CHAPTER 4 Direct-Current Generators 4.0 Introduction ‘e begin our study of rotating machinery with the direct-current generator, Direct-current generators are not as common as they used t0 be, because direct current, when required, is mainly produced by electronic rectifiers. These rectifiers can convert the current of an ac system into direct current without using any moving parts. Nevertheless, an understanding of de generators is important because it represents a logical intcoduc~ ‘ion to the behavior of de motors, Indeed, many de motors in industry actually operate as generators for briet periods. Commercial de generators and motors are built the same way; consequently, any de generator can operate as a motor and vice versa, Owing to their similar construction, the fundamental properties of generators and motors are identical. Consequently, anything we learn about a de generator can be d rectly applied to a de motor: In tis chapter we begin with the basic principles of a 2-pole generator when it operates at no-load. ‘We show the importance of brush position and de fine what is meant by the neutral point, We show hhow the induced voltage is generated and what de- termines its magnitude. ‘This is followed by a study of the behavior ofthe ‘generator under foad. Mechanical torque, direction of ceurrent flow, and the importance of armature reaction are discussed. The need for commutating poles and the problem of pole-tip saturation are covered next, We then discuss the major types of de generators and their voltage-regulation characteristics. ‘The chapter ends with a description of the actual physical construction of direct-current machines, including multipole designs 4.1 Generating an ac voltage Irrelevant as it may seem, the study of a direct- ‘current (de) generator has to begin with a know- ‘edge of the alternating-current (ac) generator. The reason is that the voltage generated in any de gen- erator i inherently aerating and only becomes de after ithas been rectified by the commutator Fig, 4.1 shows an elementary ac generator composed of a coil that revolves at 60 r/min be- tween the N, S poles of a permanent magnet, The rotation is due (0 an external driving force, stich as a motor (nat shown). The coil is connected to {wo slip rings mounted on the shaft. The slip rings ‘are connected to an external load by means of two stationary brushes x and y.ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS Figure 41 ‘Eunomati diagram of an olomentary ac generator turing at revolution per s9cond. As the coil rotates, a voltage is induced (Ba. 2-25) between its terminals A and D. This voltage appears between the brushes and, therefore, across the Yoad. The voltage is generated because the conductors of the coil cut across the flux produced by the N.S poles. The induced voltage is therefore maxirmam £20 V, say) when te coil is momentarily im the hori- ontal postion, as shown, No fx is eut when the coil is momentarily in the vertical position; conse iquealy the voltage at these instants is zero. Another feature of the voltage is that its polarity changes every time the coil makes haa cum, The voltage ea ‘herefore be represented as a function of the angle of Figure 4.2 Votage induced inthe a€ generator as a function of the angle of rotation. rotation (Fig. 42). The waveshape depends upon the Chape of the N, § poles, We assume the poles were Giesigned to generate the sinusoidal wave shown, “The coil in our example revolves at uniform speed, therefore each angle of rotation comresponds to specific interval of time. Because the coil makes ‘netum per second, the angle of 360° in Fig. 4.2 cor- responds 10 an interval of one second, Consequently, we can also represent the induced voltage as a fune- tion of time (Fig. 4.3). Figure 43 \Votage incuced @s a function of time. 4.2 Direct-current generator If the brushes in Fig, 4.1 could be switched from ‘one slip ring to the other every time the polarity was “tboat to change, we would obtain a voltage of con stant polarity actoss the load, Brush x would always be positive and brush y negative, We can obtsin this result by using a commutator (Fig. 4.4). A comm fator i its simplest form is composed of a slip ing that is cut in half, with each segment insulated from the other as well as from the sbaft. One segment is Gonnected to cojl-end And the other to coil-end D, ‘The commatator revolves with the coil and she volt= age between the segments is picked up by (wo sta tionary brushes x and ¥: “The voltage between brushes x and y pulsates pot never changes polarity (Fig. 4.5). The alter- nating voltage in the coil is rectified by the com mutator, which acts as a mechanical reversing switeh, ao |i Figure 4.4 Elementary de genoratoris simply an ae generator ‘equipped with a mechanic rectifier called a cornu tator 0 80 180270 360 dayew —— miea Figure 45 ‘The elementary de generetor produces a pulsating de voltage. DIRECT:CURRENT GENERATORS 13 Due to the constant polarity between the brushes, the current in the extemal Toad always flows in the same direction. The machine represented in Fig, 44 \s called a direct-current generator. or dynamo, 4.3 Difference between ac and de generators ‘The elementary ac and de generators in Figs. 4.1 and 4.4 are essentially built the same way. In each cease, a coil rotates between the poles af a magnet and an a¢ voltage is induced in the coil. The max chines only differ in the way the coils are connected to the external circuit (Fig. 4.6): ac generators carry slip rings (Fig 4.6b) while de generators require a ‘commutator (Fig. 4.63). We sometimes build small ‘machines which carry both slip rings and a cormmu: ‘ator (Fig. 4.60), Such machines ean function si ‘multaneously as ac and de generators 4.4 Improving the waveshape Retuming to the de generator, we can improve the pulsating de voltage by using four coils and four segments, as shown in Fig. 4.7, The resulting wave- shape is given in Fig. 48. The voltage still pulsates bat itmever falls to zero; itis much closer toa steady de voltage, By increasing the number of coils and segments, we can obtain a de voltage that is very smooth, Moder de generators produce voltages having "pple of less than 5 percent. The coils are lodged in the slots of a faminated iron cylinder, The coils and the cylinder constitute the armature ofthe machine, ‘The percent ripple is the ratio of the RMS value of the ac component of voltage to the de component, Pa Pp ee] Te @ Co rg,ee armatures (a, (2), and c) have identcal windings. Depending upon how they are connoctd (toe ‘ings or a commutator) an ac or de voltage is obtained74 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS Figure 4.7, ‘Schematic diagram of ade generator having 4 coils land 4 commutator bars. See Fig. 4.9. +20) By 30180 B70 860 age —-s Figure 4.8 “The voltage between the brushes is more uniform than in Fig. 45, Itis important to understand the physical meaning ofFig. 4.7, because we will be using similar drawings ‘oexplain the behavior of dc machines. The four coils nthe figure are identical to the coi shown in Fig. 4.1 At the instant shown, coil A is not cutting any ux. and neither is coil C. The reason is that the coil sides ‘of these two coils are midway between the poles. On the other hand, coils B and D are cutting flux coming from the center ofthe N and § poles, Consequently, the voltage induced in these coils is at its maximum possible value (20 V, say). That is also the voltage ‘across the brushes at this particular instant slot 2e, Figure 4.9 ‘The actval physical construction of the generator shown in Fig. 47. The armature has 4 slots, 4 cols, ‘and 4 commutator bas. A schematic diagram such as Fig. 4.7 tells us ‘where the coil sides of the individual coils are lo- ccated: between the poles, under the poles, near the pole tips, and so on. But we must remember that the coil sides (a;, a by, bos ete.) of each coil are actu ally located at 180° to each other and not side by side as Figure 4,7 seems to indicat. ‘The actual construction of this armanure is shown in Fig. 49. The fonr coils are placed in four slots, Bach coil has two coil sides, and so there are two coil sides per slot. ‘Thus, each slot contains the conductors of two coils. For reasons of symmetry, the coils are wound so that one coil side is at the bottom of a slot and the other is at tae top. For example, in Fig. 4,7 col side 4, is in the top of slot 1, while coil side ay isin the bottom of slot 3. The coil connections to the com= ‘mutator segments are easy to follow in this simple armature, The reader should compare these connec tions with those in Fig. 4.9 to verify that shey are the same, Note also the actual position and schematic position of the brushes with respect to the poles, Fig. 4.10 shows the position of the coils when the armature has moved through 45°, The sides a, 1, of coll A are now sweeping past pole tip 1 and pole tip 4. The sides of coil C ate experiencing the same flux becanse they are in the same slots as coil ‘A, Consequently, the voltage e, induced in coil Aisrotation tip? Figure 4.10 Postion ofthe cols when the armature of Fig. 4.9 has rotated through 45° exactly the same asthe voltage e, induced in coil C. Note, however, that coil A is moving downward while coil C is moving upward. The polarities of e, and ¢, are, therefore, opposite as shown, ‘The same reasoning leads us to conclude that 4, and e4 are equal and opposite in polarity, This means that e, +e, + e+ eg = Oatall mes, Consequently, ‘current will flow in the closed loop formed by the four coils. This is most fortunate, because any such eulating current would produce PR losses, ‘The voltage between the brushes is equal te, + ¢. (ot &, ~ €4) atthe instant shown, It corresponds to the minimum voltage shown in Fig. 4.8. ‘The armature winding we have just discussed is called a lap winding. I is the most common type of \Winding used in direct-current generators and motors 4.5 Induced voltage Figures 4.114 and 4.11b show a more realistic ar mature having 12 coils and 12 stots instead of only 4, When the armature rotates, the voltage E induced in each conductor depends upon the flux density Which it cuts, This fact is based upon the equation Bly 2.25) Because the density in the aie gap varies from Point fo point, the value of the induced voltage per ‘coil depends upon its instantaneous position, DIRECT-CURRENT GENERATORS 75 _2tation neutral zone coil A coll D coll C coil B A Figure 4.1ta Pnysical construction of a de generator having 12 coils, 12 slots, and #2 commutator bas. station ‘coll B Figure 4.116 ‘Schematic diagram of the armature and the velages induced inthe 12 cols, Consider, for example, the voltages induced in the armature when it occupies the position shown in Fig. 4.11. The conductors in slots 1 and 7 are ex- actly between the poles, where the flux density is zer0. The voltage induced inthe two coils lodged in slots | and 7 is, therefore, zero. On the other hand, the conductors in slots 4 and 10 are directly under the center of the poles, where the flux density is greatest. The voltage induced in the 1wo coils16 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS lodged in these slots is, therefore, maximum. Finally, due to magnetie symmetry, the voltage in= duced in the coils lodged in slots 3 and 9s the same as that induced in the coils lodged in slots 5 and 1 Figure 4.11b shows the instantaneous voltage in duced in each of the 12 coils of the armature. They are 0, 7, 18, and 20 ¥, respectively. Note that the brushes short-circuit the coils in which the voltage is momentarily zero. “Taking polarities into account, we can see that the voltage between the brushes is (7 + 18 + 20+ 18 +7) = 70V, and brush xis positive with respect, to brush y. This voltage remains essentially con- stant asthe armature rotates, because the number of ‘coils between the brushes is always the same, irre- spective of armature position, Note that brush x in Fig. 4.11b straddles «wo ‘commutator segments that are connected to coil A. Consequently, the brash shore-cireuits coil A. However, since the induced voltage in this coil is ‘momentarily zero, no current will flow through the brush, ‘The same remarks apply to brush y, which momentarily short-circuits coil B. The brushes are said to be in the newsral position when they are po= sitioned on the commutator s0 as to short-circuit those coils in which the induced voltage is momen tarily zero, That isthe case in Figs. 4.11 and 4.1, If we were to shift the brush yoke by 30° (Fig. 4.12), the voltage between the brushes would be- come (0+ 7 + 18 + 20+ 18) = 63. "Thus, by shifting the brushes the output voltage decreases. Furthermore, in this postion, the brushes ‘continually short-circuit coils that generate 7 V. Large eusrents will flow in the short-circuited coils ‘and brushes, and sparking will result. Thus, shifting the brushes off the neutral position reduces the volt- ‘age between the brushes and ut the same time ‘causes sparking, When sparking occurs, there is said to be poor commutation, 4.6 Neutral zones ‘Neutral zones are those places on the surface of the ‘armature where the flux density is zero. When the ‘generator operates at no-load, the neutral zones are Tocated exactly between the poles, No voltage is in- rotation ‘coll 8 Figure 4.12 ‘Moving the brushes off the neutral point reduces the ‘output votiage ard produces sparking. duced in a coil that cuts through the neutral zone. We always try 10 set the brushes s0 they are in contact With coils that are momentarily ia a neutral zone, 4.7 Value of the induced voltage ‘The voltage induced in a de generator having 3 lap ‘winding is given by the equation Eg = Zn160 ay where E, = voltage between the brushes [V] 7. = total number of conductors on the armature = speet of rotation {e/min} 4) = flux per pole [Wb] ‘This important equation shows that fora given gen~ crator the voltage is direetly proportional to the flux per pole and to the speed of rotation. The equation only holds true if the brushes are on the neural posi- tion, If the broshes are shifted off neutral, the effect is equivalent to reducing the number of conductors Z. Example 4-) — “The armature of a 6 pole, 600 r/min generator, has 90 slots. Each coil has 4 turns and the flux per pole is (0,04 Wb. Calculate the value ofthe induced voltage. oseasasite iia ta i i ‘ i poo:Solution Each turn corresponds to two conductors on the a= mature, and 90 coils are sequited to fill the 90 slots ‘The total number of armature conductors is Z~ Wooils * 4 tumsieoil X 2 conductorsiturn = 720 ‘The speed is. = 600 r/min ‘Consequently, B, = Zntb/60 = 720 > 600 x 0.04/60 = 288V ‘The voltage between the broshes at no-load is there fore 288 V, provided the brushes are on neutral 4.8 Generator under load: the energy conversion process ‘When a direct-current generator is under load, some fundamental flux and current relationships take place that ate directly related to the mechanical-electrical ‘energy conversion process. Consider for example, 2-pole generator that is driven counterclockwise While delivering current /to a load (Fig. 4.13). Figure 413 ‘The energy Conversion process. The electromagnatic torque due to F must be balanced by the applied me- chanical torque, DIRECT. CURRENT GENERATORS 77 ‘The current delivered by the generator also flows through all the armature conductors. If we could look inside the machine, we would discover that current always flows in the same direction in those concluctors that are momentarily under a N pole, The same is tue for conductors that are mo ‘mentarily undera $ pole. However, the currents un der the N pole flow in the opposite direction to those uader a § pole, Referring to Fig, 4.13, the ar ‘mature conductors under the § pole carry currents that flow into the page, away from the reader, Conversely, the armature currents under the N pole flow our of the page, zoward the reader. Because the conductors lie in « magnetic field, they are subjected to force, according to Lorentz’s ‘and 2.23), If we examine the di- rection of current flow and the direction of fux, we find that the individual forces F on the conductors all act clockwise. In effect. they produce a torque {hat acts opposite to the direction in which the gen erator is being driven. To keep the generator going, ‘we must exert a torque on the shaft to overcome this ‘opposing electromagnetic torque. The resulting me- chanical power is converted into electrical power, which is delivered to the generator load. That is how the energy conversion process takes place. law (sections 4.9 Armature reaction Until now, we have assumed that the only magneto- motive force (mf) acting in ade generator is that due tothe field, However, the current lowing in the arma- ture calls also creates a powerful magnetomotive force that distorts and weakens the flux coming from the poles. Ths distortion and field weakening takes place {in both motors and generators. The effect produced by the armature mnt is called armanure reaction. To understand the impact of the armature mmf, ‘we return to the generator under load (Fig. 4.13). If ‘we consider the armature alone, it will produce magnetic field as shown in Fig, 4.14. This field cts atright angles tothe field produced by the N, S poles. ‘The intensity of the armaruce flux depends uper ‘mut, which in sum depends upon the current carried by the armature. Thus, contrary tothe field! flux, the nature fhux is not constant but varies with the load.78 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS Figure 4.14 Magnetic field produced by the current flowing inthe armature conductors ‘We can immediately foresee a problem which the ‘armature flux will produce, Fig. 4.14 shows that the flux in the neutral zone is no longer zero and, con- sequently, a voltage will be induced in the coils that ate short-circuited by the brushes. As a result, severe sparking may occur. The intensity of the sparking will depend upon the armature flux and hence upon the load current delivered by the generator ‘The second problem created by the armature mmf is that it distorts the flux produced by the poles. In effect, the combination of the armature mmf and field mmf produces a magnetic field \whose shape is itustrated in Fig. 4.15. The neutral zones have shifted inthe direction of rotation ofthe armature. This occurs in all de generators. ‘The flux distortion produces stil] another effect: the higher flux density in pole tips 2, 3 causes satu ration to set in, Consequently, the increase in flux ‘under pole tips 2,3 ig less than the decrease in flux under pole tips 1, 4. As a result, the total flux pro- duced by the N, $ poles is fess than it was when the generator was running at no-load. This causes ac responding reduction in the induced voltage by Eq, 4.1. For large machines, the decreas ‘may be as much as 10 percent. Rema Figure 4.15 ‘Armature reaction distorts the flld produced by the N S poles, nis important to note thatthe orientation of the armature flux remains fixed in space: it does nat ro- tate with the armature. 4.10 Shifting the brushes to improve commutation Due to the shift in the neutral zone when the gener storis under Toad, we could move the br luce the sparking. For generators, the brushes are shifted tothe new neutral zone by moving them in the direction of ro- tation. For motors, the brashes are shifted against the direction of rotation, ‘As soon as the brushes are moved, the commuta- tion improves, meaning there is less. sparking However, ifthe load fluctuates, the armature minf rises and falls and so the neutral zone shifts back and forth between the no-load and full-lond positions. We would therefore have to move the brushes ack and forth to obtain sparkless commutation, This pro- ‘cedure is not practical and other means are used toresolve the problem. For small de machines, how: ‘ever, the brushes are set in an intermediate position to ensure reasonably good commutation at all loads, 4.11 Commutating poles To counter the effect of armature reaction in ‘medium: and large-power de machines, we always place asset of commutating poles* between the main poles (Fig. 4.16). These narrow poles earry wind- 8 that are connected in series with the armature, ‘The number of turns on the windings is designed so thatthe poles develop a magnetomotive force mint, equal and opposite to the magnetomotive force mmf, of the armature. As the Toad current vaties, the two magnetomotive forces rise and fall together, exactly bucking each other at all times. By nullify. ing the armature mmf in this way, the flux i the space between the main poles is always zero and so ‘we no longer have to shift the brushes. In practice, pole o ln Figure 4.16 ‘Commutating poles produce an mmf, that opposes the mmf, ofthe armature, * Commtaing poles are sometnes called iter DIRECT-CURRENT GENERATORS 79 the mmf of the commutating poles is made slightly ‘greater than the armature mmf. This creates a small flox in the neutral zone, which aids the commuta tion process (see Section 4.28). ig. 4.16 shows how the commutating poles of pole machine are connected, Clearly, the direc- tion of the current flowing through the windings in- dlicates that the mmf of the commutating poles acts ‘opposite to the mmf ofthe armature and, therefore, neutralizes its effect. However, the ne is restricted to the narrow brush zone where com- matation takes place. The distorted fux distribu- tion under the main potes, unfortunately, remains the same, alization 4.12 Separately excited generator Now that we have leamed some basic facts about de generators, we can study the various types and their properties. Thus, instesd of using permanent ‘magnets to create the magnetic field, we can use a pair of electromagnets, called field poles, a8 shown in Fig. 4.17. When the de field current in such a generator is supplied by an independent source (uch as a storage battery or another generator, called an exciter), the generator is said 10 be sepa- rately excited. Thus, in Fig. 4.17 the de source con- nected to terminals a and b causes an exciting cur- rent / to flow. If the armature is driven by a motor or a diesel engine, a voltage E, appeats between brush terminals and y, Figure 4.17 Separately exited 2-pole gonerator. The N, S ied poles are creatod by the current lowing inthe field ‘wincings,80. ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS. 4.13 No-load operation and saturation curve ‘When a separately excited de generator runs at no- Toad (armature circuit open), a change in the excit- ing current causes a corresponding change in the in- duced voltage. We now examine the relationship between the two, Field flux vs exciting current, Let us gradually raise the exciting current J, so that the mmf of the field increases, which increases the fhax per pole If we plot as a function off, we obsain the sat. ration curve of Fig, 4.183, This curve is obtained Whether or not the generator is turning. rl ated fun S125 — s 3 |_| 2 1.00 [°"r4 050 0.25 of | T 2 Ew Figure 4.184 Flux per pole versus exciting current ‘When the exciting current is relatively small, the flux is small and the iron in the machine is wn saturated. Very litle mmf is needed 10 establish the flux through the ion, with the result that the mmf developed by the field coils is almost entirely ayailable to drive the Mux through the air gap. Because the permeability of air is constant, the flux increases jn direct proportion to the exciting ccurrent, as shown by the linear portion Oa of the saturation curve. However, as we continue to raise the exciting ‘current, the iron inthe field and the armature begins to saturate, & large inctease in the mint is now re ‘quited to produce u small increase in flux, as shown by portion be of the curve, The machine is now said to be saturated. Saturation of the iron begins to be important when we reach the so-called “knee” ab of the saturation curve. How does the saturation curve relate tothe induced voltage B, If we drive the generator ar constant speed, E, isdirectly proportional tothe flux . Consequently, by plotting £,, as a function of /,, we absain a carve \whose shape is identical to the saturation curve of Fi. 4.189, The resultis shown in Fig, 4.18; itisealled the no-load saturation curse of the generator. The rated voltage of a de generator is usually a litle above the knee of the curve, In Fig. 4.18b, for ‘exemple, the rated (or nominal) voltage is 120 V. By varying the exciting current, we can vary the in- duced voltage as we please. Furthermore, by re versing the current, the flux will reverse and So, 100, ‘will the polarity of the induced voltage. Induced voltage vs speed. Fer a given exciting ‘current, the induced voltage inereases in direct pro- Portion to the speed, aresult that follows from Eq. 4.1 If. we reverse the direction of rotation, the pola ity of the induced voltage also reverses, However, if wwe reverse both the exciting current and the diree- tion of rotation, the polarity of the induced voltage remains the same, a Figure 4.180 Saturation curve of a de generator. 4.14 Shunt generator A shunt-exeited generator is a machine whose shuntfield winding is connected in parallel with the ‘armature terminals, s0 that the generator can be selfexcited (Fig. 4.19). The principal advantage of this connection is that it eliminates the need for aa external source of excitation How is self-excitation achieved? When a shunt generator is started up, a small voltage is induced inBowe Figure 4.19 4. SelF-oxctad shunt generator ', Schematic diagram ofa shunt generator A shunt fialdis one designed to be connacted in shunt (ater. ‘nate tem for paalit with the armature winding. the armature, due to the remanent flux inthe poles ‘This voltage produces a small exciting current J, in the shunt field. The resulting small mmf acts in the same direction asthe remanent flux, causing the flax per pole to increase. The increased flux increases E, which increases 1, which increases the flux still ‘more, which increases E, even more, and so forth, ‘This progressive buildup continues until, reaches ‘maximum valve determined by the field resistance and the degree of saturation, See next section, 4.15 Controlling the voltage of a shunt generator Itis easy to control the induced voltage of a shunt- excited generator, We simply vary the exciting cur- rent by means of a sheostat connected in series with the shunt field (Fig. 4.20). DIRECT-CURRENT GENERATORS 81 fists hoon Figure 4.20 Controting the generator voltage witha fild heastat, A "eostat i a resistor wth an adjustable sksing contact To understand how the ouipat voltage varies suppose that £, is 120 V when the movable contact Dis inthe center ofthe theostat. we move the ci fact toward extremity m, the resistance R, between points p and b diminishes, which causes the exci ing current to inerease, This increases the flux and, consequently, the induced voltage E,, On the other hand, if we move the contact toward extremity my increases, the exciting current diminishes, the flux diminishes, and so E, will fal. We can determine the no-load value of &, if we know the saturation curve of the generator and the total resistance &, of the shunt feld eireuit between points p and b, We draw a stright line correspond ing tothe slope of R, and superimpose it on the sat uration curve (Fig. 4.21). This dotted line passes through the origin, and the point where it intersects the curve yields the induced voltage. For example, ifthe shunt field has a resistance of 50 and the rheostat is set at extremity m, then R, = 5002, The line corresponding to R, must pass through the coordinate point E = 50V,7= 1A. ‘This line interseets the saturation curve where the voltage is 150 V (Fig. 421). That is the maxim voltage the shunt generator ean produce, By changing the seting of the rheostat, the total resistance of the field circuit increases, causing E, to decrease progressively. For example, if Ry is in creased to 120 0, the resistance line cuts the satu ration curve at a voltage E, of 120 V. Ifwe continue to rise R, a critical value will be reached where the slope of the resistance line is | te i82. ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS he Figure 4.21 ‘The no-load vottage doponds upon the resistance of the shuntfeld circuit, ‘equal to that of the soturation curve in its unsaturated region, When this resistance is attained, the induced voltage suddenly drops to zeto and will remain so for any R, greater than this critical value. In Fig, 4.21 the critical resistance corresponds £0 200 ©. 4.16 Equivalent circuit ‘We fave seen thatthe armature winding contains @ setof identical coils all of which possess a certain se- sistance. The total amature resistance Ris that Which exists between the armature tenminals when the machine is stationary. Is measured on the com- mutator surface hetween those segment that ie un der the (+) and =) brushes. The resistance is usu- ally very small, offen less than one-hundredth ofan ohm. Is value depends mainly upon the power and voltage ofthe generator. To simplify the generator circuit, we can represent Rast wer in series with ‘one of the brushes, Ifthe machine has interpoles, the resistance ofthese windings is included in R, ‘The equivalent citcuit ofa generators thus com- posed of a resistance Rin series with a voltage B, ig. 4.22), The latter isthe voltage induced in the Fy 7 3G Figure 4.22 Equivalent circuit of a de generator. L____., revolving conductors. Terminals 1,2 ate the external armature terminals ofthe machine, and F,,F, ae the field winding terminais, Using this cirevit, we will row study the more common types of directcurrent generators and their behavior under load, 4.17 Separately excited generator under load Let us consider a separately excited generator that is “riven atconstant speed and whose field isexcited by battery (Fig, 4.23). The exciting current is constant and sos the resultant flux. The induced voltage E, is therefore fixed, When the machine operates at no- Toad, terminal voltage Eyp is equal to the induced voltage E, because the voltage drop iu the anmature resistance is zero. However, if we connect a load ‘eross the scmature (Fig, 4,23), the resulting load ‘current J produces a voltage drop across resistance R,, Terminal voltage E,2 is now fess than the induced voltage E,, As we increase the load, the terminal voltage diminishes progressively, as shown in Fig. 4.24. The graph of terminal voltage as a function of Joad current is called the oud curve ofthe generator, Figure 4.23 ‘Separately excited generator under load,Figure 4.24 Load cheractoristic ofa soparately excited generator In practice, the induced voltage E, also decreases slightly with increasing Toad, because pole-tip satu ration tends to decrease the field flux. Consequently, the terminal voltage £, falls off more rapidly than ccan be attributed to armature resistance alone. 4.18 Shunt generator under load ‘The terminal voltage ofa selfexcited shunt generator falls off more sharply with inereasing load than that of a separately excited generator, The reason is that the field current in a separately excited machine remains Constant, whereas in a seli-excited generitor the ex- citing current falls as the terminal voltage drops. Fora selfexcited generator, the drop in voliage from no- Yond to full-lond is about 15 percent ofthe full-Ioad voltage, whereas for a separately excited generator it {s usually ess than 10 percent. The voltage regulation is suid to be 15% and 10%, respectively. 4.19 Compound generator ‘The compound generator was developed to prevent the terminal voltage of a de generator from de- creasing with increasing load. Thus, although we can usually tolerate a reasonable drop in terminal voltage as the load increases, this has a serious ef- fect on lighting circuits. For example, the distribu tion system of a ship supplies power to both de ma- chinery and incandescent lamps. The current delivered by the generator fluctuates continually, in ‘response to the varying loads. These current vatia- DIRECE-CURRENT GENERATORS $3. tions produce corresponding changes in the genera- tor terminal voltage, causing the lights to flicker. ‘Compound generators eliminate this problem. ‘A compound generator (Fig, 4.25) is similar to a shunt generator, except that it has additional field coils connected in series with the armature ‘These series field coils are composed of a few turns of heavy wire, big enough to carry the armature cur- rent. The total resistance ofthe series coils fore, small. Figure 4.25b is a schematic diagram showing the shunt and series field connections. ‘When the generator runs at no-load, the current inthe series coils is zero. The shunt coils, however, carry exciting current J, which produces the field flux, just as in a standard setf-exeited shunt gencr- ator. As the generator is loaded, the terminal volt age tends to drop, but load current /, now flows through the seties field coils. The mmf developed by these coils acts inthe same direction as the mnif ofthe shunt field, Consequently, the field Nux un der load rises above its original no-load value, which raises the value of E,, If the series coils are Properly designed, the terminal voltage remains practically constant from no-load to full-load. The fod [mune Fels tee wom i (2) fl Figure 4.25 ‘a. Compound generator under load . Schematie diagram, i84 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS rise in the induced voltage compensates for the ar- ‘mature IR drop. Insome cases we have to compensate not only for the armature voltage drop, but also forthe JR drop in the feeder line between the generator and the load, ‘The generator manufacturer then adds one or two ex- tra tums on the seties winding so thatthe terminal voltage increases asthe load current rises, Such ma- chines are called over-compound generators. If the compounding is too strong, a low resistance can be placed in parallel with the series field, This reduces. the current in the series field and has the same effect as reducing the number of turns, For example, if the value of the diverter resistance is equal to that of the series fel, the current in the latter is reduced by half. 4.20 Differential compound generator Ina differential compound generator the mint of the seties field acts opposite tothe shunt field. As a re sul, the terminal voltage falls drastically with in creasing load, We can make such a generator by simply reversing the series field of standard com= pound generator. Differential compound generators were formerly used in de are welders, because they tended to limit the short-circuit current and to stabi- lize the are during the welding process. The voltage regulation of the differential cory pound generator in Fig. 4.26 is (no-load ~ full- Toadyfull-toad = (100—70¥70 = 42.9%. Bes Figure 4.26 Typical load characteristics of de generator, 4.21 Load characteristics The load characteristics of some shunt and com ound generators are given in Fig. 4.26. The volt- ‘age of an over-compound generator increases by 10 Percent when fullload is applied, whereas that of a flat-compound generator remains constant, On the other hand, the full-load voltage of a shunt genera- {or is 15 percent below its no-load value, while that of a differential-compound generator is 30 percent lower, 4.22 Generator specifications ‘The nameplate of a generator indicates the power, voltage, speed, and other details about the machine. These ratings, or nominal eharacteristcs, are the values guaranteed by the manufacturer, For exam. Ple, the following information is punched on the nameplate of a 100 kW generator: Power 100 KW. Speed 1200 e/min Voltage 250 V Type Compound Exciting current 20. A Class. B ‘Temperature rise 50°C ‘These specifications tellus thatthe machine can deliver, continuuusly, 2 power of 100 KW at a volt- age of 250 V, without exceeding a temperature rise of SO°C. It can therefore supply a lond current of 100 000/250 = 400A. It possesses a series winding, and the current inthe stunt field is 20, In practice, the terminal voltage is adjusted to a value close to its rating of 250 V, We may draw any amount of power from the generator, as ong as it daes not ex- ‘eced 100 kW and the current is less than 400 A, The class B designation refers to the class of insulation used in the machine, CONSTRUCTION OF DIRECT-CURRENT GENERATORS We have described the basic features and properties of direct-current generators. We now look at the ‘mechanical construction of these machines, di ing our atention tothe field, the armature, the com ‘mutator, and the brushes,4.23 Field ‘The field produces the magnetic flux in the ma- chine, If is basically a stationary electromagnet composed of a set of salient poles bolted to the in- side of a circular frame (Figs. 4.27 and 4.28). Field coils, mounted on the poles, cacry the de exciting current, The frame is usually made of solid east steel, whereas the pole pieces are composed of stacked iron laminations, In some generators the flux i created by permanent magnets. Tn our discussions so far we have considered only 2-pole generators. However, in practice a de gener- ‘tor or motor may have 2, 4, 6, oF as many as 24 poles. The number of poles depends upon the phys Figure 4.27 Gross section of a 2-pole generator. Figure 4.28 Cutaway view of a 4-pole shunt generator. thas 3 brushes per brush sot DIRECE-CURRENT GENERATORS 8S Figure 4.29 [Adjacent poles of muitioole generators have cpposite magnetic polarities, ical size of the machine; the bigger iti, the more poles it will have, By using & multipole design, we tan reduce the dimensions and cost of large ma- chines, and also improve ther performance. The field coils of @ multipole machine are-con- nected together so that adjacent poles have oppo- site magnetic polarities (Fig. 4.29). The shunt Field coils are composed of several hundred twins of ‘wire carrying a relatively small current. The coi are insulated fromthe pole pieces to prevent shor circuits “The inmf developed by the coils produces magnetic flux that passes through the pole pieces, the fame, the armature, and th air gap. The ar eap isthe shot space between the armature andthe pole pieces. Itranges ftom about 15 oS mm asthe gen- erator rating inereaes from 1 kW to 100 KW. Beciuse the armature and field are composed of magnetic materials having excellent permeability, ‘most of the mmf produced by the field is used to dive the flux across the air gap. Consequently, by reducing its length, we can diminish the size of the stunt field coils. However, the air gap cannot be ‘made too short otherwise the armatare reaction ef: fect becomes too great If the generator has series field, the coils are ‘wound on top ofthe shuntfeld coils. The conduc- tor size must be large enough so thatthe winding does not overheat when it caries the ullload cur- rent of the generator.86. ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS 4.24 Armature “The armarure is the rotating part of a de generator I consists of a commutator, an iron core, and a set of coils Fig. 4.30). The armature is keyed toa shaft and. revolves between the field poles. The iron core is composed of slotted, iron laminations that are stacked to form a solid cylindrical core. The laminations are individually coated with an insulating film so that they do not come in electrical contact with each other ‘Asa result, eddy-current losses are reduced. The slots are lined up to provide the space needed to insert the armature conductors. “The armature conductors carry the load current delivered by the generator. They are insulated from the iton core by several layers of paper or mica and ate firmly held in place by fiber slot sticks. Irthe ar= mature current is below TO A, round wire is used: but for currents exceeding 20 A, rectangular con- ductors are preferred becanse they make better use Of the available slot space. The lamination of a small armature is shown in Fig. 4.31. A eross sec- tion view of the slot ofa large armature is shown in Fig. 4.32. Figure 4.30 ‘Armature of a de generator showing the commutator, stacked laminations, slots, and shaft. (Courtesy of General Electric Company, USA) Figure 4.31 Armatueo lamination with tapered slots on eet fier ot ack a YY, Te Figure 4.22 Crose-goation of a sit containing 4 conductors 4.25 Commutator and brushes The commutator is composed of an assembly of ta- pered copper segments insulated from each other by mica sheets, and mounted om the shaft of the me cchine (Fig. 4.33). The armature conductors are con rected to the commutator in a manner We will ex- plain in Section 4.26, Great care is taken in building the commutator because any eccentricity will cause the brushes 10 bounce, producing unacceptable sparking. The sparks burn the brushes and overheat and earbonize the commutator,segment Figure 4.33 Gommutator of ade machine A 2pole generator hes two brushes fixed dite meiically opposite to each other (Fig. 4.344). They ‘lide on the commotator and ensure good electrical ‘contact between the revolving armature and the sta sionary external load. ‘Multipole machines possess as many brush sets 2 they have poles, The brush sets, in tan, are composed of one or more brushes, depending upon the current that has (o be cared, In Fig. 4.35e, for example, wo ‘rushes mounted side-by-side make up the brush set ‘The brush sets are spaced at equal intervals around the ‘contnutator. They are supported by a movable brush Figure 4.34 a. Brushes of a2-pole generator Brushes and connections of a &-pole generator. DIRECTCURRENT GENERATORS 87 yoke that permits the entire brush assembly to be ro fated through an angle and then locked in the neutral position. In going around the commutator, the sve Fessive brush sets have positive and negative potari- ties, Brashes having the same potarty are connected together and the leads are brought out tone positive ‘and one negative terminal Fig. 4340), "The brushes are made of carbon because it has ‘ood electrical conductivity and its sofimess does fat scote the comnitator To improve the conduc- tivity, small amount of copper is sometimes mixed ‘pith the carbon. The brush pressure is set by means of adjustable springs. If te pressure is ton great. the fiction produces excessive heating of the corms- tator and brushes, on the other hand, if it is 100 ‘weak, the imperfect contact may produce sparking. Figure 4.35 ‘a. Carbon brush and ulatexible copper lea. ©. Brush nolder and spring io exert pressure. ©, Brush set composed af two brushes, mounted om rocker arm, (Courtesy of General Eiectic Company. USA)88 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS ‘The pressure is usually about 15 kPa (= 2 tov fand the permissible cument density is approxi ‘mately 10 Afert’ (= 65 AJin®) Thus, atypical brash having a cross section of 3 om X 1 em (-= 1.2in ‘Ot in) exerts a pressure of 4.5 N (= 1 1b) and can cary current of about 30 A. Fig. 4.36 shows the construction of a modern Arpole de generator. In order to appreciate the progress that has been made, Fig. 4.37 shows a gen erator that was builtin 1889, Figure 4.38 ‘Sectional view of @ 100 KW, 250 V, 1760 rin 4-pote de generator (Courtesy of General Electric Company, USA) 4.26 Details of a multipole generator In order to get a better understanding of multipole generators, let us examine the construction of a 12: pole machine. Fig, 4.38a is the schematic diagram ff such a machine having 72 slots on the armature 72 segments on the commutator, and 72 coils, The ‘armature has a lap winding, and the reader should ‘note how similar iti tothe sehematie diagram of a ‘2-pole machine (Fig. 4.11). Coils A and C are mo-Be Figure 4.37 “This drect-current Thompson generator wes first _Salled in 1889 to Ught the teas of Montoat It det trad a curentof 250 Ata votage of 110 V. Other prop rive of this poneering machine include te folowing: Speed 1300 r/min Total weight 90 ke, ‘Armature diameter 292 mm Stator intemal diameter 330 mm Number of commutator bars 16 ‘Amature conductor size 84 ‘Shunt field conductor size #4 ‘Amodern generator having the same power and ‘spo0d woighs 7 times less and cccuples only 4/3 the floor space. ‘mentarily in the neutral zone, while coil Bis cuting he flux coming from the center of the poles. "The coil width (known as coil pitch) is such that the coit sides cut the flux coming from adjacent N, § poles. Thus, the coil sides of coil B lie under the center of pole 2 and the center of pote 3. Similarly, the coil sides of coil A are in the neutral zones be- tween poles 1, 2 and poles 2, 3 DIRECT-CURRENT GENERATORS 89 “The voltage generated between broshes x and. equal to the sum of the voltages generated by the coils connected to commutator segments 1-2 Sut, 45, and 5-6. The voltages between the other ‘rush sets ate similarly generated by five coils The (-+) brush sets are connected together to form the (+) terminal. The (~) brush sets are simi- larly connected to form the (~) terminal. These ‘connections are not shown on the diagram. For sim= ilar reasons of clarity, we do not show the interpoles that are placed between the N, 5 potes. Fig. 438 gives a detailed view of the armature coils ying between brushes x and y. Only the three Coils A,B. and C are shown so as not to complicate the iagram. Coil Aas its col sidesin slots Land 7, while those of coil B are in slots 4 and 10, Furthermore, coil IA is connected to commutator segments 72 and 1 Jil coil B is connected to segments 3 and 4 in the position shown, the coil-sides of coil Aare inthe neutral zone berween the poles. Consequently, fo veltage is induced in coil A. On the other hands the coil Sides of B are directly under the N and S poles. The voltage in coil B is maximum at this mo- nent, Consequently, the voltage between adjacent ‘commutator segments 3 and 4is maximum. “The voltage in coil Cis also zero because its coil sides ate sweeping across the neutral zone. Note that the positive and negative brushes each short cireuit coils having zero induced voltage. Example 4-2 “The generatorin Fig. 4.38 generates 240 V between adjacent brushes and delivers a current of 2400 A to the load. Caleutate ‘a The current delivered per brush set b. The current flowing in each coil . The average voltage induced per coit Solution 3, Acurrent of 2400.A flows out of the (+) termina and back into the (~) tenminal ofthe generator TThete are 12 brush ses, 6 postive and 6 negative. “The current per brash set is = 2400/6 = 400.90 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS Figure 4.388 Schematic diagram of a 12-pole, 72cail de generator. \ Gath Ss Z Figure 4.306 Coseup view ofthe armature cols between adjacent brushes.b. Bach positive brush set gathers current ftom the coils to the right and to the left of the brush, Consequently, the current in each coil is 1 = 40022 = 2004 . There are six coils between adjacent brush sets, ‘The average voltage per coil is Fyege = 2406 = 40'V 4.27 The ideal commutation process When a generator is under toad, the individua fon the armature carry one-half the lad current by one brash. The currents flowing in the armature ‘windings next to a positive brush are shown in Fig 4.38a, Note that the currents in the coils low toward the brush, coming both from the rit and the left. IF the lond current is 80.A, the coil all carry 40 A. If the commutator segments are moving from right to left, the coils on the righthand side of the brush will soon be on dhe left-hand side, This means that the current in these coils must reverse. The re- versal takes place during the millisecond interval that ‘coil takes to move from one end ofthe brush to the other. The process whereby the current changes di rection inthis brief interval i called commutation. ‘To understand how commutation takes place, we refer to Figs, 4.39a (0 4.39e In Fig. 4.39a the brush is in the middle of seg ‘ment 1, and the 40 A from the coils on the right and the left of the brush unite to give the 80 A output ‘The contact resistance between the segment and brush produces a voltage drop of about { V, In Fig. 4.39 the commutator has moved a short distance, and 25 percent of the brush surface is now in contact with segment 2, while 75 per- cent is in contact with segment 1, Owing to the contact resistance, the conductivity between the brush and commutator is proportional to the con- tact area, The area in contact with segment 2 is only one-fourth of the total contact area, and so the current from segment 2 is only one-fourth of the total cument, namely 0.25 x 80 = 20 A. By DIRECT-CURRENT GENERATORS 9 ff, a 8 3} (3) [") load e Figure 4.39 ‘Commutation of the current in cl 1, Inductive effects late neglected and current reversal is caused by the brush contact resistance, | 3 le92 BLECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS the same token, the current from segment 1 to the brush is 0.75. 80 = 60 A, If we now apply Kirehhof’s current law, we dis cover that the current flowing in coil I must be 20. ‘Thas, by coming in contact with the brush, the cur- Fent inthis coi has dropped from 40 A t0 20 A. Jn Fig. 4.39¢ the commutator has moved a litle further, andthe brush area in contact with segments | ‘and 2 is now the same. Consequently, the condactiv- ities are the same and so the currents ate equal. This ‘means that the current in eo 1 is zero at this instant. In Fig. 4.394 the commutator has moved still far- ther tothe left. Segment 2 is now in contact with 75, percent of the brush, and so the currents divide ac- cordingly: 60 A from segment 2 and 20 A from seg ‘ment 1. Applying Kirchhoff’s current law, we find that the current in coil 1 is again 20 A, but it flows in the opposite direction to what it did before! We can now understand how the brush contact resis- tance forces a progressive reversal of the current as the segments slide over the brush In Fig. 4.39¢ the current reversal in coil 1 is com- plete and the current in coil 2 is about to be reversed In this ideal commutation process, itis important ‘o note that the current density (amperes per square centimeter) remains the same at every point across the brush face. Thus, the heat produced by the con- tact resistance is spread uniformally across. the brush surface. Unfortunately, such ideal eommuta- tion is not possible in practical machines, and we now investigate the reason why. 4.28 The practical commutation process ‘The problem with commutation is that it takes place ina very short time; consequently, the current can- not reverse as quickly as it should, The reason is that the armature coils have inductance and. it strongly opposes a rapid change in current Suppose, for example, that the commutator in Fig. 4.39 has 72 bars and that the armature turns at 600 c/min, One revolution is, therefore, completed in 1/10 of a second and during this short period 72 commutator bars sweep past the brush. Thus, the time available to reverse the current in coil is only JNO 1/72 = 1/720 s oF 1.39 mst ‘The voltage induced by self induction is given by e= LANA 42) in which ¢ = induced voltage [V] 1 = inductance of the coil (H) AWAt = rate of change of current [A/s} If coil 1 has an inductance of, say, 100 jxH, the in- diced voltage is ‘LAIAt 100 x 10-#x {+ 40 1.39 x 1073 =515V Its the presence of this induced voltage (attribut- able to L). that opposes the change in current, Figs. 4.402 to 4.40e illustrate the new currents that flow in coil 1 when the self-inductance of the coil is considered. We have assumed plausible val- ues for these currents in order to determine the re- sulting current flows in the brush, The currents should be compared with those in Fig, 4.39, {In Fig. 4.40a the brush is in the middle of seg- ‘ment 1, and the currents in the coils are neither in~ creasing or decreasing. As a result, the coil indue~ tance does not come into play. Jn Fig. 440b the current in coil 1 is changing duc to the contact resistance effect. However, the in- duced voltage e prevents the current from dropping {0 its ideal value of 20 A. Suppose the eoil current is 35 A, From Kirchhoff’s current law, the currents flowing from seements 1 and 2 into the brush are then respectively 75 A and 5 A, instead of 60 A and 20 A. Note thatthe current density is no longer uni- orm over the brush face. The density is low where the brush touches segment 2, and high where it touches segment 1 In Fig. 4.40¢ the brush is momentarily symmetri- cally placed as regards segments | and 2, But the cur- ‘ent in coil 1 has not fallen to zero, and is still, say,on MP" fe) fo) [") nt aTitet 31s 2 in ) 0. 4 i Figure 4.40 ‘Commutation ofthe current in col 1. The col induc- tance opposes the reversal of curent DIRECT-CURRENT GENERATORS 93 30.A. As a result, the current in segment is 70.4, \while that in segment 2s only 10,4. The current den- sity on the left-hand side of the brush is, therefore, 7 times greater than on the right-hand side. The left- hand side of the brush will end to overheat, In Fig. 4.40d segment | has moved beyond the ‘midpoint of the brush and the current in coil | has still ot reversed. Assuming it has a value of 20 A, the current flowing from segment 1 to the brush is now 60 A, despite the fact that the contact area is getting very small. The resulting high current den. sity eauses the brush to overheat at the tip, Because 720 coils are being commutated every second, this overheating raises the brush tip to the incandescent point and serious sparking will result. In designing de motors and generators, every effort is made to reduce the self-induetanes of the coils. One of the most effective ways is to reduce the number of turms per coil. But for a given out- put voltage, this means that the number of coils ‘must be increased, And more coils implies more commutator bars. Thus, in practice, direct-current generators have a large number of coils and com= mutator bars — not so much to reduce the ripple in the output vortage but to overcome the problem of commutation, Another important factor in aiding commutation is that the mmf of the commutating poles is always made slightly greater than the armature mmf. Therefore, a small flux is created in the neutral zone. As the coil side undergoing commutation ‘sweeps through this flax, a voltage is induced in the coil which opposes the voltage due fo the self- inductance of the col Inaddition to these measures, the composition of the brush is carefully chosen. It affects the brush voltage drop, which can vary from 0.2 V to as much as 1.5 V. This drop occurs between the surface of the brush and the commutator surface. Alarge brush drop hielps commutation, but uafortunately it in- creases the losses. As a result, the commutator and brushes become hotter and the efficiency of the ‘generator is slightly reduced,94 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS Questions and Problems Practical level 4-1 Sketch the main components of a de gener ator. 4-2 Why are the brushes of a de machine al- ways placed at the neutral points? 43. Describe the construction of a commutator. 4:4 How is the induced voltage of a separately exited de generator affected if a. the spood increases? 1. the exciting current is reduced? 4-5. How do we adjust the voltage of a shunt generator? 46 The terminal voltage of a shunt generator decreases with increasing Toad. Explain. 4-7 Explain why the outpot voltage of an over- ‘compound generator increases as the load, increases, 48° Explain the difference etween shunt. compound, ‘and liffererial compound generators ‘a. aso construction i, aso electrical properties Intermediate level 4-9 Aseparate excited de generator turing at 1400 :/min produces an induced voltage of 127 V. The armature resistance is 2 0 and the machine defivers a current of 12 A. Caleutare 4. The terminal voltage {V) 'b, The heat Gssipated in the armacore (W] ce The braking torgue exerted by the armature [Nm 4-10 Aseparately excited de generator pro- aces ¢ no-load voltage of 115 V. What happens if ‘a The speed is increased by 20 percent? 1D. The ditection of rotation is reversed? The exciting curen is increase by 10 percent? 4, The polarity ofthe Meld is reversed? 411 Bach pole of a 100 kW, 250 V flat-compound generator has a shunt Feld of 2000 turns and series field of 7 rns. Ifthe total sbunt-field resistance s 100 9, calculate the munf wher the machine operates at ated voltage a. Atno-load b. Atfuload 4:12 Fig. 4.18b shows the no-load saturation curve of a separately excited de generator ‘when it revolves at 1500 r/min. Calculate the exciting current needed to generate 120 V at 1330 r/min, 4-13. Referring to Fig. 4.10, the induced voltage in coil D is momentarily 18 V. inthe posi- sion shown, Calculate the voltages induced incoils A, B, and C atthe same instant. 4-14 Referring to Fig. 4.116, caleutate the volt- ‘age induced in coil A when the armature has rotated by 90°; by 120° 4:15 Brush x is positive with respect fo brush y in Fig. 4.11. Show the polarity of each of the 12 coils. Does the polarity reverse when coil tums through 180°? 4.16 The generator of Fig, 4.38 revolves at 960 rimin and the flux per pole is 20 mW, Calculate the no-load armature voltage if leach armature coil bas 6 turns. 4-17 a, How many bruch sets are neded for the gen- ceratorin Fig. 4387 , Ifthe machine delivers a total load current of 1800 A, calealate the eurent owing in cach smatute col. Advanced level 4-18 The voltage between brushes x and y is 240 V in the generator shown in Fig. 4.38, Why can we say that the voltage between segments 3 and 4 must be greater than 40V? 4-19 Referring to Fig. 4.10, determine the polar ity of Ey, when the armature twens counter- clockwise. 4-20 a, In Fig. 438 determine the potarity of Fa be tween conimutator segments 3 and 4, know= ‘ng that the armature is turing clockwise A the same instant, whats the polarity of segment 35 with respect to segment 347421 a2 423 ‘The armature shown in Fig. 5.4 (Chapter 5) hhas 8I slots, and the commutator has 243 segments. I will be wound to give a 6-pole lap winding having 1 turn per coil. I'the flux per field pole is 30 mWb, calculate the following: a, The induced voltage at speed of 1200 in b, The average lax density per pole «. The time needed to reverse the current in cach armature col, owing thatthe brushes are 15 mm wide and that the diameter ofthe commutator is 450 mm, A200 W, 120-V, 1800 rmin de generator hhas 75 commutator bars, The brush width is such as to cover 3 commutator segments, Show that the duration of the commutation process is equal to 1.33 ms. A 4-pole 250 kW, 750V de generator has a Jap winding on the armature. Cateutare a The full-load current ofthe generator Di. The current cated by he armature coils DIRECT. CURRENT GENERATORS 95 Industrial Application 424 A240 KW, 500 V 1750 e/min separately excited de generator has an averall effi- ciency of 949, The shunt field resistance is 60 ohms and the rated current is 5 A. ‘The FR loss in the armature is 0.023 pu. Cateulare 425 426 4a a The rated armature current 1 The total losses in the machine &. The FR losses in the armature ‘The generator in Problem 4-24 weighs 2600 Ib. Calculate the output in watts per logram. In Problem 4-24 caleulate the torque re- quired to drive the generator at 1750 r/min, (The shunt field is powered by a separate soutee,) A d-pole de generator delivers a current of 218A. The average brush voltage drop on each of the four brush sets is found to be (046 V. Calculate the total brush loss in the ‘machine, neglecting frietion loss.