Rank the sources that contribute to your annual dose of radiation, both natural and human-made (7.6) Explain why nuclear radiation is also termed ionizing radiation. In your body, explain the connection between ionizing radiation and the production of free radicals (7.6) Some units describe the radioactive sample; others describe the damage it does to tissue. Use the curie, the rad, and the rem to illustrate this (7.6) The terms enriched uranium and depleted uranium are confusing to people. Describe this pair of terms in such a way that the general public could more easily grasp the similarities and differences (7.7) Do “back-of-the-envelope” half-life calculations for radioisotopes, being able to quickly determine how much radioactivity is left after time has passed (7.8) Apply the concept of half-life to the storage of nuclear waste (78) Evaluate radioisotopes in terms of their health hazards, discussing factors such as half-life, type of radioactive Questions Emphasizing Essentials L Name two ways in which one carbon atom can differ from another. Then name three ways in which all carbon atoms differ from aif uranium atoms. The representations “N or '°N give more information than simply the chemical symbol N. Explain. a, How many protons are in the nucleus of this isotope of plutonium: 32Pu? b. The nuclei of all atoms of uranium contain 92 protons. Which elements have nuclei with 93 and 94 protons, respectively? c. How many protons do the nuclei of radon-222 contain? Determine the number of protons and neutrons in each of these nuclei. a. “C, a naturally occurring radioisotope of carbon b. C, a naturally occurring stable isotope of carbon c. 7H, tritium, a naturally occurring radioisotope of hydrogen 4, Te-99, a radioisotope used in medicine E = mc" is one of the most famous equations of the 20th century. Explain the meaning of each symbol in it Give an example of a nuclear equation and of a chemical equation. In what ways are the two equations alike? Different? ‘The Fires of Nuclear Fission 10. 325 decay, effect once in the body, and route of entry into the body. For example, compare radon-222, iodine-I31, and strontium-90 (7.8) Describe the issues associated with the production and storage of high-level radioactive waste, including spent nuclear fuel (7.9) ‘Take an informed stand on how high-level radioactive ‘wastes should be handled and stored (7.9) Evaluate news articles on nuclear power and nuclear ‘waste with confidence in your ability to understand the scientific principles involved (7.97.11) Describe the connections between nuclear power and nuclear weapons proliferation (7.9) Assess the risks and benefits in regard to the use of nuclear power (7.10) ‘Take an informed stand on the use of nuclear power for electricity production (7.11) Outline the factors that favor or oppose the growth of nuclear energy in the next decade (7.11) This nuclear equation represents a plutonium target being hit by an alpha particle. Show that the sum of the subscripts on the left is equal to the sum of the subscripts on the right. Then do the same for the superscripts 23pu + SHe —> P3cm) —> *8cm + én For the nuclear equation shown in the previous question, ‘a. suggest the origin of the }He particle. b. jn is a product. What does this symbol represent? c. Curium-243 is written in square brackets. What does this notation convey? Hint: See equation 7.1 Californium, element number 98, was first synthesized by bombarding a target with alpha particles. The products were californium-245 and a neutron. What ‘was the target isotope used in this nuclear synthesis? Explain the significance of neutrons in initiating and sustaining the process of nuclear fission. In your answer, define and use the term chain reaction. |. Nuclear fission occurs through many different pathways. For the fission of U-235 induced by a neutron, write a nuclear equation to form: a. bromine-87, lanthanum-146, and more neutrons. b. annucleus with 56 protons, a second with a total of 94 neutrons and protons, and 2 additional neutrons,326 RD. 13, 15, 16. 7. 18, Chapter 7 This schematic diagram represents the reactor core of a in both, or a change in neither. For the following types nuclear power plant. of radioactive decay, which change(s) do you expect? a. alpha emission b. beta emission . gamma emission 19. Figure 7.12 shows the radioactive decay series for U-238. Analogously, U-235 decays through a series of steps (a, B, a, B, a, «, «, B, «, B, a) to reach a stable isotope of lead. For practice, write nuclear reactions for the first six. Although some steps are accompanied by a gamma ray, you may omit this. Hint: The result is an isotope of radon, 20. Given that the average U.S. citizen receives 3600 Sv of radiation exposure per year, use the data in Table 7.2 to calculate the percentage of radiation exposure the average U.S. citizen receives from each of these Match each letter in the figure with one of these terms. sources. a. food, water, and air fuel rods b. adental X. twice a year water into the core cooling . the nuclear power industry cooling water out of the core 21, What percent of a radioactive isotope would remain after two half-lives, four half-lives, and six half-lives? What percent would have decayed after each period? 22. Estimate the half-life of radioisotope X from this graph. control rod assembly control rods ; Identify the segments of the nuclear power plant, diagrammed in Figure 7.7 that contain radioactive we 100 ‘materials and those that do not. Explain the difference between the primary coolant and the secondary coolant. The secondary coolant is not housed in the containment dome. Why not? Boron can absorb neutrons. a. Write the nuclear equation in which boron-10 absorbs a neutron to produce lithium-7 and an alpha particle Time, hr 23. a, Is depleted uranium (DU) radioactive? Explain, b.B ium, control rods, a b. Is spent nuclear fuel (SNF) radioactive? Explain. Explain, ‘What is an alpha particle and how is it represented? Concentrating on Concepts Answer these same questions for a beta particle anda 24. Alchemists in the Middle Ages dreamed of converting gamma ray. base metals, such as lead, into precious metals—gold and silver. Why could they never succeed? Today could Plutonium-239 decays by alpha emission (no gamma wwe convert lead into gold? Explain ray), and iodine-131 decays by beta emission (an accompanying gamma ray). Make a time line of nuclear history, putting at least start with ‘a dozen dates on your line. For examp! Becquere!’s discovery of radioactivity in 1896. Other candidates for inclusion are Chernobyl, Hiroshima, the opening of the first commercial reactor, the a. Write the nuclear equation for each, b. Plutonium is most hazardous when inhaled in particulate form. Explain. ¢. lodine-131 can be hazardous if ingested. Where do discovery of various medical isotopes, the use of all isotopes of iodine accumulate inthe body? uranium glazes in Fiestaware, and the Nuclear Test d. Would you expect the radioactivity of a sample of Ban Treaty. each isotope to decrease to background level on ® 26, ‘The isotopes U-235 and U-238 are alike in that they timescale of hours, days, years, or thousands of are both radioactive. However, these two isotopes have years? Explain. Hint: See Table 74. very different abundances in nature. List their natural Radioactive decay is accompanied by a change in the abundances and explain the significance of this mass number, a change in the atomic number. a chanoe difference27. Consider the uranium fuel pellets used in commercial nuclear power plants. a. Describe one way in which U-235 and U-238 can be separated. b. Why is it necessary to enrich the uranium for use in the fuel pellets? c. Fuel pellets are enriched only to a few percent, rather than to 80-90%. Name three reasons why. 4. Explain why itis not possible to separate U-235 and U-238 by chemical means. 28. a. Why must the fuel rods in a reactor be replaced every few years? b. What happens to the fuel rods after they are ‘out of the reactor? 29. At full capacity, each reactor in the Palo Verde power plant uses only a few pounds of uranium to generate 1243 megawatts of power. To produce the same amount of energy would require about 2 million gallons of oil or about 10,000 tons of coal in a conventional power plant, How is energy produced in the Pato Verde plant, ‘compared with conventional power plants? 30, One important distinction between the Chernobyl reactors and those in the United States is that those in Chernobyl used graphite as a moderator to slow neutrons, whereas U.S. reactors use water. In terms of safety, give two reasons why water is a better choice, 31. If you look at nuclear equations in sources other than this textbook, you may find that the subscripts have been omitted. For example, you may see an equation for a fission reaction written this way. 250 + !n —> PSU] —> Br + La + 3'n a. How do you know what the subscripts should be? Why can they be omitted? b, Why are the superscripts nor omitted? 32. Using the model of a neutron presented in equation 7.6, explain how a high-speed electron can be ejected from the nucleus in beta decay. 33. Coal can contain trace amounts of uranium, Explain why thorium must be found in coal as well 34, Suppose somebody tells you that a radioisotope is gone after 10 half-lives. Critique this statement, explaining, why it could be a reasonable assumption for a small sample, but might not be for a large one. 35. “Bananas are radioactive!” A vive president of nuclear services made this comment in a public lecture in the context of comparing the different sources of radiation to which people are exposed. a, Why might he have made such an assertion? b. Suggest a better way to have phrased this. . Should you stop eating bananas because they are ‘The Fires of Nuclear Fission 327 36. a. A website describing an X-ray procedure reports, “Despite its negative connotations, people are exposed to more radiation on a daily basis than they may realize. For example, infrared radiation is. released whenever there is extreme heat. The Sun ‘generates ultraviolet radiation, and a little exposure to it will tan a lighter skinned person. In addition, the body contains naturally radioactive elements.” Examine the three examples given in this, explanation, Do they refer to nuclear or electromagnetic radiation? b. What type of radiation do you avoid in attending, class at MATC, Madison Area Technical College? 37. Consider this representation of a Geiger-Milller counter {also called a Geiger counter), a device commonly used to detect ionizing radiation. The probe contains a gas, under low pressure. Cathode Thin window ‘Anode ‘a, How does radiation enter the Geiger-Miller counter? b. Why does this device only detect radiation that is capable of ionizing the gas contained in the probe? cc. What other methods are used to detect the presence of ionizing radiation? 38. Rapidly dividing cells are present in several places in the adult body. These include the skin, the hair follicles, the stomach and intestines, the lining of your mouth, ‘and your bone marrow. Match the symptoms listed in Table 7.3 with the type of cell affected by the radiation. 39. Exposure to ionizing radiation can cause cancer. A beam of ionizing radiation also can be used to cure certain types of cancer. Explain. 40. Fluorine has only one naturally occurring radioisotope, F-19. If fluorine also occurred in nature as F-18, would this necessarily complicate the separation of **UF, and 25UF,2 Explain328 Chapter 7 Al. Itis generally believed that terrorists would be more likely to construct a nuclear bomb using Pu-239 reclaimed from breeder reactors than using U-235. Use your knowledge of nuclear chemistry to explain why 42, Weapons-grade plutonium is almost completely Pu-239. In contrast, the plutonium produced in the normal operation of a water-cooled power reactor (reactor- grade plutonium) generally has a higher concentration of heavier isotopes such as Pu-240 and Pu-241. Propose an explanation for this observation. 43. a. What are the characteristics of high-level radioactive waste (HLW)? b. Explain how low-level waste (LW) differs from HLW. Exploring Extensions 44, In Consider This 7.1, you were asked to answer several {questions about nuclear power. Ask the same questions of someone at least one generation older than you and someone younger. In comparison with your answer, ‘what similarities and differences do you find? 45. The film King Corn (see Consider This 12.2) opens FEE with a scene from Professor Stephen Macko atthe University of Virginia, a forensic chemist. He analyzed hair samples from two college students, reporting that much of the carbon in their body originated from corn. His analysis was based on carbon-13. a. Is this a stable or a radioactive isotope of carbon? b. What can be learned about your diet by analyzing samples of hair? 46. Explain the term decommission, as in “decommissioning a nuclear power plant.” What technical challenges are involved? The resources of the web can help you. 47. Einstein's equation, AE = Amc’ applies to chemical reactions as well as nuclear ones. An important chemical change studied in Chapter 4 was the combustion of methane, which releases 50.1 kI of energy for each gram of methane burned. a. What mass loss corresponds to the release of 50.1 KJ of energy? b. To produce the same amount of energy, what is the ratio of the mass of methane burned in a chemical reaction to the mass loss converted into energy according to the equation AE = Amc”? ‘c. Use your results in parts a and b to comment on why Einstein’s equation, although correct for both chemical and nuclear changes, usually is only applied to nuclear changes. 48. When 4.00 g of hydrogen nuclei undergoes fusion to form helium in the Sun, the change in mass is 0.0265 g and energy is released. Use Finstein’s equation, ymc?, to calculate the energy equivalent of this 49. Under conditions like those on the Sun, hydrogen can fuse with helium to form lithium, which in turn can form different isotopes of helium and of hydrogen. ‘The mass of one mole of each isotope is given. 7H + 3He —> GLi] —> $He + |H 2013455 3.01493 6 400150 ¢ 1.00728 ¢ a. In grams, what is the mass difference between the reactants and the products? ». For one mole of reactants, how much energy (in joules) released? 50. Lise Meitner and Marie Curie were both pioneers in developing an understanding of radioactive substances. You likely have heard of Marie Curie and her work, but, ‘may not have heard of Lise Meitner. How are these two ‘women related in time and in their scientific work? SI. Taking potassium iodide tablets can protect your thyroid from exposure to radioactive iodine, thus reducing your risk of thyroid cancer. ‘a. Give the chemieal formula for potassium iodide b. By what mechanism does potassium iodide protect you? ¢. How long does the protection last? 4, Are the tablets expensive? Hint: The FDA website is a good source of information for parts b and c. 52. A stockpile of approximately 50 metric tons of plutonium exists in the United States as a result of disassembling warheads from the nuclear arms race. ‘What is the likely fate of this plutonium? Hint: Search for plutonium disposal. Try also including United States and Department of Energy in your search string. a, Some propose that the plutonium be sent to local nuclear power plants to “burn” as fissionable fuel. What are the advantages and disadvantages of such a course of action? b. Others propose that it be stored permanently ina repository. Again, list the advantages and disadvantages. 53. Advertisements for Swiss Army watches stress their use of tritium. One ad states that the“... hands and numerals are illuminated by self-powered tritium gas, 10 times brighter than ordinary luminous dials...” Another advertisement boasts that the“... tritium hands and markers glow brightly making checking your time a breeze, even at night...” Evaluate these statements and, after doing some web research, discuss the chemical form of tritium in these watches, and what, its role is, 54. Nuclear weapons are not the only threat. Consider also “the dirty bomb,” a device that employs a conventional explosive to disperse a radioactive substance. No fission is involved with a dirty bomb; only a conventional explosive,b. A brochure on nuclear terrorism makes this assertion: “A nuclear weapon, if exploded, would create more radioactive substances than originally present in the weapon. In contrast, if a dirty bomb ‘were to be exploded, the amount of radioactivity would be the same before, during, and right after the explosion.” This statement is accurate. Explain why. . According to Table 7.2, smoking 1.5 packs of cigarettes a day adds 15,000 Sv to your annual radiation dose. a. Polonium-210 is the radioactive element largely responsible. What is its mode of radioactive decay and its half-life? b. Why is polonium-210 found (in tiny amounts) in tobacco? . MRI, or magnetic resonance imaging, is an important tool for some types of medical diagnoses. a. The science behind MRI is complex. You should, however, be able to pin down whether or not MRI uses ionizing radiation to produce an image. Does it? b, How does an MRI compare with a CT (computed tomography) scan, in terms of the image produced and the radiation used? - c. MRLis based on NMR, nuclear magnetic resonance. Speculate why the abbreviation MR] is used to denote the medical too! rather than NMR. The Fires of Nuclear Fission 37. 58. 329 Deciding where to locate a nuclear power plant requires analysis of both risks and benefits associated with the plant. If you were to play the role of a CEO of a major electric utility considering whether to pursue permits for the construction of a nuclear power plant in your area, what risks and benefits would you cite? ‘The hormesis phenomenon, defined in Section 76, is that toxic substances in small amounts can increase ‘one’s resistance to the same substance in large amounts, Analogous to the dose-response curves of Figure 7.19, the figure here indicates the zone of hormesis where the curve dips below the control line into a therapeutic region, Use the resources of the web to investigate hormesis. Prepare a summary of your findings. One starting point is an article, “Is Radiation Good for You?” at the science website The Why? Files. Hint: NOAEL means no observed adverse effect, level. Response >