MEGNETIC FIELD DUE TO ELECTRIC CURRENT

MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO ELECTRIC CURRENT

Magnet Attracting Iron Filings

MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO

ELECTRIC CURRENT
2. MAGNETIC FIELD
The region around a current carrying conductor (or a magnet) where magnetic
effects can be experienced is called a magnetic field. The direction of magnetic field
at any point is taken to be the direction in which a north pole would move if placed at
that point. The path which such a pole would follow is called a magnetic line of force
or line of force. Following this convention, it is clear that magnetic lines of force
emerge from N-pole, pass through the surrounding medium and re-enter the S-pole. In
other words, magnetic lines of force form closed loops. Fig. 11.3 shows the magnetic
field due to a straight current carrying conductor. Note that magnetic lines of force are
a series of concentric circles with conductor as the centre. The direction of magnetic
field can be found by right-hand grip rule.

MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO ELECTRIC CURRENT

MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO

ELECTRIC CURRENT
1. OERSTEDS DISCOVERY
The magnetic effect of electric current was discovered by Oersted in 1820. He verified the magnetic effect
of electric current by the following simple experiment.
(i) Fig. 11.1 (i) shows a conducting wire AB above a magnetic needle parallel to it. So long as there is
no current in the wire, the magnetic needle remains parallel to the wire i.e. there is no deflection in
the magnetic needle.
+

Conducting
wire
S

B A

N
(i)

B A

(ii)

S
(iii)

Fig. 11.1

(ii) As soon as the current flows through the wire AB [See Fig. 11.1 (ii)], the needle is deflected. When
the current in wire AB is reversed [See Fig. 11.1 (iii)], the needle is deflected in the opposite
direction. This deflection is a convincing proof of the existence of a magnetic field around a currentcarrying conductor.
(iii) On increasing the current in the wire AB, the deflection of the needle is increased and vice-versa.
This shows that magnetic field strength increases with the increase in current and vice-versa.
(iv) When the wire AB is held at right angles over the needle, then needle is not deflected at all. This
shows that magnetic field of the current is at right angles to it. In this case, the magnetic field is
parallel to the needle and hence no deflection of the needle takes place.

Conclusions From Oersteds Experiment

(a) A current-carrying conductor produces a magnetic field.
(b) The larger the value of current in the conductor, the stronger is the magnetic field
vice-versa.

and

(c) The magnetic field produced by a current-carrying conductor is at right angles to it.
(d) A current-carrying conductor produces a magnetic field consisting of circular lines of force
concentric with the conductor.
(e) A charge whether stationary or in motion produces an electric field around it. If the charge is in
motion (electric current), in addition to the electric field, it also produces a magnetic field.

2. MAGNETIC FIELD
The region around a current carrying conductor (or a magnet) where magnetic effects can be experienced is
called a magnetic field. The direction of magnetic field at any point is taken to be the direction in which a north
pole would move if placed at that point. The path which such a pole would follow is called a magnetic line of
force or line of force. Following this convention, it is clear that magnetic lines of force emerge from N-pole, pass

MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO ELECTRIC CURRENT

through the surrounding medium and re-enter the S-pole. In other words, magnetic lines of force form closed
loops. Fig. 11.3 shows the magnetic field due to a straight current carrying conductor. Note that magnetic lines
of force are a series of concentric circles with conductor as the centre. The direction of magnetic field can be
found by right-hand grip rule.
Right-hand grip rule: Grip the wire with your right hand with thumb pointing in the direction of the
conventional current. Then curled fingers point in the direction of the magnetic lines of force.

(i)

(ii)
Fig. 11.3

Applying right-hand grip rule to Fig. 11.3 (ii), it is clear that the direction of magnetic lines of force is
clockwise. It may be noted that the shape of the magnetic field depends upon the shape of current carrying
conductor. Regardless of the shape of current carrying conductor, magnetic lines of force always form
closed loops.

3. MAGNETIC FLUX DENSITY ( B )

The magnitude and direction of magnetic field is represented by magnetic flux density ( B ). The direction of
magnetic flux density at a point [say point P in Fig. 11.4] is that of the tangent to the line of force at that point.
The *magnitude of flux density is high where the number of field lines per unit area is more. In other words,
magnitude of flux density is more where the field lines are crowded and vice-versa.

P
P

B large

B small
Fig. 11.4

The following points may be noted carefully :

(i) The magnetic flux density is a measure of field concentration i.e. number of lines in each square
metre of the field. It is, therefore, the appropriate quantity to describe the magnetic field.

(ii) Just as electric field around a charge is described by the field vector E , similarly the magnetic field

around a current carrying conductor is described by the magnetic field vector B .

(iii) The unit of magnetic flux density is tesla (T).

4. MAGNETIC FLUX (
B)
The magnetic flux (B) through a region is the number of magnetic lines of
force passing normally through the region. It can, therefore, be defined in

terms of the flux density ( B ). Consider an area A not perpendicular to the

magnetic field. Suppose normal to the area makes an angle to the direction of magnetic field as shown in Fig. 11.5. Then,
Magnetic flux, B = A component of B along normal

= AB cos = A . B

B = A . B

Normal
to area A

Area A

Fig. 11.5

MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO ELECTRIC CURRENT

Hence magnetic flux through an area is equal to the dot or scalar product of magnetic field B and

*area A . Obviously, magnetic flux is a scalar quantity.

The unit of magnetic flux is weber (Wb).
(i) 1 Tesla = 1 Wb/m2 i.e., 1T = 1 Wb/m2

= B . dA

(ii)

The total magnetic flux f over the entire surface area A is

= B . dA
A

5. FORCE ON A MOVING CHARGE IN A MAGNETIC FIELD

If an electric charge + q moves with a velocity v through a magnetic field B , then magnetic field exerts a force

Fm on the charge. It has been found experimentally that magnitude of this force is

Fm =q v B sin

...(i)
Z

where is the angle (180 or less) between the directions of

v and B . The force is exerted perpendicularly to both v

Fm

and B . In other words, Fm is perpendicular to the plane

containing v and B . This is illustrated in Fig. 11.6. Note

that charge +q moves in the XY plane; angle between v and

B being . Therefore, force Fm on the charge is along Zaxis.

It is clear from eq. (i) above that magnitude of magnetic

force Fm on a moving charge in a magnetic field is directly
**proportional to (i) magnitude of charge q (ii) speed v of
the charge, (iii) strength B of the magnetic field and (iv) sine

+q

of angle between v and B . Note that v sin the direction

Fig. 11.6

of B .

Vector form: The reader knows that vector cross product of two vectors A and B gives a third vector

whose magnitude is AB sin and whose direction is perpendicular to both A and B . Using the cross product,
we can write the magnetic force on a moving charge in terms of cross product of the charge velocity and the
magnetic field :

Fm = q ( v B )

Clearly, Fm is perpendicular to the plane containing v and B .

Fm = q ( v B ) is called magnetic Lorentz force experienced by a moving charged particle in the

magnetic field.

Direction of magnetic force: We have seen that magnetic force Fm is perpendicular to the plane contain-

ing v and B . The force could be up as shown in Fig. 11.6 or down, since both directions are perpendicular to

the plane containing v and B . The right-hand rule illustrated below is used to determine which is the correct
choice for the direction of the magnetic force.
Right-hand rule: Orient your right hand so that your outstretched fingers point along the direction of
motion of *positively charged particle; the orientation should be such that when you bend your fingers, they

must point along the direction of the magnetic field ( B ). Then your extended thumb will point in the
direction of force on the charged particle.
Let us apply right-hand rule for an electron (negatively charged) entering the magnetic field as shown in
Fig. 11.7. The direction of positive charge will be exactly opposite. Applying right-hand rule, it is clear that
direction of force on the electron will be vertically upward. For a positively charged particle, it will be vertically
downward. Note that direction of magnetic field means from N-pole to S-pole.

MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO ELECTRIC CURRENT

Fm

+e

Fig. 11.7

(i) The electric field always exerts force on an electric charge which points in the direction parallel to
the field. But magnetic force does not point in the direction parallel to magnetic field, nor does it
point in the direction of charges velocity. The magnetic force is perpendicular to both the magnetic
field and the charges velocity.
(ii) This right-hand rule for the direction of force is also called Right-hand rule for cross product.

Fm = q ( v B )

Now

This rule may be remembered as v (direction of conventional current) swept into B .

6. SOME CASES OF MAGNETIC FORCE

Consider an electric charge q moving with a velocity v through a magnetic field B . Then the magnetic force
on the charge is given by ;

Fm = q ( v B )
Magnitude of force, Fm = q v B sin
(i) When = 0 or 180, sin = 0

Fm = q v B (0) = 0
Hence a charged particle moving parallel (or antiparallel) to the direction of magnetic field experiences no force.
(ii) When = 90, sin = 1

Fm = q v B
... maximum value
Hence force experienced by a charged particle is maximum when it is moving perpendicular to the
direction of magnetic field.
(iii) When v = 0 i.e. the charged particle is at rest,
Fm = q (0) B sin = 0
If a charged particle is at rest in a magnetic field, it experiences no force.
(iv) When q = 0 ; Fm = 0
Hence electrically neutral particle moving in a magnetic field experiences no force.

Note: The magnetic force Fm acts perpendicular to velocity vector v (as well as B ). This means that
a uniform magnetic field can neither speed up nor slow down a moving charged particle; it can change only

the direction of v and not magnitude of v . Since the magnitude of v does not change, the magnetic
force does not change the kinetic energy of the charged particle.

7. UNIT OF B
The SI unit of strength of magnetic field is 1 tesla (i.e. 1T).
Now

Fm = q v B sin

Fm
q v sin
If q = 1C, v = 1ms1, = 90 and Fm = 1N, then,
1
B=
=1T
111
Hence the strength of magnetic field at a point is 1 T if a charge of 1C when moving with a velocity of
1 ms1 at right angles to the magnetic field, experiences a force of 1N at that point.
Note that magnetic field of earth at its surface is about 104T. On the other hand, strong electromagnets
can produce magnetic fields of the order of 2 T.

or

B=

Note :

B=

1T =

Fm
q v sin
1N

1C 1 ms 1
= 1 NA1 m1

1N
1As 1 ms 1
( 1 C = 1 A 1 s )

MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO ELECTRIC CURRENT

B=

Dimensions of B

Dimensions of B =

Fm
q v sin
MLT 2

= MA1T

AT [ LT 1 ]

8. BIOT-SAVART LAW
Into page

Biot-Savart law gives the magnetic field at a point due to a small current
element. Fig. 11.8 shows part of a wire carrying a steady current I. Consider a small element of length dl and a point P where we wish to find the

I dl

dB
P

magnetic field ( dB ) due to this current element. Let r be the position

vector of point P from the current element I dl and be the angle between

dl and r . Then according to Biot-Savart law, the magnitude of magnetic

field dB at point P due to this small current element is given by ;

dB

I dl sin
2

or

dB = K

I dl sin

Fig. 11.8

r
r2
where K is a constant of proportionality. Its value depends upon the medium in which the conductor is situated
and the system of units adopted. In SI units, its value for free space is

K = 0
where 0 = Absolute permeability of free space
4
= 4 107 AT1 m
dB =

0 I dl sin
4
r2

...(i)

Eq. (i) is known as Biot-Savart law and gives the magnitude of the magnetic field at a point due to small

current element I dl . Note that Biot-Savart law holds strictly for steady currents.

I (dl r )
...(ii)
In vector form
dB = 0
4
r3
The Biot-Savart law is analogous to Coulombs law. Just as the charge q is the source of electrostatic

field, the source of magnetic field is the current element I dl .

I (dl r )
dB = 0
4
r3

Direction of B

The direction of dB is perpendicular to the plane containing dl and r. By right-hand rule for the cross
product, the field is directed inward.
Magnetic field due to whole conductor: Eq. (ii) gives the magnetic field at point P due to a small current

element I dl . The total magnetic field at point P is found by summing (integrating) over all current elements:

I (dl r )
B = dB = 0
4
r3
where the integration is taken over the entire conductor in which current I flows.
Important Points About Biot-Savart Law
(i) This law is also called Laplaces law and inverse square law.
(ii) This law cannot be tested directly because it is not possible to have a current carrying conductor of
length dl.
(iii) Current element is the product of current (I) and length of very small segment (dl) of current

carrying conductor. The current element I dl is a vector. Its direction is tangent to the element and
acts in the direction of current flow in the conductor.
(iv) A current element contributes no magnetic field to point that lies along the line of the current

element. This means that current element I dl causes no magnetic field at points along a line i.e.
tangent to it.
(v)

0 I dl sin
4
r2
If = 0 or 180 ; dB = 0
0 I dl
If = 90; dB =
4 r 2
dB =

( sin = 0)
... maximum value

MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO ELECTRIC CURRENT

7
I

9. MAGNETIC FIELD AT THE CENTRE OF

CURRENT CARRYING CIRCULAR COIL
Consider a circular coil of radius r and carrying current I in the direction
shown in Fig. 11.9. Suppose the loop lies in the plane of paper. It is desired
to find the magnetic field at the centre O of the coil. Suppose the entire
circular coil is divided into a large number of current elements, each of

I dl

90 o

length dl. According to Biot-Savart law, the magnetic field dB at the

centre O of the coil due to current element I dl is given by;

I (dl r )
dB = 0 =
4
r3

where r is the position vector of point O from the current element. The

Fig. 11.9

magnitude of dB at the centre O is

0 I dl r sin 0 I dl r sin
...(i)
=
3
2
4
4
r
r

The direction of dB is perpendicular to the plane of the coil and is directed inwards. Since each current
element contributes to the magnetic field in the same direction, the total magnetic field B at the centre O can be
found by integrating eq. (i) around the loop i.e.
dB =

B = dB =

0 I dl sin
4
r2

For each current element, angle between dl and r is 90. Also distance of each current element from the
centre O is r.
I sin 90
B= 0

dl
4
r2

dl

Now,

= Total length of the coil = 2 r

0 I
(2 r )
4 r 2
I
B= 0
or
2r
If the coil has n turns, each carrying current in the same direction, then contributions of all the turns are
added up.
nI

B= 0
2r

B=

Direction of B : The direction of magnetic field B is perpendicular to the plane of the coil and for Fig.
11.10, magnetic field inside the coil is directed inwards. The magnetic lines of force are circular near the wire but
practically straight near the centre of the coil. In the middle M of the coil, the magnetic field is uniform for a short
distance on either side. The direction of magnetic field at the centre of a current carrying circular coil can be
determined by right-hand palm rule.

I
Fig. 11.10

Right-hand palm rule: Orient the thumb of your right hand perpendicular to the grip of the fingers
such that curvature of the fingers points in the direction of current in the circular coil. Then thumb will point
in the direction of the magnetic field near the centre of the circular coil.

MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO ELECTRIC CURRENT

10. MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO STRAIGHT CONDUCTOR CARRYING CURRENT

Consider a straight conductor XY carrying current I in the direction shown in Fig. 11.11. It is desired to find the
magnetic field at point P located at a perpendicular distance a from the conductor (i.e. PQ = a). Consider a small

current element of length dl. Let r be the position vector of point P from the current element and be the angle

between dl and r (i.e., POQ = ). Let us further assume that QO = l.

According to Biot-Savart law, the magnitude of magnetic field dB at point P due to the considered
current element is given by ;
Y
0 I dl sin
...(i)
4r
r2
To get the total magnetic field B, we must integrate eq. (i)
over the whole conductor. As we move along the conductor, the
quantities dl, and r change. The integration becomes much easier
if we express everything in terms of angle shown in Fig. 11.11.
dB =

In the right angled triangle PQO, = 90

sin = sin (90 ) = cos

Also,

cos =

l
a
or r =
a
cos

Further, tan =
or

1
or l = a tan
a

dl = a sec2 d

I dl

Fig. 11.11

Putting the values of sin , dl and r in eq. (i), we have,

dB =
dB =

or

0 I (a sec2 d ) cos
4
(a / cos )2

0 I cos d
a
4

...(ii)

The direction of dB is perpendicular to the plane of the conductor and is directed inwards (Righthand grip rule, see section 11.2). Since each current element contributes to the magnetic field in the same
direction, the total magnetic field B at point P can be found by integrating eq. (ii) over the length XY i.e.
2
I 2
B = dB = 0
cos d
1
4 a 1
I
I
= 0 [sin ]2 = 0 (sin 2 + sin 1 )
1
4 a
4 a
0 I
(sin 2 + sin 1 )
4 a
Eq. (iii) gives the value of B at point P due to a conductor of finite length.

B=

...(iii)

Special cases
(i) When the conductor XY is of infinite length and point P lies at the centre of the conductor.
In this case, 1 = 2 = 90 = /2.

B=

0 I
(sin / 2 + sin / 2)
4 a

0 2 I
4 a
(ii) When conductor XY is of infinite length but point P lies near one end Y (or X). In this case, 1 = 90
and 2 = 0.

or

B=

B=

0 I
(sin 90 + sin 0)
4 a

0 I
4 a
Note that it is half of that for case (i).

or

B=

(iii) If the length of the conductor is finite (say l) and point P lies on the right bisector of the conductor.

MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO ELECTRIC CURRENT

In this case, 1 = 2 = .
l/2

sin =

a + (l / 2)
2

l
4a + l 2
2

B=

0 I
2I
(sin + sin ) = 0
sin
4 a
4 a

or

B=

0 2 I
=
4 a

l
4a 2 + l 2

Direction of B : For a long straight conductor carrying current, the magnetic lines of force are concentric
circles with conductor as the centre; the direction of magnetic lines of force can be found by right-hand grip

rule. The direction of B at any point is along the tangent to field line at that point as shown in Fig. 11.12.

Conductor

Conductor

B
Current into Page

Current out of Page

Fig. 11.12

Note: For a given current, B 1/a so that graph between B and a is a hyperbola.

11. MAGNETIC FIELD ON THE AXIS OF CIRCULAR COIL CARRYING CURRENT

Consider a circular coil of radius a, centre O and carrying a current I in the direction shown in Fig. 11.13. Let the
plane of the coil be perpendicular to the plane of the paper. It is desired to find the magnetic field at a point P on
the axis of the coil such that OP = x.
Q

dB cos a

r
a

a
a

dB

dB sin a +dBsin a
P

dBcos a

dB

Fig. 11.13

Consider two small current elements, each of length dl, located diametrically opposite to each other at Q
and R. Suppose the distance of Q or R from P is r i.e. PQ = PR = r.

r=

a2 + x2

According to Biot-Savart law, the magnitude of magnetic field at P due to current element at Q is given by ;
I dl sin 90
dB = 0
( * = 90)
4
r2
0
I dl
2
4 ( a + x 2 )
The magnetic field at P due to current element at Q is in the plane of paper and at right

to r and in the direction shown.

or

dB =

...(i)
angles

Similarly, magnitude of magnetic field at point P due to current element at R is given by,
dB =

0
I dl
4 (a 2 + x 2 )

...(ii)

10

MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO ELECTRIC CURRENT

It also acts in the plane of paper and at right angle to r but in opposite direction to dB.
From eqs. (i) and (ii), dB = dB.
It is clear that vertical components (dB cos and dBcos ) will be equal and opposite and thus cancel
each other. However, components along the axis of the coil (dBsin and dBsin ) are added and act in the
direction PX. This is true for all the diametrically opposite elements of the circular coil. Therefore, when we sum
up the contributions of all the current elements of the coil, the perpendicular components will cancel. Hence the
resultant magnetic field at point P is the vector sum of all the components dB sin over the entire coil.
B = dB sin =

Now

sin =

B=

0 I sin
4 (a + x )
2

and

a + x2
2

0 I a 2

2 (a 2 + x 2 )3/ 2
If the circular coil has n turns, then,
B=

0 I sin
4 ( a 2 + x 2 )

dl

dl = 2 a

along PX

...(iii)

0 n I a 2

...(iv)

2 (a 2 + x 2 )3/ 2

Different Cases
(i) When point P is at the centre of the coil. In that case x = 0 and eq. (iv) becomes:
0 n I
2a
2a
This is the expression for the magnetic field at the centre of a circular coil already derived in Section. 11.9.
(ii) When point P is far away from the centre of coil. In that case, x >> a so that a2 + x2

x2.
B=

B=

0 n I a 2
3

0 n I a 2

2 x3
Direction of B : The magnetic field at the centre of a coil carrying current is along the axis of the coil as
shown in Fig. 11.14. The direction of magnetic field can be determined by using right-hand fist rule. Hold the
axis of the coil in the right-hand fist in such a way that fingers point in the direction of current in the coil.
Then outstretched thumb gives the direction of the magnetic field. Applying this rule to Fig. 11.14, it is clear
that direction of magnetic lines of force is along the axis of the coil as shown.

Fig. 11.14

Note: A current carrying loop behaves as a magnetic dipole. The magnitude of magnetic dipole
moment (M) of a current carrying (I) loop is given by ;
M=nIA
where A is the area of the loop and n is the number of turns of the loop. Therefore, magnetic field produced by
a current carrying loop can be written in terms of magnetic dipole moment M.
B=

0 n I a 2

... for x >> a

2 x3
=

0 n I a 2
2 x3

MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO ELECTRIC CURRENT

=

0 n I ( a 2 )
2 x

11
=

0 n I A

0 2M
4 x 3
Note the similarity of this expression to that for the electrostatic
field on the axis of an electric dipole.
Magnetic polarity due to current loop can be determined as
shown in Fig. 11.15. Look at one face of the coil. If the current flows
around the end in anticlockwise direction, that end of the coil is a Npole and if it flows in a clockwise direction, that end is a S-pole. A
further aid comes from drawing letters N and S with the arrows on the
ends of the letters denoting the current directions.

( A = a2)

2x3

B=

( M = n I A)

anticlockwise

clockwise

Fig. 11.15

12. AMPERES CIRCUITAL LAW

Amperes law is an alternative to Biot-Savart law but it is useful for calculating magnetic field only in situations
with considerable symmetry. Amperes law may be stated as under :

The line integral of magnetic field B around any closed path in vacuum/air is equal to 0 times the
total current enclosed by that path i.e.

B. dl

B. dl

where

= 0 I

= Line integral of B around the closed path

I = Current enclosed by that path

This result holds good irrespective of the size and shape of the closed path enclosing the current. This
law is true for steady currents only.
Proof: Consider a long straight conductor carrying current I in the direction shown in Fig. 11.27. Due to
current in the conductor, the magnetic lines of force are concentric circles centred on the conductor. We know
that magnitude of the magnetic field at a point P at a perpendicular distance r from the conductor is given by ;
0 I
2 r

B=

Consider a magnetic line of force of radius r. On this closed path, the magnitude of

the direction of B at every point is along tangent to the

B is same everywhere. Further,

circle i.e. angle between dl and B at every point on this path is zero i.e. cos = 1.

Therefore, line integral of B over this closed path is given by ;

B. dl

=

=

B dl cos 0 =

0 I
2 r

0 I
B =

2 r

0 I

P dl

B dl

0 I
dl
2 r

dl = 2 r 2 r = 0

Fig. 11.27

B . dl = 0 I

This proves amperes circuital law.

Note: In order to use this law, it is necessary to choose a closed path for which it is possible to

determine the line integral of B . For this reason, this law has a limited *use. The real importance of this law
lies in the fact that it relates the magnetic field to current in a direct and mathematically elegant way.

13. APPLICATIONS OF AMPERES CIRCUITAL LAW

For charge distribution with sufficient symmetry, we used Gausss law to solve for the electric field in a simple
way. Similarly, for current distribution with sufficient **symmetry, we can use Amperes law to solve for the
magnetic field. In order to illustrate the use of Amperes law, we shall consider the following cases :
(i) Magnetic field due to a straight conductor carrying current.
(ii) Magnetic field due to a solenoid carrying current.
(iii) Magnetic field due to current in a toroid.

12

MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO ELECTRIC CURRENT

14. MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO STRAIGHT CONDUCTOR CARRYING CURRENT

Consider a long straight conductor carrying current I in the direction shown in Fig. 11.28.

It is desired to find the magnetic field B at a point P at a

perpendicular distance r from

the conductor. The magnetic lines of force are concentric circles centred at the conductor.

We choose a circle of radius r as the closed path. The magnitude of B is the same

everywhere on this closed path. Further, the angle between B and dl is 0 everywhere on

P dl

this path. Therefore, applying Amperes circuital law to this closed path, we have,

or

B . dl = 0 I

Fig. 11.28

B dl cos 0 = 0 I

dl = 0 I

or

or

B 2 r = 0 I

0 I
2 r
This is the same expression as was obtained in section. 11.10. The reader may note the ease with which
the result is obtained by using Amperes law.

B=

15. MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO A LONG CURRENT CARRYING SOLENOID

A long coil of wire consisting of closely packed loops is called a solenoid. Fig. 11.29 shows the magnetic field
due to an air-cored solenoid carrying current. Note that magnetic field resembles that of a bar magnet. Inside the
solenoid, the magnetic field is uniform and parallel to the solenoid axis. Outside the solenoid, the magnetic field
is very small as compared to the field inside and may be assumed zero.
Expression: Consider a long air-cored solenoid having closely packed coils. Let
I = current through the solenoid
R

Fig. 11.30

Fig. 11.29

n = number of turns per unit length

B = magnitude of magnetic field inside the solenoid
In order to use Amperes circuital law to determine the magnetic field inside a solenoid, we choose a

rectangular closed [See Fig. 11.30] path PQRSP where PQ = l. The line integral of B over the closed path
PQRSP is given by ;

B . dl

P B . dl

Now

P B . dl = P B dl cos 0 = Bl

Also

Q B . dl = S B . dl = 0

And

B . dl

Q B . dl

B . dl = 0

R B . dl

S B . dl

( Angle between B and dl is 90)

( Field outside the solenoid is zero)

= Bl

According to Ampere's circuital law, we have,

B . dl

= 0 current enclosed by PQRSP

= 0 number of turns in PQRSP I

...(i)

MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO ELECTRIC CURRENT

13

B . dl = 0 n l I

...(ii)

From eqs. (i) and (ii), we have,

Bl = 0 n l I
B = 0 n I

or

...(iii)

(i) Note that B depends upon n and I. It does not depend upon the *position within the solenoid.
Therefore, magnetic field inside the solenoid is uniform.
(ii) If the solenoid is iron-cored of relative permeability r, magnitude of magnetic field inside the
solenoid is
B = 0 r n I = n I

( = 0 r )

(iii) At points near the ends of an air-cored solenoid, the magnitude of magnetic field is
B=

1
0 n I
2

16. MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO A TOROID

An endless solenoid in the form of a ring is called a toroid. Fig. 11.31 shows the
magnetic field due to an air-cored a toroid carrying current. The magnetic lines of
force inside the toroid are circular, concentric with the centre of the toroid. Note that
magnetic field inside the toroid is uniform because the toroid has no ends.

Expression: Consider a thin air-cored toroid having a large radius. Let

I = current through the toroid

r = mean radius of the toroid

n = number of turns per unit length

Fig. 11.31

B = magnitude of magnetic field inside the toroid

In order to apply Amperes circuital law, we choose the closed path (inside the turns) as a circle of radius r

(dotted line path). Note that magnitude of B is the same everywhere on this closed path. Further, angle between

B and dl is zero everywhere on this path. Therefore, line integral of B over this closed path is given by ;

B .
or

dl =

B dl cos 0 = B (2 r )

B . dl = B (2 r )

...(i)

According to Amperes circuital law,

B . dl = 0 current enclosed by closed path

or

B .

dl = 0 n * (2 r ) I

...(ii)

From eqs. (i) and (ii), we have,

B(2r) = 0 n (2 r) I
or

B = 0n I

Note that it is the same expression as for an air-cored solenoid. This is not surprising because a toroid is
a solenoid in the form of a ring.
(i) Note that magnetic field inside the toroid is independent of the radius of the toroid. It is because
magnetic field is only confined to inside the toroid.
(ii) The magnetic field inside a toroid is constant and is always tangent to the field lines.
(iii) If the toroid is iron-cored of relative permeability r, then magnitude of magnetic field inside the
toroid is
B = 0 n I = nI

ELECTRIC AND MEGNETIC FIELD

MOTION OF CHARGED PARTICLES IN

ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS

Barrel of a Linear Accelerator

MOTION OF CHARGED PARTICLES IN
ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS
1. MOTION OF A CHARGED PARTICLE IN A UNIFORM ELECTRIC FIELD
Fig. 12.1 shows the motion of a charged particle (+q) in a uniform electric filed . The
electric field is directed along OY axis and the charged particle enters the field along
OX-axis with a velocity v. The electric field acts a horizontal distance x. Since electric
field is vertically upward (i.e.along OY axis), no horizontal force acts on the charged
particle entering the field.

MOTION OF CHARGED PARTICLES IN

ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS

MOTION OF CHARGED PARTICLES IN

ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS
1. MOTION OF A CHARGED PARTICLE IN A UNIFORM ELECTRIC FIELD
Fig. 12.1 shows the motion of a charged particle (+q) in a uniform electric filed . The electric field is directed
along OY axis and the charged particle enters the field along OX-axis with a velocity v. The electric field acts
a horizontal distance x. Since electric field is vertically upward (i.e.along OY axis), no horizontal force acts on
the charged particle entering the field.
Y
B

v1

Screen

O +q

Fig. 12.1

Therefore, the horizontal velocity v of the charged particle is unaffected. The electric field accelerates the
charged particle in the vertically upward (i.e.along OY) only.
Force on the charged particle,

F=qE

... along OY

qE
...along OY
m
x
t=
Time taken to travrerse the field,
v
If y is the transverse deflection during time t, then,
a=

Acceleration of the charged particle,

y = (0) t +

or

y=

or

y =

1 2 1 qE x
at =

2
2 m v
qE

x2

2m v2

y = k x2

or

1 2
at
2

qE

= constant = k

2
2m v

This is the equation of a parabola. Therefore, inside the electric field,the charged particle follows a
parabolic path OA. As the charged particle leveals the electric field at A, it follows a straight line path AB
tangent to path OA at A. The following points may be noted:
(i) When the charged particle just leveals the electric field, vertical deflection produced is
y =

qE
2m v 2

x2

(ii) The charged particle remains in the field for time t (= x/v). During this time, the velocity of the
charged particle increases in the vertical direction while its horizontal velocity remains the same
(i.e. v). Therefore, as the charged particle leaves the electric field, its vertical velocity v1 is given
by;
qE x
v1 = v0 + at = 0 +

m v
qE x
v1 =
or

m v
Hence, angle with x-axis at which thecharged particle emerges form the electric field is

MOTION OF CHARGED PARTICLES IN

ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS
tan =

v1 q E x
=
v
m v2

(iii) The energy of the charged particle is increased by an amount of (1/2) m v12 as it passes through
the electric field since energy due to the horizontal velocity is unaltered.

Note. When a charged particle of charge +q is at rest or moving in the direction of electric field E ,

it will experience a force qE in the direction of E . As a result, the charged particle is accelerated in the

direction of E , it will experience a retarding force qE and hence the motion of the particle is retarded.
2. MOVING CHARGED PARTICLE ENTERING AT RIGHT ANGLES TO AUNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD
Consider a charged particle of charge +q and mass m moving with

a velocity v in the plane of the paper. Suppose this charged particle

enters a uniform magnetic field B which is perpendicular to the plane of

Fm = q vB
Fm
=q

is at right angles to the magnetic field [See Fig. 12.4]. The magnetic force

vB

Fm on the charged particle is given by;

the paper and directed outward. Clearly, the entry of the charged particle

+q

Fm = q ( v b )

The magnetic force Fm acts at right angles to the plane containing

v and B . The magnitude of this force is qvB

Boundary of magnetic field

( angle v between B and is 90).

Fig. 12.4

On entering the magnetic field at M, the charged particle experiences a force of magnitude Fm (= q v B)
and is deflected in the direction shown. This force is at right angles to the direction of motion of the charged
particle and, therefore, cannot change the speed of charged particle; it only changes its direction of motion. A
moment later, when the particle reaches point N, the magnitude of force (= q v B) acting on it is the same as it was

at M but the direction of force is different ( Fm is still v ). Thus the force is perpendicular to the direction of
motion of the charged particle at all times and has a constant magnitude. Hence, the particle moves with a
constant speed along a circular arc. Two things are worth noting about a moving charged particle entering at
right angles to a uniform magnetic field. First, the magnetic force does not change the speed or kinetic energy
of the charged particle; it only changes the direction of the charged particle. Secondly, when the moving
charged particle is inside the uniform magnetic field, it moves along a circular path.
Parameters of motion: A force of constant magnitude Fm (= q v B)always acts perpendicular to the
direction of motion of the charged particle. Therefore, Fm provides the necessary centripetal force to move the
charged particle in a circular path.
(i) Radius of path: The acceleration of a particle moving along a circular path of radius r is v2/r.According
to Newtons second law of motion,
Fm = ma
or
or

mv 2
r
mv
r = qB

qvB=

...(i)

For a given charge, mass and magnetic field, r v.

This means that fast particles move in large circles and slow ones in small circles.
(ii) Time period: The time taken by the charged particle to complete one circular revolution in the
magnetic field is its time period T i.e.
Time period,

T=
T =

2 r 2 mv 2 m
=

=
v
v qB qB

2 m
qB

...(ii)

Eq. (ii) reveals that the time period of the charged particle is independent of the speed (v) and the radius
of the path. It depends only on the magnitude of magnetic field and charge-to-mass ratio (q/m) of the particle.
(iii) Frequency: The number of circular revolutions made by the charged particle in one second is its
frequency f i.e.

MOTION OF CHARGED PARTICLES IN

ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS

4
1

qB

f = T = 2 m

Frequency,

qB

or

f = 2 m
...(iii)
Note that the frequency of the charged particle is also independent of speed (v) and radius (r) of the path.
qB qB
=
m
2 m

(iv) Angular frequency: Angular frequency , = 2 f = 2

qB
...(iv)
m
Again angular frequency of the charged particle is independence of the speed (v) and the radius (r) of
the path.

or

Note: The reader may note that T,, f and of a charged particle moving in a magnetic field are
independent of its speed (v) and the radiusz (r) of the path.In fact, all the charged particles with same q/
m (charged-to-mass ratio) and moving in a uniform magnetic field will have the same value of T, f and .
3. MOVING CHARGED PARTICLE ENTERING UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD AT AN ANGLE

Consider a charged particle of charge +q and mass m moving with a velocity v . Suppose this charged particle

enters a uniform magnetic field B making an angle to the direction of the field as shown in Fig. 12.5. The

velocity v can be resolved into two rectanglar components viz.

v
v2

v1

Fig. 12.5
(i) v cos (= v1) acting in the direction of the field.
(ii) v sin (= v2) acting perpendicular to the direction of the field.
The perpendicular component v2 (= v sin ) moves the charged particle in a path while the horizontal
component v1 (= v cos ) moves it in the direction of the magnetic field. In other words, the charged particle
covers circular path as well as liner path. Consequently, the charged particle will follow a helical path as
shown in Fig. 12.5. Note that the charged paarticle rotates in a circle at speed v2 ( = v sin ) while moving in
the direction of the field with a speed v1 ( = v cos ).
Parameters of motion: The perpendicular component of velocity (i.e. v2= v sin ) determines the
parameters of the circular motion while the horizontal component of velocity (i.e.v1= v cos ) decides the
pitch of helix i.e.linear distance covered by the charged particle when it completes one circular revolution.
(i) Radius of path
Fm = m a

or

q v2 B = m

v22
r

or

r=

m v2
qB

m v sin
...(i)
qB
(ii) T, f and : Since time period (T), frequency (f) and angular () of a charged particle moving in a
uniform magnetic field are independent of speed (v) and radius (r) of the path, these values remain the
*same as derived in section 12.2.

r=

* Let us try it for time period T of the carged particle.

T=

2 r 2 mv2 2 m
=

=
v2
v2 q B
qB

T=

2 m
qB

..(ii)

f =

qB
2 m

...(iii)

qB
m

...(iv)

MOTION OF CHARGED PARTICLES IN

ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS

(iii) Pitch of helix: It is the liner distance covered by the charged particle when it completes one
circular revolution i.e. it is the linear distance covered by the charged particle during time T.
2 m

Pitch of helix,
d = v1 T = v cos
qB
2 m

d = v cos
qB

or

...(v)

4. CROSS FIELDS
If a uniform electric field and a uniform magnetic field are perpendicular to each other in such a way that they
produce deflections of a charged particle in the opposite directions, they are known as cross fields.
Fig. 12.8 illustrates the cross electric and magnetic fields. The uniform electric field is produced by a
parallel plate capacitor while a uniform magnetic field is produced by a current carrying coil. Note that magnetic
field is perpendicular to the electric field. Further, direction of magnetic field is perpendicular to the plane of

paper directed inward. Consider a high velocity ( v ) electron beam entering the cross fields horizontally.
When only electric field is present, the electron beam is deflected upwards and follows the path OA. If only
magnetic field is present, the electron beam is deflected *downwards (OB). If the two fields are so adjusted that
force exerted by each field on the electron beam is the same, then beam goes undeflected following the path OC.
In that case,
Current
A
Electron beam

Fig. 12.8

Fm = F e
or

Bev=eE
E
V -is called velocity selector

Velocity of the beam, v =

B
The cross fields find useful applications in physics.

5. LORENTZ FORCE
The total force experienced by a moving charged particle when both electric and magnetic fields are present is

called Lorentz force. Suppose a particle of charge q moves with velocity v in the presence of both an electric

field E and a magnetic field B . The charge will experience an electric force ( Fe ) as well as magnetic force

( Fm ) depending upon the conditions of the motion.

Fe = q E

and

Fm = q ( v B )

F = q E + ( v B)

Lorentz force,

F = q [ E + ( v B)]
Eq. (i) is generally called Lorentz equation. The following points may be noted carefully:

or

...(i)

(i) For a given charge, Fe depends upon the magnitude of E only while Fm depends upon the

magnitude of v as well as B .

(ii) If v = 0 (i.e. charged particle is stationary), Fm = 0 and only Fe acts.

(iii)

Fm v (as well as B ). Therefore, Fm does no work. It can only change the direction of motion
of the charged particle.

(iv)

Fm does not change the kinetic energy of the charged particle. However, electric field changes the
kinetic energy of the charged particle.

MOTION OF CHARGED PARTICLES IN

ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS

Note. When v , E and B all the three are collinear, Fm = 0 ( Fm = q v B sin and = 0). However,

the charged particle experiences a force q E due to electric field. The acceleration of the particle is given by ;

F
qE
a, = e =
m
m
As a result, the velocity, momentum and kinetic energy of the particle will increase.

6. CYCLOTRON
In nuclear physics, we often *need high-energy subatomic particles (e.g. proton, deuteron, -particle etc.) to
carry out several experiments. The question arises how can this high acceleration be achieved. One way is to
accelerate particles of charge q through a large potential difference V, giving each particle energy equal to q V.
However, there are practical problems in the generation and handling of potential differences beyond 106 volts.
This difficulty has been overcome by a device called cyclotron. Invented by E.O. Lawerence and M.S. Livingstone
in 1934, cyclotron is used to accelerate positively charged particles to high speeds.
Principle: A cyclotron employs a uniform magnetic field and an electric field. The magnetic field maintains the charged particles in circular paths while electric field imparts them energy periodically. The operation of a cyclotron is based on the fact that the period of motion of the charged particle (T = 2 m/q B) in a
uniform magnetic field is independent of the speed of the particle and radius of its path.

N
H.F. a.c.
source
S

D1

D2

Particle
beam

S
Fig. 12.9
Construction: Fig. 12.9 shows the essential parts of a cyclotron. It consists of two D-shaped hollow,
evacuated semicircular metal chambers D1 and D2 called dees. The two dees are placed horizontally with a small
gap separating them. The dees are maintained at a modest potential difference which alternates in polarity with
the same frequency as the circular motion of the charged particle. The dees are enclosed in a steel box (not
shown in the figure) which is placed between the poles of a strong electromagnet. The magnetic field is
perpendicular to the plane of the dees.
Working
(i) The positive ion (e.g. proton, -particle, etc.) is injected with a small velocity form an ion source S
near the centre of the device. It moves in a semicircle in one of the dees and arrives at the gap
between the dees after a time T/2, where T is the time period of the circular motion of the ion and also
the time period of the alternating potential difference across the dees.
(ii) Suppose the ion traverses the first semicircle in the dee D1 as shown in Fig. 12.10 (i). With the
positive ion in the gap, the p.d. across the dees is so timed that D2 is negative w.r.t. D1. The result
is that the ion is accelerated by the electric field across the gap and gains kinetic energy qV (where
V is max. p.d. between dees). Once inside the dee, the ion simply follows a circutar path in the
perpendicular magnetic field. It is because electric field inside the metallic dees is zero.

MOTION OF CHARGED PARTICLES IN

ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS

+
D1

D2

D1

(i)

D2

(ii)
Fig. 12.10

(iii) After a time, T/2, the ion again arrives at the gap. By this time, the potential difference between the
dees has been reversed and dee D1 is negative w.r.t. D2 as shown in Fig. 12.10 (ii). Once more the ion
is accelerated by the electric field and gains kinetic energy q V.
(iv) Thus in each half revolution, the ion gains kinetic energy qV and moves faster into a semicircular
path of larger and larger radius with the same time period. Eventually, the ion orbit becomes equal to
the size of the machine. At this point, an electrostatic field provided by a high-voltage electron, an
ion may make 50 to 100 revolutions.
Parameters of motion: In a cyclotron, the ions move faster and in ever larger circle but with the same time
period. Suppose at any time, the radius of the circular path is r and the speed of the ion is v. Let us further
assume that mass of the ion in m and the magnitude of the magnetic field is B.
(i) Radius of path

m v2
r
mv
r=
or
qB
)
(ii) Time period (T), frequency (f) and angular frequency (
qvB=

2 r 2 m v 2 m
=

=
v
v q B q B
2 m
T =
qB

...(i)

T =

Time period,

...(ii)

1
qB
Cyclotron frequency, f = T = 2 m
qB
f =
or
2 m

...(iii)

qB qB
= 2 f = 2
=
m
2 m
qB
=
or
...(iv)
m
The reader may note that expressions for T, f and are the same as derived in sections 12.2 and 12.3.
This is not surprising because these values are independent of the speed of the particle and the radius
of the circular path. Note that time spent by the positive ion inside the dee is T/2 i.e. independent of the
values of velocity of the ion and radius of its path. This is because the decrease in time spent inside the
dee due to increasing velocity of positive ion is exactly compensated by the increase in length of the
circular path.

Angular frequency,

(iii) Maximum kinetic energy of positive ion

Let

or

r0 = maximum radius of the circular path of positive ion

v 0 = maximum speed of the positive ion.
m v02
q v0 B =
r0
B q r0
v0 =
m
1
1 1 B q r0
2
Maximum K.E. of ion = m v0 = = m
2
2 2 m

MOTION OF CHARGED PARTICLES IN

ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS

8
B 2 q 2 r02
2m
(iv) Number of completed revolutions

Maximum K.E. of ion =

Let N = number of complete revolutions

V = maximum p.d. across the dees
In each half revolution, the ion gains kinetic energy of q V. Therefore, in one revolution, the ion will gain
a kinetic energy of 2q V.

K.E. gained in N revolutions = 2q V N

This must be equal to the maximum energy acquired by the ion while coming out of the cyclotron.
B 2 q 2 r02
2q V N =

2m
All the quantities except N are known. Hence the number of revolutions completed by the ion can be
calculated.
Note. Another name of cyclotron is magnetic resonance accelerator and cyclotron frequency is
also known as magnetic resonance frequency.

7. LIMITATIONS OF CYCLOTRON
(i) One of the assumptions in the design of a cyclotron is that the frequency of revolution of the ion circulating
in the magnetic field is independent of its speed. This is true only for speeds that are much less than the speed of
light. At higher speeds, the mass of the ion will increase according to Einsteinss formula :
m0
mv =
v2
where m0 = rest mass
1 2
c
Now time taken by the ion to describe semicircular path (i.e., to cross one dee) is

m
m0
t =
=
2
q B q B
1 v

c2

As v increases, t increases. It means that the ion will take a longer time to complete the semicircular
path in the dee than the time for half-cycle of alternating voltage (or electric field). As a result, the
ion starts lagging behind the electric field and is eventually lost by collision against the walls of the
dees. One way to deal with the increase in mass with speed is to increase the magnitude of magnetic
field (B) as the ion speeds up. Such a device is called synchrotron.
(ii) Cyclotron is suitable only for accelerating heavy particles such as protons, -particles, etc. It is not
suitable for accelerating electrons. It is because the mass of electron is very small and hence gains
speed quickly due to small increase in energy. As a result, the relativistic variation of mass makes
electrons out of step with the oscillating electric field.
(iii) Cyclotron cannot accelerate uncharged particles (e.g., neutrons).
(iv) For very high kinetic energy (e.g. 500 GeV), it is impossible to design magnetic field system.
8. FORCE ON A CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTOR PLACED IN MAGNETIC FIELD
We know that a moving charge in a magnetic field experiences a force. Now electric current in a conductor is due to the drifting of free electrons in a definite direction in the conductor. When such a current carrying
conductor is placed in a uniform magnetic field, each free
I
electron experiences a force. Since the free electrons are
constrained in the conductor, the conductor itself experiB
ences a force. Hence, a current carrying conductor placed
l
v
d
in a magnetic field experiences a force.
Expression for force: Consider a conductor of length l
and area of cross-section A placed at an angle to the direc
tion of a uniform magnetic field B as shown in Fig. 12.11.
Let

I = current in the conductor

vd = drift velocity of free electrons

n = electron density in the conductor

e = charge on each electron

I
Fig. 12.11

MOTION OF CHARGED PARTICLES IN

ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS

fe = e ( v d B )
Magnitude of force on each electron, fe = e vd B sin

Force on each electron,

There are n A l free electrons in the length l of the conductor. Therefore, magnitude of total force F
acting on the length l of the conductor is given by ;
F = (n A l) fe = (n A l) (e vd B sin ) = (n e A vd) (l B sin )
But n e A vd = I = current in the conductor

F = I l B sin

Both magnitude and direction of this force will be given by the vector equation;

F = I ( l B)

The direction of this force is perpendicular to the plane containing l and B . It can be found by using
right-hand rule for cross product.

Special Cases
(i) When

F = I l B sin
= 0 or 180; sin = 0

F = I l B (0) = 0

Thus, if a current carrying conductor is placed parallel to the direction of the magnetic field, the conductor will experience no force.
(ii) When
= 90 ; sin = 1

F = IlB
...maximum value
Hence, a current carrying conductor will experience a maximum force when it is placed at right angles to
the direction of the magnetic field.

Direction of force: The direction of force F is always perpendicular to the plane containing l and B
and can be determined by right-hand rule for cross product stated below:

Orient your right hand so that your outstretched fingers point along the direction of the conventional
current; the orientation should be such that when you bend your fingers, they must point along the direction

of the magnetic field ( B ). Then your extended thumb will point in the direction of the force on the conductor.
Thus applying right-hand rule for cross product to Fig. 12.12, it is clear that magnetic force on the
conductor is vertically upward.
Force is up

I
N

S
-

Right-hand rule
I
Fig. 12.12

9. FORCE BETWEEN TWO PARALLEL CONDUCTORS CARRYING CURRENTS

When two parallel current carrying conductors are close together, they exert forces on each other. It is because
one current carrying conductor is placed in the magnetic field of the other. If currents are in the same
direction, the conductors attract each other; if currents are in opposite directions, the
conductors repel each other. Thus: like currents attract; unlike currents repel.
Expression for force: Consider two infinitely long parallel conductors X and Y carrying currents I1 and
I2 respectively in the same direction as shown in Fig. 12.13. Suppose the conductors are separated by a
distance r in the plane of the paper.
The magnitude of magnetic field at any point P on the conductor Y due to current I1 in conductor X is
I
BX = 0 1
...(i)
2 r

MOTION OF CHARGED PARTICLES IN

ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS
According to right-hand grip rule, the direction of magnetic field is perpendicular to the plane of the
paper and is directed inwards. [See Fig. 12.13 (i)].
10

BX

FY

I2

I1
r

Fig. 12.13
Now conductor Y carrying current I2 is placed in the magnetic field BX produced by conductor X.
Therefore, per unit length of conductor Y will experience a force FY given by ;
FY = I2 1 BX = BX I2
Putting the value of BX from eq. (i), we have,
0 I1 I 2
... per unit length
2 r
According to right-hand rule for cross product, the force FY is in the plane of the paper and is directed
towards the conductor X as shown in Fig. 12.13 (i).
Similarly, the force on conductor X per unit length is
I I
FX = 0 1 2
... per unit length
2 r
Again by right-hand rule for cross product, this force is in the plane of the paper and is directed towards
conductor Y as shown in Fig. 12.13 (ii). Clearly, the forces are such that conductors attract each other; the force
of attraction per unit length being ;
I I
F = 0 1 2
... per unit length
2 r
It can be shown that when currents in the parallel conductors are in opposite directions, the conductors
repel each other. This is left as an exercise for the reader.
FY =

Note. If two straight current-carrying conductors of unequal length are held parallel to each other,
then the force on the long conductor is due to the magnetic field of short conductor.
I1 = current through short conductor; I2 = current through long conductor
l = length of short conductor; L = length of long conductor
It r is the separation between these parallel conductors, then,
Force on long conductor = Force on short conductor =

0 I1 I 2
l
2 r

Note that force on each conductor is the same in magnitude but opposite in direction (Newtons third
law of motion).

10. DEFINITION OF AMPERE

The unit of electric currentthe ampereis defined on the basis of the force between the currents in
parallel conductors.
Force between two current carrying parallel conductors/unit length is
F =

0 I1 I 2
2 r

If I1 = I2 = 1A and r = 1m, then,

4 I1 I 2 1 1

= 2 10 7 N
2 r
1
Hence one ampere is defined as that current flowing in each of the two infinitely long parallel
conductors 1 m apart, which results in a force of exactly 2 107 N per metre length of each conductor.
F =

11

MOTION OF CHARGED PARTICLES IN

ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS

11. FORCE BETWEEN TWO PARALLEL MOVING CHARGES

Consider two charges q1 and q2 moving with velocities v1 and v2 on parallel straight paths separated by
distance r. It will be shown that force between them is given by ;
0 q1 q2 v1 v2
4
r2
When a charge q moving with velocity v for small time dt covers a small distance dl, it behaves as a
current element I dl.
F =

q
dl
dl = q
=qv
dt
dt
If I1 and I2 are the currents corresponding to moving charges q1 and q2 respectively, then,

Now

I dl =

I1 dl1 = q1v1 and I2 dl2 = q2v2

The magnitude of force between these two parallel current elements separated by distance r is
II
( I dl ) ( I dl )
F = 0 1 2 dl1 , dl2 = 0 1 1 3 2 2
4 r2
4
r
F =

0 q1 q2 v1 v2
4
r2

12. DIFFERENCES BTEWEEN ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FORCES

The following are the important differences between electric and magnetic forces :
(i) The electric force on the charged particle is parallel to the electric field wheares the magnetic force
is always perpendicular to the magnetic field.
(ii) When a charged particle is in an electric field, the electric force acts on the particle whether at rest
or in motion. However, the maghetic force acts on a charged particle only when the charged particle
is moving in the magnetic field.
(iii) The electric force does work in displacing the charged particle in uniform magnetic field. whereas
the magnetic force does no work while displacing the charged particle in uniform magnetic
field. This means that electric force changes the speed and hence K.E. of the charged particle.
However, magnetic force does not change the speed and hence K.E. of the charged particle.
(iv) The electric force is much large than the magnetic force.
The electrostatic force between two stationaly charges q1 and q2 separated by a distance r is given by :
q q
Fm = 0 1 2 2 v1 v2
4 r
Consider two parallel charges q1 and q2 moving with velocities v1 and v2 along straight paths separated
by a distance r. Then magnetic force between them is given by;
q q
Fm = 0 1 2 2 v1 v2
.... See Art. 12.11
4 r
where v1 and v2 are the drift velocities of electrons.

Now

Fe
1
=
Fm (0 0 ) v1 v2
c=

1
0 0

or

0 0 =

1
c2

Drift velocity of electrons is of the order of 105 ms1.

Therefore v1 = v2 = 105 ms1

Fe
(3 108 )2
= 5
 1027
Fm 10 10 5

or

Fe
 10 27
Fm

Thus, electric force is much greater than the magnetic force.

1
(3 108 )2

MOTION OF CHARGED PARTICLES IN

ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS

12

13. TORQUE ON A CURRENT LOOP IN A UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD

When an electric current flows in a closed loop of wire placed in a uniform magnetic field, the magnetic forces
produce a torque which tends to rotate the loop so that the area of the loop is perpendicular to the direction
of the magnetic field.
Consider a rectangular loop PQRS whose length and breadth are l and b (i.e., PQ = RS = l and QR = SP

= b). The loop carries a current I and is suspended in a horizontal uniform magnetic field B . The loop is free to
rotate about the vertical axis. Suppose at any time, is the angle which the plane of the loop makes with the

direction of the magnetic field as shown in Fig. 12.18 (i). Let F1 , F2 , F3 and F4 be the forces acting on the four
current carrying arms PQ, QR, RS and SP of the loop respectively.
Forces on arms SP and QR

F4 = I ( SP B )

Force on arm SP,

F4

F3

90

F1

b cos

P
R
B

F1 = I l B

F2
(i)

(ii)

Fig. 12.18

F4 = I (SP) B sin (180 ) = I b B sin

or

By right-hand rule for cross product, the force F4 on arm SP acts vertically upwards in the plane of coil.

Force on arm QR,

F2 = I (QR B )

or

F2 = I (QR) B sin = I b B sin

By right-hand rule for cross product, the force F2 on arm QR acts vertically downwards in the plane of coil.

Note that forces F4 and F2 are equal in magnitude and act in opposite directions. Hence, they cancel
out and produce no net force or torque on the loop.
Forces on arms PQ and RS: Note that vertical sides PQ and RS of the loop are always perpendicular to
the direction of magnetic field irrespective of the position of the loop.
Force on arm PQ,
or

F1 = I ( PQ B )

F1 = I (PQ) B sin 90 = I l B

By right-hand rule for cross product, the direction of this force is perpendicular to the plane of the loop
and is directed outwards.

Force on arm RS,

F3 = I ( RS B )

or

F3 =I (RS) B sin 90 = I l B

By right-hand rule for cross product, the direction of this force is perpendicular to the plane of the loop
and is directed inwards.

Note that forces F1 and F3 are equal in magnitude (= I l B) and opposite in direction having different
lines of action. Therefore, they constitute a couple which rotates the loop in the anticlockwise direction about
the vertical axis. The torque on the loop is equal to the moment of the couple and is given by [See Fig. 12.18 (ii)];

MOTION OF CHARGED PARTICLES IN

13
ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS
= Either force Arm of the couple = (I l B) b cos = I l b B cos
But

l b = area A of the loop

= I A B cos

If the loop has n turns, then,

= n I A B cos

Although we derived this formula for a rectangular loop, it is valid for loop of any shape. It is reminded
that SI unit of torque is Nm.
Different Cases
(i) When = 0 i.e. the plane of the coil is parallel to the direction of the magnetic field.
=nIAB

... maximum value

(ii) When = 90 i.e. plane of the coil is perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field.
= n I A B cos 90 = 0

Note: If normal to the plane of coil makes an angle with the direction of the magnetic field (See Fig.
12.19), then,
+ = 90
or

= 90

= n I A B cos (90 ) = n I A B sin

We can express the torque in vector notation as :

=M B
n I A = M = magnitude of magnetic moment of the current loop.

where

14. MOVING COIL GALVANOMETER

A moving coil galvanometer is used to detect and measure small electric currents. In fact, it is the basic
component of most of the measuring instruments including ammeters and voltmeters.
Principle: Its operation is based on the principle that when a current carrying coil is placed in a uniform
magnetic field, the coil experiences a torque.
Construction: Fig. 12.20 shows the basic parts of a moving coil galvanometer. It consists of a
rectangular coil PQRS having a large number of turns of insulated copper wire. The coil is wound on an
aluminium former inside which is a soft iron cylinder C; the coil is so placed that it is free to rotate
without touching the cylinder. The coil is suspended by means of a phosphor bronze wire W in a strong
magnetic field; the field is set up by attaching soft-iron curved pieces to the poles of a powerful magnet.
The combination of curved pole pieces and the soft iron produces a *radial magnetic field in the air gap
[See Fig. 12.21]. The current is led into and out of the coil PQRS through the suspensions at X and Y. The
deflection of the coil is shown by a beam of light reflected by the mirror M (attached to the suspension
wire) to a scale in front of the instrument. Apart from other *purposes, the spring provides the restoring
torque.
Y
W
M

C
S
X

R
S fixed core

Fig. 12.20

Deflected
Coil

S
B

Fig. 12.21

Working: When current to be measured (or detected) is passed through the coil, the coil experiences a
torque. Under the influence of this deflecting torque (Td), the coil begins to turn. As the coil turns, the
phosphor bronze wire gets twisted. This results in an oppositely directed torque (called restoring torque Tc).
The restoring torque is directly proportional to the angle through which the wire is twisted i.e.

MOTION OF CHARGED PARTICLES IN

ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS

14
Td = k

where k is a constant of proportionality and is known as torsion constant of the suspension. Its unit is Nm per
degree.
The coil turns until the restoring torque becomes equal to the deflecting torque. In other words, in the
equilibrium position of the coil, Td = Tc
Theory
Let

n = number of turns in the coil

A = area of the coil (= l b)
I = current through the coil
B = strength of the magnetic field

Since the field is radial, the plane of the coil is always parallel to the field (i.e. = 0). Therefore, the coil
experiences a constant deflecting torque given by ;
Deflecting torque,

Td = n I A B

...(i)

( cos = 1)

If in the equilibrium position, the coil deflects through an angle , then,

Restoring torque,

Tc = k

Now

Td = Tc

or
or
or
where

...(ii)

nIAB = k
k
I =
n AB
I = G
k
G=
n A B = a constant for a galvanometer
I

Hence, the deflection of the coil is directly proportional to the current through it. As a result, the moving
coil galvanometer has a linear scale. This is an important advantage because the instrument can be
accurately calibrated.

15. SENSITIVITY OF MOVING COIL GALVANOMETER

As we shall see, a moving coil galvanometer can be converted into an ammeter or voltmeter. Accordingly,
it has two types of sensitivity.
1. Current Sensitivity: If current I is passed through a galvanometer and deflection produced is
, then current sensitivity of the galvanometer is /I i.e. current sensitivity is the deflection produced in
the galvanometer when a unit current is passed through it.
k
nB A

I =
=

n
B A
I
k

nB A
SI =
or
k
It means that in order to have high current sensitivity n, B and A must be large while k should be small.

Current sensitivity,

SI =

(i) n must be large: There is, however, an upper limit to n. If n is made very large, resistance of the
galvanometer increases sufficiently as well as the coil becomes bulky. This tends to decrease the
sensitivity. For these reasons, the optimum value of n should be used.
(ii) B must be large: This is achieved by using a narrow air gap and a strong permanent magnet
(typically B = 0.5 T). The additional advantage of high value of B is that the instrument is unaffected
by external magnetic fields (e.g. Earth's field = 5 104 T).
(iii) Area A must be large: There is an upper limit to it because it must not be so large that the
instrument becomes bulky. Further, a coil of large area swings about its equilibrium position
for a long time.
(iv) k must be small: The small value of k means weak suspension. The value of k is very small for
phosphor bronze and for this reason, it is used in sensitive galvanometers. However, if the value
of k is too small, the coil would swing about its equilibrium position for a long time.
2. Voltage Sensitivity: If p.d. (or voltage) V is applied across a galvanometer and deflection produced
is , then voltage sensitivity of the galvanometer is /V i.e. voltage sensitivity is the deflection produced in
the galvanometer when a unit p.d. is applied across it.

SV =
Voltage sensitivity,
V

MOTION OF CHARGED PARTICLES IN

ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS

15

If R is the resistance of the galvanometer, then V = I R.

nB A
k

I = n B A
kR

nB A
SV =
or
kR
It is clear that high voltage sensitivity requires the same features as high current sensitivity, together
with low coil resistance.
SV =

16. ADVANTAGES OF MOVING COIL GALVANOMETER

A moving coil galvanometer essentially consists of two parts viz. a permanent magnet which provides
the magnetic field and a current carrying rectangular coil. This arrangement has the following advantages:
(i) The sensitivity of the galvanometer can be increased by increasinig n, B and A while decreasing the
value of k.
(ii) The instrument has a linear scale.
(iii) Since the instrument uses high value of B, the deflection is almost uninfluenced by the external
magnetic fields.
(iv) As the coil is wound on a nonmagnetic metallic frame, damping is produced by eddy currents. As a
result, the coil quickly assumes the final deflected position.
(v) The instrument can be used for a.c. measurements if a rectifier is used.

17. AMMETERS AND VOLTMETERS

The devices which measure current and potential difference in a circuit are called ammeters and voltmeters
respectively. The basic component of these meters is the moving coil galvanometer. But before we discuss how
a moving coil galvanometer is converted into an ammeter or voltmeter, let us see how these meters are connected in a circuit.
(i) Ammeter: An ammeter is connected in series with the circuit element whose current we wish to
measure. It is because only then current through the circuit element also goes through the ammeter.
Thus, in order to measure current through resistor R in Fig. 12.22, we place an ammeter in series with
the resistor. An ammeter should have very low resistance so that on connecting it in the circuit,
there is a negligible change in the circuit resistance (and hence the circuit current).
R
E

Fig. 12.22

Fig. 12.23

(ii) Voltmeter: A voltmeter is connected in parallel with the circuit component across which potential difference is to be measured. It is because potential difference (or voltage) refers to two
points. So to measure the potential difference between two points in a circuit, we connect the two
terminals of the voltmeter to those points. Thus to measure the voltage across resistance R in
Fig. 12.23, we connect the two terminals of the voltmeter to the two ends of the resistor. The
voltmeter should have a very high resistance so that on connecting it in the circuit, there is
*negligible change in the circuit resistance (and hence the circuit current).

18. CONVERSION OF GALVANOMETER INTO AMMETER

The resistance of the galvanometer and the current needed to produce full-scale deflection (f.s.d.) are the
important factors for the conversion of galvanometer into an ammeter. Typical values of these parameters
may be G = 20 and Ig = 1 mA [See Fig. 12.24]. This means that if 1mA current is passed through the coil
of this galvanometer, the pointer will show full-scale deflection. Since the coil of galvanometer is very
delicate, any attempt to pass current more than this limiting value (i.e. 1 mA in this case) would result in the
burning out of the instrument coil due to excessive heat.
S
1 mA

I
G = 20 W
Fig. 12.24

I Ig

I Ig

1 mA

Ig

Ig

Fig. 12.25

MOTION OF CHARGED PARTICLES IN

ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS

16

The above galvanometer can measure currents up to 1mA. However, in practice, we have to measure
larger currents. In that case, a suitable low resistance S (called shunt) is connected in parallel with the galvanometer. The shunted galvanometer is called an ammeter. The shunt diverts most of the current to be measured and hence the name shunt. Since the value of shunt is very small, the resistance of an ammeter is very low
a basic requirement for an ammeter.
Value of shunt S: The value of shunt is chosen according to the maximum current we wish to measure.
Suppose we want to read I amperes at full-scale using a galvanometer having full- scale deflection current Ig
and resistance G. This means that when circuit current is I, we want current Ig through the galvanometer as
shown in Fig. 12.25. For this purpose, we connect a shunt S of suitable value so that I Ig current flows
through the shunt. Since the potential difference across the shunt is the same as across the galvanometer,
(I Ig) S = Ig G
Ig
S =
G
...(i)
I I g

Thus by connecting shunt of resistance S in parallel with the galvanometer given by eq. (i), we have an
ammeter of range 0 I amperes. For correct indications, we shall have to replace 0 Ig mA scale by 0 I amperes
scale.

Resistance of ammeter: The resistance of ammeter (i.e. shunted galvanometer) is

GS
G+S
Clearly, the value of Rm will be less than S. Since the value of S is very small, the ammeter resistance will
also be very low. Thus shunt has not only extended the current range but it has also lowered the resistance of
the ammeter.

Resistance of ammeter, Rm =

Note.
Let

n = number of scale divisions in the galvanometer

K = current for one scale deflection in the galvanometer

Full-scale deflection current, Ig = nK

19. CONVERSION OF GALVANOMETER INTO VOLTMETER

Consider a galvanometer having full-scale deflection current Ig = 1mA and resistance G = 20 [See Fig. 12.26].
When a potential difference of 20mV is applied across the galvanometer, current through its coil is 1mA and it
will read full scale. This means that this galvanometer can read only upto 20 mV. However, in practice, the
potential differences to be measured are usually greater than this value. In that case, a suitable high resistance
R (called multiplier) is connected in series with the galvanometer. A galvanometer in series with a high
resistance is called a voltmeter. The value of the series resistance is of the order of kilo-ohms. Since the value
of series resistance is large, the resistance of a voltmeter (= R + G) is very high a basic requirement for a
voltmeter.

1 mA

0
20 mV

Ig

G = 20 W
20 mV

Fig. 12.26

Fig. 12.27

Value of series resistance R: The value of series resistance is chosen according to the maximum
voltage we wish to measure. Suppose we want to read V volts at full-scale using a galvanometer having fullscale deflection current Ig and resistance G. This means that when potential difference across the voltmeter is
V volts, we want that current through the galvanometer should be Ig as shown in Fig. 12.27. For this purpose,
we connect a suitable high resistance R in series with galvanometer so that current through the galvanometer
is Ig. Referring to Fig. 12.27 and applying Ohm's law, we have,
V
G+R
V
G+R=
Ig
Ig =

or

MOTION OF CHARGED PARTICLES IN

ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS
V
R=
G

Ig

17
...(i)

Thus by connecting a high resistance R in series with the galvanometer given by eq (i), we have a
voltmeter of range 0 V volts. For correct indications, we shall have to replace 0 Ig G mV scale by 0 V volt scale.
Resistance of voltmeter: The resistance of voltmeter (i.e. a galvanometer in series with a high resistance) is given by ;
Resistance of voltmeter, Rm = G + R
Since the value of R is large, the resistance of the voltmeter will be very high. Thus the series resistance
has not only extended the voltage range but it has also increased the resistance of the voltmeter.