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    4 Anisotropy

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    CChvistine Ehlig Econom lama, France 24 Factoring Anisotropy into Well Design ides Don fbbs Mike Fetkovich Phillips Petroleum D. Nathan Meehan Union Pacitie Resources Fort Worth, Texas, USA Banlosuille, Oklahoma, USA Understanding directional variations in both earth stresses and permeability—using seis- mic surveys, core data, well testing, wellbore imaging and acoustic logging—can improve ‘completion design, well location and selection of injectors and producers for enhanced oil recovery. Here is how information about anisotropy can be translated into greater effi- ciency in exploration, development and production. ‘What should be the completion strategy— which intervals should be opened? How many perforations per fool? What is the ‘optimal stimulation strategy: acidizing or Ihylraulic fracturing? For horizontal well, at \what bearing and deviation should the well be drilled? ‘Answers to these questions traditionally emerge afier development is established and knowledge of a field matures. Today, demand for greater efficiency in explo- ration, development and production has rekindled interest in reservoir anisotropy— variation of essential vectorial parameters with ditection, Recent work shows that large gains in productivity can be achieved by understanding the role of anisotropy in both permeability acl earth stess (ight). Permeability anisotropy has ditect impact ‘on the decision to drill a horizontal or con= ventional well, the selection of a partial or full completion, well spacing and borehole direction and on the success of hydraulic fracturing. I often becomes visible only du ing enhanced oil recovery and waterlload projects, Stress anisotropy bears on hhydiaulic fracture direction and can affect permeability anisotropy in naturally frac he qa ‘Permeability anisotropy represented by three values along the ‘principal axes. Anisotropic proporties are constant But of differ. bent magnitudes in at logs! two dizections. Permeability ofa for ‘mation fs sad to bs anisotropic ifs values inthe vertical and two horizontal directions are unequal. Conversely, permeability Is isotropic i its Values are equal in ail three directions—a rare ‘eceurtence. By convention, jis maximum horizontal value and Ik, is tho minimum. (Adaptod from Reineck HE and Singh IB: epositional Sedimentary Environments. New York, Now York, USA: Springor-Vorlag, 1986) Oilfield Review Some anise 1 coniitons end Forstessand Structita and dopo. portent mogul onal envre fared eat ‘nents whore ey Tandems aguies | meyeccur In these xc Hconctes voHen the distin of he acim 2 } 2-7 Porat intiated i oe veHeh tose sectonal Vertical and Horizontal Aniotopy vow ata honten. talwat pang i through rare : For stsaor tracts cented ety vray ~ Gppremimatay nor Vectied eats o tafe waibore Hx [on wihoretedacues tna thick rma ten igh vertca Hoh permit n Frctoes ports 4 ’ drainage tom the snr Biches of vue Pesmealyootented the rnervot i alr aces Veloh 5 y Peeabily coroled by ? —depasterl envonment— sdambdorcosbeng vekeH ‘ i Pexmagbty cool by i sca nna orhyoing vehen tion, but there is no way to ensure sufficient azimuthal coverage, even with multiple passes of the tool. Recent advances in tool response simulation, however, may help determine horizontal anisotropy fram logs made in deviated holes. ‘A formation’s vertical anisotropy can be determined and helps the reservoir engineer ‘make important decisions about well design and completion, particularly in reservoirs producing mainly from matrix porosity. In these formations, anisotropy is caused, at many length scales, by compaction and variation in depositional environment, lth: fication and lithology. Usually a parameter ‘of chief importance is permeability How does information about vertical per- meability anisotropy ingluence completion design? It helps with determination of con: ing, perforation productivity and sweep oF entation. Recently, it has come to bear on the decision 1 drill vertically or horizontally (helow). When vertical permeability is low ‘compared with horizontal—typically the ase in laminated formations—the increased productivity afforded by a horizontal well tured systoms and matrix permeability in ‘nonfractured, stross-sonstive systems. Given nature’s complexity, almost any vectorial parameter is unequal in all three dimensions. In other words, not only is the value of permeability or stress in the vertical plane different from that in the horizontal plane, the value in the horizontal plane also varies by azimuth, This variation with direc- lion in the horizontal plane is called hori zontal anisotropy—the term subsumes anisotropy with respect to the vertical. But because sedimentary layers are deposited roughly horizontally, a fair degree of unifor- mity in the horizontal plane is often assumed—uniformity in, for example, min October 1990 eralogy, grain size and sorting and in the properties they influence. The vectorial pparameter’s horizontal component is then assumed constant irrespective of azimuth, This simplification, called vertical anisot 1opy, is tempting not only because of sed mentological uniformity but because hor zontal anisotropy is dificult to measure.? I is still unusual to know the details of a hor Zzonlally anisotropic formation (above, let) Logging offers limited insight into hori- zonlal anisotropy. In vertical wells, omnidi- rectional logging tools make a circumieren- tially averaged measurement, masking variation in propesties along the horizontal azimuth, Pachtype tools do see in one direc= 1 Banas PY, Cpl Cl, tee 5 and Chen “Desi Inga faking tibaule Pte Reaves ‘Niaraly acre! Reso” pes SPEDOE 113, presenta al the SPEDOE Len Perey Resenois sympasiom, Dene Cola, USA, Ny 9, 987 2 Monto reds mtn ny pyr sas transverse Isttopy.” meaning thal properties ‘ere uno ema set, Dt ie iReveriesl vale Horan amsatepy we ema Sicrepndsting notrniy f [ropes ina plane neste weir, Se "rarmation Antoupy: Reckoning Wil 2 ects Oiled Review 2 artsy 12% 1623 25 Wielbore Length, Horizontal fo vertical productivity index (@) ratio versus wellbore length. In @ hor! ‘ontal well, PI increases with greator ‘wellbore length, with a greater vertical to ozontl pormoaby Ft yy) ane wilh a decrease in reservoir thicknoss. ‘compared with a conventional one depends tentrely on bed thickness, drainage length, L, and vertical permeability anisotropy, KJ. Theve is ess advantage in a horizon- tal well for thick beds than for thin, And ‘obviously, the more drainage length the bet= ter, although there will be limits to drainage Tength in a vertical completion. But the key is vertical permeability anisotiopy. If vertical permeability is high compared with ho zontal, then more hydrocarbons reach the ‘well and the advantages of 2 horizontal ‘completion prove overwhelming (above). IW there is a nearby gas cap or aquifer, a low vertical permeability compared with horizontal may be advantageous in alleviat ing coning (right). In vertical wells, for example, low ky fk, means a longer interval can be perforated, whereas a high ratio ‘means only a short interval should be perfo- rated, In horizontal wels, the value of k/ky, determines how close the drainhole can be placed to a coning source. The higher the ‘value of k,/ky, the farther the drain should be from the source Knowing vertical permeability anisotropy can also be crucial in interpreting well tess, Iva formation with low k,ihy, a wel that is partially completed appears to have positive skin. Skin relates to pressure drop at the 26 ‘wellbore face that Is usually indicative of formation damage. Positive skin indicates an increase in pressure drop, negative skin a decrease, Knowing that positive skin can be caused by vertical permeability anisotropy ‘may prevent unnecessary remedial treat ‘ment. Computing a match for the measured pressure transient test data may quantity the treatable causes of skin, such as perforation damage (right. Injection in a reservoir with high k,/hy, for ‘example, may aggravate vertical migration ‘of water or steam due to the natural ten- dency for water to descend and for steam to rise. On the other hand, if low &,/ky is a result of layering, when there is high con- tuast besween bed permeabilities, and if the beds are continuous from well to well, the injected fluid will tend to break through in the high permeability beds. Uneven break- through resuls in poor vertical coverage for the flood project. Is important to correctly diagnose the reason for early breakthrough. ‘Tracer tests and measurement of vertical flow profiles in injection and production wells help determine where the fluids are flowing and can help characterize low con- ditions between wells, LiHlow permeability anisotropy atfects ppotforating strategies. The low ky /ky, value in the top shaly sandstone means that perforating the base ofthe interval will delay coning from the gas cap. But in the fractured sandstone, water coning will be difficult to prevent becauso ofthe high rj, value, due fo natural fractures. The [ow ky/ky in the middlo zone will go undo- tected if the entire interval is perforated. Production Rate Pro, Steck iank barelstday 000 10000 Too 1260 120 iSkin damage as shown on a production rate profile @bove) and a transient well fost inforpretation @ight. The production log shows that about half the perforations {Genk ars) in this well are plugged. ‘Openhole fog data suggest that perfo- {ated beds are tn vertical communication. Well test interpretation permits quamtiti- cation of ky andl, and shows that skin ‘oppesife the open perforations 1s negligi- bbl although the fotal skin factor com- ‘puted from a Homer plot was significant. (From Joseph J, Ellg-Bconomides CA ‘and Kuchuk F: “The Role of Downhole Flow and Pressure Measurements in Reservoir Testing,” paper SPE 18379, pro sented at the SPE European Petroleum Conference, London, England, October 16+ 19, 1988) Oilfield Review Since vertical permeability anisotropy is ‘so important, how is it measured? Currently, the most common technique is the vertical Interference test (right). In this procedure, a ppacker is placed in the borehole to limit the flowing interval and induce vertical fluid flow in the formation. Transient pressure measurements are then made in the well- bore opposite the productive bed, above and/or below the packer. The success ofthis ‘measurement relies on the absence of leaks in the packer and cement. Also, the test rot routine because standard completions often do not allow testing for vertical com- "munication between perforations. Vertical permeability anisotropy can also bbe quantified with an openhole drillstem test (DST), which avoids the problem of leaks. A DST is conducted when only a por- 16000 Caleulated’match Sand Face Flow Rate, bid 8.8 Time, br tion of the producing interval has been diiled, creating. significant component of vertical flow (right). Once the entire interval has been drilled and logged, knowledge of the interval thickness, porosity and homo- geneity, along, with the transient test data, provides a means for estimating both aver aged horizontal and vertical permeabilities. Determination of k,/ky from the partially penetrated DST, in order to compute the productivity index (previous page, top left), can therefore assist in evaluating whether a horizontal well should be drilled The recent introduction of the Modulat Formation Dynamics Tester (MDT*) tool permits a more versatile method of deter- mining vertical permeability anisotropy. !t avoids packer leakage problems, requites less rig time than a DST and can easily _make measurements at multiple stations in October 1990 &_Measued dala he singie.well vertical interference test designed to determine vertical permeability ‘anisotropy (ett and designed to test across a tight zone, ry and the formation 5.tna varwiert wel es, batorhole wee prestes Sd te ate sre rears ove ir espe ‘thang mth race 43, Halenbock LD and Thomas kth Fo maton Piet Wtrod,” ape PE 18276, preset tthe Gin Pe Arua heal Conference ana. Eston, Houser, fous USA, Orteber 25,80, + Marko Sclumberse 27 the well (right and below), The tool has @ sink, oF sample, probe and two other pres sure probes called the horizontal and veni= cal probes. The sink probe is opened and the resulting pressure disturbance is mea sured af the vertical and horizontal probes. ‘This permits an interpretation of vertical per- ‘meability and average horizontal petmeabil- ity, thus vertical permeability anisotropy. ‘One or more MDT probes may land in non spresentative reservoir rock, perhaps of mited areal or vertical extent, skewing evaluation of anisotropy, This error can be minimized if numerous measurements are made and considered in the context of other related data. Horizontal Anisotopy Horizontal permeability anisotropy results from a variety of geologic conditions con- ‘cerning mode of deposition and fracturing. Full-scale horizontal anisotropy becomes important in certain depositional environ- ‘ments such as river channel deposits and crossbedded sands.* In river channel deposits, the arrangement of bedding can produce a higher permeability ether normal to, or aligned with, the channel (next page, {op left). In crossbedded sands, permeability nearly always higher parallel 1o bedding than normal to it (next page, midale). But [The MDT too! and its data, used for determination of hortzontal ‘and vertical permeability. The sink probe is opened and the ‘resulting prossure disturbance is measured as a change in pres- ‘sure at the vertical and horizontal probes. This example shows the horizontal probe pressure dropping faster ‘typical: ‘nd farther than the vertical. In this example, the horizontal per- ‘meabilty is about two times the vertieal permeability. The pres- sure disturbance is therefore propagating as an ellisotd, with the Jong axis inthe horizontal plane, which Is not sensed! as much by {ho vertical probe. ates 200 nso ico Verbal probe = 2075] 20 & a Sink probe. a s ‘ow rte 5 e los oo Horizontal probe |? © cxso9 wo 8 aes ans eo a a 28 Time, sec understanding horizontal anisotropy becomes crucial in naturally fractured for mations and can be a factor in hydraulically fractured wells. In fractured formations, horizontal perme- ability varies dramatically with azimuth, becoming high when the azimuth coincides with the fracture plane and low when it doesn't. By convention, ky denotes the max- imum horizontal permeability, and ky the ‘minimum, Often in fractured rock, &, and ky are close in value, while ky is much {greater than ky, In fractured rock, though, permeabiliy is intimately related to another anisotropic property of subsurface rock, earth stress. ‘Stress anisotropies ae important in fractured reservoirs because they influence fracture orientation, density and aperture, which greatly affect well productivity.® Stress ‘anisotropies are caused by variations in arth stessos on all scales, from local alter- ations in the stress field around a micro- crack, to the scale ofthe borehole, to that of a field and a geologic province. Fractures generally develop in a vertical plane and ‘open normal to the least horizontal stress, 6}, They therefore stike parallel tothe max- imum horizontal stress, dy. Determination (of stress anisotropy opens a window on per- ‘meabilty anisotropy. In naturally fractured rock, ky and @, are related? W the direction of 0, has remained relatively constant over geologic lime, frac- tures will likely be aligned with each other and stike roughly parallel to 0, (next page, bottom). But if the o4, direction has varied over geologic history, fractures of varying, strike will have formed. Todays will tend to close fractures normal to it, s0 fractures parallel t0 the modern oj, will open wider and, in the absence of mineralization, have greater permeability than those normal to jy. This produces a horizontal permeability ratio, klk, that is related to the stress rato, on/op* ‘Another case of interest is naturally frac- tured rock with fractures that ae mineral ized, closed or healed. Such fractures may Oilfield Review ‘Varying stress rection over geologic history —— Curent perm, k Curtent stress, 9 [SVanying stress direction (a) and near- ‘constant sess direction (b) over geologic Iistory. Varying stress direction may indl- ‘cate that the hrizontal permeability ratio Is rolated fo the horizontal stress ratio. ‘Nar-constant sess direction may indl- cate that fractures are aligned and that the maximum horizontal permeability is related to tho minimum Rorizontal stress. Nearconstant tess direction over geologic history October 1990 Cross-sectional view of trough crossbedded sand with preferential permeabilty direc: tions. (Adapted from Reineck HE and Singh IB: Depositional Sedimentary Environments. ‘Now York, New York, USA: Springer-Verlag, 1986.) 5. Se eee 4 Se a ‘Weber Kune on Fh lw of Common Se IeranySractresn Sand Boden" paper SP 247, penned the 1 SPE Arua eee CCnlrnce se Extn, Dall, Teas, USA, Septem 2124, 1960. Pete PE and Petjohn Fl: Paeocuronts and Basi ‘Anais Ban, Wet Germany, Springer Veg Weber Ki: "How Heteropenity fects Oi Recow ‘yin ake LW and Carel HB Jed: Resenoie ‘ararriation NewYork, New Yer USA. Ae ‘domi rest Ine, 1985 487-544, ‘homas Lx Daan TN, Bans CE and Viena “Holst waterloo Plat” paper SPE 15120, pe ‘eal tthe 3b PC Annal ehnial Cordeence Se fxbton, Huson, ous, USA, Seplember 15 1,194 aural of Pole Techy 39 eb say 1987) 221-232, {Chen Alam, ozo Pag Blanton TL “va ftun of Ntuly raced Gas shale Prodcton Ut img Nr rane! Tes: kl Sy paper SPODOUGR! 12872, peered othe SPEDOUCE {Urconentonl Gas Recovery Symposium, Ps bah Pennsyan USA Nay 115, 1984, (Chen 6 ar Lecrboura J inerlrnce Anais mn Anoop Resevor Using ve Spot Oa, Iper SPC 11967, peed he 5h SPE Anal “ncn Conrnace an tahton, San Francs, Gio, Oeobors 81983 Host AL Meer I ar Sayer WK: tl Dag ler shale Gas Develoment A ied Case St pipe SPE 1182, presented tthe 57h SP Aru ‘ethnical Condesa Eton, New Ones, {oun USA. September 2629, 1982 {6 For the paspectves fhe polgs an th seni 7. Wabh BE of Pore Pressure a Conn Pes 2 en Nace K and canoes Ml Prodction From a) ni ngs on faced reservar, ee, especie Nelson RA Geol Ava of Nataly ctr Iesenous Houston, Texas USA: Gul Publi >, tos, an Golf Rach Faron of raced Rese ‘or tngiering New York, New York USA Chee Seite bling Co. 1982. She Fact Pees ntl urna fofock mechanics and ning Sciences & eome ‘hanes Absa 18 BN) 429435, Ouesan R"hcrorack Prmealy Tg Sandton” Society of eof Engines Oa 23 (December 19837919527 ‘atl red Reserve ered bya Vera Hyde Fact paper SPE 17425, penned ot Tes aloria onl Metin Lng Beach, (Cliens, USAI Na 23.25, 1985, 29 [Relationships between well productivity ‘luctivity increases only slighly. In reser. vols with randomly oriented natural trac: {ures and alignment of the minimum ning well trajectories and stimulation cam- paigns. In naturally fractured reservoirs, ‘open fractures conduct most of the fluid to the wellbore. Hence, knowing the depth and strike of natural ffactures that are open to flow helps determine which intervals to perforate, where to drill additional wells ‘and waterllood strategy (next page). Knowing horizontal anisotropy also answers the question: Should a vertical well be hydraulically fractured or should a hori- zontal well be drilled? For example, where ‘6,,and ky are aligned, hydraulic fracturing is not recommended in the presence ofa high Iylk, permeability contrast (eft). Hydraulic fractures will open along the 6, axls, so the ‘maximum permeability lies parallel to the fracture face, not across it.The fracture will therefore not effectively draw formation flu ‘ids toward the well. otter choice may be ‘horizontal well dflled normal to the ditec tion of maximum permeability ‘An alternative, experimental technique is altored-stess fracturing. In this procedure, a nearby well is hydraulically fractured to locally alter the stress field, thereby causing the producing frac to propagate in the desired direction. The procedure is stil con troversial because the extent of the altered stress field is unknown, although it is assumed! to be local to the wellbore." ‘Measuring horizontal anisotropy is even more difficult than measuring vertical anisotropy. Horizontal permeability aniso ropy is generally oblained from extensive ‘multiwell interference tests. They provide the best possible measure of reservoirscale horizontal anisotropy.!? Sometimes horizontal permeability anisot ropy can be assessed by integrating seismic data and conventional well tes data from a single well, For example, ifthe tested well is located near a sealing fault that has been located by seismic interpretation, the cit- ‘cumferentially averaged horizontal perme- ability and the apparent distance tothe fault ‘ean be determined from a wel test. If well test and seismic interpretations suggest dif- ferent distances between the well and the fault, a perneabilty anisotropy may be pre- sent. Ifthe direction of the maximum per- meabilty is known or assumed, then both ki,and kan be computed {below . Horizontal minimum and maximum per meabilities can also be quantified by tran sient tests in horizontal wells and in vertical ‘wells that have been hydraulicaly fractured. In both cases, a transient test may be sensi tive to flow that is intially unidirectional and later radial. Uniditectional flow moves rormal to the fracture face or horizontal well, whereas radial flow comes from all | Apoarent fault locations \Etlct of horlzon- | zontal permeability anisotropy is und: tected. Knowing the

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