, Due, French and Geena) sted 8 South lenin 1652 in what is now Cape Town (Stock 2008). This period of colailism 380 {lied rom te earer Spanish nd Portuese phase becase there was great setement by Europeans ad the colonies thane inportant markets foe European manufictured good (Bemstein 2000, As industrial expansion tok hol in Europe inthe eghten and rietenth centri, colonies became increasingly importa 5 Sources of raw mattis and markets (se Chapter 3 fora discussion fot Marxist intepettions of colonialism at this time). Spi and24 nadcton orga were losing their positions as key colonial powers and a the srt of the nineteenth century was of independence broke out in much of Latin America, lending te independence for many of the Lia American nations in the 18205, Meanwhile, Bish and French colonies in South and East Asia continued to tve. Within Wat became South Affe, the Cape was annexed bythe British 195. This prompted what was known asthe Great Tek’ the {830s and {8405 when thousands of Bers (Dutch Whit seers and descendents) moved noth and exablished the Boe republics ff Tansval and Orange Free Stat Stock 2004. European Colonization of most of the Aficin continent ony really tok place fn the ater parts ofthe nineteenth entry during what became Known a the “scramble for Affi’ At the Berlin Confrence of 1884-5, the European powers divided up the continent, arene that ifeounines could demonstrate ‘tftive wont’ then they could Telly claim that ferstory (Stock 200). Britain and France were tia the hey players, but Belgium, Porugal and Germany also tind tetris (Figure 1.9). Following the Second World War, te pressure for decolonization in ‘fica, Aso and the Canbean increase fora number of aon ‘The war had cused major esonomie problems in Wester Europe “The to main eolnial powers, Frarce spd Britain, had totum fo the USA for anistance (see Chapter 2) In adton, the new global superpowers the USA and Soviet Union (USSR) both advocated ‘ecolonization, not est because it would provide new opportunis fe the spread of tsi wm influences. These factors extra 10 the colonies wer complemented by the increasing els For {ndependence fom the population ofthe colonies themselves, ‘Changing economic process and the growing power of mal rational corporations (MNCS) als elped. Direct politcal contol tras no longer necessary for goods be trad between counties (over era 2008), The combination ofthese ecole 0 8 ‘raul process of decolonization Despite the achievement of politic independence, the autonomy of the newly-independen sates was certainly ot achieved. Economic Tinkages, in patcular, conned Keep the ex-clonies ina been! or dependent postion ce Chapter 3) [tan also be argued tit tis process of neocasnaism also extend othe Continued representation of “Westen o ‘Nother’ ways of ding thing a beter", Ths is 8 Key corcem of many development+ key colonial powers and a ‘sof independence Broke out independence for many 3 20s, Meanie, Bish snd ia continued to hive, Within tes annexed by the Britsh in has the "Gret Teck inte Boers (Dutch White sete Sabished the Boe reps Stock 2004) European ‘atinent ony ell took place rary ding what beeane iat the Berin Confrence of Gp the continent, agresing tht tive contol then they could (04), Bruin and France were orga and Germany abo he pressure for decolonization in ese for 9 numberof reson problems in Westen Exope Toe and Britain, had to tun 10 the In ain, the new glo Jon (USSR) both advocated ‘would provide ne oppertuntis These ftors extra to the ineeasng cals for ofthe colonies temsles the growing power of muli= helped, Dict politeal control to be traded between counties Dn ofthese factors led toa 1 independence, the autenomy of ‘eainly not achieved. Economic 7 keep the excolonis ina ‘ee Cape 3). Ian ali be ils also extends tothe Stor Northern’ ways doing seer of many development ici acinaciadtss| rener let atin AGG) 7. sieen) Zc [ES oomen ZS Spann unchot L Sout Arca theories ote inte book and also poxtevlopmeat and pestolonil apraches, which ae deus ate end of his hap “The drawing together of sitet pars ofthe worl rough he Pl den ren ox ih aoa ns ‘at the stat ofthe Rowe of wets, commodities and pope sro he flbe, This incesingieronoetoes now eee oa lotlzaton’ (Chale 7). However, just a daring he elit enn evn cunts an eopes were abet domi tes. 50 HHobalzaton eet sontiung power mequalies. Globalization s fot expenenced the sane wy bya the wos popes. For ‘hanpl, coin pars fhe word ae mae "comet otherzion than others, Sub-Saharan Afi, for example, is markedly less conneted to other resins thoagh trade investment Bows and telecommunications (Dicken 2007) This, some have argued (ce ‘Chapte: 7), leaves the region unable to benefit rom foreign ‘investment and industriization whch are associated with economic lobalization, The relative lack of exnnectednes inthis seme, dose ot mean tha he govemments of Sub-Saharan Africa ace necessary ‘he to adopt the development polices thy fs! are approprate far thet peoples. The importance of global institutions such asthe World Bank (Chapter 2) and Nore governments epoca the USA, influeoes decisions at atonal level. Te cool pared ‘may be over informal polial terms bul the inequalities in power and intuence remain, Actors in development ‘A key theme ofthis book i o understand how different defitons and approaches to, “development are linked to picts plicy approaches. While the academe dbstes about “development” ae fascinating itis prticulcly importa to consider how these debates link acta policies ‘on the ground which afet millions of people ‘throughout the word ‘The variety of approaches involves range of aco, wth siting cmphases being placed on these actors depending on the approach !dopted. The degree of agency which hese actor: ae peeved to have will also be affected by a partelriterpeiaton of power istbuton. Having ageacy implies tan individual group is ble to make decisions and do things ase on ther own choices (Garkipat and Olsen 2008). The ther extreme, having so ager, means that thee i no fe wlan individual behaviour contd by oer ator: ‘There are a range of actors involved i development (Table ‘They vary fom individ to large-scale global organizations ich | 5 the United Nation. The scale dfemnces ae apparent, but is, important not o assume that here i a inetese manu asthe seal increases. For example, indivi con be inctediby ln ona large scale because of thee poital or economic potion, but individuals can also have very ite influence even within heir own households. The president ofthe Unite Sates of America tad 9 woman farmer on the slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro in Tanz aefica, for example, is markedly sigh rade, investment fws and “This, some hve argued (see ‘to benefit Rom forean ronnectedess i his sense, des inb-Saharan Affica ae necessiy sis they fe are appre for ‘ba ntttions suchas the fem governments, especialy the ‘onal level. The ealoil period ts atthe inequalities in power stand how diferent deftions 1 are linked to particular policy fates about “development” are fan to consider how these debates sd which fet millions of people range of actors, with shifting tors depending onthe aproach ich these actors te peeved 1 ‘oul interpretation of power 2 that an individual or group is bs based on their ov choices ther extreme, having no agency, Findvival Behaviours conti’ «in development (Table 1.4. ‘escale global organizations such ‘erences ae apareat, but iis ‘sa increase im influence a the ‘duals can be incrediby influential siteal or economie postin, but ¢ influence even within thei own Inted States of America and 8 dunt Kilimanjaro in Tames are atte 14 Actor in dovslopment upndrgon near, cs gre, eit Bo poner ange oles fe es os rac ecm armen, eae resin ‘Satsei eaten ore ee 30 Tesnrse or otal ene nates cpsnatine Can et ts ape rx ple: oma ‘tl ce enon on aed oth individuals, but hci ols events and thai fe choices are very ferent in spe Approaches to development White one ofthe sims ofthis bok it highligh the complexities of the debates about ‘developmen’ a a starting pont is sel to have some basi Framework within which oleate our discussions. Table 15 provides a chronology of development” approaches and Understandings Te pont of thi tablet not to suggest that theories of development have evolved in uniiear way with no contestation28+ htt coome pow Unnnare otos Suton crits pore toute Rot at Ntotassun tr: ee weer Bm fence ne 7d ppnow ow roe omen ee nf ew ich Chores ss ew sion pan pe seme osuawisn ret enpgrnr wre ran Ss be oman Pom TSii i tna alii | onwarse ‘or conflict. Instead, the folowing chapter will demonstrate, ‘merous ess about “development” can co-exist, hough some theories wll be adopted more wiely, pay because they are tui oon re Eacpe mee svocited or syparted by more powerful actors. “The table only covers development theories inthe period afer the Second World War Tis not Because thre were no ideas about scald economic development before then, but because inthe TMs and 1950s thee was ineteasing international dcusion bout how ‘development, pariculaty inthe Global Sou, was to take place. Intemational ganizations were setup tty and achieve “development and 2 numberof strategies were adopted. “These specific interventions ae part of an international development neavour are what Gillan Har (200) tems "big D” Development in contrast o “litle d developmen which she sees athe general progress of capitalism. However, despite the cement nd pole of emer focus ofthis book on post Second World War theories and practices, were | 2 you will ac, many ofthe ideas about development in the second ‘ornare shass wees alto he twentieth century andthe start ofthe twenty-first had ses thei rot in theorizing ia the nineteenth century and ease. ere eo cat (ne fete of the chronological approach which shoud be ighlighed is the concep ofan “impasse” in development theory (Gehurman 1993) Inthe 1980s, ts idea of an impasse became ‘neresingly common. Inthe 1960s and 1970s the contrasting Approaches of modemizntion theories (see Chapt: 2) and = dependency theories (se Chapter 3 represented difering perspectives on development. However, he global economie leprae om problems ofthe 1980s andthe avarenss tat m many senses te ears fon Evsting developmen theories ad not ben lated pactical cess, led theorist stop and think about what development was ‘nd how it could be achieved. While neoliberal thinking row snares om oer ‘dominates development poliy-making (eee Chapter 2), the post eonan oases 1980s period has been asocated with recognition of much grater sa come versity within conception of development This has included ‘rater awareness of environmental concerns, gender equity and [rseoots approaches, All these willbe dissed in lr chapters. Postcolonialism and Postmodernism Engaging with social diversiy and also recognizing the importance ‘of power relation inthe constuction and aifusion of developmenteles ideas, have been gray associated wit postoloial and Postmodernist approaches from the 19805 onwards. While tbe two pproaches have similarities, they do not overlap completely. Postmoderism i ic to define because te be applied ina umber offs and ina variety of ways (Sion 1998) In he ‘context of development’ ths bsen particulsty important a ‘onsiderng the ways in which previous undersandings of “development” assumed tht the populations ofthe South were ‘omogenous and thatthe European route to development was the only comet way, The deconstreton of development cote gories is a Key pat of postinodem approaches to develope. Rather than assuming tht All" peasnts" ae the same o al rural-urban migra have the sare ‘experiences, postmodernism sees diversity i soca, spatial and ‘emporal teas, For example, Chana Tlpade Motanty (1991) Tetses on the ways in which the term “Thi World Women” i sed to describe ll women living in the Global South. In parts, he Iighlights ow ths term fused fo homogenize women’s lives ands also used in a way tat alvays implies victimhood; "Each ofthese examples [nee chapter) llstates the consiricton of "third world ‘women as bomogeneous “powerless” group olen lead 8 implicit itn of parcular socioeconomic systems’ (1991: 57, phasis inthe orignal). She arges that tis aproach not ely ‘eties the experiences of millions of wont, but lo elects the power relations tht fame understandings ofthe world ey theme 5 posctona nous Postcolonial approaches sek to disrupt ways of thinking about she warld based on Northern asumptons and also to recognize ference, but this is pariculrly win the context of place and peoples who have experienced colonialism fom the perspective of being colonioed The tem “postcolnilisn’ is usally used to india atime period after colonials, while “postolonilism describes an approach to understanding social, econ, polis and ultra processes (Lomb 1998) Tis includes bot the ‘matral legacies of colonialism, such a uban etree and social hierarchies, aswell 5 the how particular forms of knowledge ae ‘aed atthe expense of eters (Radelife 2005) For example Frante Fanon's book Black Sti, White Masts, originally published in French in 1952, highligh the effects of European colonialism on the ments of colonized Black populations. Postclonalis therefore atlempis to understand not only te observable legacies2d with postcolonial and he 1980s onwards, While te two 1 donot overlap completly. ‘ne beaut ean be applied in a ‘of way (Simon 1998) Ih the ‘en partculrly porta in vious understandings of Sopulattens ofthe South were evoute to development vas he nt categories i a key part of pment Rather an sesing that ‘ral urtan migrants have the save Ses dives in soca, patil and shar Talpade Moony (1931), ‘ex “Third World Women swe 1s Global South. In patcua, she © homogenize womens lives and is ‘plies vietimhood: “Each ofthese i the consrton of third world erless” grup often lest as, 2economnie systems" (1991: 57, ue tha hie approach nat only of women, bat also reflects the tandings of the wold, a Key theme isrpt ways of thinking aboot he Jone and alo to recoghize ‘within the content of places and Tonialsm fom the perspective of “lon i ustlly used to itis, whi ‘pstoloiais rng social, economi, politcal 998) This nehes both the ‘ue a utban structures and socal ‘cua fons of knowledge ae !adeife 2005). For example White Mask, originally pabished ‘Mets of European clonality 0 populations. Pstcolonalism rat only the observable legacies ‘of colnilism, bt als the eas oF dtcouses abou ‘development That have ben transfered st part of the eolonil process (McEwan 2009). Edvard Ssid's book Qrinttiom (1991 (1978) i an excelent example of postcolovialism. The book is sutiled Western Conception ofthe Orient a dels with Row "the West is constructed the peoples of “the Eas” being “backward and “uncivilized. This bas been used a justi for piel interenins and colonial project. Orenaisn shows how these ‘dea are onsite by parce groups of people a particular times. they felt global power relations. ation, Sed ako demonstrates how te constriction ofthe “Est ak “Other” and ‘diferent fo the "West not only gives the “Eas pviular identity, bit also eects on the entity ofthe "West (Meer ea 2003), Postmdem and postolonia spproaces o development have received same etic, in piu theorists are accused of laying aeademic gam, the than dealing wit the day-o-y oblens at millions ofthe world’s poorest people fae (Nedervesn| Picts 200; Simeon 1998; Sylvester 1999), There cris ave also besn veld atthe elated “post-developmen dea (see bos) However, the importance of recognizing diversity n onsrcti¢g development theories and practices i cleary of gest Importance, oe an awareness ofthe context in which theories are formulated, These teres wil be developed throughout the est of the book Post-development? ‘Alongside the debates about how development” ca be achieve, ‘nce the 1990s the concept of pos-evelopment is come othe Fore One ofthe most well-know proponents of his approach ie ‘Afar Escobar, who uses the case stay of Colombia to discs the development proces. By “development he means the highly ‘eclnoeralic approach adopted! by the World Bonk, US goverinent and other Norther insittions i the post Sesond World War evi disussed in Chapter 2) is enament stat hfore cuties" cane into Colombia tere was no sch thing 38 ‘poveTy” ad therefore no need fr “developmen, While mos ope hd what would be defined as low lie expectancies, many22+ ttn ld lacked acces to formal education and houses lacked wate, sid ele, these factors were aot sally regard as problems, ‘ber args tot by imposing extemal noms and expectations x Celumbian society and esonomy, the county was imerpreted =» ‘fuking development’ This nck could only be adesed by opting Norhera Fors of evelopment hence umes Pe ‘Stimtersentin inthe frm of aid and technical asistnce (Chapter 2), ‘What Esobar and other post developmental (see Rabnema with Bevrtee 1997, Sechs 192) argue, is that the development proces a5 it has been experienced by Southem counties is based 08 fmabese sumptions ‘Developmen’ bis heed incorporate lange ‘teas ofthe globe ito a Norter-dominaied ceonmic and polis) ‘Stem which has destroyed indigenous cles, threatened the eSincbity of satura environments and bas crested feelings of {Rerionty among peple ofthe South (Box 16), Post-development ‘Hears fae the portance ofthe discourse of development: This (Riese the way that "evelopment is defied and discussed Rather {han blog nel, these theorits argue that understandings of "evelopment elect prevailing power relation and enable some Reeeeteiopment wo be peste 2 core while hers ae ‘Gamissed As Cheryl MeBwan (2009: 146) ates in the context of ‘pstsloiaiam, ‘Development discourse promotes and justifies very Fea interventions with rea consequences” Summary evermore» tgh-cmtasid conent trical agencies often vse econo eases such 36 GN or ‘our pe capita to asses doveopment. Naonstioe measures bie inportant spat and socal neva, Deantsatdaprend decolonization, fis mportant to conser te rte cr colts understanding deelopnent 6a). ‘Devout ao proces ot cond to Ae, Ai, Ltn Itnaen and the Corbbean. Donepmert con be understood asa Eurocenee wien nas Deen red on tert of he wo-ducation and hous lacked water sot usally regarded as problems, eral noms and expectations fy, the country was interpreted as ould ely be adresed by Ingen hence numerous pes and technical assistance sTopmentaist (se Rabnems with ‘that the development process 35 sm counties is based on ‘ment has belped incorporate ge ‘dominated economic and pola ‘enous cultures, threatened the ‘nts and has eetedfelings of ‘uth (Box 16), Post-development the diseouse of development: This ‘is defined and discssed, Rather argue that understandiags of rower ations end erable some tented as conc, while others ae ‘0: 146) enn, the coment of ‘course promotes and justifies very uence! ot concept orton spatial an sca nau. ‘ni inpartant to conse ie oe development tay Box 1.6 7 ‘Nanda Shrestha's perspectives on development in Nepal ‘Nanda Set i 0 Prorat Schl FB nd nds ‘toe frsuastence an ling il Ir Hinge wa connor soi lon perth we cnet dcop (or (4995 28) fn 191, fers chanson Nea, nested develope projec wer nosed. The cone of Svlpme a Np ia Shei ess ow pre waist con ol se ‘Serge whch worsted wi using wea ie bog infer Ts aed eof aol mete, sl bar {hd eee and smn devine She ney hpst 2Discussion questions u Further reading 1 Outline the major patterns of Human Development Indes scores Cad sues easns forthe dferenes between global eins. 22 tna posteoloial word, why it important 0 consider ootalism inthe context of development? 55 How do defniions of development vary according to sale? “4 What are the advantages and disadvantages of using gute rmesaues of development? 5 What te the main features ofa postcolonial approach development? wv. -Deeapmen a W, Sco) (1987) Te Deane ea Powe Lat 2d oaks p28 Asiesioned ‘ee ne naman 1 9b) Tee he Thr We, Dn ord long Re Ca A dona i ee “tee ey ea en Mctwen © 008) Pola and Don, Atiagi: Roce. ® nS Gta a tn ear an mE wh su. Pn of Deo rm etn rr Cee eat Se cal Each Mei Semen cee ‘Witana 6 ara 2) Gropp of Delp A: The iba Soh 8 Mot nghae Remige, A see na ‘alin detect reserUseful websites mee wg tng mye posteolonil approach to semanas Uni Neos Mini Deep Ga 1