How to Design Electronics Circuits

.
eRddhi

Publications

II

Copyright 2015 S Wanni Arachchige

, ,

.

IdedicatethisbooktomyeverlovingnephewsThusitha,
Kavindu,Hashitha,Praveen,andChamod.


................................................................................................................................................1
................................................................................................................................................2
.........................................................................................................................4
Value Series.........................................................................................................................................11
..........................................................................13
(tolerance)....................................................................................................................14
............................................................................................................................14
KVL................................................................................................................17
KCL...........................................................................................................19
..........................................................................................................................................22
Resistor Wattage.................................................................................................................................23
RMS ............................................................................................................................................24
.................................................................................................................................27
(potential divider)............................................................................................................29
......................................................................................................................................33
................................................................................................................................35
..........................................................................................................................................38
/...........................................................................................................................39
.....................................................................................................................................41
................................................................................................................................42
LDR......................................................................................................................................................42
.............................................................................................................................................47
...............................................................................................................................................50
(phase).................................53
..........................................................................................................................56
..........................................................................................67
....................................................................................69
............................................................................................................................69
.....................................................................................................................................76
..............................................................................................................................................78
.....................................................................................................79
(reactance).......................................................................................................................85
............................................................................................................90
........................................................................................................................................91
Q factor...............................................................................................................................................98
....................................................................................................................................100
.............................................................................................................111
(Impedance)....................................................................................................................113
Phasor diagram.................................................................................................................................117
................................................................................................................................................123
..........................................................................................................................................128
............................................................................................................................135
high order filter.................................................................................................................................139
Time delay circuit..............................................................................................................................146
DC AC Analysis Passive Active Devices.............................................................................151
..............................................................................................................................154
...............................................................................................................................156

 ...........................................................................................................169
..................................................................................................................174
...........................................................................................................................178
...................................................................................................................................178
...................................................................................................................................180
..................................................................................................................................181
...................................................................183
Mutually coupled coils......................................................................................................................184
Inductive coupling interference...................................................................................................186
Q factor..........................................................................................................................189
..............................................................................................................................190
..............................................................................................................................190
...........................................................................................................................191
LR circuit...........................................................................................................................................193
Power Factor (PF).............................................................................................................................197
LC Circuits.........................................................................................................................................202
............................................................................................................................................205
.............................................................................................................................208
RLC circuit.........................................................................................................................................214
LRC Q ...................................................................................................................216
Impedance triangle...........................................................................................................................218
Block diagram...................................................................................................................................225
....................................................................................................................................232
SWG AWG ............................................................................................................................233
..........................................................................................................236
..........................................................................................................240
H ().........................................................................................................241
Magnetic circuit ..................................................................................................................243
Hysteresis loop.................................................................................................................................247
.........................................................................................................................................250
...................................................................................................256
Gapped core inductor.......................................................................................................................257
.....................................................................................................................................265
Inductive kick....................................................................................................................................266
..........................................................................................................................................271
(differentiation)...............................................................................................................271
/......................................................................................................................275
..................................................................................................................................278


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, ,
. (I am very much grateful to the
original legal artists/owners of the illustrations and pictures that I have downloaded from the
Internet, and included in my books.)
,
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erddhipub@gmail.com
11, 2015


,
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,
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.
.
, (smart)
. . ,
();
(); ().
(power) .
, electrical .
.
/ / / .
( ).
/ .
(electrical signal) .
, electronics .
.
, , , , ,
. .
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. .
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,
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?
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- SMD - (
) . SMD ,
- leaded () . (lead
2

 . .
, , .)


(charge) . (
) (static electricity) ,
. , ,
(electric current) ,
. .
(
). 1
.
, ,
(hole) .
(
).
(, / , )
,
. ; ;
. . -
. ( ?)
. , (vacuum)
( (LCD )
). ,

? (
).
(resistance)
. / .
(conductor) , (
) (insulator) .
.
(superconductor)
.
( ) .
.

. ,
. ,
.
(ohm) .
, ,
. , , ,
, . PCB
(prints) . ,
.

4

 ( ).
(resistor) .
.
,
R ( r) . .
.
(schematic symbol) .
.

? ,
.
(current) (electric potential)
( (voltage) ),
( )
. .

V=IR
, = x

,
. .
. ;
. . ,
. ,
/ ( ) ( )
. ,
( ,
) .

 . ,
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, .
.
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. 28 100
68 , 200 .
, .
.
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70 .
. ,
,
.
(
) , /
. , (
). , /
. ,
/ .

.
, ? .
, , I = V/R
(
, , ).
, , V=IR ,
(
).
.
. ,
...
.
6 6
.
()
. ( .)

 ?
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1.
. .
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. , 4 6
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. (
)
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2. ,

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60 .
, .
30 40 ,
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/ .

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, . 12
. .
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(,
). .
7

 6, drop
.
6 ?
. R
.
.
. .
, () .
()
. ()
.
( ,
). 1
. .
6 6 , 1
,
6V = R x 0.001A => R = 6/0.001

=>

R = 6000 ohms

, 6000 . 6 (6k)
. ,

. LED
? ( ) LED 2V , (12-2=) 10V
R . , LED 30mA
. V=IR
.
(10V) = (0.03A) x (R) ==> R = 10 /0.03 = 333 ohms

. ,
. , ,
. 10,000 (10,000 m)
8

0.000001 (0.000001 m) .
.
. SI multiples (prefixes) .
. .
kilo (k) = 103 1,000
Mega (M) = 106
Giga (G) = 109
Tera (T) = 1012
Peta (P) = 1015

milli (m) = 10-3 0.001

micro (u) = 10-6
nano (n) = 10-9
pico (p) = 10-12
femto (f) = 10-15

1000m 1km . 6000 ohm 6 kilo ohm

.
.
. ,
. . .
. .
.
(voltage source)
.
.
.
? V=IR , ,
. .
.
( ) ,
(short) . ?
( .)
. ,
( )?
.
() / ,
. /
. ,

. (load resistor) , RL
.

.
. ,
.
, ? .
. ,

(resistor series) .
.
9

 .
. ,
(
) ( ,
) .
. ; ,
.
,
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?
? ,
.
. ,
, ,
.
10 ,
10.5 9.5 ,
. .

( ). 10%
.
. , 100
95 105
.


. .
( , 10%
1% tight ). , ,
.

.

testing calibration .
.
. ,
, , ,
. .
.
, ,
?
? , ?
. ,
?
.
. .
10



.

.
.
( ) .
. ,
, ITI .
.
( ).

(
).
. ,
.
()
. , (adjust/finetune) .
(reference). , 5.000v reference
. , 4.654 ,
5.000v .
. , voltage
reference ( ).
.

Value Series
,

.
EIA (Electronic Industries Association)
(E6, E12, E24, E48, E96 ). (6, 12, 24
) ? . E
.
11

 100 1000
. E6
, , 100, 150, 220, 330, 470, 680 . 1,000
10,000 .
1000, 1500, 2200, 3300, 4700, 6800 . 10 100 , 10, 15,
22, 33, 47, 68 . 1-10, 10,000-100,000
?
E6 , .
. , 1900 ,
, 1500 2200
. .
, E12 . E6
12 (100, 120, 150, 180, 220, 270, 330,
390, 470, 560, 680, 820). , 1900
1800 2200 .
?
? ? E12, E24
. ( ). ,
,
( ).
( ).
E3, E6, E12, E24, E48, E96 .

12


. (color code)
. ,
. 4 5 6
. , . 12
. (----) ( 7
;
). ( 4 5
6 ).

. E12, E24
. ( E3, E6
?)
--- .
? .
? .
. ,
. . , .
,
13

 . () . ,
- 8
- 2
- 3 000
- 5%

(tolerance)
82000 82k .
.

. 100 10% .
, 100 10% ( 10 )
. , 100 ,
. , 100 100 , (100-5=)
95 (100+5=) 105 . , 82k 5%
. 82k 82000 . 5% 4100 . ,
(8200 (4100/2) = 82000 2050 =) 79950 (82000 + (4100/2) =
82000 + 2050 =) 84050 .
/ (tolerance) E-
. 20%, 10%, 5%, 2%, 1%, 0.5% .
5% . E ,
. , .
. E12 10% . E24
5% , E48 2% , E96 1%
.
. E48, E96, E192
. --- . ,
. . ,
5
- 2
- 1
- 0 0 , .
- 1%
521 ohm 1% .
, 1 (5210). ,
2 (52100). .
0 . .

.
. .
14

 (temperature coefficient) .
. 6
, 2 . 2 50 ppm/K
. .

. 10k 50 ppm/K . 10k
( 25 )
. , ,
10k 10,000 , 50
. , (10,000 /1,000,000)x50 = 0.5 ohm .
, 10k 0.5
ohm ( , 0.5ohm
, , 0.5ohm ).
20 , 0.5 x 20 = 2 ohm .

. ( .
, ,
PPM/K PPM/C .)
.
= ( ) x ( ) x ( ) / 1,000,000

.
. , , .
1. . , 1000 10
. .
, 10 1000+10 (=1010),
1000-10 (=990) . , /
. 100010 (990 1010 ) .
2. . , 1000 10%
. 1000+10% (=1100)
1000-10% (900) 100010% (900 1100 )
.
3. PPM (parts per million), PPB (parts per billion), PPT (parts per trillion) .
, ppm
.
.
.
/ . , 100
PPM/K . /K
.
, .
.
15

 . .
,

( ). , 273 .
273 27000 ohm = 27k
, 3 ,
() . ,
7992 79900 ohm = 79.9k
, . , k
M R . k ,
M , 1000 R (Resistor) . ,
79.9k 79k9
0.1 ohm 0R1
, .
A

0.05%

0.1%

0.25%

0.5%

1%

2%

5%

10%

20%

,
7992 J = 79k9 J = 79.9 kilo ohms (5% )
.
( ppm/K ).
U

250

100

50

25

15

10

EIA EIA-96
. E96 (
96 ).
. .
.
Z

Y/R

X/S

0.001

0.01

0.1

10

100

1000

10000

100000

. . E96
96 .
. . . 01 96
.

16

Code Value
01 100
02 102
03 105
04 107
05 110
06 113
07 115
08 118
09 121
10 124
11 127
12 130
13 133
14 137
15 140
16 143

Code Value
17 147
18 150
19 154
20 158
21 162
22 165
23 169
24 174
25 178
26 182
27 187
28 191
29 196
30 200
31 205
32 210

Code Value
33 215
34 221
35 226
36 232
37 237
38 243
39 249
40 255
41 261
42 267
43 274
44 280
45 287
46 294
47 301
48 309

Code Value
49 316
50 324
51 332
52 340
53 348
54 357
55 365
56 374
57 383
58 392
59 402
60 412
61 422
62 432
63 442
64 453

Code Value
65 464
66 475
67 487
68 499
69 511
70 523
71 536
72 549
73 562
74 576
75 590
76 604
77 619
78 634
79 649
80 665

Code Value
81 681
82 698
83 715
84 732
85 750
86 768
87 787
88 806
89 825
90 845
91 866
92 887
93 909
94 931
95 953
96 976

49B 31600 ohm = 31.6k

E96 . 1% . ,
SMD
( ).
.
.
- (series) (parallel).
,
.
,
( ) .
.

KVL
. ,
( ) ,

. .
/ .

17

 ,
. ,

. , 100 10
, 100 . ,

RT = R 1 + R 2 + R 3 +
. ,
.

.

(supply voltage - VS) .
(Kirchoffs Voltage Law KVL) (
Kirchoffs Loop Law ). ,
.

R2 (V2)
. KVL , 100 = 40 + V2 V2 = 100 40 = 60V .

18

 ()
, () .
.

() .
() Kirchoffs Loop Law .
,
.

( rules of thumb ).
, 10%
, . , 100k 5k
, 5k 100k 10%
100k .
( ) 10% 1%
.

( ) .
, . ,
V = V1 + V2 + V3 IR = IR1 + IR2 + IR3 IR = I(R1+R2+R3) R = R1 + R2 + R3

KCL
( )

, .
.

19

 , /
( ). .
,
.

(Kirchoffs Current Law KCL) . Kirchoffs Node

Law . .
, KCL .
( " ") (node) . ,

.

, KCL .

I1 + I2 = I3 + I4 + I5
, I3 + I4 + I5 - I1 I2 = 0 .
I3 . KCL , I1 = I2 + I3 .
2 = 4 + I3 I3 = 2 4 = -2 . 2 .
I3 . .

1/RT = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 +

.
100 10 ,
10 .
.
,
. ,
20

I = I1 + I2 + I3 V/R = V/R1 + V/R2 + V/R3 V/R = V(1/R1+1/R2+1/R3) 1/R = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3
10% ( ) . ,

10% ,
( ).
10%
.
.
.
10% .

10% .
5% , 10%
,
. 10% 5%
. 1% .
.
( / ).
(heat energy) /.
. (heat dissipation)
. . ,
? (
, , .)
,
; ,
.
, ()
(
). , , ,
. .
, .
. .
ideal () . ,
. . .
, ,
.
,
.
. .
.
. ,
. ()
. . ( ).
;
. ,
21


( ).
, ,
.
,
. . ,
(wastage)
.
.
. . .
. .
. .
, ?

, ()
. .
R I
, P .
(power) .
(Js-1) (W) . ( , 40W
, 40 .) (Joules
Law) .

P = I2R
.
, .
, . ,
(unit current) ;

; , ()x() .
.
.
.
P = VI
,
. V
V=IR . ,
P = VI = (IR)(I) = I2R
, P=VI I .
P = VI = (V)(V/I) = V2/I

22

 , .
( , V, I P=VI , I,R ,
P=I2R , V,R , P=V2/R ).
P = VI = I2R = V2/R
, 10k 10mA ,
.
P = I2R (0.01)2 x (10000) = 1W .

Resistor Wattage
.
.
.
. ( 0.25
(), 0.5 (), 0.75, 1, 2, 10 ).
.
. ,
.
.
. ()
.
?
? . ( )
( ) . ,
( I2R ). , R
.
. ,
. R . ,
. , .
. , 1 100
0.5 50 .
, 25 4 .
.
. (steady)
, P=I2R
. ()
( ).

23


. 0 2 .
,
?

, . ,
.
, .
.
. ? (
) , ?
.

RMS
. ,
?
24

 . ? ?
() ? , ? RMS
(Root Mean Square) . rms
.
.
(peak
current - IP) 1.414 . ( 0.707 ; 0.707
1.414 (inverse) - , 0.707 = 1/1.414) 1.414 2 ,
2 .
rms (Vrms) . (peak voltage
VP) 1.414 Vrms .
230V rms .
(Vp) 325V ?
40 . Irms .

.
, (peak
value) . IP ,
VP . rms Vrms Irms .
p, rms subscript .
p pk .
peak-to-peak pp
. .

rms
, .
rms .
.

25

/
. ,
? .
rms . rms .

rms .
, ,
.
( V=IR P=VI ). rms
. rms .
. rms
.
.
rms . Peak Watt, PMPO Watt ,
, .
. -
5 ; 30
. rms
; peak power
.
.

26


.
. Carbon composition resistor, Carbon film resistor,
Wirewound resistor, Metal film resistor .
. .

. .
( ) .
. .

( pulse surge )
. .
.
, .
noise . ( .)
, ()
. .
(path) .
.

.
.
( ).
( ; ).
()
. ( )
.
( ).
. .
, ,
( ;
). 0.5pF . ,
() (0.01uH 1uH ).
27


( ).
.
. ,
.

.
.
. (
; 20ppm/K ; ).
(surge/pulse)
.
.
.
,
.
Metal oxide film resistor . ( )
.
.
. (
). .
.
, .
( ). ,
(5ppm/K ). .
(precision resistor) .
. ,
.
.

28

 .
() (power resistor)
. .
, .
. ( )
, 50
.
. (high frequency)
, .
.
, .
.
(stray)
(parasitic) . , stray
capacitance parasitic capacitance , stray inductance
parasitic inductance .

(potential divider)
,
. /KVL
.
. ,
() ( )
/.
. . Vin R1, R2
. , .
0V .
( ) Vout
.

29

 . Vin = 12V , R1=R2=10k , Vout .

. , 12
.
, .
. ( KVL
?)
.
. .
. R1 6V , R2 6V .
, R1=1K R2=2K ,
(1:2) . R1 4V , R2 8V .

.
.
.
.
VR2 = Vin x (R2/(R1+R2))
. ()
. .
.
?
. 36 12 ,
R1, R2 ?
Vout = Vin (R2/(R1+R2)) 12 = 36(R2/(R1+R2)) 12/36 = R1/(R1+R2)
36/12 = (R1+R2)/R2 4 = (R1+R2)/R2 4(R2) = (R1+R2) 3(R2) = (R1)
3(R2) = (R1)
. R2 R1 .
, R2 = 2k , R1 = 3 x 2k = 6k .
. , R1 R2 , R1
.
3:1 ,
R2 12 . 6k 2k
600k 200k 300k 100k .
30

 ?
,
.
. /
.
. Vin = 36V, R1=6k, R2=2k . 36 . ,
. V=IR
.
V = IR Vin = I (R1+R2) 36 = I (6000+2000) = I (8000)
I = 36/8000 = 0.0045 Amp = 4.5 milliAmpere
, 4.5 .
(, R1=600ohm, R2=200ohm),
, 45 (
).
. ,

. 24V 3 6 12
?
. .
.
.
Vin , (, , )
/ , R1, R2
. R2
() / (
) .
. , /
R2 .
10% . , ,
.

?
. .
( )
.
31


.
. ?
(
) . R2
. .
( )
, R2 . R1
R2 , R2
. , ,
. , 1:1 , Vin=12V ,
6 R2 .
R2 , (R2 ) R2
( ,
; 1/Rt = 1/R1 + 1/R2 ). 1:1
1:0.5 2:1 . R2
4 . . 6 6
.

.
.
,
. ,
. R1
R2 . R2
. V=IR , I ,
.
,
( R2 10% ). ,
? ( )
() R2 .
. , R2 10%
. R2 10
?
.
()
. .
/ ,
( ,
; ).
( ). ,
(circuit design) .

32


.
; ()
.
(V), (I), (P) .
P=VI .
/ , / (
).
? , .
, . ?
() , .
(
); ; .
.
( FET transistor).
( BJT transistor). ().
,
. ,

. ,
.
. ,
;
;
. (
) .
.
; .
,
. ,
.
, ,
. ,
(output) .
, .
. ,
( ) ,
(,
) .
. .
. ,
() .
33

 .
, (, )
( ) . 10%
.
. -
10% .
. . R1, R2
. R1 R2
, R2 .
R2 , R1 R2 ? R1=100 ohm
, R2= 1000 ohm . , 11 , 1:10
10 R2 .
? 1:100 (, R1=10, R2=1000 ), . R2
10.9 . .
. , .
? ,
.
(I=V/R ).
.

.
.

( ). R1
R2 . ?
.
. R1 R2
. 10% . R1
10% R2 .
. .
.

/ .
(P=VI).
.
,
; ; .
34

 ?
. (
; ).

. . .
,
. .
.
( ) ? ,
V=IR ( V=I x 0 = 0). ,
P=VI ( 0 )
P = VI P = ( ) x ( ) = 0
.
() . , V=IR ,
. . , P=VI ,
P = VI P = ( ) x ( ) = 0
.
.
(R1 = R2). .
() / (match) .
/
.
, .
,
.
.
.
,
. circuit loading
. .

.
.
.
,
.

(fixed resistor) .
, .
,
. ,
35

 25k, 100k
. (variable resistor)
. . potentiometer ( pot
potmeter) , preset .

. (spindle shaft).
rotary pot .

. .
knob .

, (slide) . slider
.
. .
. fader .

( 270
250 ) . single-turn pot
. 10 20
(multi-turn pot) .

.
, . ,
.
.
.
, ,
resolution .
36

 , . , ,
.
(adjust/fine-tune) .

ganged potentiometer ( dual gang pot) .

,
( 6 ).
. ,
gang slider pot .

concentric pot .
/ .
;
. (
).

( 6
). .

37

 .
, .
.
, . ;
( )
. ( )
wiper .

,
, Rheostat . ,
. , . ,
.
(
, ).

.
.
.
. . 1k () .
LED 2V, 30mA .
? (12-2)/0.03 = 333ohm .

,
38

 . .
. Vout
.

/
. taper law
. (rotate) (slide)
. (
) . Linear () Log ()
.
.
, .
. 200 , 0 100k
. , , 100k/200 = 0.5k
500 ( ,
).
; , , .
,
, .
, .
.
. ()
. , 0.1 , 1 (
), 10 ( ),
100 .
,
. , ,
.
Lin B .
, Log A .
.
.

39

 .
.
.
. , ?
. 10
. 10
? 100 .
( )
?
. .
,
.
.
, .
, antilog (inverse log)
.
( ). (
tone controllers
.
(bass), (treble) .)

.
?
.
. ,
.

40


( ) ,
. . trimmer,
trimpot . .
. .
. .
; .

.

, (aging)
.
.
. , ,
. ,
150 . , 100 100
.
, 100 50 150
. ( ) .
155 ,
150 .
140 ,
.
( ).
150 150 100
. ,
150 , 0 . 155

.
( ) ,

? ()
. .
.
41


,
. ,
.

LDR
. -
(photoresistor) (Light Dependent Resistor LDR)
. .

(CdS),
(PbS), (CdSe) .
( 500k ohm ) . ,
( 500 ). ,
( )
. (
) , / (
) . ,
( ).
latency . LDR .

. .
.
/ .
------ .
.
. , 700
, / 400
( ;
). .
, ( ) .
42

LDR ,
.
( )
.
. , (trigger)
. ,
.
.
LDR (
).

LDR .
10k .
.
15k LDR 30k
(2:1 ). B Vin
. LED .
LDR . ,
300k . 10:1 .
B Vin
. LED .
?
LDR 10k+10k ? ( )
15k 30k .
1:2 . B LDR
. Vin .
(
? ). .
LDR 300k . 1:10
. , LDR ( ) .
. , LDR
. LDR ,
.

43

 (configuration) ;
. ,
?

LDR (non-linear)
. ?
/ / . ,
LDR / / .
(variable) . (
) (independent variable)
, (dependent variable)
. LDR , ,
.
. . ,
(x , y ).
. (function)
( y = x, y = 2x, y = x4, y = 5x2 + 6x, y = 9x4 + 2
). (linear)
. .
Y = mX (m ;
). (
). /
.

44


. ,
(exact) (approximate)
.
,
.
LDR , (
), = 4()2
. ,
.

.
.
LDR ( )
.

, . LDR
.
.
/ .

. . ,
. ,
. , =
4()2 . process
.
1. .
2. .
3. 4 .
.
. .
algorithm () .
.
.
, ,
. (
;
). ,
0 100 , 104 -10
.

. ()
. lookup table .
,
.
45

2k

2.2k

2.25k

3k

3.1k

4k

5k

5.4k

6k

6.6k

10

7k

0 10 1
.
.
( 0.1 0.01 )
. mapping
association .
. , 2.25k
2 . , ,
. (
.) ( ).

?
.
.
(
). photodiode, phototransistor
.
46

 . (
).

. thermistor (thermal +
resistor = thermistor). : NTC thermistor, PTC
thermistor . NTC (Negative Temperature Coefficient)
; (
). PTC (Positive Temperature Coefficient)
; . . -to
+to .

. .
. ,
.
(
) .
. NTC ,
. -90
.
. .
.
,
. , 100 102
. ( ,

.)
PTC . silistor
. , .
, PTC . ,
,
.
(critical temperature Tc) . PTC switching
type . -
.

47


(
).
. sensing mode zero-power mode
.
,
, .
self-heating effect (
) . - .
( ) ,
. ,
,
(PTC ), .
(current regulation) .
,
? self-heated mode
.
(
) . Thermocouple .
. , ()
,
( ). thermoelectric effect ( )
. (
.)

48

 ,
. .

, Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) .

;
. RTD NTC
.

49


. varistor VDR (Voltage Dependent
Resistor) . ,
.
? .
.

.

. ,
. threshold voltage breakdown voltage
( ) clamping voltage .
. .

(characteristic curves/graphs) .
.
(ZnO) , (SiC) . (
) MOV (Metal Oxide Varistor)
. .
.

50


300 . .
. (
) 0 (
; ).
.
300
. . ;
, 200
, . .
.
; (
) 400 .
/ .
;
standby current .
, ;
peak current .
( ).
(
) . pulse (
surge shock) . (
)
.
.

( ).
( ) , .
, .
51

, . ()
( ).
maximum pulse energy joule rating
.
. .
,
.
( ).
( shunt
). Load .

. .
. .

. .
.
( ). , .
.
. .
/
.
,
. , .
? 10%
, . , /
100 , 90 ,
. , ,
. ,
.
,
. .
. ,
. (
) .
? (
; .
,
.) .
52


(phase)
,
. , 100
10 , 0.1 100 .

. (phase) .
.
(steady)
. ,
. , x

. .

100 .
. 5 . ,
? (V=IR) , 5/100 0.05 . ,
. ,
. - ,
.

53

 x y .
x y .
(
). y
.
. . (
y ). ;
.

x . ,
( ) ( ).

( x ) . y .
,
( ).
. ,
.
. ,
?
0 , 0 ;
, ; ;
, ;
54

 (
). (phase
difference) . - (in-phase).
. , -
. , -
. . ,
. -
.
.
?
P = I2R = V2/R = IV .
-
. - . ,
, . ,
P = VI = ( ) x 0 = 0 .
. . ,
?
. . .
(). .

55


( )
/ . capacity .
( ) /
. capacitance
( ) . ( )
. capacitor condenser
( ).
.

?
,
.
( ) -
, . ,
.
. .
(
). .
, ,
.
. (Alternating Current) .
, x , ()
x
. x
. / .

. , .
.
.

56

 .
, (steady DC). 5 ,
5 ( ).
.

( )
. , x
( ) , .
. . ,
. x . (x
y 0 ; .)

.
. .
,
?
?

. .
.
.
, sandwich ?
57

, . (metal plate)
.
/ dielectric .

.
.

,
(
).
.
C
. , C
. ( )
.
C ,
.
? D . . C
, . ,
. D
(
).
, . D .
.
. C
, D
. , -Q ,
58

 +Q ( ) .
/ .

(polarization) .
(//) ,
(pole) . , .
.
, (electric field) .
,
. (
) ( ).

. , .
( ) ,
. C
. / .
, .
C ,
. C
D ()
. .
,
. .

.
; .
,
( ). -2V , C
-2V . , .
, ,
59

 .
. (,
) ?
.

.

. ,
. (
C , D
) .
.
.
,
.
, . (
, -
- .) C
. ,
.
. discharge .
C -5V . -1V
. , -5V -1V .
0V , 0V ? . 0V
().
.
. ,
.
.
,
. .
.
60

.
,
.
( ) ,
( ,
).
, . (
?)
. , ,
.
. ,
.
? / ,
,
( ).
, Farad (F)
. ,
. ,

. ,
Q = CV

, () = ()( )

() ;

.
. , . ,
, .
.

. (mF),
(uF), (nF), (pF) .
,
. .
. ,
() . ,
( ).
61

 ( ).
.
,
(
).

.
. .
, .
(rechargeable battery) ?

(
).
.

.
.
.
( ) .

W = CV2

( ) = ()()2

, Q=CV .
W = CV2 = Q2/C = QV

.
.
Q = CV
(t) , dQ/dt = C(dV/dt)
dQ/dt . , I = C(dV/dt)
62

P = VI ,
P = (V)(C(dV/dt)) P = CV(dV/dt) P dt = CV dv
,
P dt= CV dv
(W). ,
W = CV2
. .
. , Q
QV . V ,
0 . .
(average voltage) .
, ( + )/2 = (V+0)/2 = V/2 . ,
W = (Q)(V/2) = QV .
, 1 10
?
W = CV2 = (0.000001)(102) = 0.00005 J .
50 . , .
. ( )
. , (
) 10 (
10 ).

. ?
.
10 0.00001 .
, ( 0.00001)/( 0.000001) =
10 10 .
. (AA) 10
; (
). .
. .
50 . 100
. , .
100 50 0.00005 .
, = (0.00005)/(0.0000001) = 500 .
500 500 . ?
500 , , 50 .
50
? . .

. , ,
(
63

 ).
. ,
, (
).

.
.
. ,
?
, ( ,
).
. .
. 100 (100MW) .
100 . 100 x 60 x 60 Mj
360 . .
,
. , 10
, 1000 (100,000,000 x 0.00001).
1000 .

. (frames) 100
.
. ,
. .
.
. , .
.
( ) .
,
.
.
. ( ;
;
.)
( )
. ,
0.1 ,
, (0.001)(0.0001)(5) = 0.0000005 500 .

(ideal capacitor) .
.
/ .
.
. .
.
?
64

 ?
. (stray)
.
.
, .
.
( )
/ .
.
?
.
.
. (
/ ).
/, .

. .
,
.
.
( )
(
). ,
. ,
.

, . ,

. .

.
(d) . ,
. , .
, (A) ,
.
65

; ()
. ,
.
. ,
( ) (,
),

(overlap) . ,
. .
(permittivity) .
.
.
= ( )( )/( )

. . 100
, .

.
. ,
. ,
()
. .
. 8.85 x 10-12 Farad/meter .
.
E ,
. 0 .
() .
(absolute permittivity) . ,
,
. (relative permittivity) .

. , r
.

. = ( . )/( . )
r

= /0 . ,

r0 ?
.
.
.
66

 . ,
(dielectric) / .
?
?

.
. .

1/CT = 1/C1 + 1/C2 +

, .
, 100 ,
10 , 100 x 10 = 1000
. ,
1000 , 500 ,
?
.
1000 1u . 1000
; 500 .
1u . 500v, 2u
? , 100 10u
.
.

67

 . , (
),
. ,
, . ,
, 1000 9
. , (1000/9=) 111 ( (111100=) 11 ). 100
. .
.
, 75% 50%
. ,
100 , 50
. , 1000 20
(10 ) . ,
( 100
50 ). ,
, (
(50/19=) 2.5 ). ,
( 50 , 100
).
2.5 52.5 .
100
.

? (proof) ? .
. KVL . ,
.
Q=CV .
() . ? .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

? . ,
VT = V1 + V2 + V3 +
(Q=CV V=Q/C) , Q/CT = Q/C1 + Q/C2 + Q/C3 +
1/CT = 1/C1 + 1/C2 + 1/C3 +
, 10% .
.

68

. ,
. .
, .
.
,
(
).
.

CT = C1 + C2 +
?
. .
, .
, .
,
. ,
. ,
. Q=CV
. ,
QT = Q 1 + Q 2 + Q 3 +
(Q = CV ) CTV = C1V + C2V + C3V +
CT = C1 + C2 + C3 + ...

. .
. . ,
. .
p .
n , u . ,
. , 4.7u 4u7 .
69

 , .
. 5
. .
. ,
.
. ,
,
.
.
. , ,
. .
( ).
8 , ,
0.01 . , 9 ,
9 0.1 .
/ .
.
() . 10
, 10
.
, . (bands)
(dots) .
, .
.
.
.

70

71

72


. , ,
, () .
73

 .
, .
. (
). , , ()
8 , 8 ,
0.01 . , 9 ,
0.1 . .
.
.
.
, .
. , , p, n, u
.
.

74


132 numeric code , XYS
letter/alphabetic code , 132F
alphanumeric code .
,
. SMD .
, ()
.
75

 .
.
, , . ,
.
( , , , ,
; SMD
.)
.
. E12
. 10% . 20%
E6 5% E24 .
.
.
.
.
. .
,
.
( ).
. .

, (variable capacitor) .
(fixed capacitor) .

.
tuning capacitor .
.

(spindle)
. .
. .
. ,
.

.
. , (

76

 ). ,
. ,
.
, , .
( ,
.
.)

, .
? .
.
; .
,
. . . 10
. ( ) .
30mm . ,
?
( - )
. , , .
(ganged capacitors) .
. -
.
.

77


, .
.
. trimmer trimming capacitor
. ,
. ,
, .
, ,
.
.

/ ?
/ .
. /
.
. .

.
.
.
? (,
.)
( ). ,

. , ( )

( ).
78

 , padder padding capacitor .

/ ?
.
. , . varicap
.
. .
. ,
, /
. .
.
.
. .
.

.
( 3 ).
1. .
.
, .
2. ( ) .
.
; .
(continuously) .
x x ,
( ) , x
, ()
. x
x (pulsating DC) .
x
, .

79

 (perfect) /
. /
.
Fourier transformation/analysis
.
,
(distortion) .
.

, , / .
/ .
; .
.

.
(alteration) . . , (
) . (
). (amplification)
. , .
. attenuation de-amplification
.
. .
80

 .
,
.

?
. ( ) .
.
.
.
.

. .
.
, .

. , ,
? .

81

 .
// . ,

. .
(
). //
. ,
.
.
, ( )
. ,
(noise) .
/
.
.
.
, . ,
.
. ,
, , .
.
,
?

82

 .
,
-.
. (
? .) ( )
- .
.

- . 90 .
/ .
(voltage lags current) . ,
83

 (Current leads voltage) .

. (
?)

.
. A . B
.
90 .
, , 90 ?
90 .
. 90
.
?
. .
.
.
.
() . .
, ,
. , .
.
.
.
?
. ,
. ( )
.
. ( ) /
. ,
. .

84


.
, .
90 .
. .
( ).
,
.
.
. . x
/
. x
-
? . x
. .

. x
.
. .

(reactance)
, . , (ideal)
.
, .
;
. (reactance Xc) .
R , X .
85

 . .
X c (capacitor )
. X
L .
. ,
,
/ . V=IR (V=IX) .
.

3.1416 . f
C . , 50
1 ,
? , 1/(2 x 3.1416 x 50 x 0.000001) = 3200 ohms .
, 3.2
. , ,
. 90
.

. (differentiation)
.
( ) ,
.
.

( ) ( /
). (y ) +1 -1
( y = sin(x) ). +1 -1 ,

. , y = Asin(x) (A
). .
, Q = CV .
(t) , (dQ/dt) = C(dV/dt) .
(dQ/dt) / (I). , I = C(dV/dt) . (a)
, V = Vosin() = Vosin(wt) . (w = /t )
, (dV/dt) = wVocos(wt) .
86

 (a) (dV/dt) , I = C(wVocos(wt)) .

sin(wt) cos(wt) .
.
. ,
.
I = wCV I =

V
1
(
)
wC

I = V/R ? (1/wC)
? (
, .) ,
w ( ) = 2 f (f ).
, = (1/wC) = 1/( 2 f C) . ,
. ,
, X = 1/( 2fC) .
(dQ/dt) = I = C(dV/dt) ,
.
. . , (dV/dt)
.
. , ,
, . , .
; .
0
. (dV/dt) .
.
V = Vosin(wt) I = CwVocos(wt) ,
.
. ,
. ,
90 (, cos(x) = sin(90+x) ).
.
.
, 90 .
, I = C(dV/dt) , (dV/dt)
, ,
? .

87

 .
() .
.

.
.
, ,
( ).
. 100 (
/) 10
1 .
. 1/(2 x 3.1416 x 100 000 x 0.000000001) = 1600 ohm . V=IR V=IX
, . I=V/X = (12Volt)/(1600ohm) =
0.0075A 7.5 .
3.

.
.
( ) .
?
() A B, C, D, E
(
(superposition) ).
.

/ ,
.
.

88

 ( ) ( )
( ) . .
.

? .
. (
). .
()
.

. a 100 1/(2 x 3.1416 x
100 x 0.000000001) = 1600 1.6 . b
1/(2 x 3.1416 x 200 x 0.000000001) = 800 . , c
89

 200 d 50 .
. ,
1600 ,
. , 200 ,
.
.
?
, ? (
; .)
(, , ) ,
. ,
, .
(P=VI ) .


,
.
.
()
. ,
() .

? (
.)

(
). .
. .
.

.
90

 . ( )

. ,
.
, .
.
.
10 ,
5 . (
).
. . .

. ?
, .
.
. ; , ;
, ?
. , .

( )
. (
) (time
constant t) . ,
t = RC

.
.

91

 (exponential function) .
. ,
63%
. 9 .
9 63% 5.67 (9x63% =
9x63100=5.67). ,
63% . 0 5.67 .
, 9 37%
3.33 . 3.33 63% (3.33
63% 2.1 ). 2.1
5.67 . ,
5.67+2.1 = 7.77 .
(9 - 7.77= 1.3 ). 1.3 63%
0.82 .
7.77+0.82=8.59 . (98.59=0.41 ) . 63%
8.83 . ,
(9-8.83=0.17) .
(
)?

. 10
.
92

 . ... .
.
? .
. 10
. 5 .
5 . ...
2.5 . , 2.5 .
. , 1.25 .
(, , ) ,
? . 0
. .
.

.
(63% ). 5
. . 5
99% .

, 4
( 98%
). 5 , 4
. ;
.
95% . .
. ( ) ,
93

 ?
(
). 60% .
.
.
1. ( 50% )
0.7( ) (0.7RC).
2. 10% 90% 2.2(
) . .
.
( .)
3. 5 .
. .
.
( ) 37% .
, 0
. 5 ( 4
) . 1 3
. , 100%
37% . 13.7% ,
5% , 1.9% , 0.7%
.

, ?
94

 (
). .
.
e / ( ex )
. A . (
; (VS)
.) R C . t ( )
, V ( ).
. (
.
, .
.)

V = Ae-t/(RC)

(A = VS)

RC t ? -t/(RC) = -1 . e-1 .
1/e ( ). e 2.7183 . , 1/2.7183 = 0.37 .
37% . 37% .
. VS .
. ,
. VS .

V = VS(1 - e-t/(RC))
1 0.37 = 0.63 . 63% . 63%
. Q=CV
.
.
. /
.
( )
.
-
.
(
). , /
, / .

.
; .
95

. .
.
, (
).

/ .
? .
,
.
( )
.
. .
.

, .
dielectric strength . breakdown voltage .
(V/m) . , ()
3,000,000 3 (3MV/m) .
(mica)
120MV/m . ,
120,000,000 .

( ) . ,
( ).

.
.

96

 .
. , ,

.
.

(spark) .
. 10
/ . , 120,000,000 , 10
0.00001 ? 120,000,000 x 0.00001 =1200 Volt .
(
).
1200 . 1um ,
120V .
240 ?
.
. ; . 10um
, 30 ?
, .

. ;
/ . ,
.
. ,
(polarization)
. (
); . (
).
( ).
, .
.
.
.
. ?
. .
(
).
( ). ,
. , .
97

 . ,
. .

. (
)? ,
.
dielectric loss . (
) .
/ . .
, .
. ,
.
.
.
,
( ). ,
.
(skin effect) .
/ ,
.
.
.
.
.
(
).

Q factor
, Q factor
. Quality factor Q
. . Xc
, Rc ( ) .
ESR (Equivalent Series Resistance) (
). .
. Xc , Rc
. Rc
. Rc Q . Q Xc
Rc . Xc
98

 .
. (
) . Rc
. ,
. Rc ,
. . smd
(
).
Q = Xc/Rc
, Xc = 1/( 2fC) , .
Q = 1 / 2fCRc
, , ,
, ?
,
?
1000 Q .

(
). ,
,
(, x , Q y )
.
. 10u Q (1KHz) 16000 . 10000
10,000,000 .
Rc . , Rc = 0.001 Ohm ( ).
Rc ,
Q , .
10000, 50000, 100000, 500000, 1000000, 5000000, 10000000 .

.

99


.
. .
50 (1KHz) . 50
2% . (Xc 50 Rc 1
, Xc 100 , Rc 2 . 2% .)
.
( ); (MLCC) .
Dissipation Factor (DF) , Q Factor
. DF loss tangent . ,
DF = 1/Q
. ,
, () . ,
.
,
? ,
.

, ,
. .
(, , ) .
.
100

 . ,
;
; ;
( ) .
. ,
. .
( ).
( ).
. .
,
. Film capacitors .
()
( ).
,
() .
film/foil , metalized . /
. /

. (polymer)
. .
. ,
.
.
. , /
.
power capacitors ( ) . - 200
(200 VA) ( -
).
, .
.
(low noise) .
. /
( ) .
.
( ).

.
.
101

 .
.
self-healing .

.
.
. -
( ).

. polypropylene (PP), Polyester
(PET), Polyphenylene Sulfide (PPS), Polyethylene Naphthalate (PEN)
. .
, smd
( smd
).
smd .
50%
. .
, (
).
.
smd . Class 1, Class 2
/. 1 .
2 .
2 .
. ,
, , ()
. .
EIA IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission)
.
.
EIA , .
2 EIA . / 3 .
,
.
. / .

102


X = 55 C (67 F)
Y = 30 C (22 F)
Z = +10 C (+50 F)

4 = +65 C (+149 F)
5 = +85 C (+185 F)
6 = +105 C (+221 F)
7 = +125 C (+257 F)
8 = +150 C (+302 F)
9 = +200 C (+392 F)

P = 10%
R = 15%
S = 22%
T = +22/33%
U = +22/56%
V = +22/82%

X7S 2 ,
-55 +125 ,
22% .
.
2 , 1
.
. ,
. , , . ,
, . , . (
.)
2 1 .
/ (stability)
. , 2 1 .
1 ( ) 2
.
1 .

1 2
. ( )
1 .

103

 1 2
. 1 ()
.

, 2 microphony ( microphonics)
. piezo-electricity
.
, .
/ (,
). ,
,
,
. () (
,
, ).
, .
; . ,
104

 .
; , / .
. (
). 1
; 1
.
IEC 2 3 .
. ,
.

2B = +10/15%
2C = +20/30%
2D = +20/40%
2E = +22/70%
2F = +30/90%
2R = +15/-15%
2X = +15/25%

1 = 55 +125 C
2 = 55 +85 C
3 = 40 +85 C
4 = 25 +85 C
5= (-10 +70) C
6 = +10 +85 C
-

2E6 , +10
+85 , +22/-70% .
. /
( ) 22% ,
70% . 100 ,
30 122 . .
EIA . EIA Z5U
IEC 2E6 .
1 (, , , ,
). ;
. 2 , 2
. EIA
. ppm/C .
.
25 85
(
).

105


106/K
C = 0.0
B = 0.3
L = 0.8
A = 0.9
M = 1.0
P = 1.5
R = 2.2
S = 3.3
T = 4.7
V = 5.6
U = 7.5

0 = -1
1 = -10
2 = -100
3 = -1000
4 = +1
6 = +10
7 = +100
8 = +1000

25 85

G = 30
H = 60
J = 120
K = 250
L = 500
M = 1000
N = 2500

, P3K . P 1.5
, 3 -1000 . ,
-1500 ( ,
). K 250 . C0G
(, 0.0 x -1 = 0) , 30 .
1 IEC .
1 .
N P . N , (negative) ;
P (positive) .
. , N32
-32 (-32ppm/K) . NP0 .
; ; N, P
.
SMD . ()
, (layer) . (
,
?)
. , . MLCC
(multi-layer ceramic capacitor) .
MLCC .

106

 . 1 2
. 1
.
electrolytic capacitor (
) .
.
.
.
, .
/ .

. e-cap () .
. ,
. ,
. .
polarized capacitor .
non-polarized capacitor (
). .

.
.
, ,
.
107

 ,
. , / (electrolysis)

(oxide film) . ,
.
.
. .

( ).
.
. /
. electrolyte
. , wet electrolytic cap
. .
(
).
solid electrolytic cap .
(anode) ,
(cathode) .
. ,
. - .
, / (smd)
(
, ). /
.
.

108


( ).
1 .
, 1
, .

. . .
,
. 1
.

/ .
,
. ,
. .
.
109

 .
.
. .
( ). DC leak current .

. .
.
/ .
.
( ).
.
. ,
( ).
, .
.
.
/ , .
. , ,
.

110



.
. Resistor Capacitor
RC circuit CR circuit .
.

.
. ( )
. .
,
o
.
.
.
.
C1= 1u C2=1u , 1000 ,
. C1 , X = 1/( 2fC) , = 1/(2 x
3.1416 x 0.000001 x 1000) = 160 ohm . C2 X =
160 ohm .

. ?

? /
o .
111

 ; 160:160 1:1
. .
? .
. .
1000 10000 . X1 = X2 = 16
ohm . 16:16 1:1 .
? ,
( ). /
. ,
, . ,
90 .
, ?
.
, ()
,
.
, 1/C1 + 1/C2
; ,
, X1 + X2
. (

.) ,
X = X1 + X2
,
1/X = 1/X1 + 1/X2
. ( ,
.)

.
.
.
.
(RC circuit ).
. .
.
.
112

 ,
. ;
. C1=1u, R1=1.6k
1000 . , 160 1.6
. , 160:1600 1:10 .
10000 , 16 ,
. 16:1600 1:100 .
, .
?
, .

.
.
. ,
.
.
. ,
, .
.

(Impedance)
, .
. Z
. ?
. /
113

 , .
.
Z2 = R2 + X2
, ?
.

()
. . Z (impedance)
. .

. ,
. ? ,
. , Z2 = R2 + X2 Z2 = 0 + X2 Z = X .
, (Z = R).
.
, ,
.
, .
,

114

 .
.
,
.
, .
.

. .
, .
. , ;
. , ,
. , ;
. , ,
.
. ,
.

.
.
. . parallel RC circuit
.

.
.
. .
, . ,

. . ,
( ).
.
.
, 90
. ?

115

.
V
(I R = ) ,
R
V
) (j ;
X
V/X 90 ; j
). j Ic = V/X
.
. j , , 90 .
( I C = j

j .
. j ,
. j , parallel RC

V
V
+j

R
X

. ,

V 2 V 2
) +( ) .
R
X

, j , ,
V V
+
. , V/R V/X
R X
.
j .
; . j
. ,
.

. (j
). .
.

? .
.
.
. 90
. 90
.
. .
.
116

Phasor diagram
.
/ phasor diagram ( )
. .
.
. reference line .
.
. rms
( rms
).
, .

.
(IR)
(VR)
( ). (VC)
. VR, IR . (IC)
90 () ; 90
. .
?
,
.
90 ?
.
.
.
. ( ,
, 1/R = 1/R1 + 1/R2 .
117

 ;
.) ,
. (complex number)
( /
; ; ;
).
(notation)
(j ;
).
1 1
1
= +j
Z R
X
?
j . j
. .
(, / .)
.

. j
() . (
). .
1 1
1
1 1
1
=
= +
Z R jX
Z R jX
R X (j ). 1/R 1/X
. .
((1/Z)2 = (1/X)2 + (1/R)2). 1/Z .
1/Z ; Z . Z
Z . ( ,
( )
Z .) j
. j (
). j ;
. 1/Z
118

 magnitude ()
. . | |
(absolute value)
.
1 1
1
= +j
Z R
X

, ,
. j .
. j
. X R
.
1 2 1 2 1 2
( ) =( ) +( )
Z
R
X
Z , Z
. I = V/Z . ( . R
Z .)
.
. 0 90 .
? .
. a
.

V
V
+j

R
X
. argument
. ,
. ,

= Arg(I R + jI C )= Arg (

V
V
+j )
R
X

119

= tan-1(IC/IR)

.
.
. a , IC IR .
, tan(a) = / , tan(a) = IC/IR , a = tan-1 (IC/IR) .
.

, IC = V/XC IR = V/R , IC/IR = (V/XC)/(V/R) = R/XC . , tan-1 (IC/IR) = tan-1 (R/XC)

. . .

1K . , , IR = 10/1000
= 0.01 A 10mA .
, X = 160 ohm . , IC =
j(10/160) = j0.0625A j62.5mA . j
90 .
, 1/Z = 1/R + j(1/X) , 1/Z = 1/1000 + j(1/160) .
( ) . ,
(1/Z)2 = (1/1000)2 + (1/160)2 (1/Z)2 = 0.000040062 1/Z = 0.006329494 . ,
Z = 1/0.006329494 = 158 ohm.
, V/Z = 10/158 = 0.0633A 63mA .
.
= Arg(IR + jIC) = Arg(0.01+ j0.0625) = tan-1 (0.0625/0.01) = tan-1(1000/160) =
80.9O

120

 , .
. ,
. RC circuit
. ( RL circuit
.)

. Series RC
circuit .
.
/ .
.
,
.
. 90
. , 90
.
. IC IR .
. VR . 90
, VC (
).

? Parallel RC
. ,
. ,
,
121

 .
90 (
). . (
,
, R = R1 + R2 .
.) ,
Z = R + jX .
j , .

Z , Z .
.
.

. 160 . .

Z2 = R2 + X2 Z2 = 10002 + 1602 Z = 1013 ohm

, V/Z = 10/1013 = 0.0099A 9.9mA .
, VR = R x I = 1000 x 0.0099 = 9.9V VC = X x I = 160 x 0.0099 = 1.6V .
.
( )
. . .
( )
, . .
122

VS2 = VR2 + VC2

( VS = VR - jVC)

(VS2 =
(9.9)2 + (1.6)2 VS = 9.972; 10 ).
. tan-1(-XC/R) .
-9.2 . x 9.2
. 9.2 .
X R . X R ,
. ,
tan-1(-XC/R) = tan-1(-VC/VR)

(VC/VR = IXC/IR = XC/R ).

. ,
( ). , , ,
.
,
. , ,
. ,

Z = Z1 + Z2
,
1/Z = 1/Z1 + 1/Z2
.

filter .
RC circuit ( CR circuit) .
. ? ()

() .

.
. , ,
. / .
,
. , , ,
.
123

 ( )
? , .
.
. ;
.
. ,
.
. 20 20,000
/ . audible sound
( ) . 20,000 ultrasound ()
, 20 infrasound () .

. , , .
. .
, , (
).
, .
. ,
. ,
.
. , .
/ .
,
? . ,
. ,
.
.
, .
(ultrasound scan) , /
, / ,
(ultrasound cleaning) .
.
.
.
.
.
, ,
(combined) (
124

 ) .
100 1000 500
.
.
2 .
1.
. . Low Pass
Filter (LPF) . cut-off frequency corner
frequency (fC) . passband
, stopband . LPF
fC , fC
.

2. (cut-off frequency)
. .
High Pass Filter (HPF) .

.
2 .
1. (frequency band)
.
. Band Pass Filter (BPF) . -
lower cut-off frequency , upper cut-off
frequency . -
bandwidth .
125

2. ( - - )
,
. Notch Filter . Band Notch Filter, Band Rejection Filter, Band
Elimination Filter, Band Stop Filter (notch, rejection, elimination,
stop ).

,
.

. ? .
() .
.

126

 .

. , . ,
100 1600 .
100
1600:100 16:1 . 100
(1/(16+1) =) 1/17 (
0.059 ) (0.059 x 100% =) 5.9% .
( ) (100-5.9=) 94.1%
() .
( 100% ,
). 10000 .
16 . 16:100 4:25
. (25/
(25+4) =) 25/29 86%. 14%
.
? 100000 .
, .

.
,
. 100 10000 100
1
.

. ,
100% . ,
.
127

.
( ) 50%
.
,
.
.
( 1600 ; 1600Hz )
. ,
.
( ).

. .
.
/ .
.

. y 50%
. high pass filter 50%
,
. .

/
(deciBel). .
.
?
. . ,
, ,
,
.
(Bel) .

= 10( / )
, ,
,
,
. , 1
128

 10 , 10W/0.001W =
10000 . ; (
). ""
. /
, / "" ,
. , .
,
= 10(10W/0.001W) = 10 (10000) = 4 Bel .
Bel
. Bel B . 4Bel
4B .
,
. ( deci
kilo 1000 ).

10 = 1
40 . /
,
.
, .
= 10 10 (1/10) = 10 10(10-1) = 10(-1) = -10 .
-10dB . /
. " " . 10:1
("10 1 ).
( 10 1 ) .
0.001:10 1:10000
.
/ .
/ ,
. ,
. 3 ;
3 .
.
, -6dB ,
. +3dB ,
.
129

 .
( ) ( )
. () .
,
. " " (power ratio).
Power ratio (dB) = 10 log10(POUT/PIN)
.
, .
.
.
.
() () ?
.
. = ()2/ ,
?

Power(dB)=10 log 10

V 2O
RO
V 2I
RI

RO output resistance . RI input resistance

. .
. , = ,
.
power (dB) = 10log10 (VO2/VI2) 10log10(VO/VI)2 20log10(VO/VI)
.
;
. , .
, .
.
(, =
).
. . .
.
.
.
. . ,
130

, , , , .

?
Voltage ratio (dB) = 10log10(voltageIN/voltageOUT)
. .
.
. .
, .
.
; .
.

( ). 10 20
( ).

.
power (dB) = 20log10(VO/VI)

Voltage ratio (dB) = 10log10(VO/VI)

, .
;
; ; .
. .
, . 30 ; 2.3
23 . /
.
(1) 0 , (10) 1 . 1 10 /
. 1 10 .
(
).

0.78

7.8

0.30

0.85

8.5

0.48

4.8

0.90

0.60

0.95

9.5

0.7

10

1.00

10

131

 2 3 . ,
3 ,
, 3 . 3
.
/
(, ).
.
" " (reference value) .
. .
, " "
. , dB
dB . dBV, dBuV, dBmV, dBm, dBJ, dBi, dBW
. , dBW 1
. ,
dBW =10 log 10

(wattageW )
.
(1 W )

, dBm 1 . ,
dBm=10 log 10

(wattage mW )
.
(1 mW )

,
dBV =10 log 10

( voltage V )
(1 V )

dBmV =10 log 10

(voltage mV )
; 75 ohm
(1mV )

,
.
?
.
. .
.
. ,
;
.

132

 - .
. fc . -
. ,
X = 1/( 2fC) . C = 1/ X ( 2fc) . , X (
) , . X
?
X .
X (
).
.
( - input section) ,
( - output section) .
,
. ,

( , 10
).
100 100 , (100
ohm x 10 ) 1 (100k/10 ) 10
.
. 4 .
4 . X
4 ? . 4
. - .
4 . 2 X .

. - 1 .
100 ,
100 .
.
1. 1000
10
133

.
2. 1k-10k 4 .
3. 2
. (, 2 ).
4. X = 1/( 2fC) , C .
,
C = 1/(2000)x(2)x(3.1416)x(1000) = 0.8uF .
.
HPF .
. LPF . .
.
.

HPF . -
. . . 1 , 10
10 , . .
1. / 100 1000 .
800 .
2. , 400 .
3. X = 1/( 2fC) , ,
C = 1/( 2fX) = 1/(2 x 3.1416 x 1000 x 400) = 4uF .
LPF .
(output) frequency response curve bode
plot . x ,
y (, ) .

134

HPF . , -
(fC) .
. .
. ,
(

).
0dB . 0dB (attenuation)
.
- . roll-off
. - ( ) . -

( ). .
-3dB ( ).
,
. .
. (slope) .
. " " (decibels per
decade dB/decade) " " (decibels per octave dB/octave)
.

, ,
135

 . , 200 .
200 200 2000 .
4 4-40Hz . (
) , ( ) . ,
1000 1000 10,000 ,
100 1000 .

. 200 .
200 400 . 4
4 8 .
. , 1000 1000-2000 ,
500-1000 .

/ dec ""
. decade 10 .
.
. oct "" .
? .
. 7
. , , , , , ,
C, D, E, F, G, A, B ( C
). . C (middle
C C4) 261Hz .
. A (middle A A4) 440Hz .
C . C .
C C . C5 (
C C4 ). C 7
C .
( ) ( C5, D5, E5
).
. A 440Hz ,
A 880Hz . (C)
8 (octave) . C5
C . C6 . C6 C5
. . C4
8 C ; C C3
. C4 C3 .
( 4 .

136

 1, 2, 3, 5, 6 .) 1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6 .
.
. "" 8
.
.
. -20dB/decade
. ,
20 ( )
/ (). , 20
. ,
20 ().
RC filter . .

20dB/decade
RC filter .
.
.
. -6dB/octave . ,
(
) 6 .
(
).
( 3
, ).
. ,
, 3 6 . ( ;
10 20 ?
.) ,
6 .
dB/decade dB/octave
. .

1dB/decade = 3.2dB/octave
, 6dB/octave .
6dB/octave (3.2 x 6) dB/decade = 20dB/decade ( )
/
.
137

 .
. .
(-20dB/decade
-6dB/octave). Y
. . -
-3dB " "
, -6dB
, -3dB .
.
-
.
. -
? (
?) . ,
-3dB -6dB
. . ,

. , R C
,
.
.
() . , LPF
,
VI

XC
.
R +X C

, -
(Xc = R )? ,
,
VI

XC

(X

2
C

+R 2)

(Z). -
. ,
Xc=R=100 ohm . , 0.707VI .
70% (50%
).

() . , XC=R
0.707 . RC
138

. ,
.
.
(f) , "
() . " " (angular frequency) "
" (angular velocity) .
.
.
= 2f
XC = 1/2fC XC = 1/C . , -
. , .
R = XC R = 1/2fCC fC = 1/2RC
2fC = 1/RC = 1/RC .
.

.

high order filter

RC ,
1 20 .
.
( ).
reactive . ,
, . (,
) , -20dB/decade
. HPF LPF -20dB/decade
. .
first-order filter (1st order filter) singlepole filter . ,
second-order filter (2nd order filter) two-pole filter . ,
(, /- ). ,
(-40dB/decade). third-order, fourth-

139

order . -20dB/decade
. .
.

? ,
,
.
; , . RC (
RL RCL) passive filter (
; ).

. .
.

. (
?) , R2 = 10R1, C2 = 10C1, R3 = 10R2, C3 = 10C2 .
.
. ,
. .
active filter . (higher order)
.
. -
RC
70.7% . 70.7%
. ,
70.7% x 70.7% ( 0.707 x 0.707 = 0.499) . , 49.9% (
, 50%) . ,
-
. (0.707)n (n ).
140

 RC 3 (0.707)3 = 70.7% x 70.7% x 70.7% = 35% .

RC
. , . R C
- ,
.
. R C -
.
.
.
R C R C
? ( .) ,
-
- . R, C
, - .
- , " " . - -
. -
.
- .
f C=

1
2 ( R1 C 1 R2 C 2 )

RC -
. .
R1, R2 , C1, C2
. , , "
" . (
.)
R C .
.
. , ,
, .
. .
n , n
. . -
.
. .

141

f C=

1
2

( R1 R2 ... Rn ) (C 1 C 2 ... Cn )

.
. . ,
R C , -
. , - ( ) .

LPF RC HPF
. . HPF
.

HPF LPF (
). . -
. - -
, - -
.

142

,
.
() .
. , 20dB/decade
? -
.

. 20 20
. .
20 HPF ,
20,000 LPF . .
C1, R1 HPF
. - 20 . /
.
R1 = 1000 ohm R2 = 10000 ohm . ,
. C2, R2 LPF . - 20,000
143

. . C1= 8u C2= 0.8n

?
.
() .
( ) .
, , ,
. hiss filter, pop filter, treble-cut
filter, bass-cut filter, hum filter . ,
.
( treble ).
(bass )
.
(mains electricity) 50
( 60 ). 50
" " (20Hz 20kHz) . ; (
50 60 ;
CoolEdit/Audition /
).
.
( 100 120) .
50/100 ( 60/120) ""
(hum) . ""
.
(, 50/100 60/120 ).
- 1
.

20 20,000
. 20 infrasound () , 20000
ultrasound () .
. , . (
. , 65
40 18000 ).
(, , ).
" " , (acoustics)
pitch () . (high pitch)
treble ( ) , (low pitch)
bass ( ) .
144

 . 200 (, 20 200
) , 4000 (, 4000 20000 )
. , 200 4000 midrange
.
.

. 3 . tweeter
. .
. . woofer
. .
. midrange
. .
. , ,
" " .
.
" " crossover network .
,
. . .
1 100 1 10000
. () .
10000 .
. .
.
,
. . sound mixing
"" .

. . ,
, .
.
. /
.
/ .
, (a set of filters) .

( )
. , , ""
145

(multiples) . ( )
. ( ) - (sub-multiples)
. , 100 . () 200 ;
300 , 1200 . () 50
; 25 .
"" (multiple) , ""
(overtone) ( ). , 200
400 , 600 . "
" (fundamental frequency) .
? .
.
. 1000 , 2000, 3000,
.
( , , ).
, 1 1
. .
.

Time delay circuit

.
delay circuit .
,
.
. ( ).

.

( "") . T = RC
. IN
, " " ( ).
146

 . (
). OUT
.
( ).
IN .
( ). ,
, .
. , .
( ) .
,
.
.
. ,

. .
, .
. . ,
, . ,
.
.
.
RC
. .
.
. 120 .
120 . 5
. 8 .
(time delay) RC 3
. 3 , 5
. 3 83%
. 3 5
. , VS ?
.
3 = 5V
3 = 83%
83% 0.83 5V , 100% 1.0 =
5
5
x 100 %=
x 1.0 . 6.024 . 6V .
83 %
0.83

147

 6 . 8
. .
5V . 5 5 .
3 5 .
. 3
, . 120 .
120 , RC 120/3 = 40 .
,
R (ohm) x C (Farad) = 0.04 (Second) .
R C . 10u
. , = 0.04/0.00001 = 4000 . ,
5/4000 = 1.25 . .
R . C
. , 5 . ,
, 5/0.005 = 1000 . ,
, 0.04/1000 = 40 . ,
5 , "" (
).
. , (
). .
.
. .
.
. 1000 , 40
.
.
(/).
. . .
?
.
. .
.
. .
. ,
(/)
. ""
. .
. ,
148

 ( ) / .
/ (
/ ). ""
( ).
(
;
). .
.
.
.
. ?
.
? (
) . .
.
"" . , A B
A () B
. A
; ;
.
?

. (
).
, ()
. .
(A X ).
.

149

 , A Y .
? A-X A-Y . A-X
1000 ( 1 ).
A-Y 10 A-Y .
A-Y . A-X
10% (A-X 1000 A-Y 10
). A-Y 90%. 10%
. 10% .
( ) A-Y ?

.

( V O=V I

R2
).
R1 + R2

,
. (KCL ).
.
. ,
( ). .
(It) I1 I2 . ?
. R1 R2
, R2 R1
. It = I1 + I2 It = I1 + 100I1 (R1:R2
100:1 ).

150

 ,
,
. .
R2 .
() .
(
) . R2 , R1
.
I 2 =I t

R1
R1 + R 2

DC AC Analysis Passive Active Devices

. .
. .
. .
. ()
.
.
.
. , ,
. passive
. ,

. .
.
.
(
).
active .
. ,
. (
151

 ).
. ,
.
( )
(
). , (
) .
.
.
/ . .
()
/ (
) .
.
/ .
? ?
. (
; ).

A-B . ,

(, A 5 B 5 ).
. , R1 R2 ,
. 10 , R2 5
( A 5 ). R3 R4
, . R4 5
(B 5 ).
, . IN
152

. , R1-R2 1:1 .
A-B
(
).
. .
R3-R4 .
. ? .
?
A R3-R4 .
.
A B , R3 R4 .
R3-R4 . .
,
(, 50 ). R3-R4 50
(Rx) ( ). Rx R2
? 100 R1
R2-Rx
. 33 . , 100:33 .
33
) 2.5 .
33+100
? A 5
.
A 10(

.
/ . .
1 . , 1:1
. 0.5 . 0.5
1:1 . ,
153

 0.25 . , 1/4
. .
.
100 33 .
1 , 100:33 . ,
(33/(100+33) =) 0.25 .
. .
DC ( ) AC (
) .
. . DC
Analysis ( ) . AC
Analysis . , ,
( ).
;
. ,
. , (V)
, (v) . , I (), P
(), R () , , i (), p (), r () .
/ Large Signal / / Small Signal
/ Incremental / .
,
, / (
).
, .
.

. ,
.
. ,
, .
.
(,
).
.
( ).
100 ( 1000 1/10 ).
154

 10000 . , ,
C = 1/(2fR) = 1/(2 x 3.14 x 10000 x 100) = 160nF .

(
) , coupling capacitor
.
. .
.
.
.
.
. ( ) (VP)
. .
.
.
(
).
(stage) . .

. "" (couple
" " ) ,
? . ,
DC-blocking cap .

. .
( ). (hissing )
. (humming, popping )
. ,

155

 . ,
.

. , ".

decoupling cap (
;
decouple ).
? ?
. .
. .
. .
(
).
(
). bypass cap (
" " ).
. . .
.
.

(power supply).
.
, , .
, .
, , ,
.
156

 .
. .
.
( ). .
(rectification) .
.
, /
. .

. ""
pulsating DC .
. .
.
. () .
.

(, (+ - )
) ( ). .
.

157

 .
?
. .
, .
,
" "
. . ,
. ,
. ,
" ". ,
.

, ,
.
.
. .
. , .
/ .
" " (smoothing) .
smoothing cap reservoir cap .
. (ripple) .
.
(
RMS ).

158

, () ,
. , RC .
( )x( )
(1/ ) . RLC >> 1/f
. .
.
?
.
.
( ) .
. bleeder resistor
. .
.
( ).
.
. (
). . /
. .

.
. R .

?
. (T=RC ?) ,

. ,
.
159

 .
. 30 .
5 . 4 3 .

.
( ),
( ).
(

).
. ,
.
. .
. , .
. .
.
, .
.
= /, . , 0.1 ,
230 10
? Q=CV , =
(0.00001)(230) = 0.0023 . , (0.0001A) = (0.0023C)/ =
(0.0023)/(0.00001) = 230 4 .
. , (
) . , T=RC
, 5
.
, ?
. .
( R ).
half-wave rectification ( )
. .
. 230
15 , 20 (
).
160

 . ,
(- ).

. ()
50 . 50 ; 50 . 50
( ) -
. . .
.

.
. ( + + )
.

. ( 50).
= 1/50 20 .
( 12 ).
.
. .

161

 . 10 .
, 10 .
10 12 .
(12-10) 2 . ,
(
, ).
. Q=CV
. V= 2 Q = ()() = (0.5)(0.02) = 0.01 .
.
C = Q/V = 0.01/2 =0.005Farad 5 .
5 . .
- (full wave rectification)
. 4
.
, . -
( ; ).

( ).
.
. - " " .
;

. .
100 ( ). 100
1/100 10 .
. = ()() = (0.5)(0.01) = 0.005 .
= Q/V = 0.005/2 = 2.5 .

162

 . ?
. . /
. ,
. ( )
. , .
. -- 10 .
.

, , / ""
(superposition) . .
.
. .
? . .
. ( ).
( ) ,
.
, .
163

 x
, ; (
). .
(in-phase) .

x ,
, .
, (
).
180 .

, ,
, , .
.
.
, .
.

164


. x y
. ,
. ,
.
.

165

 ?
50 .
0 . ( 50
0 ).
. "" .
.
,
/ ,
.
,
? .
. . /
" " (
). .
( ) .
( ), , .
.
.
( ).

166

 .
supercapacitors . ultracapacitor, double-layer capacitor
. "" . 12,000
( 1 ;
12 ).

. 3
( 2.7 ). ,
. , .
(0.5C2V). 37,000 .
. 3.7V 950mAh 3.6Wh
. 3.7 ,
950 . (3.7V x 0.950Ah =) 3.6Wh .
3600 , (3.6 x
3600 = ) 12,900 .
? .
.
() .
.
. ,
.
. . /
.

167

 high voltage capacitor ,

power capacitor , Low ESR capacitor
( Q ), Low Inductance capacitor
( ) .
.

(ideal).
"" . . ,
,
. , "
" . " " (stray)
. ,
. ;
( " " ).
.
.
? ,
. .
.
. " " .
.
.
"" (
).
.
. ,
.
?
( ) (model)
. .
, RES
, RLEAK
. LES .
.
.
( ).

168


.
.
. ,
. 700
. . /
; .
.
.
. .

?
. .
. .
/ .
; ;
.
. .
.

.
, . (
) .
=

0
d
ln( )
r
169

 .
( = /).
.

.
a , b . ""
(concentric) ( ).
.
C=

4 0 ab
(ba)

. , ( a b
; b ), /
. isolated sphere . ,
.
C=4 0 a
,
. co-axial .
. .
.

170

 .
;
.

. .
. .
.
. 6378 . isolated
sphere .
C = 4 x 3.14 x (8.85x10-12) x (6378000) = 709uF
.

. .
.
( ). ,
(
).
. , 0.1
100 16 / .
(, 10 ). ,
160 .
.
.
. " "
. 0/ln(d/r) 10
171

. ( . , d
, r 0.05 .)
; 10 0.1
. 0.1p
.

100 . ,
16 .
1 .

. 16000
( 16 1 ).

. .
10% . (10%
) . 1/16000 0.0062%.
.

. .
interference .

( ;
) .
100 . ,
16 . ,
1:16 ( 1:160000
). .
. ( 10% .
10% 1% .
.)
.
.
.
. .
172

 ; .
/
.
.
. , (
) ,
.
. .
.
.

173


(
" "). (inductance)
(inductor) .
Henry (H) . ( ) .
.
"" (induction) . "
" . ,
. .
. ()
.
. A
. B .
.
. ,
.
, A B , A
.
(electromagnet) .
(magnet) .
(pole) (North) (South) .
, .
(magnetic field) ( ).
.

. ,
.

" " .
.
" " (Right-hand rule) .
174

 .

. .

,
/ (loop/ring) .
; .

/
.

. 2
. , . 4 . ,
; .
. 1 . . .
175

 / ,
.
(
) .
.

. ,
.
, .

A B
? A B . B A .
.
. ,
. .
; .
;
, .
.
; .

.
coil 1 ,
, coil 2
. ( .)

/ ( )
/.
176

 .
. .

. (
).
. .
.
. .
.
.
.
.
(,
, ).

. (
), / .
.

.
(
).
,
.
. .
.
.

177


. ,
, /
.
" " (mutual induction) .
.
" " " " (primary coil)
. " " (secondary coil)
. .

. . (
( ).
( ).)
( ).
.
,
( ).

/ Faraday .
.
= ( )x(
)
, e=N (

d
) .
dt

()
. ,

178

 (d/dt)
. N .
(4 ) ?
. N

.
. N ( ) ;
.
d
) ( ) .
dt
. ,
.
,
( ).
,
(
). .
, e=N (

( )
. / (
) .
(coil) . solenoid ()
, toroid () .

. , 100
, 100 .

179

 , ( ).
- (
, 180 ).
( )
( ,
).
.

, ( )
, , ( ).

. (
).

. (induced current)
? Lenz's Law ( ) .
. .
. ,
. , .
( ).
, .
.
. .
180

 . ?
.
. . .
?
(
; ).
, .
, .
.
.
. (
).
.
. .

. .
.
.
. .
.
.
.
. .
, .
. .
.
. , .
. ,
, ,
. .
, .
; ( ) .

.
" " (self induction) . (

181

 ) .
.
. () .
.
. .
(
).
. back EMF counter EMF (CEMF)
. (EMF electromotive force .
" " . .
"/" .
/ .) ,
. , ; .
.
. ,
(
). (mutual induction)
,
( ) . ,
(magnetic flux).
(constant) . " " (mutual
inductance) .
I
= MI

( )
(M )

.
( (/)
). .
=MI
d d (MI )
=

dt dt
dI
e=M
dt
( ) .
. ,
, ,
(1 = M (1/1) M = 1 Henry).
- . -
182

 ,
.
I
= LI

( )
(L -)

.
=LI e=L

dI
dt

, ,
, - . -
.
// , .
. . , ,
, , .
. .
( )
( ).
.
.
.

.
. , ,
183

 , ,
.

LT = L1 + L2 + L3 +

. Q = CV , e =
L(dI/dt) .
. ,
.
,
Vs = e1 + e2 +
LT(dI/dt) = L1(dI/dt) + L2(dI/dt) +
LT = L1 + L2 + ...

1/LT = 1/L1 + 1/L2 + 1/L3 +

,
. ,
IT = I1 + I2 +
e/(LT) = e/(L1) + e/(L2) +
1/LT = 1/L1 + 1/L2 + ...

Mutually coupled coils

.
. . , A
184

 B .
.
.

. .

( )
, .
.
:
LT = (L1 + M) + (L2 + M) = L1 + L2 + 2M

LT = (L1 - M) + (L2 M) = L1 + L2 - 2M
? (
) .
(, ) () . ,
- .
( B ).
,
( A ).
.

185

 :
1/LT = 1/(L1 - M) + 1/(L2 M)
1/LT = 1/(L1+M) + 1/(L2 + M)
,
.
,
.

Inductive coupling interference

, . ,
. interference
( ).
.
. inductive
coupling .

.
.

. . .
( ). ,
90
. (
?

.) A
. B
. C .
186

 ,
(orientation) .
, ,
, .
.
M1 , M2
. M
( M1, M2 ) .
M = M 1 x M 2
() -
.
"" .
M =K L1 L2
K coefficient of coupling .
. K
1 0 . K = 1 ,
"" (
). K = 0 ,
. ,
. ( . ,
1 .) .
.
,
.
. , , GPS
inductive charging
. (
187

) . .

. ,
,
.

.
. Nicholas Tesla
.
,
inductive heating .
induction cooker . RFID (Radio
Frequency Identification) .
.

188

 ?
( ). ,
( , , ,
). ,
-. (
.) ? .
- ( ) ,
. .
.
" / / ;
.
?
; . choke (
" " ) .
" " () .
, ( ) ,
"" .
,
.
.
. (, )
/ .
( ).
(
) . ,
"" .

Q factor
quality factor .
.
Q Factor =
Q=

2f L
R

XL
R
X L =2 fL

. .
189

 . ,
.
. (
.)

, . ,
.
, .
" " (inductive reactance) .
. ,
(Capacitive Reactance XC) ,
(Inductive Reactance XL) .
. f
, L .
.
X L=2 f L X L = L
, () 90 .
90 . (
? 90 .)
,
.

,
, . .

190


( ).
?
. .
, . ,
.
( ).
( ) .
P=VI
dI
P=( L )( I )
dt
P dt=LI dI
1

P dt= LI dt
0

1 2
Energy = LI
2
. ,
. ,
(
).

.
.

, T = L/R
?
. 5
"" .
( ) .
( ) . ,
, .
.
,
.
( ).

191


63% ( ). ,
.
,
. , ( 90
). ,
() , .
, .
.
.
( ).
.
( ).

.
.
.
.

192

 .
. ,
.
.

LR circuit
. LR
circuit RL circuit .
. RL .

IN . ,
0 (,
).
.

.
( ) . ,
.
/ (
).
, (

).
193

. 50 ( 60) .
( 629 ; 100
). .
.
. .

.
"" ( ).
.

. ( "
". .
( ) .
.) ,
.
" " " ".
. / .

100%
.

194

. .
, LR
. ,
. .
.

L = 20mH R = 1000 ohm , 20

. 2fL , 2.5 .
2.5:1000 1:400 . 20000
. 2500 .
2500:1000 5:2 . ? , (LPF).
- -3dB .
CR filter LPF . - () -6db/octave
( ). CR filter LR filter .

LR .
.

195

 , .
. 90 .
( ).
Z2 = XL2 + R2
, .
. ,
/
; , VR = R x I VL = XL x I . ,
tan-1(XL/R) tan-1(VL/VR) .
, (HPF)
. .
LR .
. .
,
,
. ,
. . ,
( )2 = ( )2 + ( )2
, (1/Z)2 = (1/XL)2 + (1/R)2 .
,
.

(Resistance) (1/) "

(conductance) . G ,
(Siemens) (mho) . ohm
.
1 = 1 = 1/( 1)
196

 R G .
G ,
( ) . ,
.
1
1 1
= + +...GT =G1 +G2+ ...
R T R 1 R2
1
RT =
GT
. susceptance ,
B . .
1
XL
1
capacitive susceptance , B C =
XC
inductive susceptance , BL =

/ ( ).
admittance (Y) . /
.
.
LR . .
, .
( )
. ,
,
, RL filter RC filter .

Power Factor (PF)

RL ( RC )
.
. . RL
.

197

 (I) (VR)
90 (VL) .
()
() () .
.
(a) .
?
( ) , = x
. , V x I .
. apparent power ("
") . .
Apparent Power (VA) = V x I
(W) . "" (VA) (
). ? ,
.
?
, . RL (
RC) .
.
true power (W) ( ) .
.
.
.
?

. .
, .

. ( )
. , , , , , /,
,
. ,
(
). (
) .
? (
.) ?
198

 ( )
.
(true wattmeter) . ,
.
.
RL . RC
.

RL . ()
.
. RC .
, RL (Z) R XL , RC R XC
.
= ()2 x () VA = I2Z
= ()2 x ( ) W = I2R
RC RL ,
. RL RC .
RL , RC .
.
. RC , (
) RL .

.
. .
. . 1200VA ,
1000W .
1000 . , (1200-1000=) 200 ?
,

199

. .
(
).
. .
. .
? (
.) ?
.
. 200
. .
. ?
. ;
. .
. ()
.
; .
( ) .
; / .
.

.
. ( )
( ) .
.
.
.
. ,
.
.
(
).
. .
. Power Factor
Correction Capacitors (PFC caps) .
capacitor bank ( ) .
.

200

 ( ).
.
. .

.
, ,
(
/ ).
.
.
.
: ( ) (projection) ( )
, ".

.
= ( ) x ( )
W = (VA)cos(a)
(cos(a)) ( ) .
1 .
. . 0
( 0) = 1 , 0 . ,

201

 .
W
VA
2
I R R
PF=cos(a)= 2 =
I Z Z
PF=cos(a)=

, , ,
RLC circuit .
.
( ) . ,
.
.

LC Circuits

? . LC circuit resonant circuit tuning circuit tuned
circuit tank circuit . (,
) .
LC . ,
. .
, . ,
.

?
.

.
1 1 ,
10 .
16000 , 0.063 .
16000:0.063 16000000:63 .
202

 . 100
. 1.6 , 630 .
1.6:630 4:1575 .
. .
,
.
. -
() 12dB/octave .
. .
90 ,
90 .
180 .

. LC .
, ;
.
( ) ? .
( ) 5 ,
, ,
5
.
,
. . .
( 180 ) .
+ -
. , + ,
- . .
.
180 . ,
203

 ; ;
(XL ~ XC).
; .
.
.
. (
V = IR ( V = IX) , I
(: VL > VC IXL > IXC XL > XC) ).
1. XL > XC ( VL > VC) inductive
2. XL < XC ( VL < VC) capacitive
3. XL = XC ( VL = VC) zero impedance = resonant

,
.
. 180
, .
( 0 )
.
.
. 0 (, ) 0 ,
, (
).
.
(, )
. ,
.

204


( )
50% . " "
(resonance) .
. (resonant frequency)
.

.
. .
, , / .
.
(
") .
.
, (natural
frequency) . , , ,
.
. ( )
,
,
. .
. ,
.
.
, .
( )
?

. .
.

, .
( , ),
. ( ,
)
.
205

 .
.
. .
. ; . ,
( ).
. ,
( ).
. ,
.
? .
?
.
.
. .

. . ,
.
( )
/ .

. ?
,
() .
,
, . ,
, .
(
, ).
.
. .
(
) , . ,
.
. ( ;
) ,
(
).
206

 .
.
. . ,
.
, , ,
.
.
. (
(resonant frequency) LC ),
. . LC

. V=IR , V , R I .
.

. (
) ( ),
( ) .
. y
.

( , ,
). ?
. ,

207

X C= X L
1
=2 fL
2 fC
1=22 2 f 2 LC
1
f 2= 2 2
2 LC

f=

1
2 LC

.
( , ,
; ),
, , ?
( ). LC .

.

, , ,
( ) .

(oscillation)
.
. .
.
(potential energy)
. ,
(kinetic energy) . .
, ,
. ; .
.
208

 .
. , ,
. .
.
.

. .
.
.
, .
,
.

? .
. , , .
.
, .
, ,
( ).
" " (damped oscillation) .
, .
,
.

209

 . .
,
. LC .
.
(oscillator) .
( ).
. , . ,
.
/ . ,
. ( )
. ( )
.
1. monostable oscillator - / A B (A B
), A
. Stable "" .
(mono ""
). ( ) ; .
.
2. bistable oscillator - (bi ""
). / .
( ) . ,
.
. .
.
3. astable/unstable oscillator - . multivibrator . .
.
. , .
.
210

 .
. , ,
.
.
. ,
. .
, (
/ )
. , .
. , ,
.
; .
. .
(
; ). .
.
. ,
.
. .
. .
. (
).
LC . (
). .
. ,
. .
-3dB half-power point .
(-3dB ). -
. .
. . -
() .

211

 LC .

(,
). .
,

?
. .

. 180 ,
. ,
1/Z = 1/XC ~ 1/XL Y = BC ~ BX
212

( ~ .
.
.)
(mode) .
. ,
.
. .
.
.
1. 1/XC > 1/XL

( IC > IL) capacitive

2. 1/XL > 1/XC

( IL > IC) inductive

3. 1/XL = 1/XC XL = XC

( IL = IC) resonant

,

. ( )
. , 180 ,
; .
, ,
.
LC .
.
.
. ,
.
.

213

 LC .
(, ) . , .
? ,
.
1 1
1
=
Z XL XC
X L =X C = X
1 1 1 11 0
= =
=
Z X X
X
X
X
Z =
0

RLC circuit

. RLC circuit .
LC ,

. , RLC (LC
). LC ,
LC RLC . LC resonant circuit, tank circuit
RLC . (

.)
(
resistive ),
.
,
LC . ,
.
7 .

214

 (f = 1/2(LC) )
,
. antiresonance . ,
LC . ,
. .
7 .
RLC ( a
).
. ,
.
180 (
).
(
).
.
X T =X L ~ X C
Z 2= X 2T + R2
, , XT 0
, (Z) (R) . ,
Z2 = XT2 + R2 Z2 = 0 + R2 Z2 = R2 Z = R
, RLC resistive .
( ) . LC
,
.
.

. tan-1(XT/R)
.
XT = 0 , 0 .
.
(Z = R).
( ).
(Imax). ,
; , .
.

215

 .
, .

LRC Q
Q ? RLC Q factor
216

 . RLC ,
(voltage magnification/amplification)
. .
,
( ).
.
.
.
(Imax) = ( , V)/(, R)
(VC) = ( , XC)x(, Imax)
(VL) = ( , XL)x(, Imax)
.
VL
V
or Q factor= C
VR
VR
I . XL
I . XC
Q factor=
or Q factor =
I .R
I .R
X
X
Q factor= L or Q factor = C
R
R
2 fL
1
Q factor =
or Q factor=
R
2 fCR
1
f=
f ,
2 LC
1 L
Q factor = (
)
R C
Q factor =

, ;
; .
, .
.
.
?
/ (stations) .
()
/ .

. RLC Acceptor circuit
(" ") .
selectivity ( ) .
217

 , .
RLC
?
.
. .
.
.

= ( ( ))/(Q factor)
RLC ,
. RLC
.
.
, R-L .

(branch) IC , - IT
. ;
. RLC .
XT2 = R2 + XL2
.

Impedance triangle
.

// impedance triangle
( ) . .
//
; .
218

 .
. ,
.
( ) .

? (
).
, , ,
( ).
. 90
. ,
.
.
//
( , ;
,
).
.
( ). ,
.
.
90 .
. .
RLC .
,
.
( ).
- (IT)
. IT
( ),
90 .
. .

219



. .
.
,
. ,
(). .
.
, //
. () ;
. "
" (
).
,
.
. 500 ,
30 .
.
. "
" .
. ( )
.
.
.
, , //
. ,

. (
) , / .
.
,
. ( )
/ ,
.
LR, CR, LC, LRC , Z2 = X12 +
X22 ( ) , 1/Z2 = 1/X12 + 1/X22
.
.
220

 . . ,
V2 = V12 + V22
I2Z2 = I2X12 + I2X22 Z2 = X12 + X22
. .
,
I2 = I12 + I22
V2/Z2 = V2/X12 + V2/X22 1/Z2 = 1/X12 + 1/X22
(IC) .

RLC
, RLC
. ,
, .
IT IC 180 .
IC = IL 180 .
, ITsin(a) .
, ITsin(a) . IT x y
(IT ).
IC = ITsin(a)

, IT = V/XT , Ic = V/XC , ( ) sin(a) = XL/XT . ,

221

I C =I L sin (a)
V XL V
.
=
X T XT XC
(X L ).( X C )=X 2T
1
(2 fL ).(
)=X T2
2 fC
L
=X 2T
C
L
2
2
=R + X L
C
L
=R2 +(2 f O L)2
C

1
R
2 f O=
2
LC L
f O=

1
2

1
R2
2
LC L

,
. .
, .
. ,
R2/L2 , ?
RLC .
, ? IC =
ITsin(a) , ITcos(a) . RLC
, ITcos(a) .
Imin = ITcos(a) = (V/XT).(R/XT) = RV/XT2 (IT = V/XT cos(a) = R/XT )
I min=

VR
L
(
)
C

( Z =L/C )

I min =

VRC
L

RCL .
( ), ( ).
.
rejector circuit (
) .
RLC ,
( ) .

222

 ( )
.

.
, .
IC
I min
V
(
)
XC
Q factor=
VCR
(
)
L
2 fO L
X
Q factor=
(= L )
R
R
2 L
1
Q factor=
.
R 2 LC
1 L
Q factor=
R C
Q factor=

? ,
.
.
RLC .

,
selector
RLC . tuning circuit .
( )

223

 , RLC R . , RLC
. ,
( ).
.
.
. ,
. "" (pick up)
. .

. .
. (
) . .
, .
. "
" .
audio equalizer .
. 20 200,
200 2000, 2000 20000 3 .
( ) 100, 1000, 10000
RLC 3 (
). R RLC
. . , (
) .
100 .
3 . (5, 8, 10
), .

224

Block diagram
(block diagram) .
/ .
() //
. .
. / (inputs)
/ (outputs) .
.
. ,
. ,
. / .
.
, .
(flow chart) (
;
).
(system) .
"
/" .
, , ,
. .
" "
(mechanical system) . ,
(electrical system) ,
, .
.
, , , .
.
(subsystem) .
,
.
.
, (black box)
. ( ) ()

. , .
225

 . ,
.
. .
, , , .
.
.
. ,
.
.
. ,
.
, .
.
. , .
( ) .
.

( )
. .
,
. .
.
.
.
, " "
. library .
(
). ( sub-circuit .)
.

226

 .
/ .
, .
- . -
( )
.
; "" (baffle) speaker box .
, ,
. - (
).
( ).

.
.

.
.

.
.
.

227


.
. ;
. , ,
. 8 ,
16 . ,
, .
. 8 ,
4 . (
() .)
, ,
,
.
?
... . ()
. .

( ) (
) (a). ,
228

.
/ . , ""
( ). ? ,
.
. ,
( ) .
. , ( )
/ ( )
. . (b) .
( ) .
8
. .

. (c) .
. ,
. .
.
. (c)
.
(
). .
.

229

 6 . ;
, (
).
(a) ,
. 6dB/octave .
,
. 12dB/octave . (b) . L1
, C1
.
.
- . ,
,
- .
. () .
ADSL (Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Loop)
DSL splitter
. ( )
, (
, ADSL ).

LC .
.
.
( 300 4400 ) voiceband signal ,
50 ( 1 ) .
.
, /
.

.
.
230

 .
.
/ .

, .

( ) . ,
;
. .
.
.
. ( / )
( ) " (qualitative
analysis). "
" (quantitative analysis).
, .
, .
.
( ). , /
. RLC ?
. . (f
= 1/(2 (LC)) ). self-capacitance () .

(, )
231

 ESR (Equivalent Series Resistance)

. , .
ESR .
ESR ( ).
,
ESL (Equivalent Series Inductance) . /
ESL .

.
. . (
?)

.
. 20% .
.

232

 .
.
- .
. ,
(turns) .
.

.
. ,
() .
. ,
.
.
.
. .
" " magnet wire
.
"" (gauge ) . (
/ ) ( ).
(
).

SWG AWG
. SWG
(Standard Wire Gauge) , AWG
(American Wire Gauge) . .
. (12, 30
), ( ),
, ( )
.

233

AWG
Gauge
0000
000
00
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40

Conductor Conductor
Diameter Diameter Ohms per
(Inches)
(mm)
km
0.46
11.684
0.049
0.4096
10.40384
0.0618
0.3648
9.26592
0.0779
0.3249
8.25246
0.0983
0.2893
7.34822
0.1239
0.2576
6.54304
0.1563
0.2294
5.82676
0.197
0.2043
5.18922
0.2485
0.1819
4.62026
0.3133
0.162
4.1148
0.3951
0.1443
3.66522
0.4982
0.1285
3.2639
0.6282
0.1144
2.90576
0.7921
0.1019
2.58826
0.9989
0.0907
2.30378
1.26
0.0808
2.05232
1.588
0.072
1.8288
2.003
0.0641
1.62814
2.525
0.0571
1.45034
3.184
0.0508
1.29032
4.016
0.0453
1.15062
5.064
0.0403
1.02362
6.385
0.0359
0.91186
8.051
0.032
0.8128
10.15
0.0285
0.7239
12.8
0.0254
0.64516
16.14
0.0226
0.57404
20.36
0.0201
0.51054
25.67
0.0179
0.45466
32.37
0.0159
0.40386
40.81
0.0142
0.36068
51.47
0.0126
0.32004
64.9
0.0113
0.28702
81.83
0.01
0.254
103.2
0.0089
0.22606
130.1
0.008
0.2032
164.1
0.0071
0.18034
206.9
0.0063
0.16002
260.9
0.0056
0.14224
329
0.005
0.127
414.8
0.0045
0.1143
523.1
0.004
0.1016
659.6
0.0035
0.0889
831.8
0.0031
0.07874
1049

Ohms per
1000ft
0.16072
0.202704
0.255512
0.322424
0.406392
0.512664
0.64616
0.81508
1.027624
1.295928
1.634096
2.060496
2.598088
3.276392
4.1328
5.20864
6.56984
8.282
10.44352
13.17248
16.60992
20.9428
26.40728
33.292
41.984
52.9392
66.7808
84.1976
106.1736
133.8568
168.8216
212.872
268.4024
338.496
426.728
538.248
678.632
855.752
1079.12
1360
1715
2163
2728
3440

Maximum
frequency for
100% skin
depth for solid
Maximum conductor
Amp
copper
380
125 Hz
328
160 Hz
283
200 Hz
245
250 Hz
211
325 Hz
181
410 Hz
158
500 Hz
135
650 Hz
118
810 Hz
101
1100 Hz
89
1300 Hz
73
1650 Hz
64
2050 Hz
55
2600 Hz
47
3200 Hz
41
4150 Hz
35
5300 Hz
32
6700 Hz
28
8250 Hz
22
11 k Hz
19
13 k Hz
16
17 kHz
14
21 kHz
11
27 kHz
9
33 kHz
7
42 kHz
4.7
53 kHz
3.5
68 kHz
2.7
85 kHz
2.2
107 kH
1.7
130 kHz
1.4
170 kHz
1.2
210 kHz
0.86
270 kHz
0.7
340 kHz
0.53
430 kHz
0.43
540 kHz
0.33
690 kHz
0.27
870 kHz
0.21
1100 kHz
0.17
1350 kHz
0.13
1750 kHz
0.11
2250 kHz
0.09
2900 kHz

234

SWG
Gauge
0000000 (7/0)
000000 (6/0)
00000 (5/0)
0000 (4/0)
000 (3/0)
00 (2/0)
0 (1/0)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50

Diameter
(inch)
0.5
0.464
0.432
0.4
0.372
0.348
0.324
0.3
0.276
0.252
0.232
0.212
0.192
0.176
0.16
0.144
0.128
0.116
0.104
0.092
0.08
0.072
0.064
0.056
0.048
0.04
0.036
0.032
0.028
0.024
0.022
0.02
0.018
0.0164
0.0148
0.0136
0.0124
0.0116
0.0108
0.01
0.0092
0.0084
0.0076
0.0068
0.006
0.0052
0.0048
0.0044
0.004
0.0036
0.0032
0.0028
0.0024
0.002
0.0016
0.0012
0.001

Diameter
(mm)
12.7
11.8
11
10.2
9.45
8.84
8.23
7.62
7.01
6.4
5.89
5.38
4.88
4.47
4.06
3.66
3.25
2.95
2.64
2.34
2.03
1.83
1.63
1.42
1.22
1.02
0.914
0.813
0.711
0.61
0.559
0.508
0.457
0.417
0.376
0.345
0.315
0.295
0.274
0.254
0.234
0.213
0.193
0.173
0.152
0.132
0.122
0.112
0.102
0.0914
0.0813
0.0711
0.061
0.0508
0.0406
0.0305
0.0254

/km
0.136
0.158
0.182
0.213
0.246
0.281
0.324
0.378
0.447
0.536
0.632
0.757
0.923
1.1
1.33
1.64
2.08
2.53
3.15
4.02
5.32
6.56
8.31
10.9
14.8
21.3
26.3
33.2
43.4
59.1
70.3
85.1
105
127
155
184
221
253
292
340
402
482
589
736
945
1260
1480
1760
2130
2630
3320
4340
5910
8510
13300
23600
34000

/kft
0.447
0.519
0.598
0.698
0.807
0.922
1.06
1.24
1.47
1.76
2.07
2.48
3.03
3.6
4.36
5.38
6.81
8.3
10.3
13.2
17.4
21.5
27.3
35.6
48.5
69.8
86.1
109
142
194
231
279
345
415
510
604
726
830
957
1120
1320
1580
1930
2410
3100
4130
4850
5770
6980
8610
10900
14200
19400
27900
43600
77500
112000

Max Amp
333
287
249
213
185
161
140
120
102
84.7
71.8
59.9
49.2
41.3
34.1
27.6
21.8
17.9
14.4
11.3
8.53
6.91
5.46
4.18
3.07
2.13
1.73
1.37
1.05
0.768
0.645
0.533
0.432
0.359
0.292
0.247
0.205
0.179
0.156
0.133
0.113
0.0941
0.077
0.0617
0.048
0.0361
0.0307
0.0258
0.0213
0.0173
0.0137
0.0105
0.00768
0.00533
0.00341
0.00192
0.00133

Max
Frequency
108 Hz
125 Hz
144 Hz
168 Hz
195 Hz
223 Hz
258 Hz
300 Hz
355 Hz
436 Hz
503 Hz
603 Hz
733 Hz
873 Hz
1 K Hz
1.3 K Hz
1.7 K Hz
2 K Hz
2.5 K Hz
3.2 K Hz
4.2 K Hz
5.2 K Hz
6.6 K Hz
8.7 K Hz
12 K Hz
17 K Hz
20 K Hz
26 K Hz
35 K Hz
47 K Hz
56 K Hz
68 K Hz
84 K Hz
100 K Hz
123 K Hz
147 K Hz
178 K Hz
200 K Hz
232 K Hz
270 K Hz
319 K Hz
385 K Hz
468 K Hz
583 K Hz
755 K Hz
1 M Hz
1.2 M Hz
1.4 M Hz
1.7 M Hz
2 M Hz
2.6 M Hz
3.4 M Hz
4.7 M Hz
6.8 M Hz
10.6 M Hz
18.8 M Hz
27 M Hz

235

 (inches) (mm) .
,
.
1000 , .
. .
,
. (
).
. 1.72 x 10-8 .
,
. . R
, , l , A
( r2 x
).
R=

l
A

( ) ,
. AWG 22 .
0.64516 ( 2 , 1000
).
,
R=

1.72 x 108 x 1000

0.64516/2 2
(
)
1000
R=16.74 ohm

.
() ,
. , . ,
.
(effective sectional area) . ,
skin depth ( ) .
.
.
(
).
236


. . 10
, 1
, () 9
. . 1
( ) ,
.
? 4
. ,
.
.
. () ,
( ) .
() . d
. d
. , (
, ). ,
. ( ).

. ,
100 10
, 1000 100
.
.
R = l/A .
, (
1000 ).
.
. .
237

 S=

S (
) ( ). (,
). u . f
. p (-).
.
. ,
( ).
.
, (1 S) (,
).
. ,
.
"" . ,
() .

,
. , SWG 23
AWG 23 . ,
SWG AWG .
, . (
) .
( ).
,

.
. (
).
. ,
.

( ) ( ).
, . .
.
,
.
.
238

 .
(

1000 ) R= pl/A
( ).
(
) ;
(, ,
;
).
. .
.
.
, .
(
) , ,
. .

. Ohm meter
.
Silver () - 1.59x10-8

Copper () 1.72x10-8

Aluminium 2.8x10-8

Gold () - 2.4x10-8

Iron () 1x10-7

Zinc 5.5x10-8

Tin 1.1x10-7
Nickel 7x10-7
Nichrome 1x10-6

Lead () - 1.7x10-7
Tungsten 5.6x10-8
Carbon (graphite) 1x10-5

.
(1.72x10-8)/(2.8x10-8) = 0.61 .
0.61 .
. (
, .)
61% (0.61). ,
AWG ,
, 2
. , AWG 20 AWG 18
. (rule of thumb).

.
.
. ,
239

 . ,
,
.

.

.
" " (magnetic flux) . ( () (Weber)
. (Mx) .)
1 Wb = 108 Mx
"
" (flux density) (
B ).
. ( )
() (
)

240

 . B
, (Tesla T) "
" (Wb/m2) ( (Gauss) (G) ).
1 T = 104 G
B .
(
). 0.5 .

H ()
, (, ) "" .
. (
/ ) " "
. H ( magnetic field
strength, magnetizing force, H-field ).
(
). .
,
; .
.
. .
. ;

? ( .) .

( )
. .
.
, , .
,
241

, ? ?
"
" , ( )
. . (
.)
, . . .
.
, .
.
(, ). ,
.
( H I )
.
.
. .
( )
. (I)
(N) .
.
H N . I

? ,
. ,
.
.
H=

N . I ( )
l( )

.
. . (
) H.
, . H
.
B = uH
u (permeability) .
? .
.
242

 / .
4 x 10-7 (uO
). () .
.
,
(relative permeability, ur) . ,
= ( )/( )
( ur = u/u0)
1 magnetic susceptibility
. .
= ur - 1
(magnetomotive force mmf) .
(electromotive force emf) . ,
emf mmf .
mmf .
mmf = Hl (H - , l ( ) - )
H = NI/l , ?
mmf = Hl () = NI ()

Magnetic circuit
,
() . , ()
, .
(,
). , ,
" " (reluctance R) .
(1/R) permeance (P) .
,
/ . ,
.
. ?
Hopkinson's Law .
mmf = (Magnetic flux)(Reluctance)

mmf = R
243

 .
( ) .
( )
.
.
R =pl/A (p
). R = l/A ( ).
( = 1/p).
. .
,
.
mmf

Hl
R=
BA
Hl
R=
uHA
R=

(mmf =Hl =BA )

( B=uH )
R=

l
uA

.
,
d
dt
d (BA )

dB
emf =N
=NA
(B= )
dt
dt
A
d (uH )
emf =NA
dt
d (N I /l)
emf =uNA
dt
uN 2 A dI
emf =
( )
l
dt
,
dI
emf =L

dt
emf =N

uN A
L=
l
. (l) (A)
. ,
( ). ,
244

 . " " (single-layer coil)

.
( l ) .
.
,
.
. .
.
. ,
( ).
, , .
, .
(parameter) . , u
(), N ( ), A ( ), l ( ) .
.

? .
(
), .
.
, .
.
,
, ?
,
( ).
.
,
, . , .
, , ,
245

 .
u uru0 . .
, .
, . ()
.
.
. (ferrite) (soft iron) .
"" ( ). (core)
. .
(, 1 ).
.
.

(
). .

246

 , , , , , , , ,
; (ur) . 99.8%
5000 , 99.95% 200,000 ,
2000 , .
.
, .

. .
,
. .
.
( );
.
. ,
( ,
; ,
).
, ,
. .
.
. / .
; . ,
, ? ,
.
. .
.
, .
B=uH . B H .
(H B) ,
. . u
. , (B)
. .

Hysteresis loop
( ) . (H) . , B
. (saturation
point) .
247

 . , H B . .

. (H)
. , .
. . H
" " (,
H (align)).
. H
" "; B .
. H ()
. , B = uH , B H
u
.
magnetic hysteresis .
. .
. H . H
, B ( O a
). (
). H .
. , H . , B
. B (o a )
, . a b .

248

 b H , B ? (
H B .) ?
(B) .
(residual magnetism ).

, .
( ,
).

, . ( H)
(b c ).
(c ).
, B
(c d ). ,
. H B
. H
.
(d e). ,
. ( )
.
(e a) B .

249

a-b-c-d-e-f-a hysteresis loop magnetization curve

.
( a-b-c-d a-f-e-d
).
B .
.
, . ,
. , .
. .
(residual magnetism) . ,

.
(H) (
coercive force, magnetic coercivity ).
.
. ,
.
. , ,
, ( )
.
. hysteresis loss .
.
() .
;
. .
B (, B
) .

, eddy current ( ) .
, Foucault
() current . ,
(
).
(eddy loss ). .
()
. .
250

 () . ,
, (
).

, .
, ,
/ ( ) ()
.
.
.
.
( ). .
(
) .
. (

.
.)
( ),
? ( ;
.)

,
251


.
.
? (I) .
. .
(R) , I2R
.
.
. ,
( ;
). , () ;
. ( )
. ""
, (lamination)
.

(A). , .
, .
.
. .
?
B ,
. . .
C
.
( ).
, .
, ( ).
252

 ,
. .
.
,
(P = V2/R). .
, (
). , .
(
). .
.
8 .
. 8 (
).
. 8 64 . (
).
64 .
4 . , 4
. 8/4 = 2 .
( ) 2 .
. 22 = 4 . 4
4x4 = 16 . 16 ;
64 .
? 64/16 = 4 .
4 4 .
. (
) .
.
,
.
( .)
. Silicon Steel transformer iron electrical iron
armature iron . ,
.
(eddy
loss is proportional to B2f2).
() . /
, .
253


1 . Curie temperature .
. ,
1040 .
, , .
, .
,
.

( ).
.
.
() .

254

spiral coil ( ) r, w .
W , r
( , w/2
).
255

(a) (r)
. , , .
. r a ,
. ,
.
L0.0126 u r N 2( r r 2a2)

(uH .)

.
, .
.

.
. rated current maximum current .
256

 .
.
.
rated ,
, "" .
, ; ;
; .
. ,
. , ,
, .
( ),
.
, ,
.

Gapped core inductor

.
(gap) ( ).

?
.
. (saturation),
. H
, B (non-linear) .

257

 H B .
. H B . H
B ( ).
H (H
,
; ;
). , ()
( B ) .
.
. (
) , (
). , H B .
. ;
.
. ,
(air gap) ,
. H-B
.
. , .

. , , (

258

 ).
. H B (
H B
). B .
B . H B
. , .
/ (
).

B
( B
; ). H
.
(H ).
(
/ ).
() ( 50
). H .
. H
( ).
. ;
.
. ,
, H
259

( ) .
( ).
H () .
H , ,
.

( ) .
( ;

). ,
,
= 1 + 2
.
, . (A) . 4
( Volt/Amp
; R = V/I ). 2
. .
2 , 4 ,
2x4 = 8 . 12 8 = 4
4/2 = 2 ohm . (B) .

260

 (

; ). (A)
. mmf
- (At) 12 .
. " " (At/Wb)
4 . (magnetic circuit) () 3
(mmf = x R ). ,
2 . ,
, .
.

2 , ,
261

(2 x 4 =) 8 . , 12-8=4
.
.
4/2 = 2 .
.
,
. " "
. .
.
- .
.
reluctance = l/uA
. . ,
= ( ) + ( )
= lc/(uru0A) + lg(u0A) = (lc/ur + lg)/u0A
( ) ,
. . lc/ur
. lc/ur << lg .
.
.
. ,

.
uT =

ur u 0
l
(1+ur ( g ))
le

,
.
. uT
. uT
.
lg , uT .
.
262

 ,
.
. Rgap >> Rcore ,
.
0.5LI2
.
.
= 0.5( )( )2
W = 0.5R2
.
,
.
. .
, .
() . ,
. (
,
.)
= 0.5( )( )2
.
0.5( )( )2
. ,
W = 0.5LI2 = 0.5Rgap2 + 0.5Rferrite2

? , ,
RI2 ,
.
Rgap >> Rcore , ( ) >> ( ) . ,
.
. ?
.

263

 . .

reluctance = l/uA (lg)

(). ( 2 ).
. ;
(
).
( , ).
( lg )
( a ).
. ,
. . 4 x 10-7 ,
(a) 0.000025 ( 5
).
2 = l/((4 x 10-7)x(0.000025)) l = 6.283110
.
.
, .
,
. , .
, .
H ;
264

 . , (lg)
?
.
(
) . flux fringing .
.

(
. .)
.
(
). ,
. , ,
,
.

.
(fixed inductor) .
(variable inductor) .
.
(, / ) . ,
(,
- ). .
,
(
).

265

 .

( ).

Inductive kick
. , ,
, . inductive kickback
. ,
. ? .

. (A B
). .
.
, . (
, L/R 5 ) (, ).
. , . ,
266

 .
.
.
, .
.
.
.
; .
.
; .
, , .
.
, .
/ .
; . ,

( ; ).
.
.
V = L(di/dt) .
;
di/dt . .
() 10 ,
10 ( 0.01) .
( ,
). , .
5 0 . di = 5 0 = 5mA = 0.005A
, dt = 1uS = 0.000001S . ,
(0.01)(0.005)/(0.000001) = 50 .
1 0.01 , 5000 .
, .
, . ,
( )
. ?
? .
. ,
. ,
267

 . . ( () ,
;
.
( ) ).
.
.
. .
, ,
. .
.
.
.

. .
. ,
. , ,
. ( ).
. ,
( ) .
.

,
. , .
?
. .
(
).

268

 .
,
. , , .
.
. ,
. .

. ,
.
.
() . . (
). ,
. ;
.
. .
, . ""
( ) . ,
.

269

 .
.
.
, . (
,
.
.)
.
,
. " " ,
( ). /
snubber circuit (snub " " ).
.
,
. () .
- (electric spark)
. .
. ,
.
. .
.
, ,
.
.

270


(differentiation)
.

. ,
.
.
.
. - , -
. (integration) .
(calculus) .

. .
; .
. ( .)
. x () y ()
( - ). / .
x A B 1 . A B 4
5 ; 5 4 = 1 .
, y . 16 20 .
20 16 = 4 . y
x
( ). , / 4/1 = 4 .
, . ,
4 .
B C . .
9 5 = 4 . 36 20 = 16 . , 16/4 = 4 .
4 .

271

 .
.
(,
).
.
.
= / = ()() d = (s)(t)
().
x y (x y
). , x, y t, d . t x
d y . y f(x)
.
d = st y = sx f(x) = sx
; . 8
. .
.
.
.
2 .
( ). y
() x () , y
272

 x . "" (")
( ) ( ) . ,
y y
=
=
x x

/
. , x /
. / (,
1 ). x , y
.
(
).
lim
x0

y dy
= =
x dx

( )

.
. dy/dx
. dy/dx x y " (
). " "
. .
.
dy d f (x)
=
=f ' ( x)
dx
dx

.
( ) , (
) .
, / ds/dt ( ),
dv/dt ( ),
dQ/dt (
), dI/dt,
dV/dt,
d/dt, /
.
. .
f(x)=4x2 .
273

( ). y x
. x y .

x 0 5 . y
0 100 .
.
y/x = (100-0)/(5-0) = 100/5 = 20
.
.
y/x = (200-0)/(7-0) = 200/7 = 28.57
. ? .
.
.
. .
10 10
. 100 100
. ,
.

. x
. x .
dy/dx ( ).
274

 .
()
.
.
.
y=4x2 dy/dx=8x . x
dy/dx
?
.
. , /
. ,
(
).

/
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.

dx n
=nx n1
dx
dcf (x ) c df ( x )
=
c
dx
dx
dc
=0
dx
d ( f (x )g(x )) df ( x ) dg ( x)
=

sum/difference rule
dx
dx
dx
d ( f (x) . g (x))
=f ' ( x ). g( x )+ f (x ). g ' (x ) product rule
dx
d f (x) f ' ( x). g ( x)f (x ). g ' (x )
(
)=
quotient rule
dx g( x )
(g ( x))2
de x
=e x
dx
da x
=a x . ln (a)
dx
d ln (x ) 1
=
dx
x
d log a ( x) 1
=
dx
x . ln (a)
d sin( x )
=cos ( x)
dx
d cos(x )
=sin( x )
dx

275

d tan (x )
2
=sec ( x)
dx
dy dy du
14.
= .
chain rule .
dx du dx
13.

.
1. t4 t . 1
. , dt4/dt = 4t4-1 = 4t3 .
2. x-5 1/x5 x .
, 1 . , dx-5/dx = -5x-5-1 = -5x-6 -5/x6 .
3. 4n3 n . 1 2 /
. ,
. , d(4n3)/dn = 4 (dn3/dn) = 4x3n2 = 12n2 .
4. x4 - 5x2 + 3x + 5 x . 1, 2, 3, 4
.
( 3 ).
3 1 .
dx0/dx = 0 x d (x0-1)/dx = 0 x d (x-1)/dx = 0
,
d (x4 5x2 + 3x + 5)/dx = dx4/dx d(5x2)/dx + d(3x)/dx + d(5)/dx
= 4x3 10x + 3 + 0 = 4x3 10x + 3
5. (x4)(x3+2x) x . .
, ( x7+2x5 ) .
5 ( )
. . x4 x3+2x
. ,
d ((x4)(x3+2x))/dx = 4x3(x3+2x) + x4(3x2+2) = 4x6+8x4+3x6+2x4 = 7x6+10x4 .
ex x ex ( e
2.7183 / ).
. ex
ex . ax ex . ln(a)
(a ;
).
276

 .
, u, v x . f(x), g(x) ,
u,v .
.
. ,
dy/dx = (dy/dw).(dw/dz).(dz/dt).(dt/dn).(dn/dx)
. /
,
.
.
( ).
.
.
(x4+3x)5 x . x4+3x . t
. , t t5 ? t5
.
. . .
dy/dx = (dy/dt).(dt/dx)
.
() (dy/dt ).
(dt/dx ).
. .
y = (x4+3x)5 y = t5

(x4+3x t )

t5 t , x4+3x x
. ,
dy/dt = 5t4

dt/dx = 4x3+3 . (dy/dt).(dt/dx) ,

(5t4)(4x3+3) . t . . ,
(5(x4+3x)4)(4x3+3) .

. .
. ,
dx5/dx = 5x4 . 5x4 ? x
277

. 2
( 2 d 2 ). ,
dx 5
=5 x 4
dx
d 2( x5 ) d (5 x 4)
=
=20 x 3
2
dx
dx

. .
5

dx
=5 x 4
first differentiation
dx
d 2 (x 5) d (5 x 4 )
=
=20 x 3
second differentiation
2
dx
dx
d 3 (x 5) d (20 x 3)
=
=60 x 2
third differentiation
3
dx
dx
d 4 (x 5 ) d (60 x2 )
=
=120 x
fourth differentiation
dx
dx 4
5
5
d (x ) d (120 x)
=
=120
fifth differentiation
dx
dx 5
6
5
d (x ) d (120)
=
=0
sixth differentiation
6
dx
dx
.

(complex number) ,
( ) . . , , , ,
, .
. .
(real) . (real)
" " . , 4 ,
4 .
. () .
(number line) .
real number line .

278

 (imaginary) .
" " "" .
.
.
() .
i ( j) (
) . , 5i, 13.45i
i (imaginary ). /
j
.
i . . ,
i = (-1)
. .
( , (-2)(2) = +4; (2)(2) = +4). .
( ,
). ,
.
, ,
. .
. .
-5 . -5 = (-1)(5) .
.
(-5) = (-1 x 5) = (-1) x (5)
5 . -1 .
-1
.
? . -1
i " "
. -5 5 i . .
. .
/ , .

. .

279


. .
?
,
. imaginary
number line . 0 . 0i 0
. ,
0 .

.
4i + 3i = 7i
5i 6i = -1i
.
. .
4i x 3i = 12i2 = 12 x -1 = -12 (i = (-1) , i2 = ((-1))2 = -1 )
280

4i/2i = 2 ( )
3i x 0 = 0

.
.
/ .
x + yi . x yi
(
).
. (composite
number) .
. , 6 6 =
2x3. ( ""
).
,
.
.
(4 + 3i) + (5 + 9i) = 9 + 12i
5 + (3 + 2i) = 8 + 2i
(3 + 3i) 5 = -2 + 3i
(9 + 4i) (2 + 3i) = 7 + I
( )
.
( , (x+y)(a+b) = xa+xb+ya+yb ).
(4 + 3i)(2+i) = 4x2 + 4xi + 3ix2 + 3ixi = 8+4i+6i+3i2 = 8+10i-3 = 5+10i
5(3 - 2i) = 15 10i
(5)(2i) = 10i
(+ -)
complex conjugate () .
4 + 2i 4 2i . 2 9i
2 + 9i .

. . / ,
.
( ).
(x+yi)(x-yi) . x2 y2i2 = x2 + y2 .
281

 i . . .
(4 + 8i)/(2 + 2i) = (4+8i)(2-2i)/(2+2i)(2-2i) = (24+8i)/(22-22i2) = (24+8i)/(4+4) = 3+i

.
.
.
, .
0 . 0
(
).

Argand plane/diagram .
. x ,
y .

282

 . .
magnitude/amplitude . r
. ,
amplitude2 = (real number)2 + (imaginary number)2
4+3i ( |
4+3i| ) , (42 + 32) = 25 = 5 .
, x ( )
. argument . ,
argument = tan-1(imaginary number/real number)
, 4+3i (
arg(4+3i) ) , tan-1(3/4) = 36.9O .
,
? 4+3i
. ( r ) x y
() . ,
x = rcos(a)
y = i rsin(a)
, rcos(a) + i rsin(a) (
). .
rcos(a)+irsin(a) = r(cos(a) + isin(a)) rcis ( " )
.

283


1

3


OOP
C C++

284