INTRODUCTORY
REAL ANALYSIS
A. N, KOLMOGOROV
8. V. FOMIN
Richard A. Silverman
DOVER PUBLICATIONS, INC. CONTENTS
SET THEORY, Page
12 Opts on i 2.
13 PES Spins tap a ema
14 Deception 4 ti a, aie
2 pc wd nae
2 CES ta some, 1
3 Greer ai, mem
3 Orda sus ant pl tote, 2
42 Song of 2
£2 cay ing. 2
METRIC SPACES, Pge37
SRT ata td xp, 3.
5%, Cannas mapa a orgs
Some cee ‘Chur ofa Lent post
(2 Camere nd i
SSS Surat yy
16, Open 2nd ne to hl in
2 Cores iccSp se
72 Mio ie
ce cam tp
‘i Detntoe 6S cnmacton mapping, Te Sd
pt tic. 66
2 ea pg nt tn gta
13, Courcon mapas an itl tion, 7
‘TOPOLOGICAL SPACES, Page 78
9. Baie Concept 8
etme
35: sme fron, 88
3a, Contour taping, Homeorapans
37 Nao we aig ee
Eman
re uate en
{13 Rete compc ar af en oe,
Ra RM a Tp sp
123, Conover ee pn 12
LINEAR SPACES, age
SF St ang
133, Subspace, [2h
iS Tee eta
ue Rebel Pea ha
is Rete
1 Saale
Rae
«Radar
1 rnp ti
1 Be age
seg Sa Sa ep
1S Se
166 Hier space The isomorphism theorem. 188
Shoe
seg Bane otc
ie Serr ae
o tga
Wmecetae
iar pce 15,
15) LINEAR FUNCTIONALS, Page 17. ven Behm de rs oe oe
a en
area
So
Simm cme cr
so Rots Tag Cas,
SAPS ETE ae
122 Sa oegen
_ =sese
nae ace an
So A
EE Dols an cag
vy ni Som ape
Sitar mara, 2
21 Thea oer ber pase. Sedat
posts 38
234 Tet oo opie. he an
2X Be porn omic
13, Cpl sono pests io Hite spc,
7 MEASURE, ages
Jen
Seen mn
B INTEORATION, Passau,
SoS pop enue tn 24
5 Si a pi
2 Sree oe 2
iste 3
Bi Deamon 25 bo poet of te Lee
292, Soo ore, 28
20 Sor asap tee lm faba gy 208,
3 ttt nga oes sr sa
503, ThLtge nga. Remsen tpl 9.
DIFFERENTIATION; Page 313,
sia teem ee ee
oe
URES reas
1 RAS rer
fae a 10
32 Chien f cage Te Ratna
51 Diet pod of ta ra, 382
1 Sei mes 3
3a The Cpe Sas inal 36
2 Aplin o pony hay 36
4k cla map 3.
3 The Ri reevsaton hore, 74
29. The Sc yan
3, Benin abe proprio fy 38
5372 Dettori of £30.
INDEX, Page 53
SET THEORY
1, Sets and Functions
1, defn. Mates abit dels witht” made wp
of “laments of various Ks, eg the at of lass of» plyedron, the
Seo pits on ae, tht of pote integers and soon, Beats of
thir geeraiy, tt hard dfn ese Cone away ees more
than ere relic the word "set hy some ester Ike "ls
"amy," aston ce a the nord “lene” by tone seen
‘em ike “mere” Ws wil adopt aa pot o ve and ep he
ions oat andthe element set prone and waleaniersog.
Th st eoncept playa hay role in meta rathcaticTnpaly
sot he at that et teoy, oral developed toward the endo De
notch cemty, as yao brome a exten su nt own it.
More important, howe, be get ia wich st hay a ae
fn contin tert on mates oughta who Tih caper,
Tox orite bok
Ses willbe devoted y cpa terse 4, ,..., and elements of
seu by smal tere a,b The sit with ements vofen
denoted by Ces 48 y wetng te ements ofthe sl beeen
avy brackets For camp, (1) ithe set whe only members le
{1.2,-c0omv) the et of all postive topes The eaten “te
enc bron tothe at 4" wren synbotaly ab ne whe
{26-4 meas tht "the element oer belong tte se "Hever
lene ofc ao tlogs toss, west ee
fet and woe A or BS 4 (aso ead wed cone! BOF 2 sermon unt
i contin 4°). For eal, the se of all ven numbers isa subset ofthe
set ofall mame, We ny tht fo aes and Bae eal ond we
FSG and Bone of pict the same clement Note that 4 — 3
Handontyitac Band Bo tees if and only severy cement of A ean
tlemant Bander sement of Bicanclenentof 414 Bb 4
bell a proper sb of.
Sometines isnot known in advance wheter or at cei (or
amp the et rot ot genes) cons ny ements tal
Tins itis eoneient to fntodac the Concept othe emp set i the
Scotinng no ats as Thi et witb denoted bythe sabe
‘he st 8 is eary subtest (8S
12, Operations on see Lt A and be ay 0 st The by the ee
coc ion ofA 8 By denies by 4'UB, i an the st consig fall
leans whe belong toa am one of the mt A aod B oe Fig Dy
‘More general, bythe sum er uion ef an Stary number tiie ite
fh stats nex by some parameter) we men he st dented
Va
ofl eens soagng oat as one ofthe ss
"By deiner 49.8 of eve genset 4 ad B, we mean te St
conitng a al meats uc long both and ce Figure 2). For
‘harps the tention af he net af ll een ser and the et fal
Snape vite by 3 he ef all iteges be by 6. By tester
etn of a ahirary number (nite or ne) of Se Ay, We ean te
‘et dented by
4
fl laments Belonging f0 eveyone ofthe ets 4. Two st A ad re
Sid to be aja it. 8 2 Lei they hve fo ements sommon
Move genoa let bea fay of sete sch that 4. = 2 for eve)
rit of ces Bin Than the ts Fe sal 0 be pale die
«Ripe cmon fe abn dh te operon,
AUB=BU4, (UBUC=408UO,
ADB=BOA, UABNC=ANENO,
Moreover, the operations U an obey the following itv lm
um ne=UnQuiency o
nguc-uvonwvo, ®
For example, suppose x (4 U 8) C, 50 hat «Belongs tthe etd
side of (0). Then belongs to bth C and 4 U Bi belongs to bo
Cand at eat one ofthe es. 4 and. Botte tls a a oe |
theses AMC and BAG, Len re (LC) UA Ch that long
tothe right hands of (I) Convene, sppore x24 0.0} U BG)
‘Then bong oat atone of the we set A Cad BNC. Hows
hare binge th Ca at atone fhe to sete Aad Be eC
tnd 36-4 UB orequalealy re (4 U B) OC. Tis ores (Dy and 2)
roved sine
By she diferonce A — between 140 sets A and B (in that de), we
smc tes ll elements of neh do ot belong 10 oe Fig 3)
Note thai nat asm hat AB. ee someime convent (eo
‘eae theory) tenes the symm dfeece of wo ae and By
Sed Bt (oe Fig
Aa Bm DUB
‘We wil fen te conned ae with aout which ae all ats
sce undying base et R, fo crap varus sso pits on te
teal ine In thi ese en mt, the iference R— A cle the
‘mpemen of 4, devote by CA ‘important role payed in theory ad eplations by ce
RE UA RA. o
R-014,- UR Ay.
In word the complement of anion sua he neriton of he comple
ens, abd te complet of an iterection quae the union of he
Complement According to the duality pepe, aby theorem invavng
aay o buts ine tan be convert somata nt ah
"dual theorem by replacing sects by thei somplement, loins
‘pmesetons andl inten hy union, To pove Gh, sppoee
xeR—UAy o
Ya ©
iy roe ot ong oan ofthe ts A Blows x song Loesch
‘ofthe complnents R= snd Bene
xeQIR~ A). o
Convery, supow (s,s that longs very st R— Ay Then
dos ot blog ay fhe ete 4, does tbl 0 te union
Gojoe equate) bole, Tie proves ()y and (0) i proved saul
levered,
enark Toe deigaton “syne siernce” for he set 4.3 Bis
roc apt, sive A has mack common with he am 4 UB. Tn fat
ned Ud te two stants long 0-4 and Blogs to ae
[ined by the cnjnctin "eed it Ue “ete of. 8 Both
‘ett whein the am wo sateen are joe yo se ne
Sinan Scher. cor "mns arin tobe oraotte be"). nother weds,
“Tostng to 4 U Bifand onli bongs tober 4 or B both, wie
ange tan only ix Blnge to either but pot bh. The
Stn ean be earl arin omodlstwo en” ofthe ee 0d
[ie som othe we and Bin wich slerments ze opp they are
outed wie (ome 4 and once iB).
1.2, Functions and gpg. Images ad preimage. Arle associating
niga real pmbery ts) eith cack sleent oat of el numbers
Isl to deine» eal finn on Theat Xi ald the domaie
(ofan fan th st Y oa mbes fs) uc hat © cae
the rage off
More eral et M and Wet aie st, Then al asin,
sungueslement = f(a) eN witha claret M rng so to deine
® fin fom M (ea anton f with dan ft ore eel
ent, seal elle mapping of nto 8 Byte soe lene 8
‘Sisto map Mito N (and eto
Ta wan element off the coreponging lst bf ile the
snag andr he mapping ). Evry ent of wih «pice dened
‘Beast img clea pemage of 5. Note ht nec ay hae
Seve pciaper Moreover, N'may conte emt ino preimage
[a IF ha n niu prem, we denote his preimage yf)
UA a subst of tbe set of all semen) eN sich tat a2 4
‘elle the mage of 4, devote f(A. Thee all elements of M whose
images tong fou genset BH cae the preimage of B, donoed
tye, eo casero has eine, hee (8) o 9. A Taneon
{Fi ld to map Mf no NUM) © Nays cae and ne N
1h = hey te mapg a9 to apg tt
Sipps fmaps Momo W. Then fsa to be ame eh eee
Ben tas a unique promage 10) Inti ete, sa to salah =
cnesnone comspndece been M and Ns ihe mapping aoe
ing M0) nieach DEN ald the ere off
ona Te mae hei of re ts hein of a
preimage of the ts
PLB =P UP).
Prof x= f-4A UB, then fo) © UB, sa tat f9) Bong
toate one of thes 4 an B. Ba ten blogs oles oe ot
{essnf0) and FB) ef") UP
Convent ef) Uf, den blogs 10 a ast one
ofthe sets 34) and“), Therefore bongh 0 ea ne
hescu tind Bie fed UB. Batten se)a UB) Be
“Tasonad 2 Te preimage ofthe hrc fst the inter
econ of the page of tt
PA 0B) 7) OF,
Prof x6 f-AA 0.8) ten J) 24.0 Bs hat fe) <4 and
JosyeB. Bar then xf and Fe) vey 2 ofA) OF)
{Convery 6/4) AF-MB hen cf A) and xf"
find JOB, Ley Pl) eA OM. Bat ten ee
‘elymbel patna QD, et nat to espe “TaoN4 3. Te mage af he won of 02 gua the io fhe
mages of ht
JEL) ~ $0 VfB.
Prof Hye f4 UB) theny ~ fe) uhee x belongs oat ast one
ofthe stand Therefore ~ 740 bongs oat at oe othe ets
FUsand UB) ony fA GB
‘Convery 7 2/(A) UF UB) thes y =f) where x belongs oat
least one ofthe es and Bit 824 Ui and ence
saea
Ranark: 1. Surpeingycoouh, the nage of he tention of wo sts
lows not meisacly equa the ttre of the Inger of the se. or
‘ample, suppone the mapping projets he ype onto the ean
neg th pot (eto te (Then fhe segments Oty
yeUandO ex = 15) donot, sthough tr nage sine
omar 2 Theres 1-5 eominae to old fr unions tn intentions
‘tan arbirrynanber (ie o nis) of a
ya) Uren
(04) -97-0.
(¥a,) = Yren
14, Decomposition of 4st fat ces. Egsalne relation. Deson
postos ofa pen set into pare sess lays spovten sale
fb grat variey of robles Por enue, te plane (spade a= pint
0) san bs decent aes paral othe tas reedimeoson
Space cur be decomposed ina concn phere, th ina + pee
fy ean be desomposed ito diferent age proup, and 10 on Any ith
‘preston of agen a the anion oa aly of pirie ig
‘bic of i called «compton parton of a leas,
' deomposton rly made on ts hair of someting
1 aig the clement of Mf one cso athe, For expt the
fc ofall rangle ia the plan San be desompord into cases of eng
tags or nto las €tanlesofequal ae, thet fal unctons
tf-rean be compose no cla of anton al taking te same vale at
{given point, and soon. Despite gest vay of ch ity ty
fre aot comply arbitrary For example, i sbi pone fo
tonal fea miro ses y sining te amber he se
iss ab the numer af and only ba Int, b> a, 8 mt be
i sr 90 mncruns 7
signed 1o the same cl at ut then canst be anignd othe se
‘Shs singe. Moreover, ice ai ot greater ha al aot
en be igned 1o the cls conning ful! Ax another eam
Impossible to pration he pins of te plane nt les by asiging to
nas othe sais and ony tbe dance betwee theme
[incite dance Retwcen 2 abi le than I an the dance
Bexveen apd es tha ids no low tha the stance etre
(and i ethan I. Th, by anighing at he same late a and 0
these sus a, we tny wl fn tha wo pine al in the sate css
‘en thoogh the dtc tween thea grt than 1
“These examper sage conditions which mst be sisi hy ny erin
‘tice to be wed a he bass for prttonng a given wt no aes Let
‘Mba stand et carn ordered pis (8) of nents of Ye ell
ied" I (0) abled pl, We Sy tata vlad to bby the
(binary relation Ra write 5% For example sand bate rel mabe,
Rd might ean a= by wei a and b eins of might an tha
{lon on a therein es one abl pai (8) for every w 2
‘ration on i led an eutlenc lato on M) i es
fotonng te condtons
1) Rflestty: eR for ear 2 M:
2) Syne I aR, then DR:
3) Troms ab nd be, then aR
TOR 4.4 eM com Be pred no cases by 2 veln
(acting a rier fo apg vo cements he sae elas) fond
nip 8 san pale reion on Me
Pref. Every pation of M determine try eto on Mf, whee
ah means that “a tlogs fo the same cass ab" Is theo bows
sauivence relaion on
(Convery et be an egualenc elton on M, ad et be the
set of al sobents eM rach that na (deny we Ry since is
teteive. Then Iwo lasts Ky and Kye ete ete o doi.
Infact suppoe an tment e Blogs Yo Both K, and Ko, tee
bck Thea af byte syne. abd hence
on co
Pt ames io MP ht ed whe by he tani. Wow: © Ken xRaand hace by (8) and the
{Cooly Les © Ky. Viel th ae argent shows that
lilies Ky Therefore K, = Kyi Ky and have an lent in
‘onion Theoret siete form a partion of itd
Shoe
Romar. Deca of Theorem 4 one fe lt abou the decomposition
of Ato equtalnce asses
“Three an inmate consction between mappings and partons to
clases. shown bythe following evap
Evanple J Lt bes mapiog of set 4 into se Bad pation A
int set each congo a cent ith the nme image Ba)
‘Thm piso portion of 4 int came Fer example, uppee / projets
the pple eno the sas, by mapping the point(s in the point
(6:0) The the preimage f te point o he ais re ert ies and
the epreetation ote plane a te union of hee este desompocton|
into dames comerponding 0
Example 2 Given any partion ow A na cases, et Bb he et of
thee ner and anocate each eement a wih the ds (Le, eet
‘OCB o whch ft elngy. This ge nappy of into For example
‘eppose we prion tee densonl sac it clases by asiging tot
fame net pointe nich ae gusta fom the origin f coordinates
“Then every eas sphere ofa evan ras. Theft ofall hese ces
Gan be heifedwith the et of pet on the ban 0, 2), ech poi
‘Sreponing 10m pole wt ofthe ave. In thi ses, the decom
Poston of spac nt conte spheres carsponds tothe MUpNg of
Space in ee hain [0
Example 5. Supone we sig lel aumters with he same fiona
past cote sume sehen the mapping coresponing to ths prion
Fat he ect of "windiag he elie oma a cite of ui cecum,
Problem I. Prove tat FA UB Aan A B= A the A
Problem 2. Show hatin general (A BYU Ba A
Fing Rand A ~ 8
BA Rhee and BH 600053
“nginx inc hina tty eae quny
{Shnalhasna poo
Proto Prove that
9 -9NC=4 00):
9) An B= UB) ANB
Proton. vet
Ya Uae Ua)
Probe Let A be eto al postive ites vse by n. ind
bers
9 Bre Ban
Problem 7. Find
9 Ofert oA a +),
Tyek @crco
wai nus
Problom 9, Let» ~ fs) ~ (9 foal ls were (9 the fata
part fx Prove hat er) cloed ital of tnt Ths the same age
nde Wha this iage? a onetnone? Wrst the preimage of the
Intral [cy <1? Parton te mln no ee of point th te
oe
Problem 10, Gives Mt be the of lode pis on the
form (ae) with 0am eR ad ony 8) © trl the
‘sion
‘Prolem 11 Give an exam o' ary elton which i
1) Rebesve and symmetr,bu ot ante
1) Rebate, tat neither symmetric oe rans
8) Symmat,tut reer reeive oor tame
4} Trav, bat ther efesive nor symm.
2, Equivalence of Sets. The Power of Set
the seo al rime nar lee than en number and the st ll rides of New York City (a 8 pen tine) Reve srain property in
ion, nay ech at hana debe mere ments whch ca Be
found in pina et impr. Asorng tet al fo
tevin Cy, ec be sue ats mt eRe oho fnowing the
suinber of amen On he ot bar thee of al poste ine
{Seer of al pots on he ethene, ante
{5 of al pfs wth rational estcts bev udfren ope)
tncommen, rama foe rove ose! om eth th fers
{wo cane, the eemet, ad soo, here wl sl fe clones tn
the st sh nh nage Accor ths Ka ares eb pe
‘Given wo ite ct, we x sna dese whether or 0 sey have ie
sane mmr of eens td if ot we en ays Eeterming wich et
fas moe elements thn he oth. Tinto tk whee te same
treatin set. eter nord, dos take sneak for Same,
‘er thre ae more ies nthe ne hn rato pon he ne
‘emo functons Sets nthe neal, tea nes space As wl
Son be apart, eons thin Kind an nde be aon
“Tocompare woes 4s 8 we can con he omer of ements
incach nt tnd then coats eto mnbe, balan we ea iy
to ealsh one-one crespondence ewer he ements) ad B,
teenie ck Sacco cd oo
‘pondees betwen wo ft st cn be setup an on ite tweet
oe ie tame numberof ent For camp 0 skein wheter oF
tt the nambe of std an soy Be sea te unter of
Se the sors then tod out tebe aes
tthe number o sn We ced ey observe wheter or nt hte re
aly sens or aden iho pce oat ov, I the deseo
‘ened mth nvenpy atl Leste onotoome coronas
‘eroce thee adn ante of et ten hw toe ony
ihe se nba cesT pan post hr a he
fie method (counting eemens) nerds on fo Site, we he ond
tethd (eating p 2 one vnoneSorespodens) wilt for inf rs
22, Camlab ats. The singles ifthe set Z, ofl postive
ines. Anite senlle enue elements can be pt in one =
‘ne ceispondence with thowe of Zn other wor, = coun se t=
set whore teens cn Be numbered aos ay. BY ah mecoable
‘et we mea, of our, an nei et which iso Sunil
‘Wernon give some cramp of countable
ample 1. The set Z of ll integers, pov, apaive oF eo, i
oun Tn fact, we ca seo the folloung oe tron comespondeoce
ewan Z andthe et 2, fal poste integer:
Ohh ay
to
Mote cpl, we asi the noonepsve inege > Oh he od
umber tsand the eg gor nO wih the ves number 2
: nemel neo,
rot neo
(Gh symbol dente sont coespondece.
xanple 2 The set of al pose even mumbes is eoutbl 8 shown
ty te oboe comepondent 2a
Beample 3. The st 24,8, 0, ~~ of power of? countable, at
shown bythe vis correspndsnse 8&2,
‘Bxample The wt 0 ofall rational numbers countable, To hit
we st note that every radoel umber «can be wen as Fat pi
{oO inlowet tem ths poste senominato. Cal the a p= 5
Sigh of he atonal umber 2 For example,
feo
isthe only ational number fight 0,
sre the ony ronal amber Bight 2,
ee
eth only ational users of eight 3, and soon. We ean now arage
Si rational arber In oder of Inreaing beh (oth the nurators
Incesing ach st of ran munbrs ofthese height) Tn other
store ne Scout the rational mamer of hight thn thse of ght
2 ual aranged), ose of beh 3 and soon. Th ts way, we in
very ational umber augue poste nee, Le, west ups ene to-e
forrespondence betwee set Q all atonal mambes ad the eZ
‘fal pie tgs
[Next prove sme clemenary theorems ivohing countable se
Tarot 1 Leary set of comb tis nme
Proof, Let A be countable, wi elements day.» and et B be
subset OFA Among etsy ys s te ty agg n= be Oe thes the set of gues ye 3 Iria, thes
Bis tte Otherwise Bix countabe Gomi the orepondens
feed
‘Tins 2 The nin of «fate comme mami of coil
sett he de itil ean
Prof. We can sume that m9 WO Of te 38 yA ave
elements commen, ns othe we oul ome he as
Ae Aa Ay dy Uy UA
Instead, which are countable ty Tora | and hae the sane ion
the orga sets. Suppo we ite the seen fess in the
oem oa infin ale
on an w
where the lemens of th set yap i he fit om, the elements of
These ape inthe mcond ron and 49 on We now count al te
tensa (1) “ingonally" 1, fete chose othe yen
‘dso on, moving the way sown the flowing aes
mrt ta
am
Ba oe oe ®
ecb tat i prose tai unique muro ech cane
in each of the sth di dy» thereby easing ¢onetoone
‘orespondenoe baton he unc of the fue ess and he ot
Zt ponte integers
“Timon 3. Bey finite har otal se
bf) nd) ly emir
Proof. Le M bean infest and a any leon of M, Being ie
‘st, contns a ment sti fro ys lant a dint
ftom both a, andy std 0 On. Cotiung tio prowess (ich cat
‘ever termine defo "storage of elements ee A fie)
se pts csurtabe subst
AA cto fae}
ofthese Mo
‘Remar. Tove 3 shows ht countable st the “wt nite
set The gurtion of wher tae ent uncountle Gins) sets wl be
‘Seoideed iow
2.3. gual of sts Weave tte notion of sunt set
by comideieg one toe corepondenes btwn tad th st 2, fal
siento More gener wn cone onto anc cerepondonces|
eee any no ses an
esx. Two sett M and are sid tobe eee (writen
M~ I) here tr netoone crepe bee the ent of
Mand the lomnt of 8
‘The conrp of equivalence i appebleto Both ft and ities
‘ye Eh ae en adn hye eo
mente We ean ow deine &counable et ast equivalent tote set
{Zo al postive steer. Is certs wo sete which eal tk
‘hide ae gualnt cache, andi prtilariat symone
setae equvaent
Example 1 Toes of points inay 0 °
lose itera) a [ed] equ
Sent, and FigazeSthows Bow ost p
fneo-ooe correspondence betwee the
Here tw posts pa g correspon to ech
her if and only thy Heomthesamersy .
{emanating from the point 0 in which the
xenon of the line segments ae and bE 4
‘rangle 2 The set fal points the Peon 5
comple pleut ha eto at
scan" Hons ae at ssn per eo a eo pont a on 8 apere.thfac,a oneto
ne corespondene > feéeon the
pt af he tw set canbe ested
Gy tang sempre proc, a
own in Figure (0 the noth poe
fie spre
‘Eample 3. The st ofall pins =
Poot Jn the open sinters 0,1 eg
len the set ofall poet y on he
heel ie. For example, the formula
sabi # one-one correspondence btnen ths wo sets
“The ln example ad the examples in Sc. 22 show that a nite st
issommiimes equa o one of prope ube Fo example thee ae
aan pov tgs a tgert ferry sige tare aes an
pontine intra (1) us on the shoe re lie, and so on. Tie a
Erchracer falfie st (and can teed 10 dee uch Se 8
Show
Turon 4 Ey eine et pee! one of rope sos
Prof, According 69 Theorem 3, any infest AF comains
countable sbet etthe aet be
A= cbse
nd ptton A nto two countae subsets
by = lente disods he feet}
Obviously, we can eralnh «osetovnecorespondece beech the
umabl nt sal yey I one) Tht comespondence
En be etoned fot ooesovnecoresponence betwee the ss 4 U
Ge) rane dy Usa) Me by Sept aging
Itateco each ements 2 M— ds Ba M fy fea prope tet of
rar)
2.4. Vcomaity of tel emters. Svea examples of coetabe
sete ners gen n So. 12, nd many tee examples of ach oud Ye
ven In ot acon to Thre 3 the omen fs fmt come
nto of oust e ital courale Hrs mara sak wher
there ex nt ss whith av uncountable The exsence 9 1c
ec aru or ae me POWER oF TIS
‘oom 5 Thee ofl mab the ld miners, is
Proof, Suppose we bare somehow managed to count some o al of
‘hee ames ia 0,1], arangng them a Ist
o
where a tthe At gin the decimal expansion ofthe mabe
(Conie be des
$= Ohhh oy
onsite felons: Fee by chose ay dg rom 009) dierent,
from ay for b any dig ferent fom ty and so On ann penn
orb, ony ait rom ayy Then th decimal 2) cannot coun
‘vith ny decimal he int (3) infact, flo fo oo at eat te
Fn om oma et the scd pt, and soon sin agen
7 ay fo al Thus 90 st af el tumbers the nev 0)
‘oie he veal pombe in 1
"The above aguea mus be reac lightly sine cern mbes,
aely thse of the frm 1 can ewe eds in a me
‘Sher with an Infeite re of ern tn inne sun of ines Fo
Bh 05000, 0499
otha the fac tat wo dima edie deat nesesiy mean
{Bat they egpemat dato eal numbers Rowers thi daly
lsapears ifm consrsing we egite tat conta nether serot,
‘orines, for example By sting b= 2 Fagg and = Lit
mat
‘Thus th se (0 1] unounabe, Other examples of uncountable sts
qian to (0,1) 30
1) The set of plas aay close tara 8
2) The set of pint om te rea ine
5 The et of pone any open ners, 8)
4) The set a pms ine pane i apace
5) These fal pints on spore or ae sph:
6) The et fal lies the planes a
‘Theft hatte sets 1 anda equivalent to (tis eoed asia Examples
and p13 and, whe the fot ht the ee 3) 1) ae ean
{0 it fest proved dy (Problems Tan),
24. The ponerof act. Ginen ay wo sts Mand N suppose M and
sue eqs, Then rand ares owe the sve power. Roughly
tpeating, “pore ssi shed ty egulnt et TF and Nace
fe hen Mand WV hive the same number of element a the concept
the power of ase ede fo he wus oto ofthe be of cements
Ina The power fhe set Z, ol potest and eae the power
‘any counabie st, eno! by the symbol Ry end “alpha” A
See eget to th tof eal ruber the ner (1), and ence
{he te of lf el pombe i alo Rave the pone of the oma,
ened ny © (or fen 8,
ort powers of fae ti, forth postive inter, me hve the
solos rate han” and iw tan,” a wel athe notion of eal.
Tet and B be anyones it pomes mt) and mB,
de culaen 0B, ten mcd =m) by fon, Is uae
fot subst of Wand ino soa of 4's exalt to 8 he, by aPalogy
Ith int cn rato ear mt) ee hn mB) mB
‘rater than (4). Lope, hove, there are tw fer posaati
1) Basa subset oul 0, and Aha a abt gut 0
18) and are ot gual, and nether hase equa fo the
Incae), and Bae equislet and hee have the sme power, a shoe
‘by the Canorerssin theorem (Theorem 7 flow). Cas 6) nolo
‘tay show te enone of power that canaot te compared, Sut tows
fromthe wellorering tearm oe Sex.) ha ian sal pee
tle. Thsfre, aking bth of hse theorems on ath we so ta ny to
Ses A and ier have the sume poser ot ee sail oe af the ee
fons ma) =n) or mA) = mB) For example, clear tat Ry =
way.
Remar. The very dep problem of he exience of power ets Ry
snd'e'l toutbed upon it See 39. AS a tle, however, the inate Se
countered in naar either counahe or ebe Have he per of te
‘tion
We hav already note that countable set are the “elle infinite
sat Tc ha alo Btn shown tht thre are indie sts of power gree
than that of = countable namely se wh he power te costa
Iris ral task wher ere re inte st of pone restr han that
of she continuum or, more gover, whee hres 2 “tgs” pone
‘These question ate nsmered by 8
‘Tico 6, Gian et Net A be thee whe coment areal!
shad of The he per of 4 rth pve of
Prof. Cesy the power ofthe ect elesihan he pone
1m ofthe orginal et sae the "sngeeement sabat” (or ange
Too) of Mf fem asset of eqealent fo. Ths 8 oe oly
show tatmandsdonotcinie, Suposeaoneto dee coreapondent
eed, boo
ts teen eased bomen the elements by... of fad een
flements 4,8... of ie crim subs of 4). Then 4,
lo mot eat al the clea oa test To se
{his Tet X beth et of meat of A wich donot tla oir
“aSonatedsbsets" More enact fae d we axign oto Xia # A,
be oti 4 Clay, Xirasubut fA and heoos sent a
Sippose the ih an ment Mauch that eX, and cone
sir or as Agr Sn ¢ Th a.
‘subset. On the other hind, suppose x # X- Thea x © X, since X con
‘ts pecely of thoweelements hich donot song othe aso
‘ete Ina eet the laments coreaponding he sabe mst
Simataeoul lon 1 Xa not belong Xu hs pb!
Tefllows that thief no ach eleteat x Thesfre noone one cor
sespondence can be etablahed Between the tM and oy is
mou
“Ths, gv any ae. herein wt flor pes Gt of
ssl per power, ad soon ines. Ie paral, tere 90st f
“rest poner
2.6. The Cantor Bertin heron. Nest we prove a portant or
trendy ein the peeing sn
Tans 7 (Car eri). itn ony oo sts 4a Bape
A cantane 0 ibe fy epulesfo B, nile Botan ib
quote o Thon ond ae eden,
‘Proof By hypothe, thee i. onetowne fctonf mmping A
io Brand oesrone Conon ¢mappeng nt 4
FO BS BRD AeA
Aang) = U4)
“Thetore
a) ‘a subset of 4 equa tall of 4 Smita,
2, = fa) = fle(B) = 104
‘ss autet of B equiva 0B. Lit dy be he suet of 4 ito which
themapoig feces thee hy and be the ube of no whieh
afar dy More gnetally et fy bs the et ita wich UE
Tc) stared by Then cay
A> A> Ay? A Aa
we an sepesent the following anon of pow dijon te
AR (AA) UU AU AU
UA OUD. 6)
APO = AIUD = AIL “Ut And UB,
‘Cheat, (5) and (6) can be event
A= pumun, ©
An DUMUN, ©
where
Ma (y= AU AU
Nod 4) Ue aye
Nady UG— aye
Buta ~ 4, tegen tA, ~ dy he forme scat it the ate
by the neto-one funton a). Ay ys gue yy ad
59 on. Theeore i equa to Ny I fllows fromthe rps
‘ios (3) and (6) that one-one comespondene can fest up
beeen te iets andy. Bul 48 equaent to B, by hypothe,
Therefore Ais equaters to.
omar Here we ca even “affor the woes lay” of expiy
wotingdown a oretoone funtion caeing 4 8.
[rot eepum,
Olt acDUN
(oe Figure 7,
Prokem J, Prove tht set witha uocoutale eet is il
countable
‘Problem 2. Let Many ini stand A ay conte, ne a
Protem 3. Prove tat ach ofthe olonng sss count
1) The wt of all mamers wih two dine doa expansions its
5000. and 0-599-)
1b) Thea fal oma pois in the plane (Le, pins wih aon
eons):
1) These ofa raoal intervals Ge. tras with atonal end psn:
4) The st ofall oymomin it onl sete
Pratem A mur «isa algetai iia root of pyaomia
‘ution wih ational eects. Pov tat the of alles numbers
Probl. rove te existence of wncuntbly any raiendna
Probem 6 Prove tha the set fal el factions (ore. gine,
‘ucions taking tales in 3st conning at lst tho lmens) deed
‘on st Ais of powee greater han the pone f M. To paral rove
Ua the power fhe set a el uacons (coninas aad dconow)
{fin nthe interval [0,1] greta
‘in, the ic tab tf al haratrsiunetions (. faions
‘aking nly the sles O and I) on fs egutalett he e a sbscte
ot
‘Prose. Give an ins rot of he ule he oud neva
(a,b) the open ner) and thon itrval [e,) 0 (8
Hint, se Teor 7. ‘role 8. Prove tx he won of a Bite or ountble number a
cock of power eis ie of power
‘Problem 9, Prove that eh of he flloning sts bas the power ofthe
2) The set fal infinite squens of pote integers;
3) Theset ofall ordered npn of ea bes
©} Theset fal inte sequences fre ub
‘rote 1. Develop coteadcion intere inthe notion of the “st
Cont, Ths ne wl ctf to avoid et wich are 00 Bg,” ke
the “it of te
‘Ordered Sets and Ordinal Numbers
{4 Partly ordre ss biary relton Ron set Missi Bea
portal drogen thst hal lt portly nd
1) sree (ata for every a
2) Ris tanned and She together imply of);
5) Samiymeri inte sense hat aR and Ra ogee @ =
For example i A isthe st of lel numer an aft ness a )
Instead of of whereever url ordeig an we wil do so rom ac
‘The following cxamples give some ien of the generality ofthe concept
ofa paral oes
Bzample I. Any st Mc partly ord in a vl way by ein
acbifand oalyite=&
-Ezample 2 Let Mf be test ofall continuo faction fg... det
ina close incl (Then we gta pura odring by seing a Given any two ordinal umber and 9,
‘Mand be Wellardeed sts fonder pe = an 8, especie. Then ve
1M ad. ar morphic
AFA romorpic ore sion of
3) > BirWisisomorhictosome ston of
(ote hati defition es see fo ie x a 9),
Lowa, Le fe an tamarphi of a wllarded st A ono sme
subset BE A Then fl) > afer alle
Prof bere aelomene © Asch at f(a) B ®
ols, the other two are autorticly exe. We must til show that
‘ne ofthe relies (2) soap Rls, heey proving that ay te ord
tubers re compari
“astm 3. Th gen eel mer and 8 atisfy one and oly
one of thereon
rch GSB a>
Prof Let Wa) be the fal orials 1rd be i ed
(s-m)" oo
(incase p — 2a lead een emigre in samp 7 Ke follows rom
inkowsts ieganty (19) ht
(Eis ("es
Sr.
spr
(Serf (Spr } (Sp
i=
time, ne have oid tat he trogl iequty hash, he ther 90
Dpopentesafaminicarcbuosy wifes). Therlore ya mete spe
Remark HER ~ (9) same space and Ais any subst of te
bvouly Re (ng) aga a tere as, called mlgpace tthe ipial mei pace R. This deve eves ifitly more examples
seas
52, Coninmus mappings te tomeomerphiam. Hometle spaces. Let f
bea mapping of one mare apace imo anshermtesace Yo tit
Fame tn cme 3~ Je wh ea seen eK Ten
ii ct pot sy, pen any ¢> , thee ek 2
. FUChstea) =
Hewes
(here isthe mete ln and ¢ the metic in), The mapping fi id
to be omtnsu on tis eominious st very pointe
‘Ronat, This detiton races tothe wun deletion of continuity
familar row eet i and are boy merle if eal
encian deaeé on some sat of he ea lie
Gineo to metic pts Yan Y, let fbe onesovone mapping of onto
¥, an sappose fad J" ate bh continuous ‘Then f cls hone.
amophe mapping. simply = hancomerhion (betwen ¥ tnd Ys Two
{rte aes he hep ee os someomron
Beample. The ancien
0) Barton
‘sais a homeomorpie between he whole ellie (=, 2) ana the
‘pen ineral 1D,
Dero 2, aes mapping of ane mere space R= (¥, 2)
nt note mere pac R= (Fy 9) 1 a be nme mappa
(orsign ome) if
alee) = 2400 flo)
forall &R Corepondly, the paces R and Rae sd be
Iromari oath oth)
‘Thus IR and are omer, te “ete relations” between the
tlemente a ae the sme a thse ence oe cents of Rees abd
Biter only tthe expt are of ter sl ie dttion
Uinportat fem the sano of meth space theory, Flom how on
we wil oo singin etn home egg tn ipo
Remar, We wil dics contin and nomomorpisms fom 8 mare
oer point af ew it Se 9.6
Proto 1. Given msi pce (9 rove tat
2) lets) ~ ela < ply) + ees) Ouiyetne Ms
Dioinad—egraic ees epzex)
Psion’. Vy
(Sen)=Setoe—1 00, in
Da te aysiu (om his ey.
ti vy ut
(fuox04}=Petoafroa—2 von ~ omcrare
hoe ee
ton at os weg inane ip 0
Prolom 8 Esti a omy Between he 868 Cy 484 a
{, Convergence, Open and Closed Sexe
1 Clare of 4st Lime point) the open spre (oe ope bail
Soin) owes Rive re he nt of poss re sath he sneguty
603)
(the mei off). Te es pot x cal te comer a the phere,
fh the mame i called srr BY the cond spre (or clos ba)
‘thy riwih contr ad air we ean te we of ois © Renting
ely
Hiner
‘Anopen sphere of ave wid center yi als be called an enightoroed
tr ented bY OL)
"Spotted a coma poi oa set AE every eihbor
hood contain at atone point of M. The at fal contac pone |
{ct ented by [Ban ald he cir off. Obvious
SEeepe mtg Ra Reming
“Two | The are operator as he fling propre:
1) 74 the (A= (NI
2 (a= tin
5 wom = (Uk
aieln 2,
Prof. Popey 1) is obvios. To prove property 2) «© CI
‘Thenany gen neighborboo Oe cots a pot © (M. Conse
se spine 0, (4) ofan
ets nd
Clety 0,() 6 contiad in 00). In ft 2 Og) then
Her) i and hence, sine Fr) =~ flows fa she
‘Pang inguy Uat
fedca tena)
fi, £8 Oa, Sose © [A] thee i a pont x36 M in 0449). Bat
‘hen £00) and eee [soe 4) an abies) igor
food af Theor TIN) (4) Bu Say al] = [el] and
esse} = De ase.
"To pone propery 3). t+ [U.N] and apps (AU ()
‘rach livh std (N) Bu he here ext nephborbode 0, 0)
{nd Osha hat , (onan points M wile, ons
acini ew ip in pi ia
es enone, on 6 cise att 47
0 pas of 1. I flows tht the msghboehod 04), whare «=
‘i, onan 0 pints f er M or Ny ad hence no pos
oF ON contary to the assumption that ve (ATOM. Thttoe
[al] U [Nh ad hence
rome aqui, o
slo an aebizay pint of [9 U ML On the eter bad snc
Me MUN and N2MURe i follows fiom property 1) Bat
ihe TAO Nana [vi [Ml MT Ben
aiuime wom,
which ote wit (mpl (A UW} = (0) U )
ily fo prove property) we ose tht en aay MR,
n= Wu e)- Yn toh
by propery 3) I follows that 2] © (A) Bu isis pole for
say oni [2] (Alerts the et with fo ement
‘a hve no contact poe)
Apoin x Riscall in po ost M & Ritevery neighborhood
ox cots lite) many poms of Thelin pont may oe may not
Trion toe For example is the of atonal mamters the eral
Tosti then very pont tf 1 atonal rns, i pot of
‘A pamt loging ta St Melle 2 ltd pom of ee
Sa hint mgood contig so oe
462, Comergnce ant links sequence of pias {x)= Xe
gon ina rns space Rh til core fo 4 pel ve Hey
teighborhod 0,0) contin al pains nar froma cain inde
(tore ety en any e-> 0, the sn eee such tat
nn al poi, thn 2). Te pit nel the Hr of the
Sete (an ee, as) hy emer
lps.) =
nis an mediate consequence ofthe defson of ini that
1) No egueoe ean ave iti iis:
2) Aha soquence {e) somergs 10 a pe thn 50 dows every sibs
some
(eve he dei, ‘oan 2 A necenry and fin coniton fora pos 10
oat pot fase tha hare eto een Co of pot of
comerging ©
‘Prof. The conton is msevary sine If a cmt point of A,
then every mighboood Oy (2) conte at lest one pot =
hee pints orm sequence (x) comerging tM. Thee)
ieobvioon B
“Tusond 7 A necetary and fet condo fora pon 10 be a
Imo at ha he geo pt
Proof. Cerys i i 8 lini pola of Af, then the points =
yas) 0M Sgn inte proof Teste 2 canbe shen tobe
Aint. Ths proves hence, and tesuieneysaguinobvou.
463, Dame subs. Sepaale spaces. Let 4 and 5 be io subsets of 3
neti apace R Then td tobe dona Bi [4)> Bs in prt
1 aid to be eerywhere done (in RH [Al R, Aad td 10
where dee dece nn (open) phere aa
ample 1. The of lation pats sds in he elie
Example 2 The eof all pits ¥ = (i sen) With rans co
rinses deme in cach thepaces FS Rnd nrodued a ramps
S5.pp 28.
Example 3. The se of all points x= (+e) with aly
tly many nme coordina ea raed aber dene ae
sect intodued in Example sp.
ample 6 The et fl polyoma with ratios coon dene
in both pce Ge 898 Cy nrodeed In Examples Gan pp 39 and
«
Deron, Ame sd espera ft ara eee
verpere dee
Example Te spse IO R RR Ch
sine the stain Example -4 abe a ai abe
Lyteatlepaabe,
Beample 6. The “crt space” M deeribd in Example fp 38 om
tains countable everybere dese abet nd bene separable Wand nly
iit elf coun tse cll (A0]— i ce
ranple 7. Tero countable everywhere densest inthe pce m of
sa bounded sequen, todo! in Example yp. tft soar
the set # al succes consitigexclsely of mos and one. Clay,
Eas te poner of he continue wall Toaer: 6, See 23) soc ete
‘ns enetorone soregondene Between Find the st of al sb of Che
Set Z, = (0.2, ym) eee he eotspondee). ACTIN 0
formula (12), p A, the dance betneen any tv points of Fea |
Suppose we round exch point of yam open sete of ris J they
big a ucouniy iintefaay of pre sen pes, Then
Toone et reer deaf here ae at leat one pot of
‘Micah ofthe me. Ifo tht eno be countable sod Bence
64 Chast ss. We say haa suet ofa mete space Ris ese iit
eign with ir ove ltrs, if [f] = Min other wort, ae
‘slo conan al ii pots Ge Probe 3
Example 1. The emp set © andthe whole pace Rae coast,
Bape 2. Every hse itl [0 he ie i oe
sample 3. Every cle sphere ins metic spice i loved et
particu, he set falcons the space Cy such at (0 <
(tee isa conan clove.
Example The st fal uetios fi Cy such tf) < Kan
open sphere) ot lone. The ose f this the closed phere in he
presedng empl,
-Bcample 5. Any st coniting oft umber of points clo
‘Tn 3. The eran of an rary mtr of oe esis
dos The nin of a ate aber of ced st hte.
Prof. Given abies F, indeed by 8 parameter» tx bea
it psn the seston
r-0F
‘Then any ueightorhood 0) contains infil many point af and
ence iney many pine each Theor ta lan pit of
‘ch F and ence belongs teach Fy se tests Fae al los
r-OR
te the union of ite numberof lows Fy and spose x doce
ot blongtoF Ther oer ot bongo any ofthe sf, and ence $0 vere snc oun
‘cannot be ini pot fay fhe. utes freer therein
feighboricod 0,2) cating no mor than nt mb f pole
oF, Choose
ee min ey
we ge expo chood 0, (9) containing na more han ft number of
pt of Fao that x canna ba it pot off. This proves tha =
pointe Featact be abt pt of F Teeter Pcie)
65. Opnset A point xi called an ror poof ast M i ha 8
reighboriood 00) © M, Lev a neighborhood coming enti of pane
(FH Asati oe open is pons areal interiepois
Example 1. Every open terval (Bo there ie ian open st fn
fac, fave x e"oterain cach fg 3
“To deere the retire of the et F, we fit noe tat Fsonains the
oats
Ob bbb bbe o
ts, thee pins ofthe deleted itera (ogee withthe pois and
—
og ib,
However Fonsi ay ote point fc ve ny [oppo
we wee ie trary notion, represeatng sts sie
aaa : ®
ere each ofthe numbers 4-4 my tke one ofthe ee
{ales 1,2. Then sear toc that longo Fitand only fs has 8
‘epeseniaion (sch tat noe ofthe umber, yon os ele
ein things troup)”
Remarkably enough, the set F bus the power ofthe continu, Ls
sere ae ab my pots in Fin the whe interval (0, dept tea
‘hace sum ofthe eg a the ed nev ee
Hitt
To se this, we aoc new point
yobs
BeBe te
wih ch oi ee
_
hot ace
Tn this way, west wpa one-one corerpondencs between Fand he whole
Inver (0,1) teow that Phas the pwc of te continuum, aber
Lat, betheetof points 3). The P= U te where tact y= Pk
Isuncounable, snc 4 countable and P iif ot The pone oft
{eft ele “point of FoF the fs id" whi thow of te ied
“point ofthe on Kin.
Proton . Give ae example of «mtr spe Rand vo open pees
‘Stser) abd (yr) sch tat Se) = Sip ltbough > fe
Problem 2 Prove tht very conta pit fst ister init poet
of AM ora old point of
{2 Fh any cn fates nT Fae eh 4 sare wet cue
Comment prs, IN] an oly cotan pins of the flowing
1) Line pointe of bling to
8) Lim pnts whi do nt Blog os
©) lalate points of
‘Thus [1 te unin of M and he flit pts
Probom 3, Prove that x55 FAY 2 DEN AK D>
9
int, Use Problem la, p48
‘Prato 4. Le fbea maping of one merc pace Xin another mere
space Y. Prov hat fiecontmaous ss pif and only ite equeee
Gah (se comers to y= fe) hese the egtence (a) om.
4) Me cout of any et Mb. dosed ts
1) (O's test hse Set cotiing Mt
Prato 6 se aon of intl many coe ets nce hosed?
Ho shot te etenecton finely many open sels? Give example
Pratem 7. Prove det thatthe point belongs to the Cantor st
aumough isnt an end pot a any ofthe open neva dled i Some
nctig
‘Hint. The point {vides the interval 01 in the rai 1:3. 1 ao
ives the nv (0 et ae deleting (9) the a 3:1, nd
Proto . Let Phe the Cantor st. Prove that
2) The points ofthe et Kind, Lt points (3) form an esrywhere
1) Themumbers ofthe form y+ a where ty © F fille whol interval
toa)
Problem 9 Given a eet space Bet A ba sabe of Rand x point
ot Then the umber
4.3) = in fans)
Incl the isn eteen and, Prve ts
2) x4 imple (4,3) = 0, but no conven:
¥) oldea) na cotaousseton of or ted A);
©) pals) = Oat and nl see contac pot of A
(41-4 U Moet Av istbeset ofall pons sucka (4,3) =
‘Problem 10. Let Aan B be wo subs of «met spe, Th he
mer
A,B) ik by
‘esl thedstaneberweon and Showa (4,8) — OITA NB 8,
Problem H. Let Mg be the set of al fnesions fm Gay sng &
Lipton, he et a foc oat
Li) — F001 < Ka
forall. [8 where Ks 2 Bes postive mamber, Prove ht
1) Mj: lowed and in tthe lore of he tf ieee
functons o fn 8} sac at LF)
5) Theve
MUM
of al fenton ating & Lipschitz cndion for sme Kt not
Sloe:
1) The conus of Ms the whole space Gay
Problem 12. open set Gin imesionalEutsean space Ri sid
vo be comected any pot. = canbe joined hy Plygonal ine
yg ty Frezampe the oe ik) cme,
Siych @-m4 yet
(eventhough they share contact pint). Ax pen sab of an open
‘scala a conponet of Gi ie comnod anno cota ager
ound set of. Use Zor’ lem to roe tht every open se i
frre the \olon of mre than coustaly ny pire den com
Poon
Comment te case n= 1 (2 8 the ei) every connected open
sct gan open intra pont one of the infin Intervals (2,2),
(gap, (22,0) Thur Phorm onthe suc of ope ete on thee
1) very open set on thei tbe onion of feo couse umber
of eomponens
2) Every open conseced ton thine a open itera “The fist aston hols for open sets in atin ft i sessile to
facer natn), wise ese ttn pei psy
7, Complete Metric Spaces
11, Deion nd extmples. The aerial lend fain
withthe nation thecompltenes the ellie, The ellie of use,
{puta simple example of « ete space. We now mate the natal
terlation of te neon of complet the ete af am abi)
serie pace,
Dernanost. dsquoc (of pon name pace Rit merc
1 salvo ay the Cashy erro fn any cher an
Inspr Nuch ht se) = efor ln >
Draron2. A sbegune of pnt namericpace Rr elled
«Gan seence or a uaamenia eee) i ses he Coy
“aon very comcergnt soos i) fendametl
Prof I) convergeoa lint, te, gen any > 0, here it
so inte Nach that
aeomed
for alln> N. But then
Fs) 608) + atin
foralina > Me
Deron 3. A mere pace Riad be comple eer Cachy
egunce mR conerges to an slonet of R Otets Ri le
Incomplete,
Example I Let Re the “pace of lt! pot considered in Example
1, pK Then th Canc sequences a Rae asthe “sony sequences"
{Sh sgn (9 tf whe ee tte wane Sarg om some
inden. Every such sequences obo sonra an eee of
ese Ris compete
-Ecample 2. Te completes of thera ie if rom me
vaya
Ecanple 3. The compen of Eacdean nspace allows fom ha,
Hn
te a fandamental quece of pins of A. Th, given aay © > 0, thre
cian Nh at
Sor oayree
fora pg Hy ans at
PP) kate)
forall pg > Ne it ech (3
is Tundamentl egunse in, Let
‘The obviously
“This proves the compltnest of R, The competes of he paces Rand
2B Snvodoced a Examples 4 nS, 39 ix potd in morte ase Wy
(ive te dea.
Example 4 Lt (5) ea Cachy gues in theft p68 Cy
‘omsideral in xampp. Thon gen my «> Oy three 8 08
00st o
for alm > Nand all (4B. follows thatthe sequese (5.4) i
tray convergent ut teint a uniform smvergotvequcter of
oninubis encores continuo ntion se Probl 1) Faking
Thelin ao (we find ha,
In) —s01<
focall > N- and all fb) Le i) converges inthe mete of Gans
{01 fonction 0) Cy, Heme yy 8 comple men space
-Esample 5. Next lt be a sxqoence inthe space considered a
‘ample p30 that
oe
eh 58 werme sae ou
Suns ts hat Cay ges. The ve any > 0
oa
Sot ce ®
ose
le for eee kth equees (fundamental ad hence converge
ee 12
2 se ted
“The, te we now show, xsi a point off and moreowe (9 converges
tov in theme scat. complete elspa
Tate 2) ips
Bara arrce o
Foran ued M, Hong edn (3) abd thing the tint ann 0, me get
Sarre oy
Soc (holder arbitrary Mf, wecaniaturntake th limit of as M >,
uals
Sorte ©
Int. hc foi
up a i
as
| ies
lp.)
m 3p — ay" = 0,
ee (0) converges to win the mete ase
Example 6 Is ay o show athe space Co ample 8p 0 ¢
Incomplete If
10 -t
112, The nse pre hea. A soqine of led apres
Sts fy Sev SU
‘a matric pace Rin sid obo nse (or erasing) if
Shug rl> Stine 29> Sls. >
‘Using hs coasep, me ca pov inp ctetion for he sompltene of samme wc ons
Taman 2 (Nested sphere theorem). A mei pce Ris comple if
aden f cry sted ep (83) ~ {SU rah of led spre
Rowe hrc O ene has ane set
Proof Ris complete nd if Sy) ~ (Ss al) any neste
quence of loed spheres in sch that rab a n-> so hen th
Soqunc () of emes ohespursTundament sae iy x)
efor = stand. Osan» =. Therefore (s)he a ie Li
xefis,
In fs, contain every pnt ofthe sequence (seep pony the
learner na at pt oy or
‘Cones, suppose evry need seqience of clseéspers in
ih vai covery to aroha a none fateecton andl (22)
ny fondametal sequence in 8 Then tar aii inf To se thi,
‘ete fat that a) fundamental to chose term, othe uence
(aaj atch at
shown) <}
‘Then choose a fem x, of 5) Sih hat > ma ~
1
ho 80) <
foralle > mand be the los sphere ofa with one
{Continue wis conto definitly, i, ote hating choses teri
Troost (eee fy coo tem yh tat
mae aad
Krak
for ln > tut Sys Be the chow apr frie 12 with centr
‘read 00, TAR Bes mene sequence (5) of soe spheres
‘ia converging too. By ypothns these pers hae nn.
‘omy intron, ke, here ia pent inal the ahers. Tie point
is obviously the init of he sequence {uti Fundamental =
‘nas aie comer he es
nici pas i sai to be nwhare dene im i ie Sense 00 CH)
‘phere alo eoialeny tery sper 8 © P enti anober spre
Fase that $4 1 (check the eguaens) This comet lat 90
potato
“Tus 3 (Bae). A compete meric ae R cant be epreeied
the anon of cosmo montero oe do set,
Proof. Sappve to the cote hat
an Day o
were cers dy nowhere dete iaR. Let S © Re aloe pee
‘trade. Sic 4 ienowhere dene Sy Being nore ds aR
Tere close see ofa ess hen fsa hal Sy © 5, Sd
S. dy Sine notes dessin being nowhere dese
in Sy there ira lod sper 5 of rai ie han fash at’, =,
and'S, 0,2, and soon, la is nay, we ot eed sare of
losers 5, witha comering to mr ach that
SMA =
As.
sete
Woe
coe
coma t,t erent
Conan. A compete meric space R within oie point is
scott
Prof Every single slenent set (os nowhere dein RH 7A, Complation ofa metre et As ws sow show anincomplete mete
spacecanalvas teenaged (on ecenaly nie way} to ge a complete
sac opce
Darna 4. Gien a mers space wih coe (8a complre
meric pace R* i ale complain of Rif RE Ra (A) Re
Tenif Ria eae of Re coher dee in
Example 1. Cleary R° = Rif Ris abeady compete oe Probie 7.
Example 2. The space ofl el nar is the open of he pace
fall ronal ander
‘Taso 4 Bory mere space R hata compeion. Tis completion
Si an et apg ig Pl
Proof. The pro! Is somevdat loth, tat completely ssh
onward Fist we prove the anu, showing tat RY ad R=
at to completions of K then thet '¢obeto-one mappings —
(te of Re one Re such hat 9(0) = forall ee Rand
Gr alert 9 o
O° = soem iste ditance nA an othe dst in
Thecaied mapping scons lows: Lt bean bitry
ot of RY. Then the dao oe completion, theresa guene
ef pois ot converging to. The ponte he stems fa)
to belng to Ro, re they form a fuamenal sence (hy
‘Thectore {x} converge fo a pane t=" © Ry ince Re compe
Tes clear thats" i independent of he soi the seguece(s)
omerging tthe point” (why). Ile set lst) = 2% then it
‘he eed mapping a fat, (0) = fr alls Rane ity
then bia ese Ret — x, Moone suppose
Juan ie Rey le Hy, Joye in Roe The if ee
‘ease in,
22) tim re 90)
im ht) o
(Gee Mable 3, 50, wie the sami
pe o
But) and 69 toed imply
"We aus now prot he existe of «comgleton of R Gen an
sbizary mere pace Ry meaty Tht 0 Couey sarod
we. conus ner east 6
(8) in Rate epson and write (2) ~ (8)
line. 89) 0
‘As ancipated by the notation and terinsogs, ~ i fe, sm
‘esate, is an ule rine sens
See 4. Deere tee ofall auc saences fps inthe =p
‘can be prtiond into caer of sghalot sone, Lt oe
‘laser fete point of ew space Then me dee the dace
79 i ey) °
hrs) any “representa of (namely ny Cc sequence
inthe chs x7) and} at) representative
"Te tent tpt ei ha tna ne, ke, at)
exis sndepeden af te eo othe sequences («7
toda he ie opti of ee ging non
3. Given any ti fellows from the angle sequal in
Urs Problem fp. 4) te
Ieee) — ese rl
= lbs) ~ sys r+ Qu) ~ ee 9)
[ek 9) — Hts YI eon dd ~ cP
< Hie) + drone) Et ww
forall age mand, Therefore egunc fel oumbers
(au) (pls 9) fundamental and hence ba in Ths i
Independent fhe coe fry) = 9 et, ope
(eh fedex, Caer
le J9)~ eta F< oar 8) + Bal
by eaclaton analogs 1 (10) But
‘Then
lim tw) Him 04.9 =0.
sine (5) ~ 8 fy) ~ ale and ence
in 01) = Han 8
As forthe te propre ofa metic, it obios that jC
a8), th tate) Dif and ony = yn mint consquence ofthe iin of equivalent Cushy quoi
‘Tovey tetangleloeqaliy in A estar foe etree egal
20 < ota) + 2
inte cig pace a he ae the mit se n+ co, oaining
i ey 2.) 0, cote 3 sep
rena of, anf a Cay Segue ) i he else at
N besuch teas) = efor allme > When
2) im en
‘n> Nae. evry nigborhood ofthe point 2* coat poin of R
Tefatows ta 8) =
inl to show that Ri complet, we fst oth by the very
etnition oR, ay Cavs sequrose (2) omling of point in
‘converges to some pot tsa tote point x00 RE aloe by
{sah Moreover nce is dene in R, gin ny Cauchy souence
(at) conan of pins in Rt, we can find an guvalet equnce a
fensing of paints in Infact, e ned ol chose 10 ba)
Dnt of R sh tate s2) =m. The reiting mguence{e)
Findaetal, ands jst soon comergstoa poi © R Butthen
the vguane (2) als somerges tt
Example, I Rise spe of al atonal amber, then ithe pce of
steal mbes, oth equipped withthe distance) =~ 9 ots
fray, we san "conn the teal nimber stem.” However, thee sl
Tens pbc fsb detnng sare ta product of al numbers
Sod wehing tht the wal so fame ae isd
Prose 1. Pro that th int ) ofa uniformly converentseuense
of fneon (0) saninuous on (o,f «function Comino om
fen
is. Clty
VO $01 < UO L001 + UO ~ £4001 +60) ~ FD
ere ff 08. Use the uniform convergence ote the sm ofthe
fiat nd thd rs 00 the right sal or sony ge Th se the
tina off) 0 ake te wc er sal Fae close 0
Probie 2, Prove ha he pce min Expl, pA incomplete
Problem 3. Prove that sR is complet, thn the iatnsection FS,
Sigurng in Tice 9 costs of nl pint a
Problem 4 By the dante sub of metric space Re ean the
aa) 93469
Suppo Ris somite td It (4) Be # seguene of cloned sets of &
suppose ter that“ :
linda) =6.
‘Prove that he nection Ft aon
FProlem 5. A sie A of a mesic mace esi o be banded i
siamrtee 4) i Se: Prove that he won of ie number of Pose
‘ets bounded Problem 6. Gite an example ofa complete mere pce Rand a ested
sequence (4) of closed sbi of such Set
Recon his example with Probl 4
‘Pratem 7. Prove tht a supace of somplete met space i om
plc ifand onl i is cls
‘Probem Prove tat he lio euiped wit the distance
fs,9) Jaron sare |
isan nompee mete suc.
Proton 3. Give an example of «complete mete pace honeomorphic
‘oan inoompiee mele space
ne, Consider te example on 4
Comment. This homeomorpic metre sass can hve diferent “metic
oper
‘Problem 10. Cary ot he program acs in he ast etese of he
example on p55
Hi, 1 (3) an (te Cavey sequences of atonal mums ev
ss “represents” ofr ums andy especie) deine <9
thereat mumber with representative (7
1. Contraction Mappings
1, Definion of a contraction malig The fed plat tore. Let
bea muppog ofa metic space R ino iui. Thea alle a fcd pint
SiAigar avs ted cores sino Gace. Soppon thee exis number
3 tach at
Hts, A) < apts») ©
for vey pir pins © R. Then A ssid 0D a soracton mapping.
vay cosacne napping automaticaly cotiwous, nace t follows rs
the “cotacton condition” (that xy Ax whenever
“Tamonot 1 (Fite pon there), Bry contraction mapping A
fa oma cmpee mac pace hai ie pot.
fen cl be mad of acre apn ea nag
‘as St pn of aon mph
Prof. Given an abicay pity ket
BA Ai A= Mey eM Ate
The he eens (i fendamental nt, ssing ob exp
i) = HAMA AY SB Bena)
< Hla) + ana b+
aden all tat *
Bur the expen te ight can be de abit sal for su
Seni) ngs my ace a ice Ris complete the ssuenc 3,
ting finden, hit
‘Then, ty the comity 0 4
‘This povesthe xen aie poi x. To prove te uigune of
we nat that
(1 become
Hs) < 40659.
Dut then os,3) — Orin = Land eee #9
Roma. Tb fe pon theorem can be wd {0 peor execs an
nigicns thorns fr slain of equations of various Gps. Bees
‘Showing that an ogation othe form As == bata nique tion, the
ned pit there suo ge act etd 0 fding the ston
Calon ofthe “scene approximations” (2) fc, ax show
the pron te appronimations (stay comerge to the slant
guson fet For ths rnon, the fuel pot theorem fen eld
{te tha face aprons
angle 1. Ls be aston deine oth clo intra, hich
sh ap at al and sata Lisi enon
ted — Fo < Kia — o
with contant A= 1, Thon fie a comacton mapping, and ence, by 164i consacton mapping, we can we the metodo rascesve approx
tions sale she oqmtion 4x. The condos une who 8
‘Sonriction map depend onthe choice of metic. We now erie ee
1) The pace A; with mee
Hs. 9) = ma in~
to.p=msinsimm| Foie]
“Theorem 1 the seqvense
< ma Flee ey — 2
(zed),
me N= safle ® the contaston codon
onvergs to the unique roo of he equation f(s) ~ In pares the Zledcact mt o
“contac condton” (9) hls iar conus tative” on fe 6] :
sch tat 2) The space RE with mets
Weare ee aun)
‘The tev ofthe scene approximations (fn theese 0 <9) <1 Here
tnd =f) Dison Figure 10a
Example 2. Conde theming of dimensional ace into ill
‘Sven by he stem of near equations
10.~ Elv.— 3
=z|z00—8|
@
sch tat
1D Gey) e0" ix 3 < Bly 6 KH
Bween
set c* beth peo comin fnstions dfs othe inter 7 vem sree oun.
bx sl < Band such that I) ~ yl 9
sock tat R hn n0 fate cya. Choose aay pat © Thea R
‘Sona at et one pointy 2, sch that
le.) >t
sine other y would be a0 ene for R, Morons, contin
point suc that
loin ta)> by plea > &
since there the pra would Be a eat for R. Mare geal,
‘nce having found the points ap. - nya, me choo Soe R sich
‘tar
Honea) > (E12
‘Thiscontrocin Besa inti sequeae fist pol do»
Jo. ith no int pas, sae Flay a) ty iJe eB ew
‘Sei be coonably emp.
Conan I. sey canal compact mei race as a conte
eorybre dae net ond «cole base
‘Pr Se Risa ody Ther, Rasta 100 soreaocca scr oun
vas dense subset of 1 follow from Theorem 5 p82 hat
esweounabe ten
‘Conon 2 Ee nay comport mere pce compat.
Prof. An inmediate comeguence of Corley spd Theorem 9,
poet
-Acordng to Theorem 1, ta undednesis mecesary sondion or
ametspace obecompact However, hiscondon sot lent. For
ramp, test of rational pins inthe neva (0, 1] wh the enna)
‘Ention of stan forms amir pace R wich totaly bound Bot
‘ot compat. Tf, he aoe of poms
0 04, ost, oats, asta,
i the sequence of decimal approximations othe iaiona umber
E—1, tas no lint pitt in R. Nery and eficentconions for
Compacnss oa mete space ze gen
Dagon 2. A mere space Rs compos if ond any fi tly
unde ont conte.
Prof. To se tat compacts of ips complete of
swe nted ely ote hat fas Caucy sequence (wih olin,
‘hen fs.) bas mo limit pont in R-This togter with Toor I,
‘Sows that Ris ally bounded ad compte compact.
Conversely, uppove Bi ttl bended and compl, od (%)
be ay init eqeence of dint pots n R Le be ane Ca
Toe Rand eons close phere of ras 1 abot exey pat of
‘Size thn sperecover Rand there infil many of ha, ett
‘ne of he prs 5, conta a inate abaeuence
hesequec (Lat Yea ne efor Ry and sono os
‘phere of rads | for every plat of Ny Then at eat one af tee
‘phere, a) Sy, clan ab nite eros
of the soquene (8). Continue is contention ite, Sting
‘bel apbere af au] sonaning an init oeaquece
te sequence (8. and wo on, where Sy has radia 2" Let be
‘Becloed phere with the same cnter as Sut witha aie we
Inge (equ 1/2"). Thea cely
wet nesenat ot meme ce 10
nt mre 0 a8 1 Sige Ri cont, alow
the eed ye cr (im 2) Dat
Asie
tn i pi ha
As. t0
(reall Problem 3, p. 65). Cletly x init pint ofthe origin
egies (x) sir eveyasghborbeod of conn ome phe Se
‘il bone Some itt subsequence (02) Therefore re ait
oqunce (x) oftnt point of Rs in pati Iowa
‘Ris counaby compact nd enc ompct, by Coal
‘Bcampe, As skeay noted, subst M of Eutan pace Kittay
bounded and ony itis bouded. Moreover, Miscomplete if and oly if
$i oud (ral Problem, p68) Hence, by Theor 2 the of
ompact subsets of concider with the ae of al led bound ret
oe
1.3, Rebtel compact subsets ofa mare space, The conepofrentve
connpciet todo st St 10.4 for abet of an ari toplopl
act, apps parle to sets of amet apace Tn the ee 2
‘er pce, however hte wo loge any distinction beech elie
Conciente counlble compacts
Tone 3. ser M ofa complre mare mace Rs relely
compact end ony totaly bounded.
Prof An inmotine consequence of Theorem 2 and te fc tat a
dod subelof compe wee pace foal compe. Bl
Example, Any bound wtet of Escliean mapas it oly bounded
sand hote relly compact (i i or veron ofthe aris Blan
Wreras tere.
Reni, To wy of Toren 3 tems from the fst it aly easier
to prove tats ete oly bounded tan ves dirt prot oft ele
Sempactes. On the ok ba compactness the bey pepe fa |
Spleen areconerot
4 Ares thar The problem of proving the compass of
varius subs ofa gen mel space I entountred quite equ a alysis, However, tert oppiaon of Thor 2 i ot away oy.
‘Thiseapas h ncd for peal eters erving spats fo fa proving
ompacnesinprtiulr spces. or examples weave seen, he Bonded:
est ofasein Eocldes wopace pti compactness, bot tention
[asia more general mete sce
‘One of ths ow imprint tre pace inane the unton se
Gyn istrouced in Example 6, p38. For ett ofthis space, we fave
‘lmponant and freuen wl crrion for scle somes, ald
‘Arell'sthorem, whch wil bested nd proved ater it nrg two
‘voy
Dernenow 3. 4 family of fants dined on lsd itera
eo bom ded er eta ater BO nh
lea <
forall fa, Plana 99.
Diseuron 4 A fly of fonction 9 defied on lard intereal
{ois be gleams fen = 0, sere ss manor
Boneh ate = 8 pir
lee) - er] <6
forall, 0, Bland all 9.
oon 4 Arse) neces and fic condo for fly
© of canines fictons sified on cased tnterel[ 8 10 be
realy compat It Cy that be wafer Rowden a
Prof. We ge the prot in wo sep:
Shp 1 (cea, Suppose israel compact in Gay The
by Thenem 3, gen any tO, here ee (ae se
| 0 (ee Problem 1) Being conte fio dete ou x lve
Interval each 9 Bounded
Inelck @ 0 Bese hat
teks — af
forall g 2 whenever [iy — sl <8, Die the ner a << b
‘Moog th ae into sues eopth es tha 8, by eeolng
ota oblson Sy oso yuh at
and shen dam a vet ine thug ech ofthese oi. Saiaty,
vie the Interval k= y < Kalng the an ato sudiatrvals of
eng thaa by nocsing point of absen SS oo
seh that
aa
Ken snspc Deu hat
$9) 2 Nh length ft
Tonge segment msking up, ies than and moreover,
Tote) — oI) < Ky
“Tell the Fale ines Lith > Vind the rectangle (why.
Suppose Ly has vers (Py Joven» (a, Pam
bites 2,
#4.) ~ PA) = Slang 8) = 1D De
BCL) — POD ~ Flom dM — A.
Hence, fie 8,
(Gores a neighborhood a yi whieh (3) =k
‘We now prove the promi geeaination of Toren 2
A al cn mtn ft be hone ont EW cond
‘asame ea fh
‘Tusouot 4 fe ber sistas fncton f defined on
ampact tpl spaces hounded fom blow
Prof. Suppose to te coneary tat if fs) ~ —20, Then thee
iss sequence (5) sch at fs) =n Sine 7 compa, he
Inne set (ssp vss acs) has at eat on lint post
‘Since fi ite adler sencatiououe tthe negro
Corey wich /(e) = fle) | Bat thn Oca aly conan ey
rany pins of that xgcanot tea int potato
“Twronod 2.4 fe lover solomon faction f ified on 2
compact plogial pace Paces ret lover nd oT
Prof. By Theorem 2%, in fa) is fete ley, tere exit a
sect (4) se tt
fo cits!
By the computa of The et (40 yo) a ea
‘neti pn yf (4) nf then bythe senna off a
thee a mighbicood W ofthe pio ganda > Ouch e/a)
Jnfy'+ 3 foral'se U But then U cannot cvtla an inte sb
Bye xecamet be it poit of Teo ht fs) if
Remar. Theorems 1982" emai waif the words “owe,” "belo:”
and "greet ae replaced by “upper?” "ove and Teas The dea
We cola this section th ome afl terminology
Dare 3. Gi real fiction fied no metas R the
eo ite gut
foo
tin | son sco)
(scaled he npr lint ff ae whe the fine or pte) gute
29 = tim iat seal
fsa seh
called the ower lint ff. Te iference
eft) = fsa — fos
Prvied et ald te oction of ft
Tepid a at nf he ht). QR
123, Cominsous cures in mete spaces. ase of mappings ofa mae
spats inu ther line. e now connier maping of» set ofthe rl
lento « mete space, More eay, et P= /() be a cominvous nape
pg ofthe interval = 1b loa cic ge RAs "ress the
Intra fom ato Bde poim P ~ ("avers continuous curve” In
the pace KBefore ig oral Seleiton corresponding to thi 00g
1) The dein which pois are ated willbe regain een
propery o's cane. For stamp, the st of pons shown In Fie
Tah gsc o wo dint cvs when waveredin th two ot
‘aye stoma in Figures 14) and 140), Smythe anton shown
Invigare 15a) einen he ner :
Is = a, then obvioay =. Om the other hand,
sun BeLety
contrary tothe choise of eH
‘Conary 1 To lament and eo the same clas ger
at by Ly fod only ff) ~
Prof elows Fo
nfo be
sms Gta) ~ foi 0-10.
eases; ~ 556 ifand ony he oe ox vases,
Prof ine any cae & generate by et «be any clement of &
sd those) = ay the “vest” of €.By Cal
ths rorosmtate ie algoe and tere ie boul nora ass
See yD and fa) #0 for same ve L. Meteor, ghen ay 10
Sinn caer £ and with representatives a ad Bo pete
axa — a
and hence
where at est oe ofthe numbers, is nonzeo (hy. Therefore any
{ro isi coments of Lae nary dependent follows tat
iL Ssonedinersonal ey, has codimeason IaH
Cconotsany 3. To nmi ine fan and withthe sane
nil pace re propotna
a0 sane concems (27
Prof. Agate x be such haf) = 1. Then gC) 0, Inf,
xefOnty Web
£60) feo) £0) = fet
sine fy = Lp. Bat ten x) = O wou imply tat evil comrary
to types Iefollows at
0) = e600,
ie, gt isproparional tof) wthconstantofproperonaty() H
td ence
Give a inca pce L, tL © 1 be any suepce of coimeson
Then every as in geeae by Lica 2 perp paral o L
(is pric 1 ti Myperplanecotinng "it hough the
tigi’). Inter words, a hyperplane” purse tox shay Es the
seh ying tte ae aon oi) ed
Mm L$ 2ym fer ay +y9EL')
efter that M1 and only ye. We an now give simple
pote interpenetration
“Twono1 4. Glen atinar pce Lf be anol ine fant
mL Tenth st My = fe) ~ 1} ne yperplane para the nal
‘pate Lo the ctl. Caney kr ME ag EN by
perl paral vowbpace © 1 of eodimenton | on ot pes
thr he orgie Thon here eit an Ie ftoa fon
thar = be) =.
Prof Given fete ch het fs) ~ | oh a aba
‘be found. Then by Torr 3, ever cor Af em be represen
Inthe form tsp. whare ey
Comer gen ML" xy ¢£),iftlows from Toran?
anise! that eer element x can beige repesnte te
fowm x= a9, where Seting /() =a, we et the ded
liner Tanctonal The igenee off fallow fom the fat that IF
pO) = fore Ms than 9) = Ory #1 by, 2 tha
Hess fien 9
Romar, Thus ne have efablihed 4 onetoane coresponicae be
‘ween the ef al ontvl linens Funsioas on Land he set of all
yprplaser in which do not ps hugh he pn,
he xeon ot i haf tt ft a 9 =
yeuthctiahrsd "ema Sy 70) = was eh ah
Fan tnd 128 ean seas euns
Problem 1. Prove that the st of al polyoma of degre #1 with
reaforcomple cofientsea linear ace omorpbcto the dinenoea
ectr pace (C9.
‘Problem 2. Vesiy hat Rand Cae nmenons ax antipathy he
secmialogy in Example 2,119,
inice-iension -
‘Problem 4 Gives incr space L 8st (of Hcy Sndependet
‘ements Lis si tote a Hane basin) he near seb pret
By Gl clots wth L- Prove tat
8) Every ear space a2 Hate basis
3) Fe) de Hamel basin Lyte vey vet © Lt 4 gue
reprsntion ts Bele eombitalion of etn om the Sel
ta:
©) Any two Hamel bse in a lneae space have the same poner
(Gaia amber, calle te alee dines fF
4 Two liner space re omorphi and oly hey Bae he se
lesb dersion
Problem 5 et bn kdimesonl subspace of an m-nensonl tsar
space £- Prove that the aioe space ha imension nk
Problem 6 Let fff be nea anton on near pace Lich
aurfeoe ifs =Wingon fin 8 ea ec
poy-Zosto
1A, Convex Sets and Functions. The Hahn-Banach Theorem
HLL Comex sts ad bodies May important topic inthe shery of
linea paces rayon the souon of come. Tis noon, ening fo
Init geometric eas, an be formulated purely asl” Cisen 3
eae space Lets ody be any bo pit of Then by ie (ow)
Segre inf joining andy we mean thee fal pots in Lf the fom
Grgy whee => 0 and 2 hf =I. Such a segmet mine rend
[ois = ty alled an ope segment By the ror of se M 1
[sored by KM), we mean the st al poate ve mith he flowing
trom ny yet eames) 8 ach
cM conv ses A TIA THE HAAMNAGH oe 129
Daramon 1. Ase M © Li sad be comes whence it cote
‘wo pa and st a conta the een alg and
eras 2.4 cones et i called comer by fs nro it
cample 1. The coe, ballad and balspace ae all ome
bos I teesimenional Euchdean apace On the other ad, the
Hnesepment, plane and rag se conve tsi but act conven dis,
Example 2 As ul et Cay Bete spc ofa futons conto oa
‘hefner! (0), a lt Bethe ei Cconitng al ection,
satshing the extra coniion
yore
“Then Mi cones, sine
Waist, waist
topaher ith 38> 0,2 +8 = impien
f+ BeOS «+B =
ample 3. The os wit phere i Le test of a points —
(Suespereeee) sh that
dacs
Ja convex body, Is imerior const of al points «= (4,850)
satshng te condiuon
Example 4, The Hier cae Il ee Example 9.98 is conver in
1 but at anv Body In fat
megs Oona
snd suppose yesh
[E]<[oetf+micsh+ sash
foe a n= 1,2, which sie =. Tao Se itsin of 1
emp. une 1 A come st then 0 sinter 1M)
Proof, Sippse 71M), abd ee = a 89. 48> Os 2
pn then Ben tay Ly thee ate ambere sO, sO ch
hat the pointe s/f. 7 Hh belong to MH fe Il ee
‘Testor
ake $10) ta)
belongs to Mi ce =i fey eee Z0M EW
of any mambo of cones ts Ma laf comes et
Prof. Lex andy be any to polls of M. Then x andy belong
ery and ene 0 dacs the eget jing andy utente
Samet joimngsc and blogs. 8
ines any suet 4 of ner space, there ba smal conve sot
ontining 4, Le the interestion ofall cover ste containing 4 {here
Pit lent one coabex St conning, nately Lisl). Ths minal
ner se omtaiing 4 elled the cme hall f For etampl, te
ome lle hee honotinear pint the ingle ith hese pons a
142. Comes fncinas. Next we intros he important consp of 2
comes fictional:
Dison 3. fantail on rea er space i 2
beconmar i?
1) pt) > forall x Lwomegatay
2) plea) = aps) forall se Land all> 0
3) poe yea) + pO) forall ye.
that ps tie for all ve, be, we alow the ene whee pO) =
Example 1. The length of vet inPacean mapace Ri a sonver
function. The fst and second condos are mediate conegurnces of
the deftion of lenge Reni inka nnnepe), whethe
thr copition means tha the leet ofthe sm of two vectors does ot
coed the su ther ngs (thera negli)
Example, Let M ethospee of ound festios of Sind on some
set Sand ey be aed pom of §. Then
encionn, PANT
‘Example 3. Lat me the spice of bounded numeral sqpenees =
(syongers tae) Ten the fneona
960) sap
143. The Mintonsifanetinaa, Next we cone the consti be
Toon fp acest neta ipa amy
Fa (on) <8)
Arce Wp fe, come bd it bre
ne)= te) <4}
on hat in oto),
Praf es,y Bsa b> O04 8 hte
oe +9) <9) + Br) 0: ~ int fr > 0:
inte > 0:54
at) ® |
|
Ne, gen ay «> Oa ny 96 Lae te = 1.2) |
pels md POD
hic ontadies
145. Seperation of coments in aliner space. Give eller space
{ke and N be bet of Thon fir onto ed on Lis sido separate M a Nt hare exits umber Cs ha
Jy>c i xem,
Pec it ven,
Te fowsatone om hein that
1 A lea fanetionalf seperate wo st M ad if ad oa if
Separates Mi = (ee xy ¥ 0M, ON} ad (Oy the set
iting of al diferences x —y where v4, ye W andthe set
‘whos ony lesa 0 aot tha he mine a M doe ot
ave he sal meaning 2 fo)
2) A linear fnew Separates two sete M and i an only
Stparts the sete Ay (et = t= syet EM} And ay
Grn y—nyeN} force ek
“Te fllowing theorem o he seprtion of connexes in a eae ace
has numerous appliceUons ad's st eas) commguecs of the Hat Banach
‘THEM 6 Let M and 9 be dea cone set rl near
pce Lhe ots ne of th ety yh hat nonnpyierr
Gest cone oi. Then threes mona a fan fon
Prof. The is 0 Ios of geet i assuming that he pot 0
‘ong he nein of M, ne oterwite el onl comsc the
Se Magn (ety teal} an Ny = (ry He
YEN} wbete xis some point ofthe inerior of M. Ley tea pot st
1N- Thon the point Jo belongs tothe itor of the set WN
(ene perc aayeN}, and 0 bloas tothe ine of the st
MON ye eis yt yy sey ON), Shoe Mand Wave
fst, weaved g Noy My Leipbete Minkowe
unona fo the st MN yy Then pO.) > tee yee M3
‘je Consider teint ool
Hop ~ a0)
ene onthe one-dimensional subspace of 1 comstig of lees
the form yy ley sai he coniton
Led < way
Poawd= a0) if a> 0,
{Mew = 9 <0< ploy) x0.
Hence, by th Hab-Banach hore, the fnctionsl fan be etd
to near Fnctionl deed onthe whole sc sod sing te
act sem ene ree 37
ondon (y)< pond. aon taf) < Bifye M — WJ
Iie st bet tne)» Tose farprte te tte MN yy
In jo. Therefore septs the Sow Nad (0). Bat ton 7
Sepsis hese Mand 8B
‘Prolem I. Let Mbt sto al points = (88-5
sting te conon
fees
rove that Mi coves t,t mt comes Bo
Problem 2, Civ an example of eno convex bots whos iteretion is
Problem 3. Wesay that npn yy yee pace
aren general post they donot Slog oar Dpaiesional
hp of he cortex al fe of 1 ol ye it
{ret postions lle sn denna pie, oe pits
ee heoueles ae ald the eres of the impee. Desribe he ste.
‘Tekno, eaodimenion, twodinenonal and theedinensions!
Simpleses in Elden thsospace Prove that he simp wih vere
see osisthe et oa pins in whch can be forested fe
vere
yoo,
Problem Show hth pias fy in prea posion,
shor sore ay kh 1 (k=) hem
Comment, Hence toe K +1 point gente «Kieron! singles,
called linen feof te names Splx wth vein
Problem §, Dib all romania, cae-ineainsl and
Simona face of he etahtron i ith verze
‘Prolem 6 Show tha in the Haba-Baach theorem we can drop the
ondon ta he aetna efi
15. Normed Linear Spaces
1:1, Detnlons ad examples, Chapters 2 and 3 dal wth topo
Gin pric, space, apes ppd wih the Rion of loses of cents, while Ses. 4 and 15 del with ner spe,
Secs upped wih the operon of ston of mete and ic
{ton of eames by mbt. We ow combine tee ono en, aig
tte noon of tpi inca spar euipes witht topology a nell
‘i the lgebral operations caracteang lear pace nth sto
fod the next, wel sly topoopeal lear spacer of & pty
portant ype. smalysormd war ser ad hen paces Top
Tepe isa spaces in oer wil be conser fa S17
espa 1. fncionalp deed on lor poe Li si be
«sno Ef ha fling pape
2) 7 fe and cre:
2) pls) = Dany x= 0
8) et) ~ fp forall anal.
Recaling the definition ofa conve funtion, wea ha norm in
Lins nie functional on sich tat,
1) 2) > Ofor alle © L, where pls) ~ Dif and onyx 0
2) px) — fs) orate Lanai 3:
3) +9) <0) + pO) forall x, re L
Denson 2. ew pace Leupp with mom ps) = Ie 6
‘ale a normed incor pce
‘Tpesoation [a wlll be pre forthe narm ofthe element
{x In eo ofthis nolan, oper 1) tae the for
1) [sl > Ofor alle Z, where Lx] = OF and oly = 0;
Y) fant = ple for alee aed a
13) Tralee: [x yl Lal + byl forall, ye
very normed inh pce Zbcomes a metic spac if te et
Hay) Bey o
for arrays. The fact eat (ins mete follows ne fom
oer 5} Tha eth wi ba mete pce Chap
‘Many of the paces canner in Chap. a examples of mete spces
(orin Sx 13m ckampl of near spaces cate made ito normed Tear
Specs ina atral way, as shown by the following eames meh ie,
‘ci tat be not a al he epued proper
Gm he omer wre i fl a Shan a 172-14, sur
eS op ty i yk
Example 1. The el ine M8 tecomes 4 normal near space if we st
stor very sumer
-Bcampe 2, To ake rea npace Bits noxmed nse se, we wet
wi Ee
foe ey een = sy Te fora
donate [Sot
hen deste same mein sake cone Eaingl3p3%
eal 3. We a sho sup mae wh ae
tats Spot ®
Isle = mas st o
“The sorespning serie lend othe spaces Rand conse in Ex
simpler and $3
Example 4 Te ormale
w= {Sit
lnodess «norm in complex space C*. Oe posible noms in C* ae
ven by hand,
ample 5. Toe spe Cy fal fenton continsou on te itera
fu, b}enm be equipped nt norm
uw
“The mesic sce cotesponding this or hat aleady Ben consid in
Brame 6
Example 6 Ls be the sper al bounded mamaria guests
Be Cessation
ts
up o
“Then (4 sbviuly ha all he prope of = nom. The metre induce”
{ts orm ith sae a cone in Example, pa Example 7. A complete ound linea cs sive othe mei (is
‘ale Banach spore” Is eas to seth he pest samp 1 ee
IL ansch spaces (ie detain eh as an tree)
152 Saopcs of «sored tear spe In Sec, 133 ve dnd &
stipe of linear space (ened ih any tpl) ar sence
‘el vith he propery hat ie) eb, then a 32 fara 2
nd The ebspces of great ner a tome nett space he
ld ogc sth soning nl iin pt Ta ee a9
inditesimcasiona pce, cyto ge example st soaps ake
rotcloed ae
sample 1 n he spce ofall bounds segues, the sevens with
oy itely many nonzero tems fom a subspace, bv nla se sabpoos,
‘ce, for example the dare ofthe sbypoe conn ae seyence
(bode)
ou Ret fy promi etn Me ra
sexing oC Gi Sra ra Se te ra
and the close oF coincides wilh Cyn sce eer foton com
tite nif nwa ws rl an ee
ye ee
4a wit flows, we mil econo a a ule wth closed subse,
Meni tual o mo somewhat te wenlog adopt nee 9
enya seo ores nro oar pte wil ees a
lod soap. In area by he ssp pert a5 ofceaes
{swe lay ea th eal ltd secon ey
‘gas ila cle he stan Te ner ej
wie aed for a3 of sess f(t exes Sed oe
i Inyo hy an a
lina csie of) cones with ete
Rena. Tiss unoter meaning he word “lose,” otto be eonfsed
witht msuning in Sc. 64 The context wil alvaye mae t seat whic
‘esning nnd
sample 3. by Wiese aproninaton torent st of fsetions
erent or is compete Cy
a -Lrt—<—C~S~—srs——
Inc, Englewood Chis, NJ (962, , 120, a
‘Prolem 1.A abet Monon nae spe Rt to be ended
ieee is constant such ht Inf '= Clara. M. Reco thi with
Probe 5p.
Problem 2. Gives a Banach space let (8) be a need soqence of
oct pes Bo that By 2,2" Oy Prove a Be
none (is ot eure hat he ai of 2 approaches a8 2)
‘Give an example of ned sore (fof sone coed bounded
nv et n'a Banach spe sich ta (Emp (ce Prem
Pe. :
Problem 3, Prove thatthe sgebaeimesin (efi in Problem 4,
2 oft inte diersonal Banach pce wnsountade
‘Protem Le Rb Banach spc, a et M bea close subgac of
‘fie nno in the ctorspace PRIM by eng
eri
foc every demented cas) EP Prove tat
Tel actualy 3 norm ia
1) The eps Popped wih ti norm, Ranch space.
Proton Let Rb x norma ica pce. Prove that
1) Every fe dimensional ina subspace of co
18) aries ose abipace of Rand 5 fotedimensonl begs
8 then hese
M4N= (=x by emyeND 6
Ja loses subspace oR
6) IPO ivan oem comet st ia Rand x ¢ 0, then thee eit a oso
hyperplane mich pases hoop th point and das not tert
Prato 6. Le x= (y+) Beam arbiary element fy
rove that ea normed nat ace en eld withthe nor
wi JEe
Cine am ramp of wo closed near subspace M and No hove
Prolem 7 Two nor ll i ier space are si to be
eget there exit constant, B= Osh hat
lsh < Uses # Ish
forall R. Prove that f Ri eitedimensonal, thn any mo are |
are eualent 16, Euclidean Spaces
161. Scalar produ, Orthogonal ad anes We bla with mo hey
Dern 1 8p tapos el Kr pace Rit meant
eal fanned freer a of laments Rad del by
(ey) ith he toning proper:
1) esa} > O where (en) Dif and only
DGD= ra
(cafe als y,2 © Rand ret),
DEO Alp Repti pr led
Lon. Any oe coments 7 of ue race Rs the
Setar ingly
- (eal tat Wt ©
i= VG, yt = Von.
Prof. The quarts plyeoi
00) = Oa + yode 7) = Maa) + IME) +9)
= Isl +26, + DF
ix obviomlysomnepiine. Thofore
Gy be Yi <0 ®
sine serie 40) woul bexome neat for some (vy Bu 2)
Roum to
Tuo. 4 Bacon pace Becomes amore incr space whe
puppet wit ibe orm
t=Ve em.
‘Prnf Properties 1) and 2) op 198 ae immedi consequenes
ofthe bon ofa sear prod. Te prove pope 3) tes te
‘ange only we nate at
ety
pee (e9) +2699 + O99
Sea) F231 + Oy)
SivieS2 bt Bt + B= it + as,
we cuseas ices 1
bec of the Schwa neguality (1, and nse
lesyls bl bb 0
‘The wala product in canbe ed fo define the angle Between wo
vectra wall ts the eth (he, not) Yor
awe 3. Ge nyt ecors ¥andy a Falon space R,
the gant ® defn format
G2 @co (3
7 starr tx st B64 — 90% 0
aa ,
ano °)
= 0.0,0,...,0)
form tn ethoraal basin on of fiitely ay such bse
ample 2. The space with sements x
Opies doce mheTe
Jaca Stem.
‘comes an infiteimensionat Ease spe when equipped withthe
ae rode
ws
‘The coveguce ofthe igrhad sd of (6) flows fom the elementary
nego
Iran < s+ bal < 208+ 90
and isan easy mater to Yr that (6) ha al the proper of a salar
Ge rneaureraneees
mee cure treet 5
duet. Te snp orhonoal basis in conse of he vectors
= 0.0.0.9,
Bao.n0,).
82.0 ®
“he otonormality 0 he sytem (1) ie obvoat As or the completeness
the atoms pre ny wear = ancora DIM lt
2 sitar 8042-3
‘Then 0 is foe combination of the vestars ¢y ey eoo0 4 amt
Ts x) ose
Example 2. The ase Cy cmsising of all continues functions on
{ol ogipod with te sala rodset
crn=froxve
1s anoter example of Bscidean space. Among the varius orthogonal
fone i hy ane of he moe Inport the sft of tigonrec
fotone
rat jg 20m Le
cos HE sin 2M at.
o
‘he orthgansiy f this stom can be Wied by & simple saan
Making the choke @ ==, = = we amply (8 0
osm, sian (@= 1.2.) “
‘Thu (8) an orhogo bassin be pce Ch, Asfor the completeness,
wena
“acount 3. The rtm compete CE
Pros. By abode version of Weintrasappoxization hore
er fant p conus on the ntl (bland sk that)
‘70st ofa wiflorlycomverget ques of tgonometc
Fynomial, re, near sombnatons of elements of the sae (8
‘ir snuance comers (aon tothe wat ofthe pe Cl
But an arbitrary function fe Cc Be repenentd the a Cay oem of sequence of anctons (9). where
so) ecco},
O° VDu(o—2) -maje—ors0 i obexce
oincides with fia the inenal
(ast einer on (6 (8)
Seta Sis dep
\ ete
ed we
/ |) Shetty desy
fo te Cy teen) tye Het
onion elements of he em
ne ot
163, Ebene of an crthogina bss. Ongena. From sow on,
vse mil be mainly concerned withthe cane of rprable Eason spaces
{Buca spe conning a counabe everwhere dese subset For
‘ap the paces A ody ee leprae, a Showa ia Se.
A etarpe ofa nowseparable Eee sce en in Problem 2
‘Tuono 4 ery orthogonal stem sa sepraleEnclean
sce hat no mar than coma mony eames
‘Prof There to lo of genrliy in stein tht the ten
{4 leorbonormal a wel at othonal sce ster we ee oly
seplce 6)
fe
Wn
Ieondevd fae °
‘Conse the set of open spheres Sx 8), These spheres are pie
‘jit, tcc of). Mereover ech sphere cota at at toe
‘lems fom some sountate mabe (eerywhere dene in Re Come
‘oe there reno more than county ay such spheres, and Bence
So'nor than somitly any cements eB
Wehave aendy eee an orthogonal basin ech of he pss
‘hand Cy The existence ft orthogonal isin ay separable Eeliean
space nara bythe flog tearm nd te crllary, algo
‘othetbeoremontheotenceofan orthogonal assay Sitedimesional
veld suse
‘Tacono5(Orthogonalain tere) Let
Fob sfu 09
emp (cota) setof finery independent elemento Eideon
‘ce RPhon conte ast elements
a a
1) The sytem (11 iota
2) Bee eloment 9 i tna combination
emt teal to Fda Can 29)
of he clement ffs
2 Beery element it ie ambition
+
a ee,
Af the eames 8-1 Be
Moree, zr lento the tm (10) gel derma thee
andi owt ft of
Prof, Ft we const Seng
= safe
se deri rm the onion
Co 90) = aiff = Ie
SG
“This obvouly determines 9 uniquely (xcept ose
"Nex suppose ents fs gare > fea ming the ondiasof
se theorehavesleady bn rotated. Thon fc be wena he
fre
Soman ob eater the @
ere
oO 12a,
"erg: in, edn the hy of a Spe oid
1,4 Solas oni Engel Cg NS, Pon sep ek fo fact, the cosets fy and hence the element hy are uniquely
‘Seermined by the conde
he B= Ua ba =~ Baten 9D
=u 98) bales 1) =.
ete
{Ctety (hy) > 0, since (i) 0 conta the asued ee
Independeace te elements 10) Let
0
‘Using (12)and (19, espressh andence yi em ofthe Fnstins
Foleo--sdmis
"een tah baal too baal,
were
on m=0 =»,
Go8o-1
0d
Som babs bate 1° b Paste
where
bg = Vie) > 0
“Thus, sat from leery shag the condone
oF the theorem, we bie const cements, gyn ney fri
Sahn encanto Te pata nn aa
Remar. Th proces ang om the ineaty independent elements (1)
{o the ethoncemal sytem (1) cle rhogoniiaron. Hit cet tha
‘he subspace generated) (10) coleier with Sst generated by (0).
‘evo the st (0) comple and nly thee (1D complete
Conon. ery separale Bult spe R har «comic
rhmarmal bat
Prof Le Yuta soso Qyss- be 8 countable eyes dene
sobset of The copies fli indent seen
Jove fre -ca bead om {Ina we ned oly inate
‘Rom the Sequence (j) all dements , ch cam he wien a linear
combinations of elements with male ndcs (<8). Apjng he
Srthogoeiation rot 9 ff Mite et an ohenoe
tase B
164, Bess inguliy, Coed erage! sts: Let einen fe
ean arhonormal bss in Them every vestor = ean be itn
theo
anten
owt oh pnt hw nan
Seer er me nee ee eee
eLULUrUrr—
=
steed batt 00
cate he mpc ao oot map
a
aime
dan as
or sh ie being, prety formal), il the Furr seis off with
repos the tea (7)
‘Then i str to ase wheter the seis (15) comergs. and I 0,
tether the sun of th seis ences sith the oa Fonction f. TO
Ther it nso, west Ove
“Tons 6, Git a otha sem
De Pase Pae 06)
ne ucean spore B, lt {beam rbirary clement of K. Thon the
a :
bode
oe
moneda) Oo
..
ae ph. tte ef ua opening 8 me smhonm eq
wre
Sacwe,
athe Bt ay
rte
5,-3.0 «a
Then, bythe orthonormal of (16),
=
Uasata nS
eed abe
The xen in ghd sd (9) vou ahiee mi
smn ws a eta hae
tenon
ee
ne AND
nd ism jst
U-sah gr
fey
Morsoer, sine [/— $1" > 0,iflloms rom (20) that
en
is comerget Taking the it at n> 058 2D), me ge CT.
Aer: Gomi ea inet (am at at of
thesquaresof he potions of vector onton tof ut erent
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