MUMMIFICATION, CAUSE OF DEATH DETERMINATIONS AND IDENTIFICATION OF REMAINS

Pathologye; Odontology, Principles of Forensic Medicine:

Medicolegal Investigation of Death Professor Dan Matticks

National University

Submitted by:

Victor E. Bianchini November 28, 1995

Victor E. Bianchini'

Mummification, Cause of Death Determinations and Identification of Remains

Abstract: Funerary mummification was practiced by the ancients principally for

religious reasons. Mummification occurring in nature creates a basis for involvement by forensic investigators. It usually occurs in dry arid climates under optimal conditions which dehydrate the body in such a way that tissues are preserved. Forensic investigators can identify remains by restoration and identification of fingerprints using either disodium ethylenediamine tetracetic acid or Metaflow and Restorative. Identification can also be accomplished through restoration of tattoos using hydrogen peroxide. Finally, determination of the cause of death can be aided by mummification since, in some cases, evidence of sharp force trauma may be preserved.

Keywords:

forensic science, mummification, identification, fingerprints. decomposition, tattoos. sharp force trauma, cause of death

I. History.

Mummies have long mesmerized the world. Mystery and intrigue have consistently been associated with the mummy and the enigmatic aura surrounding the mummy has been a rich source oflore throughout the centuries. Tales of the ancient Egyptians, pyramids, and secret tombs have been the subject ofliterature.' film;' and other forms of entertainment". Recently,

Associate Professor of Law. School of Management and Technology. National University; Adjunct Professor of Evidence. Thomas Jefferson School of Law: Member. Faculty Council. National Judicial College, Reno. Nevada; A.B., San Diego State University (1960): 10. University or San Diego, (1963)

"For most of the nineteenth century mumrn ies possessed I ittle attraction as I itcrary material.

Between 1880 and 1914, however, more than a dozen mummy narratives appear. including Arthur Conan Doyle's 'The Ring of Thoth': (1890) and' Lot No. 249' (1892). H. Rider I laggard 's 'Sill ith and the Pharaohs' ( 1913). and Bram Stoker's 'The Jewel of Seven Stars (1903)" Daly. Nicholas. 'That obscure Object of Desire: Victorian Commodity Culture and fictions of the Mummy." Vol 28. Novel. 1994.

"The Carter/Carnarvon discovery of Tutankhamens tomb in 1923 sparked a revival of interest in mummies, and may have been in part responsible for the popularity of narratives that dwelt on the mummy's curse, displacing the mummy stories that had appealed to the previous generation. The Hollywood I,lms actually start in the 1930s with 'The Mummy' (1932), which had a partial sequel in the 1940 'The Mummy's Hand.' The sequel in turn spawned 'The Mummy's Tomb' (1942), 'The Mumrnys Ghost' (1944). and 'The Mummy's Curse' (1994). The British series was launched with Terence Fisher's 'The Mummy' (1959), and continued with 'Curse of the

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there has been revival of interest in mummification' with mortuaries and new companies offering the service."

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Mummy-obsession has extended to the medicinal. During a time in the sixteenth century, mummy f1esh was "sold to London apothecaries, who prescribed mummy as sovereign remedy for bleeding, internal and external."? This practice presumably extended for many decades ..

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Mummies are trendy." Perhaps because mummies are mysterious, even romantic, they conjure up images of eternal life and suggestions of resurrection. The ancients certainly had this motivation." Modern-day interest in mummification and cryogenic practices appear to be based at least in part on this motivation as well."

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Mummies are being subjected to all sorts of scientific indignities, including CAT scans, X-rays, DNA testing and more, II even without so much as a consent-form or a living will. The

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Mummy's Tomb' (1964), 'The Mummy's Shroud' (1966), and Blood from the Mummy's Tomb' (1971)/The latter film, like the 1980 'The Awakening,' was based on Stoker's 'The Jewel of Seven Stars." Daly, footnote 2.

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"Now when I die. don't think I'm a nut.

Don't want no fancy funeral. just one like old King Tut." ---Steve Martin. "King Tut"

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"Mummification is being popularized and it costs $70,000." Morning News, KTLA, Los Angeles.

November 1,1995.

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"Return of the Mummy; A small company has revived the Egyptian practice of preserving the bodies for posterity. Among its offerings: a choice of sarcophagus;" Home Edition, Los Angeles Times, 01-27-93.

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Daly, supra, footnote 2.

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"Man in California wants to be mummified when he dies. Mummy societies are being formed; its a new trend." Radio TV Reports, November 2. 1995.

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"The rites were based upon the belief that. because the dead body of the god Osiris had been preserved from decomposition and raised to life again by the gods, the magical assimilation of a dead person to Osiris and the ritual enacting of what the gods had done would achieve a similar miracle of resurrection. On of the most significant of these ritual transactions was the 'opening of the mouth,' which was designed to restore to the mummified body its ability to see, breathe. and take nourishment." The New Encyclopedia Britannica, Volume 26, p. 853, 1986.

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10 "Bernie Beichert, mummy says' 1 never liked the idea of rotting in the ground.' He will be

mummified. Professor John Chew mummification expert describes how it is done. SOME MUM is a group in Salt Lake City." News at 5; KNBC; Los Angeles .. November 1.1995.

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"CAT Scan for 3.000-Year-0Id Mummy". David Stout. The New York Times. November 1. 1995.

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scientific interest has extended to mummification experiments on modern-day cadavers." In the most recent manifestation of scientific mummy-enchantment, Dr. Bob Brier, chairman of the philosophy department at the C. W. Post College of Long Island University in New York and Ron Wade, director of the Maryland State Anatomy Board, together with two morticians conducted

an experiment on the cadaver of a man who had donated his body to science." It was a demonstration not without its critics, since so much is already known about mummification. 14 Nevertheless, the procedure utilized by the researchers was intriguing. I'

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Thus far, the discussion has centered around the deliberate process of mummification on the human body for cultural, sectarian or personal motivations. Of course, mummies prepared by the ancients were intentionally preserved for religious purposes." The belief system in play centered on immortality, and its emphasis distinguished the Egyptian religion above everything else." In this sense, the process of mummification engaged in by the ancients, was the

deli berate "method of preserving artificially, the bodies 0 f deceased people and animals." I X Interestingly, natural mummification, or mummification occurring in nature preceded the funerary custom practiced by the ancients:

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"For most of the Predynastic period, burials were very simple. Bodies

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"How to Make an AMERICAN MUMMY; Researcher Preserves Body Using Ancient Egyptian Embalming Techniques." Matt Crenson, Science Writer. The Dallas Morning ,V(,II',\', October 23, 1995.

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Id, footnote 12.

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"It's not as if we didn't know what was going on and how it worked. The literature on mummification is really quite extensive, said Charles Van Sick len, a free-lance Egyptologist. Id, footnote 12.

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"The process begins with the removal of the organs from the body. Because the brain, liver, kidneys and other internal organs contain a lot of water and are deep in the body, they're hard to dry out in place. The Egyptians mumm ified the organs individually. The researchers were discovering that pu II ing a person's brain out through his nose isn't so simple. We put a long hook in the brain and used it like a whisk, and turned the body so the fluid could drain out. Natron is the key to the whole process. Natron is a naturally occurring mixture that is basically baking soda and table salt. It sucks moisture out of a human body just as salt sucks it out of a fish. 17 months after the mummification began, the body weighed about 45 pounds." Dr. Br ier. ld, footnote 12.

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"For beneath and above everything in Egypt was religion." Durant, The Story ofCivilization. Our Oriental Heritage. Vol. I, Chapter VIII, pg. 202, Simon & Schuster, 1935.

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"What distinguished this religion above everything else was its emphasis on immortality .. The amazing preservation of the dead body in the dry soil of Egypt lent some encouragement to this belief, which was to dominate Egyptian faith for thousands of years, and to pass from it, by its own resurrection, into Christianity." Durant, footnote 15. Also, " ... the starting point for all these ideas was the tomb. The Egyptians' unparalleled expenditure of the resources of the rich on burial was evidently intended in part to enhance the tomb owner's prestige .... [heJ might continue to exist in and around the tomb, or he could travel through the after world." Ancient Egypt, The cultural Atlas a/the World, p. 220, Baines and Malek, 1984.

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Id, p. 220, footnote 17.

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were placed in shallow graves dug on the edge of the desert and covered with sand. In the dry atmosphere the contact with hot sand produced dehydration (desiccation) very quickly, often before the tissues decomposed, so that bodies were sometimes preserved by entirely natural means. This did not escape attention because such 'mummies' were from time to time accidentally uncovered, and a belief developed that the preservation of the body was essential for man's continued existence after death. When at the end of the Predynastic period some of the graves turned into larger tombs and coffins were introduced, these natural conditions were altered, in particular the contact with sand. It became necessary to look for methods which would achieve by artificial means what nature had previously accomplished unaided, and thus the custom of mummification was introduced.":"

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The methods used by the ancient Egyptians have long held the fascination of anthropologists and Egyptologists. It was an elaborate operation," intended to not only preserve the body but to reanimate it."

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The focus of this paper is on the mummification of the human body occurring by natural means, and the significance of the state of mummification to the forensic investigator in the determination of cause of death and the identification of remains.

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II. Decomposition of the Human Body.

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When people die, they rot." Medical science postulates that upon cell death, the phagocyte, usually the macrophage combines with the lysosome organelle and digests the dead

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Id, p. 220, footnote 17.

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" ... it took some 70 days, and its most important part was dehydration of the body by burying it in Natron, a naturally occuring dehydrating agent (a mixture of carbonate, bicarbonate, chloride and sulphate of sodium): I. Extraction of the brain. 2. Removal of the viscera. 3. Sterilization of the body cavities and the viscera .... 5. Temporary packing of the body with Natron and fragrant resins ... 9. Packing the body cavities with resin soaked linen and bags of fragrant materials, such as myrrh and cinnamon, but also sawdust.i..] I. Treatment of the body surfaces with molten resin." ld, p. 220, footnote 17.

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"Because the Egyptians believed that the body was essential for a proper afterlife, a complex

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process of ritual embalmment was established. This process was intended not only to preserve the corpse from physical disintegration but also to reanimate it." The New Encyclopedia Britannica, supra, Volume 26, pp. 853-854. 1986.

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de-corn-pose: (de kam poz) I. To separate or resolve into constituent parts or elements; disintegrate: 2. To rot; putrefy. The Random House Dictionary ofthe English Language. 2d Edition, 1987.

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cell. 23 In a sense, it could be said that once dead, the body eats itself." Of course, cell death or necrosis, and subsequent decomposition are extraordinary complicated processes reducing the body to so much "soup" and are not glibly explained:

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"Necrosis is characterized by early swelling of the cytoplasm and of the mitochondria (energy-releasing organelles) within it. ... The basic mechanism of necrosis is thought to be a loss of control over cell volume, related to changes in the permeability of the cell membrane .... The point of no return is reached with irreversible damage to mitochondrial structure and function. Later still, the lysosomes (membranous bags of hydrolytic enzymes found in most cells) rupture. releasing their acid enzymes into the cytoplasm of the cell. All this produces an ionic milieu unsuitable to the survival of the nucleus. "25

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Mummification, which is the drying or dehydrating the body prior to decomposition occurring naturally or intentionally. takes place in an optimally timed sequence preventing the lysosomal process.

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III.

Natural Mummification.

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Mummification occurs frequently in the natural environmennt. As previously mentioned, this phenomenon led to the belief system and subsequent practice of intentional mummification by the ancient Egyptians." This natural process is frequently found in the Southwest where the air is often hot and dry." The Southwest has a high incidence of body-dumping in remote areas, and police officials, medical examiners and coroners are frequently confronted with mummified remains. Thus, "mummification results from drying of tissues under conditions of high

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"Literally "breakdown bodies" which appear in different sizes, are membrane "bags" containing powerful digestive enzymes. The enzymes are capable of digesting worn-out or non usable cell structures and foreign substances that enter the cell." Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology, supra. p. 64.

24 "Lysosomal rupture results in self-digestion of the cell. For this reason, lysosomes are sometimes

referred to as 'suicide sacs. '" Id, p. 64.

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The New Encyclopedia Britannica. supra, p. 1033. Volume 16.

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Ancien/ Egypt, The cultural Atlas ofthe World. p. 220, supra, footnote 17.

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27 "The environment of sourthern Arizona with mild winters and hot, dry summers produces great

variability in decay rates of human remains. Summer temperatures. which range well over 38°C (100°F). induce rapid boating as a result of the accumulation of decompositional gases. However, in certain circumstances, the aridity can lead to extensive mummification, allowing preservation of remains for hundreds of years." Galloway, Birkby, Jones, Henry and Parks, "Decay Rates of Human Remains in an Arid Environment," Journal 0/ Forensic Sciences, JFSCA, Vol. 34. No.3, May 1989, pp, 607-616.

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environmental temperature, low humidity and good ventilation?" Internal organs do not ordinarily fare well in natural mummification:

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"In mummified bodies in temperate areas, the internal organs are usually poorly preserved or may have totally disappeared due to decomposition. Once mummification is fully developed, the body remains preserved as a shell for long periods of time, even years. The rate of mummification and its extent depend on the humidity of the air and the intensity of the environmental heat, and its full development in temperate areas generally requires at least three months of postmortem interval. "2Y

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Since in mummification, the processes of decomposition are arrested, certain parts of the body undergo unusual changes, even ghoulish in nature, which has probably added to the lore of the supernatural. 30

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V. Mummification and Forensic Determinations.

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There are principally two forensic determinations to be made with mummified bodies: cause of death determinations, and identification of remains. Any other concerns or determinations are beyond the scope of this paper. With respect to these two, this paper will first review the process of identification of remains and its two principal subsets, fingerprinting of mummified corpses and identification of remains through the enhancement of tattoos.

A. Identification of Remains:

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1. Fingerprinting of Mummified Corpses:

Obviously, mummified remains, which are ordinarily in a state of total dehydration, present a difficult pproblem for the forensic investigator in the identification of remains. Facial features, clothing, documents of identity are frequently lacking or in such

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Medico/ega/investigation a/Death, 3rd Edition. Spitz & Fisher; Thomas Publisher, 1993.

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Id, p. 36, footnote 28.

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"The conjunctivae of the eyes dry along the opening between the lids, causing a dark-brown

horizontal band across the corneal surface sometimes referred to as tache noire. The scrotum dries at the sides where exposed and not in contact with the moist skin of the thighs. Tightened mummified skin displays a brownish discoloration and a parchment-like appearance, which preserves facial contour and dries and discolors bent knees. Similar drying may be observed in fingers and toes exposed to hot, dry air. Mummified fingers and toes are shriveled with wrinkled firm, brown skin. The process begins at the fingertips which become spindly ..... Shrinkage of the nail bed has occasionally misled investigators and mystery book writers to conclude that fingernails and toenails grow after death .... The skin around the fingernails and toenails shrinks as a result of drying and may give the erroneous impression that the nails have grown after death." Id, pg. 36-37, footnote 28.

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condition that they are of no assistance to the investigator in determining the identity of the corpse. In the modern-day mummification experiment previously mentioned, the researchers witnessed dramatic changes in the cadaver:

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"The body - kept in conditions similar to the hot, dry climate of Egypt's Valley of the Kings - spent 35 days in the natron .... After the natron became rock hard, Dr. Brier knocked it off the mummy with an iron bar. When the natron fell away, the researchers were amazed at what a good job they'd done. The body had turned black, and its weight, originally 169 pounds, had dropped to 87 pounds. 'I was shocked at how much it looked like an Egyptian mummy,' Dr. Brier said. The researchers wrapped the body in pure linen cloth, then left it to dry at room-temperature conditions."

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Thus, very frequently the only methods of identifying remains are odontological records, DNA and fingerprinting. When attempting to identify anonymous remains with no reference data, odontological identification is impractical." Likewise. DNA analysis is not only impractical" but extraordinarily expensive. Fingerprinting is one of the quickest. cheapest and most accepted and effective identification techniques."

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Shriveled-up fingers do not good fingerprints make! "Fingerprinting procedures require that the fingers be in reasonably fair condition to obtain a good set of prints. Unfortunately, that is not always the case. Decomposed bodies, fire victims, and mummified bodies present the most difficulty to the forensic science specialist entrusted with the task of identification.':"

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The basic problem with fingerprinting of human remains centers on the state of the ridge

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The Dallas Morning News, supra, footnote 12

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"Odontological identification ranks second and is only successful in situations where you have a definite suspect, since there is currently no centralized f Ie of dental charts and X-rays." Zugibe, and Costello, "A new method for Softening Mummified Fingers," Journal ofForensic Sciences, JFSCA, Vol. 31, No.2, April 1985, pp. 726-731.

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"The same holds true for all other methods used in identification including X-rays, physical description, anthropological studies, items of clothing, jewelry, operative scars, tattoos, skeletal abnormalities and so forth." Id, p. 726, footnote 32.

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"Even though many individuals, particularly women and children, do not have fingerprints on file, fingerprinting still ranks first as the most widely used method in making definitive identifications. This is primarily due to the fact that it is the only procedure that is backed up by a large centralized file of prints to draw from

thereby permitting identifications in many cases where there is no suspect." ld, p. 726, footnote 28.

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Id, p. 726-727, footnote 28.

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patterns on fingers, palms and feet" which can be disastrously affected by advanced decomposition, conflagration, and in some cases, mummification. The extraordinary drying and wrinkling of the fingers make it difficult for the fingerprint technician to obtain usable prints. "Extremely mummified fingers present the identification technician with a basic problem:

Softening of the tissue and thus eliminating wrinkles and crevices created by dehydration."? However, these methods have proven to either be ineffective to soften fingers or be destructive of the ridge detail as a result of the swelling and breaking up of the epidermis." Several researchers" in recent years have postulated that new methods of softening fingers in the

retrieval of fingerprints are far superior to the old methods."

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Frederick T. Zugibe, the chief medical examiner of Rockland County, New York and James T. Costello, senior medical investigator, of the same office" reported to the Journal of Forensic Sciences on a "new" method of softening mummified fingers to permit the taking of fingerprints. Their paper criticized the methods of softening fingers then in use" and proposed a new method discovered in their attempt to identify the remains of a young nude female, the victim of a brutal homicide. At the time the body was discovered, it "was deeply pigmented and

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"The Papillary layer is the upper dermal region. It is uneven and has finger like projections from its superior surface, called dermal papillae, which indent the epidermis above ... On the palms of the hands and soles of the feet, the papillae are arranged in definite patterns that form looped and whorled ridges on the epidermal surface that increase friction and enhance the gripping ability of the fingers and feet. Papillary patterns are genetically determined. The ridges of the fingertips are well-provided with sweat pores and leave unique identifying films of sweat called fingerprints on almost anything they touch" Essentials ofHuman Anatomy and Physiology, supra, p. 101.

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Haglund, W.D., "A Technique to Enhance Fingerprinting of Mummified Fingers," Journal of Forensic Sciences. JFSCA. Vol. 33, No.5, Sept. 1988, pp. 1244-1248.

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Id, p. 1244, footnote 37.

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Zugibe, and Costello, "A new method for Softening Mummified Fingers," Journal ofForensic Sciences, JFSCA, Vol. 31, No.2, April 1985, pp. 726-731. Haglund, WD, "A Technique to Enhance Fingerprinting of Mummified Fingers," Journal of Forensic Sciences JFSCA. Vol. 33, No.5, Sept. 1988, pp. 1244- \248.

40 "Destruction of ridge detail, as a resu It of swelling and breaking up of the epidermis, is a

particular problem caused by commonly used softening solutions that contain caustic potash or fabric softener." Journal of Forensic Sciences. JFSCA. Vol. 33, No.5, Sept. 1988, supra, p. 1246, footnote 37

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Journal of Forensic SCiences, JFSCA, Vol. 31, No.2, April 1985, supra, pp. 726-731, footnote 32.

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"Current methods to soften mummified fingers leave much to be desired. They have either unsuccessful in adequately softening the fingers or have been highly destructive. These methods include soaking in cool or warm glycerin mixtures, injecting glycerin and other softening agents into the subcutaneous region of the pads, heating in physiological saline, soaking in mixtures of various oils, and soaking in sodium or potassium hydroxide alone or in formalin. A more recent method using taxidermy tanning solution consisting of ... saturated salt solution and ... sulfuric acid afforded inconsistent results." Id, p. 727, footnote 32.

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very dry, and the fingers and toes were shriveled, badly mummified, and extremely hard."" Their account illustrates the difficulties that forensic investigators encounter in the identification of remains:

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"Attempts at identification of the body was fraught with difficulty. Initial attempts to soften the fingers using the glycerin methods, warm saline, oil mixtures, and museum techniques to obtain fingerprints were completely unsuccessful. The FBI referred us to a method using potassium hydroxide in formalin that we decided to try first on the mummified skin of the proximal joint of the finger. This method was abandoned because it proved to be too destructive. Other methods of identification including dental charting, dental X-rays, full body X-rays, anthropological studies, hair studies, immunological testing, artist drawings, facial cosmetology, and descriptive profiling were all performed. This information was teletyped to various law enforcement and missing person agencies to no avail. "44

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The scientists then, citing necessity as the mother of invention, "decided to try a scientific approach using a chelation" method in an attempt to substitute calcium bridges with sodium. This was tried with disodium and tetrasodium ethylenediamine tetracetate at different pHs using some mummified palm skin .... The .... technique was found to afford satisfactory to excellent fingerprints and was highly reproducible in every case attempted.'?" The scientists reported that the technique was highly successful and proved so in making satisfactory to good fingerprints in every case attempted over a ten year period."

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Haglund" in 1988 reported to the Journal a/Forensic Sciences on a technique to enhance fingerprinting of mummified fingers. In his journal article, he criticized Zugibe's and Costello's method as having the potential drawback of needing "constant monitoring, solution preparations, pH adjustments, and/or dissection of finger pads. "49 Instead, he recommends a technique using

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ld, p. 727, footnote 32.

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[d, p. 727, footnote 32.

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"chelation (ke la shan): 2. a. a method of removing certain heavy metals from the bloodstream, used esp. in treating lead or mercury poisoning. b. a controversial treatment for arteriosclerosis that attempts to remove calcium deposits from the inner walls of the coronary arteries." The Random House Dictionary of the English Language, supra, footnote 22.

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[d, p. 727-728, footnote 32.

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ld, p. 731, footnote 32.

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Chief investigator, King County Medical Examiner's Office, Seattle, WA., ld, p. 1244-1248,

footnote 37.

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[d, p. 1244, footnote 37.

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Metaflow'" and Restorative" resulting in minimally destruction to ridge detail without

"excessive monitoring or complicated solution preparation." Haglund's method was to submerge the hands in solution and then to hypodermically inject the tissue with the same solution. 52 He suggests the method as superior because of its simplicity:

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"This is a simple technique which is easily mastered and taught. The solutions are readily available and easy to use. There is no artifactual disruption of tissue and consequently finger ridge detail is preserved. Good quality fingerprints can easily be achieved. "53

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It can be concluded that there are several satisfactory methods of restoring fingers to a state of flexibility. Commentators disagree with one another as to which method is more reliable, quicker and the most simple. Based, in part, on the length of use, quality of research, and consistency of success, the methods employed by Zugibe and Costello" appear to be preferable for the recovery of fingerprints from mummified corpses.

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Identification of Remains Through the Enhancement of Tattoos in Mummified Remains:

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Haglund, together with Sperry" presented a paper" to the Journal of

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"Metaflow is an embalming preinjection fluid used to restore permeability to the cell membrane." [d, p. 1245, footnote 37.

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"Restorative is a biopolymer based fluid used to rehydrate desiccated tissue." Id, p. 1245, footnote

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52 "Palms and fingertips of both hands were submerged and left to soak overnight in a mixture of

Metaflow and Restorative .... The above procedure has been used in ten cases ranging from moderate to severely mummified tissue with excellent results. Id, p. 1245-46, footnote 38.

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ld, p. 1246, footnote 37.

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Journal of Forensic Sciences, JFSCA, Vol. 31, No.2, April 1985, supra, pp. 726-731.

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Kris Sperry, M.D, Deputy Chief Medical Examiner, Fulton County Medical Examiner's Office,

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Atlanta GA.

56 Haglund, W.O. and Sperry, K., "The Use of Hydrogen Peroxide to Visualize Tattoos Obscured

by Decomposition and Mummification." Journal of Forensic Sciences, JFSCA, Vol. 38, No. I, January 1993. pp. 147-150.

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Forensic Sciences on the use of tattoos" in the identification" of decomposed or mummified remains. Essentially, the process suggested by the scientists involves the use of hydrogen peroxide to "bleach out" the effects of discoloration caused by dehydration. 59 They describe the method as follows:

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" .... a quantity of cotton or a soft cloth is saturated with 3% hydrogen peroxide (this may be purchased at any drugstore or grocery store: inexpensive, generic brands are quite effective), and this is placed over the questioned area oon the body. The cloth or cotton may be gently rubbed against the underlying tissues to enhance hydrogen peroxide penetration ..... The time required is usually 2 to 10 min. Within this period, the accumulated dark decompositional pigments gradually fade, and the dermis is rendered a pale pink-tan. Any tattoos that are within the exposed dermal regions will be readily identified, and may then be photographed.Y"

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The researchers conclude that "the technique described ... allows for both quick and easy exposure of tattoos that are obscured by decomposition. Hydrogen peroxide ... works very well to temporarily bleach away decompositional (and presumably mummification) discoloration."?'

B. Cause of Death Determinations in Mummified Bodies:

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There is a paucity of research and literature on the subject of mummification and its relationship to a determination of the cause of death. A search of traditional sources revealed only one article touching upon the subject." However, in its simplicity and brevity, the article

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"Tattoos are acquired integumentary designs that are created by repeatedly perforating the epidermis and superficial dermis with a needle-bearing instrument or machine containing India ink or metallic salt pigment particles. They remain with the superficial dermal layers permanently." ld, p. 147, footnote 55.

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"Tattoos are an important potential identifying feature. especially in cases of unknown or questionable identity. Individual designs may carry names, Social Security numbers, records of military service, or be so unique in artistic content that they can be used to establish possible, probable, or even conclusive identity." ld, p. 147, footnote 55.

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"Discoloration occurs in decomposition and dehydration as well: "During decomposition, hydrogen sulfide is produced by bacteria in the gastrointestinal tract. As these bacteria spread throughout the body through the tissues and vascular channels, the accumulated hydrogen sulfide reacts with hemoglobin to produce sulfmethemoglobin and iron sulfide, which creates colors that vary from an initial dirty crimson or light green to dark green, brown, or black.. .. This discoloration may become quite dark, especially if accompanying tissue dehydration (especially in arid climates) superimposes an element of mummification. The decompositional pigment concentration may become so inntense that tattoos are obscured or seemingly obliterated." ld, p. 148, footnote 55.

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Id, p. 148, footnote 55.

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Id, p. 149-150, footnote 55.

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Id, p. 614, footnote 26.

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was enlightening:

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"The presence of major defects such as blunt force trauma and gunshot wounds also may contribute to the decomposition of the body. These provide access to the moist portions of the body for the insect forms while also maintaining air contact. However, Burger's study suggests that blow flies were less attracted to postmortem incisions than to the natural body openings. This was attributed to the competition for air which would occur under these conditions. This may explain why, in some instances, indications of sharp force trauma are preserved in mummified skin and are not lost to insect activity.">'

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Moreover, mummification appears to retard general insect activity provided that mummification occurs prior to an insect invasion."

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It can be concluded that in certain cases of mummification, when insect activity has not caused total decomposition at the wound sites, the forensic investigator may be presented with a method of determining cause of death in sharp force trauma cases.

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VI.

Conclusion.

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Restoration of fingerprints from mummified remains in questioned identity cases and cause of death determinations are problematic for the forensic scientist. Methods do exist to aid in these determinations as outlined in this paper. Surely more will be devised as even more knowledge is gained through additional experimentation. It is hoped that this paper has synthesized the current knowledge in a general, informative way, as a review to aid the forensic investigator.

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63

Id, p. 615, footnote 26.

64 "However, the combined decay and dry stages appear to be of shorter duration, probably as a

result of the inhibition of insect activity by dehydration seen in the arid areas." Id, p. 615, footnote 26.

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References

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Daly, Nicholas, "That obscure Object of Desire: Victorian Commodity Culture and fictions of the Mummy." Vo128, Novel, 1994.

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[2]

Home Edition, Los Angeles Times, 01-27-93.

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[3]

The New Encyclopedia Britannica, Volume 26, p. 853, 1986.

[4] Stout, David, The New York Times, November I, 1995.

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Crenson, Matt, Science Writer, The Dallas Morning News, October 23, 1995.

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[6]

Durant, Will, The Story ofCivilization. Our Oriental Heritage. Vol. I. Chapter VIII. pg. 202. Simon & Schuster, 1935.

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Baines and Malek, Ancient Egypt, The cultural Atlas of the World, 1984.

[8] The Random House Dictionary of the English Language. 2d Edition, 1987.

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[9] Marieb, E. N., Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 4th Edition, 1994.

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[10] Galloway, Birkby, Jones, Henry and Parks, "Decay Rates of Human Remains in an Arid Environment," Journal of Forensic Sciences, JFSCA, Vol. 34, No.3, May 1989, pp. 607-616.

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[111 Spitz & Fisher, Medicolegal Investigation of Death, 3rd Edition; Thomas Publisher, 1993.

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[12] Zugibe, and Costello, "A new method for Softening Mummified Fingers," Journal of Forensic Sciences, JFSCA, Vol. 31, No.2, April 1985, pp. 726-731.

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[13] Haglund, W.O., "A Technique to Enhance Fingerprinting of Mummified Fingers," Journal of Forensic Sciences. JFSCA. Vol. 33, No.5, Sept. 1988, pp. 1244-1248.

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[14] Haglund, W.D. and Sperry, K., "The Use of Hydrogen Peroxide to Visualize Tattoos Obscured by Decomposition and Mummification." Journal of Forensic Sciences, JFSCA, Vol. 38, No. I, January 1993. pp. 147-150.

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