24 38 CHAPTER 2 Operating Characteristics “Electric, hydrocarbon, and steam power are already successfully established in use. But their specialization is only beginning. Each has highways and byways to be explored, theories to test and sift, and principles to be demonstrated. This important work falls not only to the professional designer and builder, but to all whose interest prompts either suggestion or co-operative effort.” ‘The Place of the Automobile by Robert Bruce (1900) ‘This chapter examines the operating characteristics of reciprocating internal combus- tion engines. These include the mechanical output parameters of work, torque, and power; the input requirements of air, fuel, and combustion; efficiencies: and emission measurements of engine exhaust. ENGINE PARAMETERS For an engine with bore B (see Fig. 2-1), crank offset a, stroke length $, turning at an. engine speed of N, S=20 ny ‘The average piston speed is U, = 28n 22) c (usec), and B, Nis generally given in RPM (revolutions per minute), U in mls 4,and $ in m or em (ft or in). ‘The maximum average piston speed for all engines will normally be in the range of 5 to 20 misec (15 to 65 ft/sec), with large diesel engines on the low end and high- performance automobile engines on the high end. There are two reasons why enginesFIGURE 2-1 Piston and evinder geometry of reciprocatin ‘gine. B = bore: § = sizoke: = eonnect fod lenath:a = crank offsets = piston position: # = erank angle: V, = clearance ‘volume: Vy ~ eisplacement volume. ‘operate in this range. Firs, this is about the safe limit that can be tolerated by materi- alstrength of the engine components. For each revolution of the engine, each piston is accelerated twice from stop to maximum speed and back to stop. Ata typical engine speed of 3000 RPM, each revolution lasts 0.02 sec (0.005 see at 12,000 RPM). If en- gines operated at higher speeds, there would be a danger of material failure in the pis- tons and connecting rods as the pistons are accelerated and decelerated during each stroke. From Eq, (2-2), it can be seen that this range of acceptable piston speeds also defines a range of acceptable engine speeds, depending on engine size. There is a strong inverse correlation between engine size and operating speed. Very large en- ines with bore sizes on the order of 0.5 m (6 ft) typically operate in the 200 to 400 RPM range, while the very smallest engines (model airplane) with bores on the order of 1 em (0t in.) operate at speeds of 12.000 RPM and higher. Race cars give us an ex- ample of engines being run at speeds above this safe range (e. Indianapolis 500 Race). These engines are generally operated at piston speeds up to 35 m/sec and en- gine speeds upwards of 14,000 RPM. Even though these engines receive far better care than the average automobile engine, a percentage of them experience failure ‘within a few hundred miles. Table 2-1 gives representative values of engine speeds and operating variables for engines of various sizes. Automobile engines usually operate in a speed range of 500 to 5000) RPM. wth a cruising speed of about 2500 RPM. ‘The second reason why maximum average piston speed is limited is because of the gas flow into and out of the cylinders, Piston speed determines the instantaneous fow rate of air-fuel into the c take and exhaust flow out of the eylin- der during the ex speeds would require larger valves to allow for higher flow rates. In most ves age at a maximum size with no room for enlaristics ing Charac ial Engine Operating Parameters Model Airplane Automobile Large Stationary TwoStroke Cycle FourStroke Cycle Twor Bore (em) 200 9.12 Stroke (em) 204 939 Displacomentiey! (L) 9.0086 089 Speed (RPM) 13.000 5200 Powerieyl (kW) 07 35 ‘Average Piston Speed (msec) 834 m4 PowerDisplacement (W/L) 108 507 bmep (kPa) 503 170, Bore sizes of engines range from 0.5 m down to 0.5 em (20 in, to 0.2 in,). The ratio of bore to stroke, B/S, for small engines is usually from 0.8 to 1,2, An engine with B = Sis often called a square engine. If stroke length is longer than bore diameter the engine is under square, and if stroke length is less than bore diameter the engine is over square. Very large engines are always under square, with stroke lengths up to four times bore diameter. ‘The distance between the crank axis and wrist pin axis is given by 5 = acos8 + VP = alsin? @ 3) where a= crankshaft offset r= connecting rod length @ = crank angle, which is measured from the cylinder centerline and is zero when the piston is at TDC When sis differentiated with respect to time, the instantaneous piston speed U, is obtained: U, = dsjat (2-4) ‘The ratio of instantaneous piston speed divided by the average piston speed can then be written as (m/2) sin @[1 + (cos 6/\/R? — sin? 6)) (2-5) Upl where R= 1a (2-6) Ris the ratio of connecting rod length to crank offset and usually has values of 3 to 4for small engines increasing to 5 to 10 for the largest engines Figure 2-2 shows the etfect of & on piston speed. Displacement, or displacement volume, Vis ast travels from BDC to TDC: the volume displaced by the piston Va = Vane ~ Vive (2-7)2:4 Engine Paremeters 08 v6 os 02 o m0 @ 0 130 130 180 CRANK ANGLE (degrees) FIGURE 2.2 Instantaneous piston speed relative to average piston speed asa function of erank angle For various R values, where R= ar = connecting rod length, a = crankshaft offs. ‘Some books call this swept volume, Displacement can be given for one cylinder or for the entire engine. For one cylinder, Vy = (o/A) BS: (28) For an engine with , cylinders, 29) ya = Nea /4)s where B= cylinder bore S = stroke number of engine cylinders Engine displacements can be given in m',em’, in, and, most commonly, in Jiters (L), ot ms 10° em 61.2 in ment range from 0.1 em (0.0061 in.*) for small ‘or Jarge automobiles, to much larger numbers ‘Typical values for engi model airplanes, to about § L (490 displaacteristics for large ship engines. The displacement of « modern average automobile engine is about 1.5 to 3.5 liters HISTORIC—CHRISTIE RACE CAR ‘A 1908 Christe race car had a V4 engine of 2799 in. (46 L) displacement [45] For a given displacement volume, a longer stroke allows for a smaller bore (under square), resulting in less surface area in the combustion chamber and corre- spondingly Jess heat loss. This increases thermal efficiency within the combustion chamber. However, the longer stroke results in higher piston speed and higher friction losses that reduce the output power which can be obtained off the crankshaft. If the stroke is shortened, the bore must be increased and the engine will be over square. This. decreases friction losses but increases heat transfer losses. Most modern automobile engines are near square, with some slightly over square and some slightly under square. ‘This decision is dictated by design compromises and the technical philosophy of the manufacturer. Very large engines have long strokes with stroke-to-bore ratios as high as 4:1 Minimum cylinder volume occurs when the piston is at TDC and is called the clearance volume ¥,. We have Ve = Van (2-10) Vane = Ve + Ve (2-0) HISTORIC—SMALL HIGH-SPEED ENGINES Engines for model airplanes and boats have been built with total displacement volumes as low as 0.075 em' (0.0046 in.’). Some of these engines. which are commercially available, can operate at speeds up (0 38,000 RPM and have power output on the order of 0.15 to LS KW (02 to 2.0 hp). Itis interesting that the average piston speeds of these engines at high speed still fall within the general range of 5 to 20 misee. ‘The compression ratio of an engine is defined as te = Ven! Vane = (Ve + Va)/Ve = Pape! ¥rpe (2-12) Modern spark ignition (ST) engines have compression ratios of 8 to 11, while compression ignition (Cl) engines have compression ratios in the range 12 to 24 Engines with superchargers or turbochargers usually have lower compression ratios than naturally aspirated engines. Because of limitations in engine materials, technology, and fuel quality, very early engines had low compression ratios, on the order of 2 to 3.acteristic FIGURE 2-8 Cox sicooted single eylinder, two-stroke cycle model anplane engine. Engine has displacement of 0.01 bic inches (0.164 cm’), Photo by Tuescher Photography, Platteville, Wisconsin, Figure 2-5 shows how values of r, increased over time to the 8-11 range used on mod- ern spark ignition automobile engines. This limit of 8 to 11 is imposed mainly by gaso- line fuel properties (see Section 4-4) and force limitations allowable in smaller high-speed engines. ‘Various attempts have been made to develop engines with a variable compres: sion ratio. One unsuccessful early attempt used a split piston that expanded due to changing hydraulic pressure caused by engine speed and load, Three recent engine sys- tems with a capability of changing compression ratio as the engine is running have been introduced. One system rotates the top of the engine block slightly to change the size of the clearance volume and compression ratio, Another system does this by using 8 pivot lever arm connected between the connecting rod and eranksbiaft. A third sys- tem uses secondary pistons in divided combustion chambers and operates on an Alvar yele. These systems are examined in Chapter 7. HISTORIC—CRANKSHAFTS One interesting four-cylinder engine made by Austin of England had only two main bear ings one on each end of the crankshaft. To counteract the effect of erankshaft bending during operation, the two center cylinders were given a slightly higher static eompression ratio than the two end eylinders [11],u u oF 0 of > sb ds 4 do 2 ob 4o as ds Bab le : 4s 2 4p if 4: \ 1 1 1 1880190019206 T9800 FIGURE 2-5 Average compression rato of American spark ignition automobile engines as 3 fanetion of yer, During the fist 40 years compression ralios slowly inereased| from 251045 imited mainly by low ostane numbers ofthe available fuels. 1923 TEL was introduced as. [uel additive and this was followed by a rapid increase in compression ratios. No automobiles Were manulactured during 1942-1945 when produetion was converted to war vehicles during World War I. {A rapid rise in compression ratios occured during the 1950s when musele cats ‘became popular. During the 1970s TEL was phased aut as fuel additive, pollution laws were enacted. anu gasoline hecame expensive de to an oi bargo imposed by some ol producing countries. These factors resulted in lower compression ratios during this time. Inthe 1980s and 1990s better fuels and combustion chamber technology allowed for higher compression eatios ‘Adapted from [5 ‘The cylinder volume at any crank angle is Vi=V + (WBYAYr + a — 5) where clearance volume B= bore = connecting rod | rank offset iston position shown injracteri ‘This can also be written in a nondimensional form by dividing by V., substituting for r a, and s, and employing the definition of R. V/V = 14 3(re — IIR + 1 - cosa — VR sin? @] (2-14) where compression ratio R=r/a ‘The cross-sectional area of a cylinder and the surface area of a flat-topped piston are each given by Ap = (7/4) B° 215) ‘The combustion chamber surface area is A= Ag t Ay + 7B(r +a) 2-16) where cy isthe cylinder head surface area, which will be somewhat larger than Ay. ‘Then if the definitions for r, a, s, and R are used, Eq, (2-16) can be rewritten as A= Ag + Ay + (®BS/2)[R +1 ~ cosa ~ VRP sin] 2-17) Se Example Problem 2. John’s automobile has a three-liter SI V6 engine that operates on a four-stroke cycle at 3600 RPM. ‘The compression ratio is 95, the length of the connecting rods is 166 cm, and the engine is square (B = 5). At this speed, combustion ends at 20° aT DC. Caleulate: 1. cylinder bore and stroke length 2. average piston speed 3. clearance volume of one cylinder 4. piston speed at the end of combustion distance the piston has traveled from TDC at the end of combustion volume in the combustion chamber at the end of combustion (Q) For one cylinder, using Eq, (2-8) with § = B yields BL/6 = 05 L = 0.0005 m' = (a/4)B°S .60.em (7/4)B 25N = (2 strokes/rev)((0.0860 m/stroke}(3600/60 rev/see) 10.32 mysee (3) Use Eq, (2-12) to find the clearance volume of one cylinder: 5 = (Vi + ViI/¥. = (0.0005 + ¥,)/¥, 00005922 Work (4) Crank offset, = 5/2 = 0.0330 om R= r/a = 166em/4.30em = 386 Use Eg, (2-5) to find the instantaneous piston speed: (w/2) sin [1 + (cos /V 1 = (7/2) sin (20°)(1 + [eos (20°y/ VBREF = sime(]]) = 0608 0.668 T, u (.658)(10.32 m/sec) * 6.89 m/see (5) Use Eg, (2-3) to find the piston position: acoso+ VES ao = (0.0430 m) cos (20°) + (0.166 m)> — (0.0430 my? sin?(20") 0.206 m The distance from TDC is k= rt a—s = (0.166m) + (0.03 m) ~ (0.206 m) 0.003 m = 0.3.¢m (6) Use Bq, (2:14) to find the instantaneous volume: V/Vo= 1+ Mec IR + 1 ~ cas — VR sina 14 195 = 1)386 #1 ~ cos (207) ~ VBR ar RO}] (132)(59em') = 729.6 = 0.000779 m? ‘These results indicate that, during combustion, the volume in the combustion chamber has in- creased by only a very small amount and shows that combustion in an SL engine occurs at almost ‘constant volume at TDC. 2.2 WORK Work is the output of any heat engine, and in a reciprocating IC engine this work is generated by the gases in the combustion chamber of the cylinder. Work is the result of a force acting through a distance. That is, the force due to gas pressure on the moving piston generates the work in an IC engine cycle. (2-18) where P = pressure in combustion chambe Ay = area ag x = distance the pi4.0L V8 (147) "Auror 8 & Torque (tht) é Horsepower wo 2 3% Engine Speed (x 100) FIGURE 28 Power and torque curves of General Motors LA? Aurora engine shown in Fig.2.7. Instock form the engine produces maximiim brake povier of 250 hp at ‘5600 RPM (186 KW). and maximum torque of 260 bf at 400 RPM. {52 Nom), In modified racing form this engine produced 675 hp (503 kW). and sgencrated a phenomenal record in the Indy Racing League (IRL) during the years 1997-2001, Race cars with this engine had the pole position in 51 out of SL es and it won 49 ofthese races including Sout of Sof the Indianapolis SOD races It had the fastest ap in 3 consecutive IRL races [159}, Copyright General Motors Corporation, used with permission. Pump work Wp is negative for engines without superchargers. so Wye: = (Area A) — (Area B) (2.25) Engines with superchargers or turbochargers can have intake pressure greater than exhaust pressure, giving a positive pump work (Fig, 2-10). When this occurs, ‘Whe = (Area A) + (Area B) (2-26)Pressure, Wide Open Throttle Exhaust Fanition Opens Te De Specific Volume. v @ Pressure. Part Tarai Exhaust Tsnition Opens FIGURE 2-9 Fourstroke ce of typical SI engine plotted ‘on Pe coordinates at (a) wide open throttle, And (b) part throttle The upper loop consists ‘ofthe compression stroke and power stroke and the area represents gross indicated 1M spcife Volumes v Be ‘work. The lower loop represents negative ? work ofthe intake stroke and exhaust stroke 6) ‘Ths is called indicated pump work. Superchargers increase net indicated work but add to the friction work of the en- gine since they are driven by the crankshaft. ‘The ratio of brake work at the crankshaft to indicated work in the combustion chamber defines the mechanical efficiency of an engine:Pressure, P FIGURE 2-10 Fourstroke eyele of an S engine equipped with a supercharger or turbocharger. potted on P-y coordinates. For this eve, intake pressure is greater than exhaust pressure and the pump work THC BDC loop represents positive work Specific Volume, y Eacluding parasitic loads, the mechanical efficiency of an engine is on the order of ‘85% t0 60% at high engine operating speed. It then slowly increases as engine speed is, decreased to the order of 85-95% (see Fig. 2-11). When the engine is at idle the me- chanical efficiency falls to zero or neat zero because only a small amount of brake work 3s being absorbed in the drive system (transmission, transaxle). If all other parameters are kept constant, neither the compression ratio of the engine nor the bore diameter af- fect mechanical efficiency to any great extent. Mechanical and fluid friction are the greatest energy losses at high speed, while heat loss is the greatest loss at low speed oh 4 gl. COMPRESSION RATIO 4 Mechanical Ett T FIGURE 2-11 sob Mechanical eficiency of reciprocating internal combustion engines asa Function of average o piston speed. Data poins and eurve adapted Irom references [93,197] pop a 810 2 16 18 20 Average Piston Speed, U), (misee)23 5 Mean Effective Pressure § Care should be taken when using the terms “gross work” and “net work”. In some older literature and textbooks, net work (or net power) meant the output of an engine with all components, while gross work (or gross power) meant the output of the engine with fan and exhaust system removed. MEAN EFFECTIVE PRESSURE From Fig. 2-9 it can be seen that pressure in the cylinder of an engine is continuously changing during the cycle. An average or mean effective pressure (mep) is defined by w = (mep)do (2-28) mep = w/v = W/V) (2-29) Av = Usne ~ Urnc (2:30) where W = work of one cycle 1w = specific work of one eycle V, = displacement volume Mean effective pressure is a good parameter for comparing engines with regard to design or output because itis independent of both engine size and speed. If torque is used for engine comparison, a larger engine will always look better. If power is used as the comparison, speed becomes very important. ‘Various mean effective pressures can be defined by using different work terms in Eq, (2-29). If brake work is used, brake mean effective pressure is obtained: bbmep = y/v 231) Indicated work gives indicated mean effective pressure imep = w,/Av (232) The imep can further be divided into gross indicated mean effective pressure and net indicated mean effective pressure: CimMeP gross = (Wi) gr0s5/ 40 (2-33) Cimep acs = (W))nee! SY (2:34) Pump mean effective pressure (which can have negative values) is given by pmep = Wpuny/ D0 (235) and friction mean effective pressure is given by fmep = w,/Av (2-36) The following equations relate some of the previous definitions nmep = gmep + pmep (a) bmep = nmep —fmep — (b)24 Chapter 2 ing Characteristics bmep = mm imep (©) bmep = imep ~ fmep (a) (237) where ‘amep = net mean effective pressure Tn = mechanical efficiency of engine ‘Typical maximum values of bmep for naturally aspirated SI engines are in the range (oF 850 to 1050 kPa (120 to 150 psi). For Cl engines, typical maximum values are 700 to 900 kPa (100 to 130 psi) for naturally aspirated engines and 1000 to 1200 kPa (145 to 175 psi) for turbocharged engines [58]. TORQUE AND POWER Torque is good indicator of an engine's ability to do work. Itis defined as force acting at a moment distance and has units of N-m or Ibf-ft. Torque 7 is related to work by lar = Wy = (bmep) Vy/n (2-38) where W, = brake work of one revolution Vj = displacement volume ‘n= number of revolutions per cycle For a two-stroke cycle engine with one cycle for each revolution, 2a = W, = (bmep)V, (239) (bmep)Va/2 two-stroke cycle (2-40) For a four-stroke eycle engine that takes two revolutions per cycle, (bmep)¥i/4r four-stroke cycle (2-41) In these equations, bmep and brake work W, are used because torque is mea- sured off the output crankshaft. Most modern automobile engines have maximum torque per displacement in the range of 80 to 110 N-m/L (1 to 1.3 Ibf-ft/in.), with some as high as 140 Nem/L. This gives maximum torques of 200 to 400 N-m (150 to 300 Ibf-t), usually at engine speeds around 4000 to 6000 RPM. The point of maximum torque is called maximum brake torque speed (MBT).A major goal in the design of a modern automobile engine is to flatten the torque-versus-speed curve as shown in Fig. 2-12, and to have high torque at both high and low speed. CI engines generally have higher torque than SI engines Large engines often have very high torque values with MBT at relatively low speed, Power is defined as the rate of work of the engine. If n = number of revolutions per cycle and N= engine speed, then W = WN/n (2-42) W = 2nNz (2-43) W = (1/2n)(mep).A,i (2-44)Power. WW) e z a 150 ns 100 200) 30 aa60 5000 eon) F000 Engine speed. N (RPM) W = (mep)A W = (mep)a, where W = work per cycle Ay, = piston Y, J, = average piston speed -¢ area of all pistons 24 Torque and Power FIGURE 2-12 Brake power and torque ofa typical tulomobile reciprocating engin as a function ot engine speed and displacement, Speed at which peak torque occur is called maximum brake torque (MBT) (or maximum best {orque). Indicated power iereases with speed hile brake power increases to maximum and then deereases This is because fiction imcreases with engine speed to higher power and becomes dominant at higher speeds Fis, 2-8.2-14.2-16,2-20, and 2-24 show poner and torque curves for specific engines four-stroke cycle (2-45) two-stroke cycle (2-46) Depending upon which definition of work or mep is used in Eqs (2-42)-(2-46). power can be defined as brake power, net indicated power, gross indicated power, pumping power, and even friction power. Also, W, = (Wnt ‘aherecceristics Power is normally measured in kW, but horsepower (hp) is still common: hp = 0.7457 kW = 2545 BTU/hr = 550 ft-lbf/see KW = 1341 hp (250) Engine power can range from a few watts in small model airplane engines to thou- sands of kW per cylinder in large multiple-cylinder stationary and ship engines. There is, «large commercial market for engines in the 1.5~to 5-kW (2-7 hp) range for lawn mow- ers, chain saws, snowblowers, ete. Power for outboard motors (engines) for small boats typically ranges from 210 40 kW (3-50 hp).with much larger ones available, Modern au- tomobile engines range mostly from 40 to 220 kW (50-300 hp). Its interesting to note that a modern midsize aerodynamic automobile requires only about 5 to 6 kW (7-8 hp) to cruise at 55 mph on level roadway. Many large ship and stationary engines. with 4 to 20 cylinders, have brake power ‘output in the range of 500 to 3000 kWicylinder (670 to 4000 hpicylinder) at speeds of 500 to 1000 RPM [228]. The largest engines. with up to 20 cylinders, can have brake power up to 60,000 kW, operating at speeds of 70 to 140 RPM. In the year 2002 the largest, most powerful, wo-stroke cycle engine was claimed to be the MAN B & W 12- eylinder K9SMC-C, which produced 68,640 kW (92,046 hp) [212] Both torque and power are functions of engine speed. At low speed, torque in- creases as engine speed increases, As engine speed increases further. torque reaches a ‘maximum and then decreases as shown in Figs. 2-8 and 2-12. Torque decreases because the engine is unable to ingest a full charge of air at higher speeds, Indicated power in- creases with speed, while brake power increases to a maximum and then decreases at higher speeds. This is because friction losses increase with speed and become the dom- inant factor at very high speeds. For many automobile engines, maximum brake power ‘occurs at about 6000 to 7000 RPM, about one and a half times the speed of maximum torque. Greater power can be generated by increasing displacement, mep, and/or speed. Increased displacement increases engine mass and takes up space, both of which are contrary to automobile design trends For this reason, most modern engines are smaller but run at higher speeds, and are often turbocharged or supercharged to in- crease mep. HISTORIC—DRAG COEFFICIENTS OF AUTOMOBILES. Only about 5 or 6 kW (7 oF 8 np) of power is needed to overcome air resistance on mod- cer midsize automobiles traveling at 55 mph on level roadway. This i largely due to mod fem aerodynamic design which has reduced the drag coefficient of many automobiles t0 the 0.25 (0 0:30 range. Wind tunnels large enough lo test drag on full-size automobiles ‘were first used in the 1930s For some reason one automobile was tested with the vehicle facing backwards. and it was found that there vas less air drag in reverse. This prompted Additional testing of more vehicles, ane! it was found that many ear models of that period |_ had a lover ar ‘Coefficient in reverse than that facing forward,25 25 Dynamometers Other ways which are sometimes used to classify engines are as follows: specific power SP = Wy, (251) ‘output per displacement OPD = Wh/Vy (2-52) specific volume SV = Vy/ Wy (253) specific weight SW = (engine weight)/W,, (2-54) where W, = brake power Ay, = piston face area ofall pistons Vi isplacement volume ‘These parameters are important for engines used in transportation vehicles such as boats, automobiles, and especially airplanes, where keeping weight to a minimum is necessary. For large stationary engines, weight is not as important, Modern automobile engines usually have brake power output per displacement in the range of 40 to 80 W/L. The Honda eight-valve-per-eylinder V4 motorcycle en- gine generates about 130 W/L. an extreme example of a high-performance racing en- gine [22]. One main reason for continued development to return to two-stroke cycle automobile engines is that they have up to 40% greater power output per unit weight. HISTORIC—EIGHT-VALVES-PER-CYLINDER MOTORCYCLE ENGINE In the early 1990s, Honda produced a racing motorcycle with a V4 engine of which cach evlinder had four intake valves and four exhaust valves. The engine was developed by nodilying a V8 engine so that the motorcycle could be raced under rules restricting engines to four cylinders. A four-valvepereylinder V8 engine block was modified by removing the metal between each set of two cylinders Special pistons were built to fit into the resulting nonround. oblong cylinders. This resulted in each cylinder having eight ives and a piston with two connecting rods using a common piston pin. ‘The final product was a very fast, very expensive motorcycle with an aluminum block, 90° V4 engine having a displacement of 748 em". It produced 96 kW at 14,000 RPM and ‘maximum torque of 71 N-m at 11,600 RPM [22, 143] DYNAMOMETERS Dynamometers arc uscd to measure torque and power over the engine operating ranges of speed and load. They do this by using various methods to absorb the energy output of the engine, all of which eventually ends up as heat Some dynamometers absorb energy in a mechanical friction brake (prony brake). These are the simplest dynamometers but are not as flexible and accurate as others at higher energy levels. Fluid or hydraulic dynamometers absorb engine energy in water or oil pumped through orifices or dissipated with viscous losses in a rotor-stator combination. Largeeracteristic: (sso) rt Huda SCL aN ~HP 10 0 3s 30 fb 25 20 15 Dynamoms KW +t + asia — FIGURE 2-1 Ee Power and torque curves of Bras & = + Strton Vanguard 10D Clenie show veao 2002400 2800—«SIM— 3600 nF Sh itd th pono RPM Bigs & Staton Corporation amounts of energy can be absorbed in this manner, making this an attractive type of dynamometer for the largest of engines. Eddy current dynamometers use a disk, driven by the engine being tested, rotat- ing in a magnetic field of controlled strength. The rotating disk acts as an electrical conductor cutting the lines of magnetic flux and producing eddy currents in the disk, With no external circuit, the energy from the induced currents is absorbed in the disk, One of the best types of dynamometer is the electric dynamometer, which ab- sorbs energy with electrical output from a connected generator. In addition to having aan accurate way of measuring the energy absorbed, the load is easily varied by chang- ing the amount of resistance in the circuit connected to the generator output. Many electric dynamometers can also be operated in reverse. with the generator used as a motor to drive (or motor) an unfired engine. This allows the engine to be tested for me~ chanical friction losses and air pumping losses, quantities that are hard to measure on running fired engine. (See Section | Example Problem 2-2 ‘The engine in Example Problen torque reading of 205 N-m at 60°C.and the mechanical efficiency of the engine 2:1 is connected to a dynamometer which gives a brake output WN) RPM. AC this speed air enters the cylinders at 85 kPa and 85%,60 Chap: Operating Characteristics Calculate: 1. brake power 2. indicated power 3. brake mean effective pressure 4. indicated mean effective pressure 5. friction mean effective pressure 6. power lost to friction 7. brake work per unit mass of gas in the eylinder 8. brake specific power 9. brake output per displacement 10. engine specifi volume (Q)_ Use Eq, (2-43) to find brake power: Wy = 2aN'r = (2m radians/rev}(3600/60 rev/see)(205 N-m) = 77.300 N-m/see = 77.3 kW = 104 hp (2) Use Bq, (2-47) to find indicated power: W; = Wily = (773 KW)/(085) = 90.9 KW = 122 hp @)_ Use Eq, 2-41) to find the brake mean effective pressure bomep = 4rr/Vy = (4 radigns/eycle)(205 N-m)/(0.003 m'jeyele) 59,000 N/m? = 859 kPa (4) Equation (2-37e) gives indicated mean effective pressure: 25 psia imep = bmep/ny, = (859 kPa)/(0.85) = 1010 kPa = 146 psia (8) Equation (2-374) is used to calculate frition mean effective pressure: fmep = imep — bmep = 1010 ~ 859 = 151 kPa = 22 psia (6) Equations (2-15) and (2-44) are used to find friction power lost Ap = (7/4)? = (17/4)(0.086 m}? = 000881 m? for one eylinder 1/2n)(tmep)4,U), 1/4)(151 KPa) (0.00581 mjeyl)(10.32 m/see)(6 ep) Alternatively, the friction power lost can be obtained from Eq, (2-49) Wy = WH - WW, = 909 ~ 773 = 13.6KW (0) First, brake work is found for one eylinder for one eyele, using Eq. (2-29): fs = (bmep)Vj = (859 kPa}(0.0005 m®) = 0.43 kd 1K can be assumed that the gas entering the cylinders at BDC is air: PVap0/ RT = P(Vy + V.)/RT (85 kPa)(0.0005 + 0.000059) m'(0.287 kI/kg-K)(333 K) = 0.00050 ke.25 Dynamometers Brake specific work per unit mass is a, = Wai, = (03 KI) (0.00050 kg) (8) Equation (2-51) gives brake specific power: BSP = Wi'A,, = (77.3 KW)/I(/4)(0.086 m)*(6 cylinders)} 2220 kW/m? = 02220 kW = 192 hp/in? (9) Equation (2-52) gives brake output per displacement: BOPD = W/V) = (77.3 KW)/(3L) SKW/L = 35 hp/L = 0.567 hp/in. (10) Equation (2-53) gives engine specific volume: BSV = Vj/W, = I/BOPD = 1/258 0.0888 L/W = 0.0286 L/h y 76 in. Example Problem 2-3, When a thee-csinder. fourstroke cycle. St engine, operating at 4000 RPM is connected to an eddy current dynamometer, 70:1 KW of power is dissipated by the dynamometer. The engine has a total displacement volume of 24 liters and a mechanical efficiency of 82% at 4000 RPM Because of heat and mechanical losses, the dynamometer has an efficiency of 93% ny {power recorded by dynamometer (actual power from engine). Calculate: 1. power lost to friction in engine 2, brake mean effective pressure 3. engine torque at 4000 RPM. 4. engine specific volume (Brake power: Wi, = (704 kW)/(093) = 75.7 KW = 101.5 hp Indicated power is obtained using Eq. (2-47): W, = Wa/ny = (75:7 KW)/(082) = 923 kW = 123.8 hp Eq, (2-49) gives power lost to engine fiction iy = Wi, — Wy = (92.3 kW) — (75.7 RW) = 16.6 kW Shp 1d by combining Eys (2-29) & (2-42) @) The brake mean effective pressure is obiai bbmep = Wi/Vy = (Wy /a)WVe = {(75.7 kW)/1(4000/60 rev/see} 946 kPa = 137 psia 2 rev/eyele)|} (0.0024 mjeyele) or using Eq. (2-88): bmep = [(1000)(75.7(2))/1(2a ing Characte ne torque using Eq. (2-43) Wy/2mN = (75.7 kl/sec}/{(2m radians/rev)(4000/60 rev/sec)] = 181.Nem = 134 1bF-ft or using Eq, (2-76) [(159.2)(75.7)}/(4000/60) = 181 N-m (4) Eq. (253) gives engine specifi volume SV = Vi/Wiy = (24 L)/(75.7 KW) = 0.0317 L/W 2.6 _AIR-FUEL RATIO AND FUEL-AIR RATIO Energy input to an engine Qj, comes from the combustion of a hydrocarbon fuel. Air is used to supply the oxygen needed for this chemical reaction. For combustion reaction to occur, the proper relative amounts of air (oxygen) and fuel must be present. ‘Air-fuel ratio (AF) and fuel-air ratio (FA) are parameters used to describe the mixture ratio, We have AF = mg/g = ting/tty (255) FA = mj, = tingling (2-56) where ‘my = mass of ait Jing = mass flow rate of air FIGURE 2-15 Cummins QSK60-2700 sink cycle, CVG engine of 6 4.672 in stroke of 281 L (742 gal). coolant capacity of 170 L (AS ga. and wet mass of 9.305 ky (20.14 Ibn. Using No.2 diesel fuel, itis advertized as 206 gmikW-e at 19 hours of operation” Printed with permission Cummins In en-eylinder, fourstroke Engine his bore of 15cm (626 in) 19.06m (7.48 in), ol system capacity of ing fel economy a 0 RPM (0.39 Ibmvbhp-hr)-The ment systems “converts used engine ol iminatng oil changes for up to 4.000000 000 TORQUE ager) 000 oun sno 200) 2200] POWER OUTPUT, ney 1 1000 FIGURE 2-16 Power and torque curves for Cummins OSKEI-2700 engine shown in Fig 2-15. Engine has maximum power of 2015 kW at 1900 RPM (2700 hp).and maximum torque of {1)628 Nema L500 RPM {7340 1BF-1). Pinte with permission, Cummins ne mass of fuel mass flow rate of fuel m iy tiny ‘The ideal or stoichiometric AF for many gasoline-type hydrocarbon fuels is very close to 15:1, with combustion possible for values in the range of 6 to 25. AF less than 6 is t00 rich to sustain combustion and AF greater than 25 is too lean. A vehicle will often be operated with a rich mixture when accelerating o: starting cold, rich mixtures hav- ing better ignition. When cruising at light load, vehicles are often operated lean to save y to have a small fuel rich zone around the fue! input system: of an engine, fuel injectors ot27 ‘ting Characteristics carburetor, must be able to regulate the proper amount of fuel for any operating con- dition and given air low rate, Normal gasoline-fueled engines usually have AF input in the range of 12 to 18 depending on operating conditions at the time (e-g., accelerating, cruising, starting, ete). SI fean-burn engines can have AF as high as 25 to 40, but need special intake and mixing for proper ignition. Clengines typically have AF input in the range of 18 to 70, which appears to be ‘outside the limits within which combustion is possible. Combustion occurs because the cylinder of a Cl engine, unlike an SI engine, has a very nonhomogeneous air-fuel mix- ture, with reaction occurring only in those regions in which a combustible mixture ex- ists, other regions being too rich o too lean. Equivalence ratio ¢ is defined as the actual ratio of fuel-air to ideal or stoichio- ‘metric fuel-air: = (FA)aci/(FA)sioich = (AF) ioicn/ (AF act (2-57) In some cases, AF and FA are given as molar ratios, This is much less common and AF and FA should always be considered mass ratios unless otherwise noted. Some literature use lambda value instead of equivalence ratio, lambda value being the recip- rocal of the equivalence ratio: Vb = (FA scien! (FA)ace = (AF )ace/(AF Jason (2:58) SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION Specific fuel consumption is defined as she = riy/W (259) where ‘iy = rate of fuel flow into engine W = engine power Brake power gives the brake specifi fuel consumption: boste = sin/W, (2-60) Indicated power gives indicated specific fuel consumption: iste = sing, (2-61) Other examples of specific fuel consumption parameters can be defined as follows: {sfc = friction specitic fuel consumption igsfe = indicated gross specific fuel consumption, insfe = indicated net specific fuel consumption psfe = pumping specific fuel consumptionSpecific Fuel Consumption 6 Italso follows that ain = W/W iny/W,)/(iing/W,) = (isfe)/(bsfc) where thm = mechanical efficiency of the engine Brake specific fuel consumption decreases as engine speed increases, reaches a ‘minimum, and then inereases at high speeds (Fig, 2-17). Fuel consumption ineteases at high speed because of greater friction losses. At low engine speed, the longer time per cycle allows more heat loss and fuel consumption goes up. Figure 2-18 shows how bsfc also depends on compression ratio and fuel equivalence ratio. It decreases with higher compression ratio due to higher thermal efficiency. It is lowest when combustion oc- curs in a mixture with a fuel equivalence ratio near one, (# = 1). The further from sto- ichiometric combustion, either rich or lean, the higher will be the fuel consumption, Brake specific fuel consumption generally decreases with engine size, being best (lowest) for very large engines (see Fig, 2-19), Specific fuel consumption is generally given in units of grv/kW-hr or bm/hp-tr. For transportation vehicles it is common to use fuel economy in terms of distance trav- led per unit of fuel, such as miles per gallon (mpg). In ST units it is common to use the inverse of this, with (L/100 km) being a common unit, To decrease air pollution and de- pletion of fossil fuels laws have been enacted requiring better vehicle fuel economy. Since the early 1970s, when most automobiles got less than 15 mpg (15.7 L/100 km) bse (gmk) & 8 8 8 Tow 200 3000 000 000 Engine speed. N (RPM) FIGURE 2-17 Brake specific fuel consumption a8 function of engine speed, Fuel consumption decreases as engine speed increases due 10 the shorter time for heat loss during each eye. At higher engine speeds fuel Consumption again increases because of high irition loses. As compression ratio is increase fuel consumption decreases due to greater thermal effieieney.ing Characteristics a 3 3 00 & Lean —+—+ Rich os 09 10 i 12 Equivalence Ratio, FIGURE 2.18 Brake specific fuel consumption as 2 function of fue equivalence ratio, Consumption is minimum ata slightly lean condition, increasing with both richer an leaner mix ie 15 Ey 2s Displacement. Vy(L) FIGURE 2-19, Brake specific fuel consumption as & function of engine displacement Generally. average fuel consumption is less with larger engines, One reason for this is less heat loss due to the higher volume-to-surface-oea ratio of the ‘combustion chamber ina large engine. Also. larger engines operate a lower speeds which reduces frietion loses Adapted from [123]Es 15 Specific Fuel Consumption €7 using gasoline, great strides have been made in improving fuel economy. Many modern automobiles now get between 30 and 40 mpg (7.8 and 5.9 L/100 km), with some small vehicles as high as 60 mpg (3.9 L/100 km). In recent years, there has been an unwritten international goal for low-emission and hybrid vehicles of obtaining fuel economy of 31/100 km. HISTORIC—1322-MPG VEHICLE ‘The 2000 SAE College Supermileage Challenge was won by a team of students from a physics class representing Saint Thomas Academy High School of Mandota Heights, Minnesota, whose winning vehicle averaged 1131 mpg of gasoline. The light-weight, sin sle-passenger, aerodynamic vehicle was powered by a 35 hp, single-cylinder. Briggs & | Stratton, L-head, earbureted engine of 90 m* displacement. High mileage was obtained by operating the engine in an on-off mode. The engine would accelerate the vehicle up to 2 mph, and would then be turned off. The vehicle was then allowed to coast until speed Tell 10 mph when the engine was again started. This method of operation satisfied the requirement of a 10 mph average aver the closed course. The same vehicle was then used in the Minnesota Technology Education Association (MTEA) Supermileage Challenge, ‘where it obtained a mileage of 1322:mpg using a fuel of 90% gasoline and 10% ethanol. In 1999, the average vehicle fuel consumption worldwide was 275 mpg (8.6 L/100 km), HORSEPOWER ze TOROUE Fe 23 L. a3 Pe 28, z 5 fuRe 2 Zz Fevers g ower brake spec consumption. and my) FUEL CONSUMPTION Gre ot functions of engine sped fo Stik z threcovinder twostroke ey mice gq ° fngine oO L dspace Mau = 200 brake power is 25 hp at 4500 RPM. with Ltt fora 8m a 800 RPM. 1 - 4 « 7 Reprinted with permission from SAE Paper ENGINE SPEED (10° rpm) No. 710766 © 1997, SAE International. [231]28 ing Characters 4.8L FOUR CAM V8 ENGINE FIGURE 2-21, Cutaway view of Ford spark-ignition four-stroke eycle, V8 engine showing main components The engine has a displacement of 46 liters fout valves per cylinder. and two camshalls for ‘eh bank of cylinders. Courtesy of Ford Motor Company. ENGINE EFFICIENCIES ‘The time available for the combustion process of an engine eyele is very brief, and not all fuel molecules may find an oxygen molecule with which to combine, or the local temperature may not favor a reaction, Consequently, a small fraction of fuel does not react and exits with the exhaust flow. A combustion efficiency 7, is defined to account for the fraction of fuel that burns. Typically, n. has values in the range 0.95 to 0.98 when an engine is operating properly. For one engine cycle in one cylinder, the heat added is Qn = mjQuvre (2-63) For steady state. in = tng Ouvn. (2-64) and thermal efficiency is 1 = W/Qn = Wiig = Wit Quvne W = work of one cycle W = power ‘my = mass of fuel for one cycle2.9 Volumetric Efficiency Jing = mass flow rate of fuel Quy ry = fuel conversion efficiency (see Eq, 2-67) 1 heating value of fuel ‘Thermal efficiency can be given as indicated or brake, depending on whether in- dicated power or brake power is used in Eq, (2-65). It follows that engine mechanical efficiency is given by am = (nde (mi (2-66) Engines can have indicated thermal efficiencies in the range of 40% to 50%, with, brake thermal efficiency usually about 30%. Some large, slow Cl engines can have brake thermal efficiencies greater than 50% Fuel conversion efficiency is defined as ang = Wim, Quy = WiritQuw (2-67) ay = (s4e)Onv (2-68) Fora single cycle of one cylinder the thermal efficieney can be written = W/m, Quen. (2-69) ‘This is the thermal efficiency introduced in basic thermodynamic textbooks, sometimes called enthalpy efficiency. VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY One of the most important processes that governs how much power and performance can be obtained from an engine is getting the maximum amount of air into the cylinder dluring each cycle, More air means more fuel can be burned and more energy can be converted to output power. Getting the relatively small volume of liquid fuel into the cylinder is much easier than getting the large volume of gaseous air needed to react with the fuel. Ideally, mass of air equal to the density of atmospheric air times the dis- placement volume of the eylinder should be ingested for each cycle. However, because of the short cycle time available and the flow restrictions presented by the air cleaner, carburetor (if any), intake manifold. and intake valve(3). [ess than this ideal amount of air enters the cylinder. Volumettie efficieney is defined as mal pov (2-10) sing PaVaN (1) ™ ne where ‘m, = mass of air into the engine (or cylinder) for one cycle Jing = steady-state flow of air into the engine air density evaluated at atmospheric conditions outside the engine displacement volume N = engine speed 11 = number of revolutions per cycleing Characteristics FIGURE 2-22, Cutaway view o la fourrotor,R26B rotary which won the 1991 Le Mans France. The 2.62 ite. liquid cooled engine had a compression fatio of 10: three-spark-pug ignition. and variable length telescopic intake manifold Operating patameters controlled by the engine -management system (EMS) included injection Liming. injetion volume. ignition timing. and intake length of manifold runner, Reprinted with Permission from SAE Paper No, 920309 © 1992, SAE International, (222)500 200 —f- Rotor housing Side housing setling {608 6500 gpm “SIS EWIDO Fp — Poweroriented Eticiency-orinteg| 28 Volumetric Efficiency 7 FIGURE 2.23 Cutaway view of rotor and combustion chamber of Mazda R26B rotary engine shown in Fi. 222. Reprinted with permission from SAE Paper No, 120309 0 1992, SAE Internationa, (222. FIGURE 2:24 owor torque. and brake specific fu consumption curves of Mazda R26B rotary engine shovsn in Fig. 2-22, The engine priced maximum brake power of SIS kW at 9000 RPM (691 hp) ‘manimam torque of 608 Nem at 6500 RPM (449 Theft). and had a minimum bsfe of 256 gmk W-hr ‘6000 RPM. Reprinted with permission from SAE Paper No. 920300 © 1992,SAE International, 222}n Chapter2 Operating Characteristics Unless better values are known, standard values of surrounding air pressure and temperature can be used to find density. P, (standard) = 101 kPa = 14.7 psia T, (standard) = 298 K = 25°C = 537°R = 77°F Pa = P,/RT (2-72) where P, = pressure of surrounding air T, = temperature of surrounding air R= gas constant for air = 0.287 kJ/kg-K = 53,33 ftbf/lbm-°R. At standard conditions, the density of air p, = 1.181 kg/m? = 0.0739 tbm/fe When volumetric efficiency is measured experimentally, corrections can be made for temperature and humidity when other than standard conditions are experienced ‘Sometimes (less common) the air density in Eqs. (2-70) and (2-71) is evaluated at conditions in the intake manifold immediately before it enters the cylinder. The condi- tions at this point will usually be hotter and at a lower pressure than surrounding at- mospheric conditions. Typical values of volumetric efficiency for an engine at wide-open throttle (WOT) are in the range 75% to 90%, going down to much lower values as the throttle is closed. Restricting airflow into an engine (closing the throttle) is the primary means ‘of power control for a spark ignition engine, ee Example Problem 2-4 ‘The engine in Example Problem 2.2 is running with an ai value of 44,000 ki/kg, and a combustion efficiency of 97% Caleulate: fuel ratio AF = 15, a fuel heating 1. rate of fuel flow into engine 2. brake thermal efficiency 3. indicated thermal efficiency 4. volumettie efficiency 5. brake specific fuel consumption (1) From Example Problem 2-2, the mass of air in one cylinder for one eyele is m, = 0.00050 kg. Then my = m/ AF = 0,00050/15 = 0.000083 kg of fuel per eylinder per cycle ‘Therefore. the rate of fuel flow into the engine is tiny 0.000033 kg/eyl-cyele)(6 cyl) (3600/60 rev/sec) (1 eyele/2 rev) 0060 kg/'sec » 0.0132 Ibm/see2.10 Emissions (2) Use Eq, (2-65) to find brake thermal efficiency (a= Witty, = (773 KW)/(0.0060 kg/see) 44,000 3 /kg)(0.97) 302 = Or-using Eq, (2-68) for one cycle of one cylinder Wa/it Quine = (O43 kB)/(0.000033 kg) (44,000 kl/kg)(097) 302 & (3) Indicated thermal efficiency usi 4. (2-65) 0.302/085 = 0.55 km) = (ny (4) Use Ey, 2-70) with standard air density 1o calculate volumetric efficiency (0.00050 (1.181 kg/m") (0.0005 m") 7% (8) Use Eq, (2-60) for brake specific fuel consumption: basfe = si,/W, = (0.0060 ky/see)/(77.3 kW) = 7.76 % 10 “ky/kW-see = 279 gm/kW-hr = 0.459 Hom/hp-hr 2.10 EMISSIONS ‘The four main engine exhaust emissions that must be controlled are oxides of nitrogen (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons (HC), and solid particulates (part). Two ‘common methods of measuring the amounts of these pollutants are specific emissions (SE) and the emissions index (E1). Specific emissions typically have units of gm/kW-hr, while the emissions index has units of emissions flow per fuel flow: Specific Emissions: (SE) nox = titwox! Ws, (SE)oo = titco/My (SE)uc = tite /W, (2-73) (SE) pon = Mtpae/ Wo where flow rate of emissions in gm/hr Wy = brake power Emissions Index: (El)vox = sinoylgm/ seein [kg/seo} (El)co = fiicolam/see]/rn kg/see] (El)ge = thyclam/sec|/n[kg/see] (2-74) (EDpan = Hpaalgm/see]/injikg/sec]74 Chapter2 Operating Characteristi Example Problem 2-5 A 12eylinder, two-stroke eyele Cl engine produces 2440 kW of brake power at 550 RPM using stoichiometric light diesel fuel. The engine has bore of 24 em, stroke of 32 em, volumetric effi ciency of 97%, mechanical efficiency of 88%, and combustion efficiency of 98%. Calculate: I. mass flow rate of fuel into engine 2 brake specific fuel consumption 3. indicated speciti fuel consumption 4. specific emissions of hydrocarbons due to unburned fuel 5. emissions index of hydrocarbons due to unburned fuel (1) Equation (2-8) gives total displacement ofthe engine Vy = N(a/4)BYS = (12 cylinders) (n/4)(0.24 m)?(0.32 m) = 0.1737 m* = 173.7 L Equation (2-71) pves the ar flow rate into the engine: fhe = mpeVaN/n (0.97) (1.181 kg/m) (0.1737 m'feyete) (350/60 rev/see),/(2 rev/eyele) = 09120 kw/sec. Equation (2-55) gives the mass flow rate of fuel into the engine: 0,0629 kgy/see = 0.1387 Ibm/see (2) Equation (2-60) gives brake specific fuel consumption: tiny = singJ AF = (0.9120 kp/see)/(145) bsfe 11M {(0.0629 kg/sec)(3600 sec/hr)(1000 gm/kg)]/(2440 kW) = 92.8 gm/kW-he (3) Equation (2-62) gives indicated speci fuel consumption: = 81.7 gm/kW-hr iste bsfe) = (0.88)(92.8 gm/kW-he (4) Mass flow rate of unburned fuel is Jitguoncd = (L~ nedtng = (1 ~ 0.98)(0.0629 kg/sce) = 0.001258 kg/sec = 1.258 em/see Equation (2-73) gives specific emissions of hydrocarbons from unburned fuel: (SE)nc = Ftanbuna/Ws = [(1.258 gm/sec)(3600 sec/hr)}/(2440 kW) = 1.86 pm/kW-br (5) Equation (2-74) gives the emissions index of hydrocarbons from unburned fuel (Elsie = sitsspuneal ti = (1.258 gm/sec),/(0,0629 kg/see) = 20.0 ge,211 2.12 Volt Electrical Systems 75. NOISE ABATEMENT In recent years a lot of research and development has been directed towards reducing engine and exhaust noise. Although excessive noise is considered a pollution, total elimination of all noises is not always the goal of vehicle manufacturers. Some people consider some “sporty rumble” noise from an engine as desirable. The sound abate- ment systems on some models of European ultrasmall “city cars” are designed so that the vehicle sounds like an expensive luxury car- Several modern vehicles with nostalgic body designs reminiscent of the 1950s also have exhaust systems that are “tweaked” to sound like their 1950s counterparts (eg. the rumbling of a Hollywood muffler). Mo- torcycle enthusiasts will sometimes reject new models because “they don’t sound like a motorcycle.” You could not sell a new Harley-Davidson cycle if it did not sound like a Harley-Davidson. A great effort was expended to make the new liquid-cooled Porsche engines sound like old air-cooled Porsche engines On the other hand, on many vehicles noise reduction has been so successful that some automobiles are now equipped with a safety switch on the starter. At idle speed, the engine is so quiet that the safety switch is required to keep drivers from trying to start the engine when itis already running, 42-VOLT ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS {In the early years of the 21st century. revolutionary change will occur in the electrical systems of automobiles, a switch from 12 volts to 42 volts [221, 234]. This change is in response to the ever-increasing clectrical power necds of the modern car, increased lighting, larger computer for controls. greater starter power for higher compression en- gines, air-conditioning, electrical accessaries, etc. To address this rising power need, au- tomobile and component manufacturers spent billions of dollars in research and development during the 1990s and into the 2000s, The end result is a several-year changeover from 12 volts standard to 42 volts, starting in 2002. In the first years, proto- type vehicles and a limited number of automobile models available to the public will have the higher voltage. Each year, more standard automobile models will have the new system, and in 10 years or so, it will be the industry standard Many factors were considered before international consensus agreed on 42 volts as the new standard, safety being a major consideration. The electrical industry consid- ered anything over 60 voils potentially dangerous, with added requirements for wire insulation, connectors, etc. Years of electrical industry development had created great knowledge and a large line of products and standards in the 42 volt range: wires, relays, connectors, etc, In the old lower voltage systems, batteries were standard at 12 volts while alternators/generators operated at 14 volts. The new system will have 36-volt bat- teries and 42-volt generators. Wire sizes will be decreased. all mechanical relays will be replaced by solid-state switching, and many components will be of smaller size. The overall mass of the electrical system on a standard automobile is expected to be re- duced by about 25° The first automobiles using the higher voltage will have two electrical systems, one of 42 volts and one of some components, mainly the lights, operate better at the lower potential. The main electrical system will be 42 volts, with a74 Chapter Gpereting Characteristics Example Problem 2-5 A 12-cylinder, two-stroke cycle Cl engine produces 2440 kW of brake power at $50 RPM using. stoichiometric light diesel fuel. The engine has bore of 24 cm, stroke of 32 em, volumetric eff ciency of 97%, mechanical efficiency of 88, and combustion efficiency of 98%, Calculate 11. mass flow rate of fuel into engine 2. brake specific fuel consumption 3. indicated specific fuel consumption 4. specific emissions of hydrocarbons due to unburned fuel 5, emissions index of hydrocarbons due to unburned fuel (1) Equation (2-8) gives total displacement of the engine: 1N,(a7/4)BES = (12 cylinders} (/4)(0.24 m)?(0.32 m) = 0.1737 m* Equation (2-71) gives the air flow rate into the engine: fig = WN fo = (097)(1.181 kg/m')(0.1737 m’/eycle) (550/60 rev/see}/(2 nev/eyele) = 0.9120 ka/see [Equation (255) gives the mass low rate of ful into the engine Jny = fn/AF = (09120 kg/see)/(14.5) = 0.0629 kg/soe = 0.1387 lom/see (2) Equation (260) gives brake specific fuel consumption: bee = my/W, = {( 0.0629 kay/sce)(3600 seen) (1000 gmke)]}/(2440 kW) = 92.8 em/kW-hr (3), Equation (2:62) gives indicated specific fuel consumption: isfo = m(bsfe) = (0.88)(92.8 gm/kW-hr) = 81.7 pm/kW-hr (4) Mass flow rate of unburned fuel is Frames = (Lm )ity = (1 = 0,98)(0.0620 kg/see) = 0.001258 ky/see = 1.258 gm/see Equation (2-73) gives specific emissions of hydrocarbons from unburned fuek (SE)uc = tataneal Ws = [(1-258 gm/see)(3600 sec/hr)]/(2440 kW) 1.86 gm/kW-hr (5) Equation (2-74) gives the emissions index of hydrocarbons from unburned fuel (ED 4c = tcotmne/tty = (1258 gm/sec)/(0.0629 ke/see) = 20.0 gmyjc/kmy211 2.12 ical Systems 78 NOISE ABATEMENT In recent years @ lot of research and development has been directed towards reducing engine and exhaust noise, Although excessive noise is considered a pollution, total tlimination of all noises is not always the goal of vehicle manufacturers Some people consider some "sporty rumble" noise from an engine as desirable. The sound abate~ tent systems on some models of European ultrasmall “city cars” are designed so that the vehicle sounds like an expensive luxury car. Several modern vehicles with nostalgic body designs reminiscent of the 1950s also have exhaust systems that are “tweaked” to sound like their 1950s counterparts (e... the rumbling of a Hollywood muffler). Mo~ toreyele enthusiasts will sometimes reject new models because “they don’t sound like a motorcycle.” You could not sell a new Harley-Davidson cycle if it did not sound like a Harley-Davidson. A great effort was expended to make the new liquid-cooled Porsche ‘engines sound like old air-cooled Porsche engines. (On the other hand,on many vehicles noise reduction has been so successful that some automobiles are now equipped with a safety switch on the starter. At idle speed, the engine is so quiet that the safety switch is required to keep drivers from trying to start the engine when itis already running, 42-VOLT ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS In the early years ofthe 2ist century, a revolutionary change will oceur in the electrical systems of automobiles, a switch from 12 volts to 42 volts (221, 234], This change is in response to the ever-increasing electrical power needs of the modern car, increased lighting, larger computer for controls, greater starter power for higher compression en- tines, air-conditioning, electrical accessaries, etc. To address this rising power need, au- tomobile and component manufacturers spent billions of dollars in research and development during the 1990s and into the 2000s, The end result is a several-year changeover from 12 volts standard to 42 volts, starting, in 2002. In the first years, proto- type vehicles and a limited number of automobile models available to the public will have the higher voltage. Each year, more standard automobile models will have the new system, and in 10 years or so, it will be the industry standard. Many factors were considered before international consensus agreed on 42 volts as the new standard, safety being a major consideration, The electrical industry consid- cred anything over 60 volts potentially dangerous, with added requirements for wire insulation, connectors, ete. Years of electrical industry development had created great knowledge and a large line of products and standards in the 42 volt range; wires. relays, connectors, etc. In the old lower voltage systems, batteries were standard at 12 volts while allernators/generators operated at 14 Yolts. The new system will have 36-volt bat- teries and 42-volt generators. Wire sizes will be decreased, all mechanical relays will be replaced by solid-state switching, and many components will be of smaller size. The overall mass of the electrical system on a standard automobile is expected to be re- duced by about ‘The first automobiles using the higher voltage will have two electrical systems, one of 42 volts and one of 12 volts. This is because some components. mainly the lights “operate better at the jower potential. The main electrical system will be 42 volts. with &1¢ Characteristics transformer conversion down to 12 vols for that system. Most vehicles will have two batteries, one 36 volt and one 12 volt. Its uncertain whether the 12/14-volt systems will be phased out in the future. ‘The additional power available with a high voltage system opens up many possi- ble uses of electrical components for engines and vehicles. Two main changes in engine ‘operation which will quickly occur are the elimination of the camshaft, and the com- bining of the starter and generator with the flywheel, Other possibilities include belt- less engines, better fuel injectors, electric water pumps, electric fuel pumps, electric oil pumps, quick defrost glass, windshield heaters, electric steering, heated catalysts, vehi- cle suspension control, electric particular filters for diesels, heated seats, greater enter- tainment systems, navigation systems, cellular equipment, high-tech security electric brakes, climate control, power doors, etc. One of the greater benefits of the higher voltage and power will be engine valve control using electromechanical actuators instead of a camshaft. Not only will this im- prove the mechanical efficiency of an engine, but it will provide variable valve control in both timing and lift. With more powerful computers of the EMS,complete control of valve timing and lift will allow the engine to operate much more efficiently over all speed and load conditions. Opening and closing of the valves can be much faster, and a soft closing is possible, which will allow the use of ceramic valves. In most vehicles using the higher voltage system, the starter and generator will be built into a single unit along with the engine flywheel. This multipurpose flywheel will be mounted between the engine and transmission, much the same as standard fly- wheels. This will eliminate the need for a separate starter motor, and for a belt-driven generator. A flywheel-mounted starter will allow for very quick starting of a warmed engine—as quick as 0.3 seconds [234]. This will allow automobile engines to be turned off when stopped (c.g.,at stop lights), saving fuel and reducing emissions. When the ac- celerator pedal is depressed the engine will then smoothly restart very quickly with the aid of the clectric starter motor acting as a minihybrid. This type of unit will also save energy by recovering some of the vehicle kinetic energy when the vehicle slows or stops, energy that would normally be lost as heat in the break system. The flywheel- generator can recover some of this energy electrically and return it to the vehicle’s bat- tery. Creating a single unit that includes a starter and a generator was a major technological achievement, starters generally operating at low speed and generators only efficient at high speed. ‘An electric pump and controls in the engine cooling system will allow flow rates to be adjusted as needed, saving energy and eliminating the need for a thermostat. En- gines will heat up quicker and passenger compartment heating can continue after the engine stops. Electric fuel pumps and oil pumps, along with sensors and controls, will allow more efficient use of these units, Better lubrication control (e.g,, at cold startup) will reduce engine wear. Electric braking and steering will eventually replace the systems now used. Elec- trie brakes will be made safer by eliminating hydraulic systems. Eventually, electric steer-by-wire will probably eliminate the need for a steering column, giving greater space and flexibility for engine compartment design. The stecring wheel could some- day be replaced with a joystick. Eliminating all engine belts and using electricity for2.13 placement - Cylinder Cutout 77 driving components only when needed (e.g..air conditioner pump, fan, ete.) will reduce noise and increase mechanical efficiency. Both hybrid vehicles and all-electric fuel cell vehicles will operate more efficient ly using 42 volts. Potential problems with the higher voltage include electrochemical corrosion, arcing, and jump-starting of automobiles, VARIABLE DISPLACEMENT - CYLINDER CUTOUT A large displacement SI engine becomes very inefficient when low output power is required. The throttle valve is partially closed, creating low inlet pressure and the resulting large pumping loss, Low inlet pressure reduces the pressuse for the entire following cycle, resulting in poor combustion and a low imep. This, along with low engine speed. results in a very inefficient cycle. To compensate for this, several au- tomobile manufacturers have developed engines that disconnect (cutout) half of the cylinders at low load. and run with only the remaining cylinders firing. This is usually done with large displacement V8s. which then run as four-cylinder engines at low load producing the same brake power output. Instead of a large engine run- hing inefficiently at low speed. the unit runs efficiently as a smaller engine at higher speed. ‘When cylinder cutout is used. the valves are disconnected and fuel input and ig- nition to those cylinders are stopped. Typically. on a VS engine, the two outer cylinders ‘on one bank and the two inner cylinders on the other bank are disconnected. The EMS decides when cutout occurs, and then adjusts throttle, ignition timing, ete. for the new ‘operating conditions. Early attempts to use cylinder cutout in the 1980s and 1990s gen- erally gave less-than-satisfactory results due to inability of the system controls. Modern, EMS systems now have the power and sophistication needed and some top-of-the-line automobiles (Mercedes) use cylinder cutout [190] ‘When the large engine is operated as a smaller four-cylinder engine, the throt- tle is opened. resulting in less pumping loss and higher engine speeds. The higher speed of a small engine operates closer to steady-state, and the higher cycle pres- sure allows for a leaner air-fuel ratio and a greater amount of exhaust gas recycling, All of this makes for greater efficiency. and fucl savings of 5% to 15% have been realized Mitsubishi has even developed a four-cylinder engine that cuts out cylinders 1 and 4,and runs as a two-eylinder when full power is not needed [206]. Yet another way of operating a large engine when only a light power output is needed is to convert irom a four-stroke cycle 10 a six-stroke eycle. At present, no en- gine is known to operate in this manner, but it has been suggested for possible future development. With a 42-volt electrical system ancl complete variable valve control it would be possible to consider st wine. After the exhaust stroke of a four- stroke cycle. (wo additional strokes could be added. with no fuel input and possibly all valves open. The engine could then run at a higher, more efficient speed, but still produce less brake output with a power stroke in each cylinder only on every third revolution.7& Chapter2 Operating Characteristics eS Example Problem 2-6 A hybrid automobile with mass of 3200 Ibm, traveling at 60 mph, slows to a stop. The automobile 5s equipped with a combined starter-generator—flywheel, and when slowing down, 58% of the ki, netic energy of the vehicle is recovered as electrical energy in the battery. When the battery is being recharged with the vehicle's IC engine, there is a 28% efficiency of converting chemical en. «ray in the fuel to electrical energy stored inthe battery The engine burns stoichiometric gasoline Caleulate: 1, electrical energy recovered in the battery by one slowdown of the automobile 2. mass of gasoline saved by recovering kinetic energy of one slowdown (1) Kinetic energy of vehicle at 60 mph is KE = mv7/2g, (3200 Ibm}[(60 miles br }(5280f4/mite)/(3 ((2)(322 tbm-fy/totsee*)] = 384,800 flbt = 495 BTU Of this amount, 58% is recovered as stored electrical energy: E = (0.58)(495 BTU) = 287 BTU = (2) The mass of gasoline needed to supply the same amount of electrical energy to the battery is kJ E = myscine Div Reason = 287 BTU = Message 43,000 k3/kg) [0.4299 (BTU/lom)/(ky/kg)] X (0.28 conversion efficiency) EEE 2.14 CONCLUSIONS—WORKING EQUATIONS. In this chapter, equations relating the working parameters of engine operation have been developed, giving tools by which these parameters can be used for engine design and characterization, By combining earlier equations from the chapter, the following additional working equations are obtained. These are given as general equations and as specific equations to be used either with ST units or with English units. In the specit- ic equations, units that must be used to satisfy the equality are given in brackets Torque: ayMViQevp,{FA)/ 20m (275) For SI units, o{N-m] = 59.2 WIkWY/Nfrev/sec] (2-76) For English units, [ibe] 252 W[hp|/N[RPM] 2-77)| Problems 79 Power: Wy = siny/(bsfe) = (FA)jing/(bsfe) (2-78) Wy = mm NViQuv,(FA)/n (2-79) For SL units, Biy[kW] = N[rev/sec}r{N-m)/159.2 (2-80) W[kW] = bmeplkPa]V,[LV[rev/sec]/1000 nfrev/eyete] (2-81) For English units, Walhp] = VPRPM]s[IDF-f1]/5252 (2-82) Vslhp] = bmepfpsia}Vs{in.*|M[RPMI/396,000 nlrev/cycle] (2-83) Mechanical Efficienc Wa/WW; = bmep/imep = 1 — (2-84) Mean Effective Pressus bmep = (2-85) mep = nW/V,N (2-86) For Sl units, bmep[kPa] = 6.28 nfrev/cycle]s{N-m]/V,{L] (2-87) meplkPa] = 1000 W[kW]nlrev/cycle]/Vi[L]N[rev/sec} (2-88) For English units, bbmep[psia] = 75.4 nfrev/cyele]zfb-£t/Vifin] (2-89) mep[psia] = 39,000 W[hp}nfrev/cycle]/V,in.]V[RPM] (2-90) Specific Power: W/A, = n-WNSQhy,(FAY/n 291) W/Ap = nymU,Quvp,(FA)/2n (2-92) PROBLEMS 24 As Becky was driving “Old Betsy.” the family station wagon, the engine finally quit, be worn out after 171,000 miles. It can be assumed that the average speed over its lifetime ‘was 40 mph at an engine speed of 170 RPM. The engine is fiv fourstroke eyele, iter V8 operating on a Calculate: (a) How many revolutions has the engine experienced (b) How many spark pl (©) How many intake24 28 26 27 28 2 Opereriig Characteristics A four-cylinder. two-stroke eyete diesel engine with 10.9-cm bore and 12.6-cm stroke pro- ‘duces 88 kW of brake power at 2000 RPM. Compression ratio r, = 18:1 Calculate: (a) Engine displacement. fem’, L] (b) Brake mean effective pressure. {kPa} (©) Torque. [N-m] (a) Clearance volume of one eylinder. [em] A foureylinder, 2iter engine operates on a fourstroke eycle at 3200 RPM. The com: pression ratio is 941, the connecting rod length r = 18cm, and the bore and stroke are related as $= 1.068, Caleutate: (a) Clearance volume of one cylinder in em*, L.and in.’ (b) Bore and stroke in em and in (©) Average piston speed in mlsee and tise What are the advantages of an over square engine? What are the advantages of an under square engine? In Problem 2-3, what is the average piston speed and what is the piston speed when the crank angle @ = 90° aTDC? {msec} A five-cylinder, 3Sliter SI engine operates on a four-stroke cycle at 2500 RPM. At this condition, the mechanical efficiency of the engine is 62% and 1000 J of indicated work are produced each cycle in each eylinder. Calculate: (a) Indicated mean effective pressure. {kPa} (h) Brake mean effective pressure. [kPa] (©). Friction mean effective pressure. [kPa| (a) Brake power in kW and hp. (e) Torque. [N-m) ‘The engine operating at the conditions in Problem 2-6 is square, with $ = B, Calculate (a) Specific power. [kW/em] (b) Output per displacement, (kW/om'] (©). Specific volume. fem'/kW] (a) Power lost to frietion in KW and hp. ‘The engine operating at the conditions in Example Problem 2-4 has 2 combustion efft- ciency of 97%, Calculate: (a) Rate of unburned hydrocarbon fuel that is expelled into the exhaust system. [kg/hr] (b) Specific emission of HC. (em/kW-hr]29 A construction vehicle has a diel engine with eight cylinders of 5375cinch bore and 80-inch stroke. operating om a foursroke cycle. I delivers 152-shaft horsepower at 1000 RPM. with a ‘mechanical efficiency of 0.60. Calculate (a) Total engine displacement. fin} (b) Brake mean effective pressure. [psia} (©) Torque at 1000 RPM, [IbF-1) (@) Indicated horsepower. (€) Friction horsepower. 210 A 1300-cm'. fourstroke eyele. foureylinder CI AS KW of brake power. Volumetric efficiency is 0.92 nnd air-fuel ratio Al ne. operating at 3000 RPM, produces 21 Calculate: (8) Rate ofair flow into engine. [kg/sec] (b) Brake specific fuel consumption. [gnvkW-hr] (€)_ Mass rate of exhaust flow. [kesh] (a) Brake output per displacement. {kW/L] 241A pickup truck haa fivectiter four-stroke cyele. V6, SI engine operating at 2400 RPM. The (02:1, the volumettic efficioney 7, = 0.91, and the bore and 0928. compression ratio stroke are related as stroke S Calculate: (a) Stroke length. fem] (b)_ Average piston speed, [misec} (@)_ clearance volume of one cylinder. fem"), (@) Airflow rate into engine. [ke/sec] 2A2 It takes a man 12.5 hours to complete a 500-mile trip in his automobile, during which 18 gallons of gasoline are consumed. During this rip the average emissions index for carbon monoxide is (El)cx) = 28 (gny/sec)/(kg/sec). Density of liquid gasoline is 0.692 ky/L. Caleulate (a) Fuel economy in English units [mpe] (b)Fucl consumption rate using standard ST units of L/100 km. (©) Amount of CO emitted to environment during trip. [ke] 243 A S-iter V10 compression-ignition truck engine operates on a fourstrake eycle at 3600) RPM producing 162 kW of brake power. The bore and stroke of the engine are related as, S=1DB Caleulate: tay Avera €b) Torque. [N-m] fe) Brake mean effective pressure. kPa ge piston speed. mise] 244A 4S:titer. sparicignition, fourstroke cyele. VS industrial engine operates 24 hours per day lor five days at 2000 RPM using gasoline with AF = 14.6, The engine has a volumel- cy of 92%. with bore and stroke related as B = 1.06 S, iy82 chapte; 2as 246 247 2s 29) ‘ating Characteristics Caleulate: (a) Stroke length. fem] (b) Average piston speed. [m/sec] (©) Number of times each spark plug has fired, (a) Mass flow rate of air into engine. [ke/sec] (©) Mass flow rate of fuel into engine, [ke/sec] A small single-cylinder, two-stroke cycle SI engine operates at 8000 RPM with a volumet- tic efficiency of n, = 0.85. The engine is square (bore = stroke) and has a displacement ‘of 6.28 em’. The fuel-sir ratio FA = 0.067. Calculate: (2) Average piston speed. {misec] (b) Flow rate of air into engine. [kgisec] (©) Flow rate of fuel into engine. ky/sec] (@) Fuel input for one eyce. [kg/eycle] Assingle-cylinder, four-stroke cycle Cl engine with 12.9-cm bore and 18.0-em stroke, operat- ing at 800 RPM, uses 0.113 kg of fuel in four minutes while developing a torque of 76 N-m, Calculate: (a) Brake specific fuel consumption. [gm/kW-hr] (b) Brake mean effective pressure. [kPa] (©), Brake power. [kW] (a) Specific power. [kW em’ (©) Output per displacement. {kW/L] (Specific volume. [LikW] A 302.in.* displacement, V8, four-stroke cycle SI engine mounted on a hydraulic dy- ‘namometer has an output of 72 hp at 4050 RPM, Water absorbs the energy output of the engine as it flows through the dynamometer at a rate of 30 gallons per minute. The dy- namometer has an efficiency of 93% and the water enters ata temperature of 46°F. Caleulate: (a) Exit temperature of the water. [°F] (b) Torque output of the engine at this condition [bf] (©) What is the bmep at this condition? [psia] A 3.Hiter, fourcylinder, two-stroke cyele SI engine is mounted on an electrical generator dynamometer. When the engine is running at 1200 RPM. output from the 220-volt DC generator is $4.2 amps The generator has an efficieney of $7% Caleulate: (a) Power output of the engine in kW and hp. (b)_ Engine torque. ['-m] (©) Engine bmep. [kPa] ‘An SI. sivlter, V8 race car engine operates at WOT on a four-stroke cycle at 6000 RPM using stoichiometric nitromethane, Fuel enters the engine at a rate of 0.198 kglsec and combustion efficiency is 99%224 Design Problems 83 Calculate: (a) Volumetric efficiency of engine. [%] (b) Flow rate of sir into engine. ky/sec] (@) Heat added per eyele per cylinder. [kI} (@) Chemical enerey from unburned fuel in the exhaust. [kW] A large V8SI four-stroke eyele engine with a displacement of 46 litersis equipped with cylin- «er cutout, which converts the engine to a 2.3 liter V4 when less power is needed. At a speed ‘of 1750 RPM the engine, asa VB, has a volumetric efficiency of 51%. mechanical efficiency of 75%. am air-fuel ratio of 14.5. and produces 32.4 kW of brake power using gasoline. With cylinder cutout and operating at higher speed as a V4, the engine has a volumetric efficiency 0 86%, a mechanical efficiency of 87%. and uses un air-fuel ratio of 18.2. Indicated thermal elficiency can be considered the same at all speeds. and combustion efficiency is 100%, Caleutate (2) Mass low rate of air into VS engine at 1780 RPM. kxsec] (b) Mass flow rate of fucl into VS engine at 1750 RPM. [kg/sec], (©) The bsfeas V8 a 1750 RPM, [uk Wht] (8) Engine speed needed s a Vi to produce same brake power output. [RPM] (6) The bic V4 at higher speed amik Wr] A Lth-kg hybrid automobile which operates on ethanol fuel is equipped with « multipur- pose motor-generator-flywhecI. When the vehicle slows or stops. 51% of the kinetic ener- ay is recovered as electrical envrgy in the battery. When the IC engine is used to recharge the battery there isa 24% efficiency of converting chemical energy in the fuel to electrical eneray stored in the battery. The vehicle slows from 70 MPH to 20 MPH. Calculate: (a) Electrical energy recovered in battery. [kJ] {b). Mass of fuel needed to store same amount of energy in battery. [kg] DESIGN PROBLEMS 2a 22D Design a sivlter race car engine that operates on a four-stroke cycle. Decide what the de- sign speed will be, and then give the number of cylinders, bore, stroke, piston rod length, average piston speed. imep. brake torque. fuel used, AF. and brake power all at design speed. All parameter values should be within typical. reasonable ranges and should be consistent with the other values. State what assumptions you make (e.., mechanical effi- ciency. volumetric efficieney, etc) Design a six-horsepower engine for a snowblower, Decide on the operating speed. number of strokes in eycle. carburetor or fuel injectors. nd total displacement. Give the number of cylinders, bore. stroke. connecting rod length, average piston speed, brake torque, and brake power. What special considerations must be made. knowing that this engine must start in very cold weather? All parameter values should be within typical. reasonable ranges and should be consistent with the other values. State all assumptions you make. Design a small four-stroke cycle Diesel engine to produce $0 kW of brake power at de sign speed when installed in a small pickup truck. Average piston speed should not ex- ed 8 misee at design conditions. Give the design speed. displacement. number of cylinders, bore. strake. bmep. and torque. All parameter values should be within typical, reasonable ranges and shoul be consistent with the other values. State all assumptions you make,