The City in Space and

Time
The Human Mosaic
Chapter 10

Introduction
Imagine humankinds sojourn on Earth as a

24-hour day
Settlements of more than a hundred people
are only about a half-hour old
Towns and cities emerged only a few minutes
ago
Large-scale urbanization began less than 60
seconds ago

Introduction
Urbanization in the last 200 years has

strengthened links between culture, society,

and the city
Urban explosion has gone hand in hand with
the industrial revolution
Estimates demonstrate the worlds urban
population more than doubled since 1950
Urban population doubled again by 2000
Over 50 percent of Earths population live in
cities

Urbanization: Sao Paulo, Brazil

Urbanization: Sao Paulo, Brazil

Sao Paulo epitomizes the

dynamics of urbanization,
especially capitalism.
Starting as a coffee
exporting center, it had less
than 32000 inhabitants by
1872. Today metropolitan
Sao Paulo is a primate city
of more than 20 million.
Economic development and
flat land engendered
population increase and
sprawl, rising land costs in
the center, and a boom in
construction.

Urbanization: Sao Paulo, Brazil

Economic success is

denoted by the high-rises

which are a mix of industrial,
commercial and professional
office blocks, as well as
apartment complexes. City
planning is only a recent
phenomenon. Rural to
urban migration is a serious
problem and the citys rapid
growth has outstripped its
ability to provide jobs,
housing and adequate
services.

Culture regions

Urban Culture Region

Origin and Diffusion of the City
Evolution of Urban Landscapes
The Ecology of Urban Location
Cultural Integration in Urban Geography

Problem of recognizing urban regions

Urbanized populationpercentage of a

nations population living in towns and cities

Striking urbanization difference between
countries
Some close to 90 percent
Others less than 20 percent

Culture regions can be based on varying

rates of urbanization
We have a pattern of urban versus rural
countries

Problem of recognizing urban regions

Within each nation, we can delimit formal and

functional culture regions separating urban and rural

domains
There is no agreed-upon international definition of
what constitutes a city

India defines an urban center as 5,000 inhabitants,

with adult males employed primarily in nonagricultural
work
The United States Census Bureau defines a city as a
densely populated area of 2,500 people or more
South Africa counts as a city any settlement of 500 or
more people

Problem of recognizing urban regions

Some countries revise definitions of urban

settlements to suit specific purposes

China revised its census definitions with
criteria that vary from province to province
causing their urban population to swell by 13
percent in 1983

Generalizations
Generalizations made about the differences

in the worlds urbanized population

Highly industrialized countries have higher
rates of urbanized population than do lessdeveloped countries
Developing countries are rapidly urbanizing

Caused by massive migration away from the

country
People flock to the cities searching for a better
life

Generalizations
Developing countries are rapidly urbanizing

City migration is often driven by desperation,

as rural supply systems collapse

For newcomers to the cities, unemployment rates

are often over 50 percent

One of the worlds ongoing crises will be this

radical restructuring of population and culture

as people move into the cities

Generalizations
Urban growth comes from two sources
Migration of people to the cities
Higher natural population growth rates for
recent migrants

Because employment is unreliable, large families

construct a more extensive family support system
Increases the chances of someone getting work
Smaller families when a certain dimension of
security is ensured
Smaller families often occur when women enter
the work force

World cities
Cities over 5 million in population
Over half of the worlds 20 largest cities are in

the developing world

Thirty years ago, the list of world cities was
dominated by Western, industrialized cities
Now the list is even more dominated by the
developing world

World cities
Mexico Citys growth is linked to Mexicos oil

industry
Some countries are trying to regulate urban
growth
Problems with transportation, housing, and
employment
Failure or success of these policies will
influence city size in the next ten to twenty
years
China closely regulates urban growth

World cities
Accurate population projections are evasive because

they depend on variables

Primate city a settlement city that dominates the
economic, political, and cultural life of a country

The target for much urban migration

Rapid growth expands its primacy, or dominance
Example of Mexico City far exceeds Guadalajara, the
second-largest city in Mexico, in size and importance
Many developing countries are dominated by a primate
city, which was often a former center of colonial power
Primate cities are also found in developed countries
London and Paris

Culture regions

Urban Culture Region

Origin and Diffusion of the City
Evolution of Urban Landscapes
The Ecology of Urban Location
Cultural Integration in Urban Geography

The first cities

In seeking explanation for the origin of cities,

we find a relationship between:

Areas of early agriculture
Permanent village settlement
The development of new social forms
Urban life

Early people were nomadic hunters and

gatherers who constantly moved

The first cities

As they became increasingly efficient in gathering

resources, their campsites became semi-permanent

As quantities of domesticated plants and animals
increased settlement became more permanent
The first cities appeared in the Middle East

Developed about ten thousand years ago

Farming villages modest in size, rarely with more than
200 people
Probably organized on a kinship basis

The first cities

The first cities appeared in the Middle East
Probably organized on a kinship basis
Jarmo, one of the earliest villages
Located in present-day Iraq
Had 25 permanent dwellings clustered near grain
storage facilities
Lacked plows, but cultivated local grains wheat and
barley
Domestic dogs, goats, and sheep may have been
used for meat
Food supplies augmented by hunting and gathering

The first cities

In agricultural villages, all inhabitants were

involved in some way in food procurement

Cities were more removed, physically and
psychologically, from everyday agricultural
activities

Food was supplied to the city

Not all city dwellers were involved in actual
farming
Another class of city dwellers supplied
services such as technical skills, and
religious interpretation

The first cities

Two elements were crucial to this social change
Generation of agricultural surplus prerequisite for
supporting nonfarmers
Stratified social system
Meaning the existence of distinct elite and lower
classes
Facilitates the collection, storage, and distribution of
resources
Well-defined channels of authority that exercise
control over goods and people
These two set the stage for urbanization

Models for the rise of cities

Technical
The hydraulic civilization model, developed by
Karl Wittfogel

Large-scale irrigation systems as prime mover

behind urbanization
Higher crop yields resulted
Food surplus supported development of a large
nonfarming population
Strong, centralized government, backed by an
urban-based military
Farmers who resisted new authority were denied
water

Models for the rise of cities

Technical
The hydraulic civilization model, developed by Karl
Wittfogel
Power elite needed for organizational coordination to
ensure continued operation of the irrigation system
Labor specialization developed
The hydraulic model cannot be applied to all urban
hearths
Urban civilization blossomed without irrigation in parts
of Mesoamerica
The question of how or why a culture might first
develop irrigation

Models for the rise of cities

Religious
Paul Wheatley suggests religion was the motivating
factor behind urbanization
Knowledge of meteorological and climatic conditions
was considered to be within the domain of religion
Religious leaders decided when and how to plant crops
Successful harvests led to more support for this
priestly class
Priestly class exercised political and social control that
held the city together
In this scenario, cities are religious spaces functioning
as ceremonial centers
First urban clusters and fortification seen as defenses
against spiritual demons or souls of the dead

Models for the rise of cities

Multiple factors
Distinction between economic, religious, and political
functions were not always clear
A king may have functioned as priest, healer,
astronomer, and scribe
In some ways secular and spiritual power was fused
Attempting to isolate one trigger to urbanization is
difficult, if not impossible
It would be wiser to accept the role of multiple factors
behind the changes leading to urban life
Technical, religious, and political forces were often
interlinked

Urban hearth areas

Where the first cities appeared, for example:

Mesopotamia
The Nile Valley
Pakistans Indus River Valley
The Yellow River valley (or Huang Ho) in
China
Mesoamerica

Next slide gives general dates of urban life

emergence for each region

Urban hearth areas

Generally agreed first cities arose in Mesopotamia
River valley of the Tigris and Euphrates in what is now
Iraq
Cities, small by current standards, covered one-half to
two square miles
Populations rarely exceeded 30,000
Densities could reach 10,000 per square mile
comparable to todays cities
Early cities, also called cosmomagical cities,

exhibited three spatial characteristics

Urban hearth areas

Early cities, also called cosmomagical cities, exhibited

three spatial characteristics

Great importance accorded the symbolic center of the

city, which was thought to be the center of the known
world
Often demarcated by a vertical structure of
monumental scale representing the point on Earth
closest to the heavens
This symbolic center, or axis mundi, took different
forms

The ziggurat in Mesopotamia

The palace or temple in China
The pyramid in Egypt and Mesoamerica
The Stupa in the Indus Valley

Cosmomagical City: Beijing, China

Cosmomagical City: Beijing, China

This is the Hall of Supreme

Harmony, the most important

ceremonial building in
Beijings Forbidden City.
The hall is set upon an
auspicious number of three
tiers. From the Gate of
Supreme Harmony, the
emperor would be carried on
his palanquin above the
dragon pavement, carved
with his dragon and other
auspicious symbols such as
waves, mountains and
clouds.

Cosmomagical City: Beijing, China

The Forbidden City marked

the inner sanctum of the

Imperial city, a model of
harmony and moral order
expressing the Will of
Heaven.
Ritual and cosmic
correctness was imbued in
city form through divination
and orientation; cardinal
axiality and concentricity;
and, square configuration
defined by walls and gates.

Urban hearth areas

Early cities, also called cosmomagical cities,

exhibited three spatial characteristics

In Mesopotamia, this area was known as the

citadel and housed the elite who lived in
relative luxury

Streets were paved, drains and running water

were provided
Private sleeping quarters, bathtubs, and water
closets were provided
Privileges did not extend to the city as a whole

Urban hearth areas

Early cities, also called cosmomagical cities,

exhibited three spatial characteristics

The city was oriented toward the four cardinal

directions
Geometric form of city would reflect the order of the
universe
Walls around the city delimited the known and ordered
world from the outside chaos
Attempt to shape the form of the city according to the
form of the universe
Thought essential to maintain harmony between
human and spiritual worlds
Example of Ankor Thorn in India

Urban hearth areas

Life in Mesopotamias early cities from archaeological

evidence

Dense housing, located just outside the citadel, was

one or two stories tall composed of clay brick, and
contained three or four rooms
Narrow unsurfaced streets had no drainage, and
served as the community dump
At Ur, excavations show that garbage levels rose so
high, new entrances were cut into second stories of the
houses
Just inside the city wall, huts of mud and reed housed
the lower classes

Urban hearth areas

Early cities of the Nile were not walled, suggesting a

regional power structure kept cities from warring with

each other
In the Indus Valley, Mohenjo-Daro was laid out in a
grid that consisted of 16 large blocks
The most important variations in living conditions
occurred in Mesoamerica

Cities were less dense and covered large areas

Cities arose without benefit of the wheel, plow,
metallurgy, and draft animals
Domestication of maize compensated for technological
shortcomings
Maize yields several crops a year without irrigation in
tropical climates

The diffusion of the city from hearth

areas
The two hypotheses of how cities spread in

prehistoric times

Cities evolved spontaneously as native peoples

created new technologies and social institutions
Preconditions for urban life are too specific for most
cultures to invent without contact with other urban
areas
People must have learned these traits through contact
with city dwellers
This scenario emphasized the diffusion of ideas and
techniques

The diffusion of the city from hearth

areas
Diffusionists believe ideas and techniques from

Mesopotamia were shared with people in the Nile

and the Indus River valley

Archaeological evidence documents trade ties between

the three regions
Soapstone objects made in Tepe Yahy, 500 miles
east of Mesopotamia, have been found in ruins of both
Mesopotamia and Indus Valley cities
Indus Valley writing and seals have been found in
Mesopotamian urban sites

An alternate view is that trading took place only after

these cities were well established

The diffusion of the city from hearth

areas
There is evidence of contacts across the

oceans between early urban dwellers of the

New World and those of Asia and Africa
Unclear if this means urbanization was
diffused to Mesoamerica
Maybe some trade routes existed between
these peoples

The diffusion of the city from hearth

areas
Little doubt diffusion is responsible for the dispersal of

the city in historical times

City used as vehicle for imperial expansion

Urban life is carried outward in waves of conquest as
empires expand
Initially, military controls newly won lands and sets up
collection points for local resources
As collection points lose some military atmosphere
they begin to show the social diversity of a city
Native people are slowly assimilated into the
settlement as workers and may eventually control the
city
The process repeats itself as the empire pushes
outward

The diffusion of the city from hearth

areas
Imposition of a foreign civilization on native peoples was often

met with resistance

Examples of imperial city building dot history
Alexander the Great established at least 70 cities
The Roman Empire built literally thousand of cities, changing
the face of Europe, North Africa, and Asia minor
The Persians, the Maurya Empire of India, the Han
civilization of China, and the Greeks performed the same
city-spreading task
In more recent times, European empires have used city
resources to expand and consolidate their power in colonies
in the Americas, Africa, and Asia
Expansion diffusion has been critical in dispersing urban life
over the surface of the Earth

Culture regions

Urban Culture Region

Origin and Diffusion of the City
Evolution of Urban Landscapes
The Ecology of Urban Location
Cultural Integration in Urban Geography

Introduction
Patterns seen in the city today are a

composite of past and present cultures

Two concepts underlie our examination of
urban landscapes
Urban morphology physical form of the city,
which consists of street patterns, building
sizes and shapes, architecture, and density
Functional zonation refers to the pattern of
land uses within a city, or existence of areas
with differing functions

The Greek city

Western civilization and Western cities trace their

roots to ancient Greece

By 600 B.C., over five hundred towns and cities
existed on the Greek mainland and surrounding
islands
With expansion, cities spread throughout the
Mediterranean to the north shore of Africa, to
Spain, southern France, and Italy
Cities rarely had more than 5,000 inhabitants
Athens may have reached 300,000 in the fifth century
B.C., including perhaps 100,000 slaves

The Greek city

Cities had two distinctive functional zones

the acropolis and the agora

The acropolis was similar in many ways to the
citadel of Mesopotamian cities
Had the temples of worship, storehouse of
valuables, and seat of power
Served as a place of retreat in time of siege

The Greek city

The agora was the province of the citizens

A place for public meetings, education, social

interaction, and judicial matters
It was the civic center, the hub of democratic
life for Greek men
Later, after the classical period, it became the
citys major marketplace without losing its
atmosphere of a social club

The Greek city

Physical separation of religious from secular

functions implies the religious domain was no

longer the only source of authority
Temples were located on sacred sites chosen
to please the gods
Temples were also sited and designed to
please the human eye and harmonize with the
natural landscape

The Greek city

Tension created between the religious and

secular created what many consider to be

one of the greatest achievements of Western
architecture
Earlier Greek cities probably grew
spontaneously without formal guidelines
Some think many ceremonial areas were
designed to be seen according to prescribed
lines of vision
The human aesthetic was given a degree of
authority not given in cosmomagical cities

The Greek city

In later Greek cities a more formalized city design

and plan are apparent example of Miletus in Ioma

(present-day Turkey)

Laid out in a rigid grid system imposing its geometry on

the physical site conditions
Layout indicates an abstracted and highly rational
notion of urban life
Seems to fit well with the functional needs of a colonial
city
Grid system shows religious and aesthetic needs had
taken a secondary role to pressing demands of
controlling an empire

Roman cities
Romans adopted many urban traits from the

Greeks and the Etruscans, whom the

Romans had conquered and absorbed in
northern Italy
As the empire expanded, city life diffused into
areas that had not previously experienced
urbanization

France, Germany, England, interior Spain, the

Alpine countries, and parts of eastern Europe

Roman cities
As the empire expanded, city life diffused into areas

that had not previously experienced urbanization

Most cities were established as military (castra) and

trading outposts
Focal points for collection of local agricultural products
Supply centers for the military
Service centers for long-distance trading network
In England, the trail of city building can be found by
looking for the suffixes -caster and -chester indicating
cities founded as Roman camps

Roman cities
Roman city landscapes
Gridiron street pattern was used in later Greek
cities example of Pavia, Italy
The forum a zone combining elements of
the Greek acropolis and agora

Placed at the intersection of a citys two major

thoroughfares
Temples of worship, administrative buildings , and
warehouses
Also libraries, schools, and marketplaces serving
the common people

Roman cities
Roman city landscapes
Clustered around the forum were the palaces of the
power elite
Sanitary, well heated in winter, and spacious
Not until the twentieth century did such luxury again
exist
Roman masses lived in shoddy apartment houses
Often four or five stories high, called insula
System of aqueducts and underground sewers did not
extend to the poor
Garbage of perhaps a million Romans was thrown into
open pits
Even in its best days, Romes population was always at
the mercy of plagues

Roman cities
Romes most important legacy was the Roman

method for choosing city sites

Remains applicable today

Consistently chose sites with transportation in mind
Empire held together by a complicated system of roads
and highways
In choosing a new site for settlement Romans first
considered access while other cultures placed
emphasis on defensive locations
Numerous old Roman town sites were refounded
centuries later Paris, London, and Vienna

Roman cities
The Roman Empire was in major decline by

A.D. 400
Cities and the highway system that linked
them fell into disrepair
The administrative structure collapsed
Outposts were either actively destroyed or
simply left to decay
Within 200 years, many of the cities had
withered away

Roman cities
Some Roman cities in the Mediterranean

area managed to survive

Established trade with the Byzantine Empire
After the eighth century, cities in Spain were
infused with new vigor by the Moorish Empire

Cities in northern regions became small

villages
Urban decline occurred only in areas that had
been under Roman rule

The medieval city

Medieval period lasted roughly from A.D. 1000

to 1500
Time of renewed urban expansion in Europe
Urban life spread north and east in Europe
Germanic and Slavic people expanded their
empires
In only four centuries, 2,500 new German
cities were founded
Most cities of present-day Europe were
founded during this period

The medieval city

Revival of local and long-distance trade resulted from

a combination of factors

Population increase
Political stability and unification
Agricultural expansion through new land reclamations
New Agricultural technologies

Trading networks required protected markets and

supply centers, functions that renewed life in cities

Long-distance trading led to the development of a
new class of people the merchant class

Medieval Town:
Hirschhorn am Neckar, Germany

Medieval Town:
Hirschhorn am Neckar, Germany
This town reveals three

important features of
urban morphology:
castle, wall, and
cathedral. Hirschhorn
castle caps the summit
of a fortified spur in the
bend of the Neckar
River, affording a clear
view of the river and
forested valley.

Medieval Town:
Hirschhorn am Neckar, Germany
Site factors have also

limited expansion
forcing people to build
onto the walls.
Half-timbering is evident
in a number of
buildings.

The medieval city

The major functions of the medieval city are

depicted in five symbols

The fortress

Usually cities were clustered around a fortified

place
Reflected in place names German -burg,
French -bourg, English
-burgh all meaning a fortified castle
The terms burgher and bourgeoisie, originally
referred to a citizen of the medieval city

The medieval city

The major functions of the medieval city are

depicted in five symbols

The fortress

Usually cities were clustered around a fortified

place
Reflected in place names German -burg,
French -bourg, English
-burgh all meaning a fortified castle
The terms burgher and bourgeoisie, originally
referred to a citizen of the medieval city

The medieval city

The major functions of the medieval city are

depicted in five symbols

The charter

Governmental decree from a regional power

granting political autonomy to the town
Freed the population from feudal restrictions
Made the city responsible for its own defense and
government
Allowed cities to coin their own money
These freedoms contributed to development of
urban social, economic, and intellectual life

The medieval city

The major functions of the medieval city are

depicted in five symbols

The wall

Symbol of the sharp distinction between country

and city
Within the wall most inhabitants were free;
outside most were serfs
People inside were able to move about with little
restriction
Goods entering the gates were inspected and
taxed

The medieval city

The major functions of the medieval city are

depicted in five symbols

The wall

Nonresidents were issued permits for entry, but

often required to leave by sundown when the
gates were shut
Suburbs called faubourgs sprang up, and in time
demanded to be included into the city
If the suburbs were allowed to be part of the city,
the wall was extended to include them

The medieval city

The major functions of the medieval city are

depicted in five symbols

The marketplace

Symbolized role of economic activities in the city

City depended on the countryside for food and
produce was traded in the market
Center for long-distance trade linking city to city

The medieval city

The major functions of the medieval city are depicted

in five symbols

The marketplace
At one end stood the fairly tall town hail
Meeting space for citys political leaders
Market hail for storage and display of finer goods

Brugge, Belgium, had two distinct complexes of

buildings at it center
Town hall and castle formed an enclosed square
Next to this was the wasserho.lle, so named because the
building straddled a canal where goods could be directly
brought directly in from barges
On adjacent edge of marketplace was the great ball that
served as meeting spot for merchant class

The medieval city

The major functions of the medieval city are

depicted in five symbols

The cathedral

Usually the towns crowning glory

Symbol of the important role of the church
Often close to the marketplace and town ball,
indicating close ties between religion, commerce,
and politics
Church was often prevailing political force

The medieval city

Problems created for contemporary urban life

by medieval city morphology and landscape

Streets were narrow, wandering lanes, rarely
more than 15 feet wide
Today, in 141 German cities, 77 percent of
streets are too narrow for two- way traffic

The medieval city

Functional zonation of medieval cities differed

from that of modern cities

Divided into small quarters, or districts, each
containing its own cent that served as its focal
point
Within each district lived people engaged in
similar occupations

The medieval city

Functional zonation of medieval cities differed from that of

modern cities
Example of coopers people who made and repaired
wooden barrels

Attended the same church, and belonged to the same guild

Church and guildhall were in the small center area of their
district
Surrounding the center were their houses and workshops
Many worked in the first story of their home and lived above the
shop
Apprentices lived above the shop owner

More prestigious groups lived in occupational districts near

the city center
Those involved in noxious activities lived closer to city walls

The medieval city

Some districts were defined by ethnicity

Jews were forced to live in their own district in

most medieval cities

In Frankfurt am Main, they lived on the

Judengasse, a street formed from the dried-up
moat that had run along the old wall to the city
This area was enclosed by walls with only one
guarded gate
The area was not allowed to expand, leading by
1610 to a population of 3,000 people and one of
the densest districts in the city

The Renaissance and baroque periods

Form and function of the city changed significantly

during the Renaissance (1500 1600) and baroque

(1600-1800) periods
Absolute monarchs arose to preside over a unified
nation-state

Rising middle class slowly gave up their freedoms to

join with the king in pursuit of economic gain
City size grew rapidly because bureaucracies of
regional power structures came to dominate them
Trade patterns expanded with the beginning of
European imperial conquest
City planning and military technology acted to remold
and constrain the physical form of the city

The Renaissance and baroque periods

A national capital city rose to prominence in

most countries
Provincial cities were subjected to its tastes
Power was centralized in its precincts
First office buildings were built to house a
growing bureaucracy
Most important, it was restructured to reflect
the power of the central government and
insure control over urban masses

Capitalism in the Renaissance City:

Amsterdam, Netherlands

Capitalism in the Renaissance City:

Amsterdam, Netherlands
Amsterdam has always been

a commercial city. Situated

where dike crossed the
Amstel, its harbor was easily
accessed from the sea.
Essentially at sea level, its
quays and streets were
flanked by canals.
It flourished as a trading
center and by the 17th
century, had an extensive
collection of warehouses and
the largest public bank in
northern Europe.

Capitalism in the Renaissance City:

Amsterdam, Netherlands
As the city prospered, the

walls were expanded and

new canals dug to line
residential streets
designated for a prestigious,
residential neighborhood
with 30 foot (9.1 meter) lots.
These 17th century merchant
homes are only 20 feet (6.1
meters) wide because
speculators purchased two
30 foot lots and sold them as
three 20 foot lots. The upper
story was used for storage of
goods.

The Renaissance and baroque periods

Height of baroque planning between 1600

and 1800
During the 1800s, Napoleon III carried out a
building plan in Paris
Cobblestone streets carefully paved to prevent
loose ammunition for rioting Parisians
Streets were straightened and widened, and
cul-de-sacs broken down to give army space
to maneuver

Baroque Planning: Paris, France

Parisians were always

conscious of the beauty of

the Seine and exploited it in
the 16h and 17th centuries
with bridges and
promenades along its banks.
These highlights aside, in
1840 the city remained a
warren of narrow, filthy and
crowded streets.
But under the direction of
Napoleon III and Baron
Haussman, much of the city
was transformed.

Baroque Planning: Paris, France

Masses of people were

displaced as boulevards and

avenues, squares and parks,
bazaars and arcades, and
luxurious housing blocks were
installed.
The 19th century was also an
era of exhibitions where nations
showed off their art and
technology to the world.
In 1889, Paris displayed
Gustave Eiffels tower, the
worlds highest structure,
testament to the age of iron and
steel.
The photo is taken from Ile de la
Cite, Parish original island site
in the Seine River.

Baroque Planning: Paris, France

The Renaissance and baroque periods

Thousands were displaced as apartment buildings

were demolished
Many ended up in congested working-class sections of
east and north Paris
The east and north sections are still crowded today

In these developments, we see the coming modern

city
Washington, D.C., originally designed by a French
planner