Record 8 of 20 AUR 27 2015 PENDING Today's date: 2015.8.24 CANYOU SUPPLY? YES _— NO COND |_| FUTUREDATE ILL: 152276982 Borrower: TXd ReqDatq 24150824 NeedBefore: 20160923 Status: PENDING OCLC: 37688416 DueDate: N/A ENG| Source: ILLiad Lender: *CUY UDR COF AERDC AED TITLE: Non-soil water barriers for embankment dams : seventeenth annual USCOLD lecture series, San Diego, California, April 7-11, 1997 / IMPRINT: Denver, CO : U.S. Committee on Large Dams, ©1997. ARTICLE: Asphalt-Concrete Core Embankment Dams PHOTOCO) VOL: 17 NO: DATE: April 7-11 1997 OPY PAGES: 69-89 oe — VERIFIED: OCLC SHIP TO: One UTSA Circle Texpress 62/SAT US San Antonio 78249-0671 US-TX UTSA JPL ILL SHIP VIA: Email, Odyssey, Ariel, Mail, Fax, Article Exchange MAX COST: IFM 30.00 COPYRT COMPLIANCE: CCL BORROWING NOTES: Odyssey 129.115.103.131 (maxCost: 30.00) articles@utsa.edu, PATRON ID: LENDING CHARGES: SHIPPED: LENDING RESTRICTIONS Library: Engineering, CallNo: TC543 .N65 1997, STATUS/Note: AVAILABLEUnited States Committee On Large Dams USCOLD Seventeenth Annual USCOLD Lecture Series Non-Soil Water Barriers for Embankment Dams San Diego, California, April 7-11, 1997 Hosted by Metropolitan Water District of Souther California ‘San Diego County Water Authority City of San Diego Olivenhain Municipal Water District Co-Sponsors: Consulting Engineering Organizations Orgnaized by the USCOLD Committee on Materials for Embankment Dams tttCY RS On the Cover Shown is an aerial view of the Seneca Upper Reservoir, an asphalt lined pumped storage reservoir. The project, operated by GPU Generation, Inc. and owned by Pennsylvania Electric Company and Cleveland Electric Illuminating, is located on the Allegheny River in northwestern Pennsylvania. The Upper Reservoir is 1/2 mile in diameter and has an active drawdown of 64 feet. It is located on a sandstone Plateau about 800 feet above the river, covers 117 acres and has a useful storage of 6,394 acre-feet. USCOLD The United States Committee on Large Dams (USCOLD), a Member of the International Commission on Large Dams, is a professional organization dedicated to: + advancing the technology of dam engineering, construction, operation, maintenance and safety; + fostering socially, environmentally and financially responsible water resources projects; and * promoting public awareness of the role of dams in the beneficial and Sustainable development of the nation’s water resources, The information contained inthis report regarding commercial products or firms may not be used for endorsement of any product or firm by Copyright © 1997 U. S. Commitee on Large Dams Printed in the United States of America Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 97-60365 ISBN 1-884575-11-0 US. Committee on Large Dams 1616 Seventeenth Street, Suite 483 Denver, CO 80202 Telephone: 303-628-5430 Fax: 303-628-543] E-mail: stephens@uscold org, Internet: www.uscold.org/~uscold JG! Foreword . J i-Soil Water f the Seventeenth USCOLD Annual Lecture is Non: pears Embankment Dams. The Lecture was organized by the USCOLD ‘Committee on Materials for Embankment Dams to address the following topics: + Asphalt concrete facings and reservoir linings + Asphalt concrete cores + Concrete facings + Concrete and plastic conerete core walls + Internal diaphragms and cutoff walls + Geomembrane facings and diaphragms + Performance, short and long term + Construction methods and testing + Materials for raising, enlarging or repairing embankment dams i in the Proceedings. Authors are specialists with ead specter fom the US. and around th world, epreseting Consulting firms government agencies, universities and utilities. BF os i rials for Embankment Dams extends its eee! be Hones and ‘Co-Sponsors of the Seventeenth USCOLD Annual Meeting and Lecture scree A special thanks is also extended to the Committee Members who participated in the selection of abstracts and in the review of the technical papers. ifFinishing layer (mastic Upper impervious course, 15 cm, 3 layers Drainage layer Impervious layer, 6 cn Levelling layer, binder Macadam layer Transition zone Figure 14: Detail of the bituminous concrete lining systen References: ICOLD.: Embankment dams with bituminous concr: bow ete upst: facing", Bulletin draft 1996, unpublished Beene Ishie K., Kamijo M.: ,Design for asphalt concrete facing of Sabigawa upper dam“, Icold, san Francisco, 1998, Q.61, R.19 STRABAG.: Asphalt Wasserbau", Publication No 10 (1979), 11 (1982), 48 (1992), 51 (1996), Cologne, Germany 8 TEERBAU.: ,,Publication No 41" (1995), Essen, Germany Tschernutter P.: ,Experience gained with asphaltic concrete facings on high-level embankment dams of the Fragant group of power schemes", Icold, San Francisco, 1988, Q.61, R.59 Tschernutter P., Neuschitzer F., Wellacher H.: ,Rockfill dams in high mountain region in Carinthia", Water Power Conference, Monte Carlo, 1987 WALO Bertschinger: Zurich, Swiss ee Asphalt hydraulic engineering™, " Non-Soil Water Barriers for Embankment Dams ASPHALT-CONCRETE CORE EMBANKMENT DAMS Kaare Hoeg* ABSTRACT A review of the experience with the use of asphalt-concrete cores in embankment dams is presented. The core construc- tion procedures and the design principles are described. The properties of the core may be designed to satisfy spe- cific engineering requirements for a given situation, for instance to better accommodate anticipated differential dam foundation settlements or distortions due to earthquake effects. Laboratory tests and field experience document the ductility of asphalt concrete, which viscoplastic properties enables the core to self-heal should any cracks develop. A review is made of recent cost and technical comparisons among different dam designs including the earth core, asphalt-concrete core, upstream concrete facing and RCC alternatives. 1. INTRODUCTION ICOLD (1992) presents, in chronological order from 1948 to 1991, the embankment dams built with bituminous (asphalt cement) cores of different types. There are several recent publications on the subject, e.g. Strabag (1990), Kjernsli et al. (1992), Hoeg (1993) and Creegan and Monismith (1996). The latter authors, in addition to providing extensive in- formation on the properties of asphalt materials, also discuss the design and construction of asphalt-concrete facings. The use of asphalt concrete as water barrier for embankment dams is based on the extensive pavement research in highway engineering. The German contractor Strabag was a Pioneer in adapting the technology to hydraulic structures. Asphalt-concrete cores have been built by different proce- dures, hand placed and machine placed. A construction pro- cedure which successfully has been applied in Norway on four fairly recent (1981-84) large rockfill dams, is the stone- bitumen method. Metal sheet shuttering was used along the } Technical Adviser, Norwegian Geotechnical Institute (NGI) and Professor, University of Oslo, Oslo; Norway Asphalt-Concrete Coressides of the core wall, which was built in consecutive hori- zontal layers 0.2-0.3 m thick. The form was first filled with clean and dry stone material which was accurately leveled over the entire length of the layer before hot bitu- men was pumped in from a heated tank. To avoid entrapment of water or air, the filling of bitumen starts from one end. The hot bitumen flows forward as an advancing slope, and the hose nozzle is moved in small steps to ensure that the voids are filled to saturation. The bitumen (asphalt cement) content is 30-40% by weight. A different technique was recently used in Russia for three large embankment dams up to 140 m high (Moiseev et al., 1988). The asphalt concrete mix with a bitumen content 10- 12%, was poured between 1 m high steel shutters positioned on top of the previous layer. The shutters were removed as soon as the asphalt concrete had cooled down to approximate- ly 45° C, and the gravel transition zones were then placed on either side of the core. The asphalt concrete was super- saturated with bitumen and is termed "flowing" asphalt concrete. The technique does not require any specialized placing equipment. Asphalt-concrete core construction for Riskallvatn Dam (see Table 1). The first embankment dam with a machine-compacted dense asphalt-concrete core was built in Germany in 1962. Since then 48 such cores, compacted in thin layers, have been used in large dams (Fig. 1). The procedure does not require the use of shutters, and the bitumen content is considerably f ie lower than in the two methods described above, usually in meine ‘above | thickness| ii the vicinity of 6% by weight. Furthermore, this technique lowest core (ma) tion area} concrete | period allows the best quality assurance and control of the foundation | top ee ae asphalt-concrete core in place as described below. | Were 3 os | 2 000 3100 | 1978-80 Katlaveen 38 a0 | «600 3300 | 1979-81 2. CORE CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURE AND EQUIPMENT Tangavara 2 To 3800 3900 | 1978 Table 1 presents, in chronological order, a summary of in- ae an 3:0.2 | 76000 49000 | 1981-87 formation about the ten compacted asphalt-concrete core embankment dams built in Norway since 1978 (three of them Riskallvatn 45 1:0 14600 000 1983-86 are to be completed in 1997). Bordalsvatn 62 10 13000 6800 1986-88 The asphalt concrete is compacted at a temperature of 150- Beaepenee a a ss ue uae 160° C depending on the type (viscosity) of bitumen used, Fee | «aos 110 | asooo 2200 | 1993-97 and is given immediate lateral support from the adjacent struction] transition zones on either side of the core. Placement of Holmvatn . 66 einai + (ietwesa7 the core wall and transition zones occurs simultaneously (under con- bl “ a ae with equal layer thickness, usually limited to 0,2 m (after Ss compaction). Thus, it is a three-element core construction (under con- 38 0.5 1:0 3000 soo | 1996-97 as shown in Fig. 2. Compaction is achieved by three vibra- [seruceion) + Non-Soil Water Barriers for Embankment Dams Asphalt-Concrete Cores -Fiter material Infrared heater Vacuum Laser controlled a cleaner Fig.2 Latest model of Norwegian core 4 8 paver laying test section before being used on dam (equipment produced by Korsbrekke & Lorck-Veidekke) . tory rollers following the placing unit. ‘The roll, ; ° f h ers oper- ate in a coordinated manner, side by side, to avoid lateral Gisplacement of the hot asphalt concrete (Fig. 3). Strabag (1990), some 40 years ago, built the £. ia- lized equipment which subsequently has been improved ter Strabag and other contractors. The latest Norwegian design is shown in Fig. 2. The machine is a hydraulically drives crawler paver, and the widths of the core and transition zone screeds are adjusted according to the design specifica- Non-Soil Water Barriers for Embankment Dams tions. The level of the screeds is automatically controlled by a rotating laser which ensures a horizontal base for the next layer. Fig. 3 Simultaneous compaction of core and transition zones The precise center line is marked for each layer and fixed by a thin metal string. A video camera mounted in front of the machine and a television monitor inside the cab enable the operator to steer the machine with precision following the course of the string. In front, the machine is equipped with a gas fired, infrared heater and a heavy duty vacuum cleaner which removes dust and moisture. The heater dries and heats the surface before the next layer is placed. No tack coat is applied between the asphalt concrete layers as subsequent core sampling has proved that the joint is tight and hardly detectable. The asphalt core rests on a concrete foundation plinth (sill), which also serves as a foundation grouting cap some cases it may be decided to build an inspection and grouting gallery directly under the core, but none of the Norwegian dams listed in Table 1 have that. inThe interface between concrete plinth and base of asphalt core is covered with a 10 mm thick layer of mastic. The concrete surface must be clean and dry and may have to be sandblasted and/or washed with hydrochloric acid to promote good adhesion (bond) between concrete and mastic. The con- crete surface must be heated prior to the application of mastic at a temperature of 150°C. The mastic strip along the plinth is at least 0.50 m wider than the base of the asphaltic core, and mastic fills the space around the con- struction joints in the concrete plinth. The waterstop must be made of material that can stand the heat from the hot mastic. Some hand placement of asphalt concrete inside shutters is usually required to establish a horizontal core base (mini- mum 30 m long) before one may commence using the Paving ma- chinery (Fig. 4). When the concrete plinth is within a ditch, this has to be wide enough to accommodate the machin- ery. Hand work will always be required at each abutment where the crawler cannot reach, and here the core is flared to about twice the regular width at that level. Progress of the paver is adjusted in accordance with the plant and transport facilities, normally 1 to 3 meters per minute aE stops exceed 10 to 15 minutes, proper construction joints are made before proceeding further. Fig. 4 Hand placement of asphalt-concrete core along dam base. ‘Non-Soil Water Barriers for Embankment Dams The gravel (0-60 mm) in the transition zones is placed with an extra height above the asphalt-concrete level corre- sponding to the difference in compressibility. The asphalt- concrete surface is always somewhat convex after the tran- sition zone compaction is completed, and fine longitudinal cracks occur in the middle of the core. These fine cracks are of no concern as they disappear when the next hot layer is placed, as documented by subsequent coring. qransport across the asphalt core is normally a necessity for construction purposes. Light steel bridges, which can be easily removed, are required for this purpose, and no vehicle is permitted to cross the core except over such a bridge. 3. DESIGN PRINCIPLES AND REQUIREMENTS The thin asphalt-concrete core has to adjust to the deforma- tions in the embankment and to differential displacements in the dam foundation. Displacements accumulate during embank- ment construction, filling of reservoir, time-dependent con- solidation and creep, fluctuations in reservoir level and any earthquake shaking or fault movements. The essential function of the core is to remain impervious without any significant increase in permeability due to shear dilatancy (volume expansion) or cracking. Supporting Shell For a dam founded on bedrock the key to limiting the core deformations lies in the embankment slopes and the material properties, and in the compaction of the transition zones and supporting shells (shoulders). If the embankment is founded on a compressible overburden, differential distor- tions due to unequal settlements under the embankment are likely to occur both across and along the valley. Comparison with and evaluation of field measurements from existing dams combined with finite element analyses, is the best way to predict the displacements and distortions in new structures. The probable ranges for important parameters should be included in the analyses to study the sensitivity of the numerical predictions to uncertainties in the embank- ment and foundation properties. It should be noted that al- though asphalt concrete may have a relatively low shear modulus, depending on the bitumen content, it is virtually incompressible (i.e. Poisson's ratio = 0.5 in finite element analyses). Asphali-Concrete Cores B SeKjernsli et al. (1992) present field deformation measure- ments for a number of embankment dams and point out the ef- fects of compaction equipment and energy input, construction layer thickness, properties of earth and rock materials, and water sluicing of rock fill, to reduce embankment deforma- tions during and after construction. A slow and gradual re- servoir filling gives the embankment time to adjust to this change in loading and any unpredicted non-uniform deforma- tions that might arise. Thus, the simultaneous embankment construction and reservoir filling, which the asphalt- concrete core method allows, is beneficial from a technical as well as economical point of view. Figure 5 shows the cross section of the Storglomvatn rock- fill dam, 125 m high, and Table 2 gives a description of the different embankment zones and compaction specifications. For this dam the rockfill consists mainly of limestone which gives a more compressible rockfill than is the case for the other asphalt-concrete core dams listed in Table 1. Concrete sill Grout curtain Fig. 5 Cross-section of Storglomvatn Dam (see Table 1). For a well compacted asphalt-concrete core embankment dam of good rockfill resting on bedrock, the dam slopes may be as steep as 1:1.3 as demonstrated by for instance the Finstertal Dam (Pircher and Schwab, 1988). Even so, the measured maximum displacements inside this almost 100 m high dam were very small during and after construction, and the strains in the asphalt-concrete core far below allowable levels. Table 3 shows post-construction crest settlements for some recent Norwegian rockfill dams (Hoeg, 1996). The four dams listed under the horizontal line have asphalt- concrete core, the others moraine core. Non-Soil Water Barriers for Embankment Dams Table 2. Zoning and compaction specifications for Storglomvatn Dam (see Fig. 5) Compaction zone Material compacted layer [Vibratory | Number thickness roller, cy min. weight (cons) Ti) Asphaltic |See description concrete |later in this core section () Filter/ [Natural gravel, o2 TS transition |0-60 mm TS) Transition [crushed rock, oy Ts > water 7 0-200 nm Sluicing Téa) Shoulder quarried rock, oe TS + water 3 (shell) [0-400 mm sluicing THB) Shoulder [quarried rock, 6 iS z (shell) [0-800 mm TS) Slope ‘Selected, large | individually S = prot blocks >'0.5 m® [placed by backhoe Te) Crown cap |Selected, large | individually = = blocks >"1.0 m' |placed by backhoe (i) foe Grain |Sselected, large |Dumped in lifts up > z Blocks >'0.5 m [to 4m Table 3 Post-construction crest settlements for some Norwegian rockfill dams on stiff foundations. Dam End of | # Vertical settlements (© H) constr.| (m) [Crown _upst'm [ Top core | Crow dumsim ‘Oddatjorn 1987 | 145 0.26 0.20 0.22 Svartevann 1976 | 129 0.75 0.75 0.65 Vatnedalen r | 1983 | 125 0.80 0.15 0.20 Deg I 1972 | 390 0.70 0.15 0.15 Nyhelleren 1979 | 85 0.22 0.12 - Vatnedalen 11] 1983 | 60 0.20 0.10 0.20 Jukla I 1973_| 59 0.60 0.65 0.33 ‘Storvatn 1987 | 90 = 0.20 = Berdalsvatn igee | 65 0.18 0.14 Styggevatn 1989 | 52 0.42 0.20 Riskallvatn i986 | 45 0.20 0.15 cone Design The asphalt concrete and the material in the adjacent tran- sition zones (Zones 2 in Fig. 5) are placed and compacted simultaneously. This construction procedure gives the hot asphalt concrete immediate lateral support and creates close interlocking along the core-transition interface. The con- tour of that interface is jagged due to the slight inward squeezing of the hot asphalt at the base and slight bulging at the top of each 0.20 m layer(after compaction). Asphali-Conerete Cores 1The core thickness may be decreased from core base to top, usually in steps of 0.1m. For the Storglomvatn Dam (Pig. 5), the base width is 0.95 m and the top width 0.50 m. Modern construction equipment may produce a gradual taper- ing, not stepped, if that modification in procedure is found economical. Among the existing large dams with compacted asphalt-con- rete core, the minimum core width, in the top portion of the embankment, is 0.4 m. The maximum thickness so far used is in a 105 m high dam in Hong Kong where the bottom portion is 1.2 m wide. A rule-of-thumb has evolved which calls for @ core thickness at any level of at least 1% of the head difference between the upstream and downstream sides of the Core at that level. With modern construction procedures and quality control this seems unduly conservative for high dams. Norwegian experience suggests a minimum core thick- ness of 0.5 m, and no more than 1.0 m should be necessary, unless there are very special circumstances, for instance in extreme earthquake regions or for embankments on very com- pressible and/or erratic foundations. The core in the Finstertal Dam (Pircher and Schwab, 1988) and Storvatn Dam (Table 1) have a downstream slope 5:1, but the 125 m high Storglomvatn Dam (Fig. 5) has been given a vertical core. The additional construction and material costs of using a sloping core do not seem warranted. Al- though a sloping core gives the advantage of producing a somewhat more favorable transfer of the water load to the downstream shell, a vertical central core is subject to smaller shear stresses. In Norwegian practice the asphalt- concrete core is usually given a slight upstream curvature with radius 1000-2000 m. In an narrow V-shaped valley with steep flanks, and especi- ally if the embankment is resting on a compressible soil overburden, cross-valley arching may be significant and should be analyzed. In the design analyses one may check the stresses in the plane of the core and evaluate the shear distortions and potential cracking that may occur. The arching effects (stress transfer) may be somewhat relieved by special treatment of the dam-abutment interface (e.g. Heeg, 1995). The stress and strain levels in the core, estimated from finite element design analyses, are used when modeling the field behavior of the asphalt concrete in the laboratory The laboratory specimens are subjected to conditions ap- Proximating those that will exist in the field. The be- havior is studied with respect to degree of dilatancy and Non-Soil Water Barriers for Embankment Dams in permeability, ductility and cracking resistance, stiffness and strength, and self-healing ability after a crack has formed. A significant amount of such laboratory testing has been done to document the suitability of using asphalt concrete in dam cores (e.g. Strabag, 1990; Bard and Fleureau, 1991; Heeg, 1993),and some of the results are reported below. The contact between the asphalt-concrete core and the con- crete plinth or gallery must be carefully designed to avoid leakage at this junction, and the base of the core is flared or otherwise widened. In situations where there is concern about differential settlements and cracking of the founda- tion plinth, one may use extra mastic on the upstream side of the concrete plint The seepage path at the junction may be increased by placing a short asphalt-concrete or com- pacted clay blanket on the upstream side of the junction. Transition Zone (Zone 2) Primary functions of transition zone 2 (Fig. 5) are to pro- vide good and even lateral support to the asphalt-concrete core, and at the same time provide stable vertical support for the paving machine during construction. The transition zone should preferably consist of crushed hard rock with maximum grain size 60 mm, dso > 10 mm and d; < 10mm. Crushed angular rock gives somewhat more stable support than naturally rounded gravel. The difference in grain size between aggregates in the asphalt-concrete core mix, in zone 2, and in the adjacent zone 3 must not be too great: 0 2 Gyo © and =— ago 2 % Ghoo ee A 3 $ There is a practical limit to the combined width of core and zone 2 that may be placed simultaneously by the three- compartment spreader box on the placing machine. For the equipment shown in Fig. 2 the maximum width is 4.5 m. For larger widths, the paver must be modified or the outer part of transition zone 2 placed independently by other equip- ment. The minimum width of zone 2 placed simultaneously with the core should be no less than 1.0 m. Zone 2 should not be called a filter because, as described above, the gradation is not required to satisfy the strict filter criteria used in earth core construction. Internal erosion is not a concern for an asphalt-concrete core. Some designers recommend the addition of fine grain materials to the upstream zone 2. The reasoning is that if a defect ‘Asphalt-Conerete Cores wD aexists or a crack opens in the core, the transport of fine particles into the defect will reduce the leakage until the viscous plastic flow of the asphaltic concrete causes self- healing. However, it may also be argued that the migration of fine particles into the crack will impair the asphalt concrete's self-healing ability and be detrimental in the long run. In Norwegian practice, no fines have been added to the zone 2 material which should be practically free draining during compaction. Asphalt-Concrete Mix Design and Properties Fairly standard asphalt-concrete core mix design criteria have been developed and, with relatively small variations, used for most of the recently built dams with compacted core. The aggregate composition complies with Fuller's gradation curve (Fig. 6) improved with a fine grain compo- nent smaller than 0.075 mm (filler material). Thereby the grain sizes from filler, sand and crushed rock or natural gravel usually lie between 0-16 or 0-18 mm. In order to increase the workability and compactibility, naturally rounded sand may be added with a gradation which complies with the Fuller curve approximated by the equation: 100% where p; is the percent by weight smaller than the equival- ent grain size dimension, a. PASSING (PER CENT BY WEIGHT) oS 88S5S8ISSR 0075 025 05 10 20 40 80 160 920 640 PARTICLE SIZE (mm) Grain size distribution for aggre- gates in asphalt concrete. Non-Soil Water Barriers for Embankment Dams The bitumen (asphalt cement) content is usually a little higher than just sufficient to theoretically fill the voids between the aggregates, and thus a close to maximum density is achieved during compaction. This would typically corre- spond to a bitumen content of 5.5-6.5% (of total weight), and the mix is then easy to place and compact to the re- quired air void content of 3% (of total volume) or less. At this void content (porosity), the asphaltic concrete has been found, through extensive laboratory testing, to be practically impervious even under high water pressures (permeability coefficient< 10? m/s). Above 3-4% the per- meability increases fairly rapidly, and at 6% the permea- bility coefficient is about 10° m/s. Laboratory Marshall specimens of the specified design mix should be required to show an air void content $2% to account for the difference in degree of compaction achieved in the laboratory and in the field. Quality of Aggregates an ler The quality of the aggregates is classified using standard testing procedures to determine flakiness and brittleness. The acceptance criteria are adopted from road pavement engi- neering and are probably unnecessarily strict. Once in place, the aggregates in a dam core are not exposed to abra- sion, weathering and significant temperature changes as are road pavements. The effects of aggregate quality on the stress-strain be- havior of asphalt concrete at stress levels corresponding to those in very high embankment dams, were therefore recently studied (Heeg, 1993). Triaxial strain-controlled compres- sion tests were performed on cylindrical specimens 100 x 200 mm. The lateral confining stress, 03, was kept con- stant, while the axial stress, 01, was increased such that the axial strain rate was constant at 2%/hour. The tem- perature was held constant at 5° C throughout the test, and three different levels of 0; were used, 0.5, 1.0 and 2.0 MPa. Three different types of aggregates were used, classified in road pavement engineering as very good to poor: crushed gabbro, crushed gneiss and crushed limestone (shale) . ‘The resulting stress-strain curves for the asphalt-concrete specimens with the three different aggregates showed rela tively small differences. The secant modulus up to 1% axial strain and the compressive strength were only approximately Asphalt-Concrete Cores10% smaller for the asphalt concrete with the poor aggregate compared to that with the very good. However, aggregate flakiness and surface properties have ef- fect on the content of bitumen required in a mix to obtain the specified low porosity and permeability. The series of Marshall tests performed to determine the optimum design mixes with the three aggregate types, all satisfying the Fuller gradation curve, clearly demonstrated this. At a bitumen content of 5.5%, the mix with the gabbro aggregate had a significantly lower porosity than the mix with the limestone aggregate with higher flakiness. For most of the dams listed in Table 1, the asphalt-concrete aggregates consisted of natural gravel or a mixture of natural gravel and crushed rock to add stability. For the Storevatn and Styggevatn dams, only crushed rock (gneiss) was used. The total weight of fine-grained material smaller than 0.075 mm (filler) constitutes 11-13%. Typically about half of it is added fines in the form of Portland cement or crushed limestone to supplement the fines recovered from the mechanical crushing of aggregates. The supplementary filler material may be relatively costly, and one tries to reduce the amount required. However, the maximum allowable quanti- ty of fines taken from the crushed aggregates themselves, depends on the acidity of the aggregates and must be evalu- ated in each case to ensure chemical compatibility and good adhesion (bonding) between aggregates and bitumen (Creegan and Monismith, 1996). ‘The organic content of the fines resulting from the crushing of the aggregates must be con- trolled, and aggregates and fines must be stored and pro- tected against contamination. Effects of Bitumen Content and Viscosity In most dams built so far with compacted asphalt-concrete core, the bitumen content has been somewhat higher than that required for optimum density achieved in Marshall compaction tests. Depending on the type of aggregate, flakiness, mineral composition and surface characteristics, exact grain size distribution and viscosity of bitumen, this will com- monly lead to a bitumen content in the range 5.5-6.5% by total weight of asphaltic concrete mix. A lower bitumen content leads to an asphalt-concrete mix which is less workable, more difficult to place and compact, and more pervious. A higher bitumen content makes for a softer mix which has more pronounced viscoelastic-plastic 2 Non-Soil Water Barriers for Embankment Dams properties, has lower stiffness and strength but is even jess pervious. The dams listed in Table 1 had average bitu- men contents ranging from 6.1 to 6.7%. High shear stresses imposed on asphalt concrete may lead to shear dilatancy and volume expansion. Figure 7 shows the degree of dilatancy as a function of bitumen content (type $80) and axial strain in triaxial compression tests. The results are plotted for two different confining stress levels and clearly show the reduced dilatancy with increas- jng bitumen content. Furthermore, as is reasonable, the @ilatancy is reduced when the confining stress is increased. For a bitumen content of 8% there is virtually no volume change for the test with low confining stress and actually a volume reduction for the higher confining stress. z Gq-0.75MPa £ 4 z é F. 55h —en O° 6s. & ° 80 2 1 ace. 6 eo oo @ 4 8 8 ow 2 VERTICAL STRAIN (*) Neg. val strain = Expansion Fig. 7 Degree of dilatancy as function of bitumen content (after Breth and Schwab, 1979) Dilation causes an increase in permeability due to volume expansion and the potential opening of small fissures, although no visible cracks may appear. Therefore, the increase in permeability may become much larger than the mere increase in volume would indicate, because the shear Strains and resulting dilatancy may have caused fissures that interconnect. This has been demonstrated by permea- bility tests on specimens which were first subjected to tri- axial compression. In the regions of high shear strains along the failure plane, smaller samples were cut out of the already tested triaxial specimens. These small samples were fn turn tested in a permeameter. Although the volumetric strain during dilation only amounted to 1-2% expansion, the permeability coefficient showed an increase by a factor of 10? - 10°. This increase can only be explained by a set of communicating fissures (cracks). However, the increase in permeability only occurred as fissures opened for shear ‘Kephalt-Concrete Cores B eeedeformations close to the failure level (strength) for the asphalt concrete. No significant increase was detectable until about 80% of the strength was mobilized. With time the fissures close by self-healing. To study the effects of increasing the bitumen content on deformation modulus and strength, additional triaxial tests were run on asphalt-concrete specimens with the crushed gneiss aggregate described above. The bitumen content was increased from 5.9% to 8%. The same strain rate (2%/h) and temperature (5° C)were specified as for the previous tests The secant deformation modulus at 1% axial strain and o; = 2.0 MPa was reduced from 300 MPa to 110 MPa, and the com- pressive strength was reduced from 6.7 MPa to 4.0 MPa. Furthermore, a small volume contraction rather than dilation occurred, in agreement with the results presented in Fig. 7. To study the effects of reducing bitumen viscosity, but keeping the bitumen content at 5.9%, supplementary triaxial tests were performed. Bitumen type B180 was used rather than B60. The results from the tests with 5.9% B180 were very similar (by coincidence almost identical) to those obtained for 8% B60, both with respect to stress-strain behavior and strength. ‘These new laboratory tests, and others reported in the lit- erature, demonstrate that the properties of the asphalt- concrete mix may be designed to satisfy specific engineering requirements for a given situation. The potential extra costs of achieving special properties, for instance by in- creasing the bitumen and/or filler content, must in each case be compared with the benefits in terms of safety and reliability. Recent field tests in Norway have demonstrated that even with a low-viscosity soft bitumen (B180) and a bitumen con- tent as high as 8%, the placing equipment and compaction procedures described in Chapter 2 could be successfully ap- plied. However, when the bitumen content exceeds 10%, one gets a supersaturated "flowing" asphalt concrete which can- not be effectively compacted. 4. MERITS OF THE ASPHALT-CONCRETE CORE ALTERNATIVE Asphalt concrete has been documented to be virtually imper- vious, flexible, resistant to erosion and aging, workable and compactable, and offers jointless embankment core con- struction. When the asphalt-concrete mix is properly de- ‘Non-Soil Water Barriers for Embankment Dams signed, its viscoelastic-plastic and ductile properties provide a self-healing (self-sealing) ability should cracks develop in the core wall. It is therefore well suited for dams in earthquake regions where differential distortions and potential cracking must be considered in design Experience with the performance of the machine compacted asphalt-concrete cores in the 48 embankment dams built so far, is excellent, with no reported needs for repair. The current method of construction is simple compared to those for many other types of water barriers, for instance the upstream facing. The core can be constructed in any weather suitable for construction of the embankment, and progress is not hampered by rainy seasons. The core is permanently pro- tected against weathering (aging) and cannot be damaged by impact or sabotage. The reservoir may be filled during con- struction, which is not commonly feasible for the upstream facing alternative. The fact that the properties of asphalt concrete can, within fairly wide limits, be tailored to satisfy specific design requirements, is an important aspect and advantage of the method. The quality control of the material properties and construction procedure is simple to prescribe and carry out. There is a trend towards using somewhat higher bitumen con- tent and/or lower viscosity (softer) bitumen in the com- pacted asphalt-concrete core designs. This will promote the use of the method for dam sites with more compressible foun- dations and embankments with less stiff shoulder materials. The experience with the Bberlaste Dam documents that even in a dam which suffered large differential settlements and dis- tortions across the valley, the asphalt-concrete core re- mained impervious (Hoeg, 1995). The use of softer bitumen, which increases the crack self- healing quality, also allows lower operating temperatures and energy input during material transportation and core placement. There are still no reports on the performance of the three recently built Russian dams with "flowing" asphalt-concrete used in the cores (Moiseev et al., 1988). The main reasons for choosing such rich asphalt concrete rather than the leaner machine-compacted alternative, were the extra core ductility desired at these sites with deep soil overburden, and the fact that the placement of flowing concrete does not require any paver or compaction equipment (flowing concrete with a bitumen content of 10-12% cannot be compacted). Asphalt-Conerete Cores Wi 85In regions of the world where labor is inexpensive, hand placing may be a competitive alternative to machine placing unless proper equipment is readily available. Some hand placing against the foundation and abutments, with subse- quent compaction by vibratory rollers, is required in all cases, and the quality of the core in these locations can be as high as for the machine placed. However, the need for field control and inspection is crucial, and the uniform quality of the machine-placed core cannot be matched. Cost Comparisons among Design Alternatives For some recent large dams the author is familiar with, fairly detailed comparisons were made among various design alternatives. Five compacted asphalt-concrete core embank- ment dams are currently (1997) under construction. In addition to the three listed in Table 1, these are the Greater Ceres Dam in South Africa (60 m high) and the Maopingxi Dam (100 m high), which is a part of the Three Gorges Project in China. For the Urar Dam site (Table 1), a specific study was made to compare the costs of an RCC-dam and an asphalt-concrete core rockfill embankment. The latter alternative was chosen due to 10% lower costs. For Greater Ceres Dam, three alter- natives were compared: RCC, concrete-faced and asphalt- concrete core rockfill dams. The latter was chosen because the dam is located in an earthquake region on a friable sandstone foundation likely to experience differential settlements, and because it was cost competitive. For the Maopingxi Dam the competition was primarily between an earth core and an asphalt-concrete core. The latter was selected due to lower costs, and the machine shown in Fig. 2 is now being used on that dam which is mainly an earth embankment. It has recently been decided to build a 43-m high asphalt- concrete core dam in Dubai. Furthermore, in a recent feasibility study for Maguga Dam (100 m high, Swaziland), the asphalt-concrete core came out very favorably with respect to costs compared to both the RCC and the concrete faced embankment alternatives. In some cases the asphalt- concrete core solution has been preferred over an earth core to avoid the scar left in the landscape by the earth borrow pit. In summary, considering safety, reliability, maintenance, and economy, one finds that the asphalt-concrete core embankment dam in many cases is a very competitive and attractive alternative. 86 fon-Soil Water Barriers for Embankment Dams ACKNOWLEDGMENT The author is grateful for the informative discussions with Messrs. B. Kjarnsli and P.M. Johansen of the Norwegian Geotechnical Institute (NGI) and H. Saxegaard of the con- tractor Korsbrekke & Lorck - Veidekke, Oslo. REFERENCES Bard, E.A. and Fleureau, J.M. (1991). Behaviour of Bituminous Concrete for Dam Cores, IX Panamerican Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Vina del Mar, Chile, pp. 1315-1328. Breth, H. and Schwab, H.H. (1979). Zur Eignung des Asphalt- betons fiir die Innendichtung von Staudanmen, wasser- wirtschaft 69, Heft 11, pp. 348-351. Creegan, P.J. and Monismith, C.L. (1996). Asphalt-Concrete Water Barriers for Embankment Dams, ASCE Press, New York, ISBN 0-7844-0141-1. Hoeg, K.(1993). Asphalt Concrete Cores for Embankment Dams, StikkaTrykk, Oslo, ISBN 82-546-0163-1. Heeg, K. (1995). Transverse Cracking in Embankment Dams, NGI Report 532061-1, Oslo. Hoeg, K. (1996). Performance Evaluation, Safety Assessment and Risk Analysis for Dams, The International Journal on Hydropower and Dams, Vol. 3, No. 6, pp. 51-57. ICOLD (1982). Bituminous Cores for Earth and Rockfill Dams, ICOLD Bulletin 84, Paris. Kjernsli, B., Valstad, T. and Heeg, K. (1992). Rockfill Dams - Design and Construction, Tapir, Trondheim, ISBN 82-75598-012-11. Moiseev, I.S., Yakovlev, N.N., Goldin, A.L., Gorclik, L.V. and Radchenko, V.G. (1988). Rockfill Dams with Asphalt-Concrete Diaphragms, 16. International Congress on Large Dams, R. 62-Q.61, pp. Pircher, W. and Schwab, H. (1988). Design, Construction and Behaviour of the Asphaltic Concrete Core Wall of the Finstertal Dam, 16. International Congress on Large Dams, R.49-Q.61, pp. 901-924. Strabag (1990). Asphaltic Concrete for Hydraulic Struc- tures, Schriftenreihe Nr. 45, KéIn. Asphalt Conerete CoresASPHALTIC CONCRETE CORE CONSTRUCTION - DEVELOPMENT OF CORE PLACING MACHINES - Dipl.-Ing. Reinhard Frohnauer STRABAG Tiefbau GmbH, Cologne, Germany INTRODUCTION The history of Asphaltic Concrete Cores is a rather young one. In 1961 the "Kleine Dhiinn Dam” in Western Germany was to be constructed. With a height of 35 m it was a dam as many others and sizewise of no special interest. However, the sealing element of the rockfill dam was to be an asphaltic concrete core. The requirements with regard to performance quality were high, and in order to fulfil them, mechanised placing of the asphaltic core was taken into consideration. This was new, and, of course, there was no core placing machine or thelike on the market yet. Engineers of STRABAG, a Cologne-based civil contractor, had already gained experience in the execution of bituminous surface linings since about 1950. They had also constructed two bituminous cores, one of which can be regarded as a large-scale test for defining the most suitable bituminous mixture to be used as watertight barrier. The core placing had been carried out more or less by hand, with the help of backhoes, cranes and shovel loaders. Prior and during to the construction of the core, a number of test series had been carried out in the company's Central Laboratory. The important result of both core construction and laboratory research, was, that a hot mix of asphaltic concrete, compacted to a void content of less than 3 8 is a highly suitable bituminous material to form a watertight barrier in the centre of a rockfill dam. On the background of this experience STRABAG prepared an innovative tender for the "Kleine Dhiinn Dam", and with the obligation to develop and manufacture a core placing machine they were awarded the Contract. ‘Technical Director, STRABAG Tiefbau GmbH, Siegburger Strasse 241, D-50679 Cologne, Germany Core Placing Machines