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Turbulence Modeling
Turbulence Modeling
Modeling Turbulence
10-1
Modeling Turbulence
10.1
Introduction
10-2
10.2
A complete time-dependent solution of the exact Navier-Stokes equations for high-Reynolds-number turbulent flows in complex geometries
is unlikely to be attainable for some time to come. Two alternative
methods can be employed to transform the Navier-Stokes equations in
such a way that the small-scale turbulent fluctuations do not have to
be directly simulated: Reynolds averaging and filtering. Both methods
introduce additional terms in the governing equations that need to be
modeled in order to achieve closure. (Closure implies that there are a
sufficient number of equations for all the unknowns.)
The Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) equations represent transport equations for the mean flow quantities only, with all the scales of
the turbulence being modeled. The approach of permitting a solution
for the mean flow variables greatly reduces the computational effort. If
the mean flow is steady, the governing equations will not contain time
derivatives and a steady-state solution can be obtained economically. A
computational advantage is seen even in transient situations, since the
time step will be determined by the global unsteadiness in the mean
10-3
Modeling Turbulence
10-4
10.2.2
In Reynolds averaging, the solution variables in the instantaneous (exact) Navier-Stokes equations are decomposed into the mean (ensembleaveraged or time-averaged) and fluctuating components. For the velocity
components:
ui = u
i + u0i
(10.2-1)
where u
i and u0i are the mean and fluctuating velocity components (i =
1, 2, 3).
Likewise, for pressure and other scalar quantities:
= + 0
(10.2-2)
(ui ) = 0
+
t
xi
"
xi xj
(10.2-3)
(ui uj ) =
(ui ) +
t
xj
ui
uj
2 ul
+
ij
xj
xi
3 xl
!#
10-5
Modeling Turbulence
= t
ui
uj
+
xj
xi
ui
2
k + t
3
xi
ij
(10.2-5)
10-6
10-7
Modeling Turbulence
The RNG k- model was derived using a rigorous statistical technique
(called renormalization group theory). It is similar in form to the standard k- model, but includes the following refinements:
The RNG model has an additional term in its equation that
significantly improves the accuracy for rapidly strained flows.
The effect of swirl on turbulence is included in the RNG model,
enhancing accuracy for swirling flows.
The RNG theory provides an analytical formula for turbulent
Prandtl numbers, while the standard k- model uses user-specified,
constant values.
While the standard k- model is a high-Reynolds-number model,
the RNG theory provides an analytically-derived differential formula for effective viscosity that accounts for low-Reynolds-number
10-8
10-9
Modeling Turbulence
10-10
10-11
Modeling Turbulence
10.2.11
In terms of computation, the Spalart-Allmaras model is the least expensive turbulence model of the options provided in FLUENT, since only one
turbulence transport equation is solved.
The standard k- model clearly requires more computational effort than
the Spalart-Allmaras model since an additional transport equation is
solved. The realizable k- model requires only slightly more computational effort than the standard k- model. However, due to the extra
terms and functions in the governing equations and a greater degree of
non-linearity, computations with the RNG k- model tend to take 10
15% more CPU time than with the standard k- model. Like the k-
models, the k- models are also two-equation models, and thus require
about the same computational effort.
Compared with the k- and k- models, the RSM requires additional
memory and CPU time due to the increased number of the transport
equations for Reynolds stresses. However, efficient programming in FLUENT has reduced the CPU time per iteration significantly. On average,
the RSM in FLUENT requires 5060% more CPU time per iteration compared to the k- and k- models. Furthermore, 1520% more memory is
needed.
Aside from the time per iteration, the choice of turbulence model can
affect the ability of FLUENT to obtain a converged solution. For example,
the standard k- model is known to be slightly over-diffusive in certain
situations, while the RNG k- model is designed such that the turbulent
viscosity is reduced in response to high rates of strain. Since diffusion
has a stabilizing effect on the numerics, the RNG model is more likely
to be susceptible to instability in steady-state solutions. However, this
should not necessarily be seen as a disadvantage of the RNG model,
since these characteristics make it more responsive to important physical
instabilities such as time-dependent turbulent vortex shedding.
Similarly, the RSM may take more iterations to converge than the k-
and k- models due to the strong coupling between the Reynolds stresses
and the mean flow.
10-12
10.3
1
G +
xj
(
ui ) =
(
) +
t
xi
( +
)
xj
+ Cb2
xj
!2
Y + S
(10.3-1)
where G is the production of turbulent viscosity and Y is the destruction of turbulent viscosity that occurs in the near-wall region due to
wall blocking and viscous damping. and Cb2 are constants and
is the molecular kinematic viscosity. S is a user-defined source term.
Note that since the turbulence kinetic energy k is not calculated in the
Spalart-Allmaras model, it is not taken into account when estimating
the Reynolds stresses in Equation 10.2-5.
10.3.2
(10.3-2)
3
3
3 + Cv1
(10.3-3)
and
10-13
Modeling Turbulence
10.3.3
(10.3-4)
(10.3-5)
where
S S +
fv2
2 d2
(10.3-6)
fv2 = 1
1 + fv1
(10.3-7)
and
Cb1 and are constants, d is the distance from the wall, and S is a
scalar measure of the deformation tensor. By default in FLUENT, as in
the original model proposed by Spalart and Allmaras, S is based on the
magnitude of the vorticity:
S
2ij ij
(10.3-8)
ui
uj
xj
xi
(10.3-9)
The justification for the default expression for S is that, for the wallbounded flows that were of most interest when the model was formulated, turbulence is found only where vorticity is generated near walls.
However, it has since been acknowledged that one should also take into
account the effect of mean strain on the turbulence production, and a
10-14
modification to the model has been proposed [46] and incorporated into
FLUENT.
This modification combines measures of both rotation and strain tensors
in the definition of S:
S |ij | + Cprod min (0, |Sij | |ij |)
(10.3-10)
where
Cprod = 2.0, |ij |
2ij ij , |Sij |
2Sij Sij
uj
ui
+
xi
xj
(10.3-11)
Including both the rotation and strain tensors reduces the production
of eddy viscosity and consequently reduces the eddy viscosity itself in
regions where the measure of vorticity exceeds that of strain rate. One
such example can be found in vortical flows, i.e., flow near the core of a
vortex subjected to a pure rotation where turbulence is known to be suppressed. Including both the rotation and strain tensors more correctly
accounts for the effects of rotation on turbulence. The default option (including the rotation tensor only) tends to overpredict the production of
eddy viscosity and hence overpredicts the eddy viscosity itself in certain
circumstances.
You can select the modified form for calculating production in the Viscous
Model panel.
10.3.4
Y = Cw1 fw
(10.3-12)
10-15
Modeling Turbulence
where
"
6
1 + Cw3
fw = g 6
6
g + Cw3
#1/6
g = r + Cw2 r 6 r
(10.3-13)
(10.3-14)
S2 d2
(10.3-15)
Cw1 , Cw2 , and Cw3 are constants, and S is given by Equation 10.3-6.
Note that the modification described above to include the effects of mean
strain on S will also affect the value of S used to compute r.
10.3.5
Model Constants
The model constants Cb1 , Cb2 , , Cv1 , Cw1 , Cw2 , Cw3 , and have the following default values [226]:
Cb1 = 0.1335, Cb2 = 0.622, =
Cw1 =
10.3.6
2
, Cv1 = 7.1
3
Cb1 (1 + Cb2 )
+
, Cw2 = 0.3, Cw3 = 2.0, = 0.4187
2
10-16
(10.3-16)
u
1
= ln E
u
u y
(10.3-17)
[ui (E + p)] =
(E) +
t
xi
xj
"
cp t
k+
Prt
T
+ ui (ij )eff + Sh
xj
(10.3-18)
uj
ui
+
xi
xj
ui
2
eff
ij
3
xi
The term involving (ij )eff represents the viscous heating, and is always
computed in the coupled solvers. It is not computed by default in the
segregated solver, but it can be enabled in the Viscous Model panel. The
default value of the turbulent Prandtl number is 0.85. You can change
the value of Prt in the Viscous Model panel.
Turbulent mass transfer is treated similarly, with a default turbulent
Schmidt number of 0.7. This default value can be changed in the Viscous
Model panel.
10-17
Modeling Turbulence
10.4
This section presents the standard, RNG, and realizable k- models. All
three models have similar forms, with transport equations for k and .
The major differences in the models are as follows:
the method of calculating turbulent viscosity
the turbulent Prandtl numbers governing the turbulent diffusion
of k and
the generation and destruction terms in the equation
The transport equations, methods of calculating turbulent viscosity, and
model constants are presented separately for each model. The features
that are essentially common to all models follow, including turbulent
production, generation due to buoyancy, accounting for the effects of
compressibility, and modeling heat and mass transfer.
10.4.1
(kui ) =
(k) +
t
xi
xj
"
t
+
k
k
+ Gk + Gb YM + Sk
xj
(10.4-1)
and
(ui ) =
() +
t
xi
xj
"
t
+
+ C1 (Gk + C3 Gb )
xj
k
C2
2
+ S (10.4-2)
k
10-19
Modeling Turbulence
These default values have been determined from experiments with air
and water for fundamental turbulent shear flows including homogeneous
shear flows and decaying isotropic grid turbulence. They have been found
to work fairly well for a wide range of wall-bounded and free shear flows.
Although the default values of the model constants are the standard ones
most widely accepted, you can change them (if needed) in the Viscous
Model panel.
10.4.2
(kui ) =
(k) +
t
xi
xj
k
k eff
xj
+ Gk + Gb YM + Sk
(10.4-4)
and
(ui ) =
() +
t
xi
xj
eff
xj
2
C1 (Gk + C3 Gb ) C2 R + S
k
k
(10.4-5)
10-20
= 1.72
1 + C
(10.4-6)
where
= eff /
C
100
k2
(10.4-7)
10-21
Modeling Turbulence
t = t0 f s , ,
k
(10.4-8)
(10.4-9)
R =
10-22
C 3 (1 /0 ) 2
1 + 3
k
(10.4-10)
(ui ) =
() +
t
xi
xj
eff
xj
2
+ C1 (Gk + C3 Gb ) C2
k
k
(10.4-11)
is given by
where C2
C2
C2 +
C 3 (1 /0 )
1 + 3
(10.4-12)
10-23
Modeling Turbulence
U
2
k 2 t
3
x
(10.4-13)
Using Equation 10.4-3 for t t /, one obtains the result that the
normal stress, u2 , which by definition is a positive quantity, becomes
negative, i.e., non-realizable, when the strain is large enough to satisfy
k U
1
3.7
>
x
3C
(10.4-14)
Similarly, it can also be shown that the Schwarz inequality for shear
stresses (u u 2 u2 u2 ; no summation over and ) can be violated
when the mean strain rate is large. The most straightforward way to
ensure the realizability (positivity of normal stresses and Schwarz inequality for shear stresses) is to make C variable by sensitizing it to the
mean flow (mean deformation) and the turbulence (k, ). The notion
of variable C is suggested by many modelers including Reynolds [191],
and is well substantiated by experimental evidence. For example, C is
found to be around 0.09 in the inertial sublayer of equilibrium boundary
layers, and 0.05 in a strong homogeneous shear flow.
Another weakness of the standard k- model or other traditional k-
models lies with the modeled equation for the dissipation rate (). The
well-known round-jet anomaly (named based on the finding that the
10-24
spreading rate in planar jets is predicted reasonably well, but prediction of the spreading rate for axisymmetric jets is unexpectedly poor) is
considered to be mainly due to the modeled dissipation equation.
The realizable k- model proposed by Shih et al. [209] was intended
to address these deficiencies of traditional k- models by adopting the
following:
a new eddy-viscosity formula involving a variable C originally
proposed by Reynolds [191]
a new model equation for dissipation () based on the dynamic
equation of the mean-square vorticity fluctuation
Transport Equations for the Realizable k- Model
The modeled transport equations for k and in the realizable k- model
are
(kuj ) =
(k) +
t
xi
xi
"
t
+
k
k
+ Gk + Gb YM + Sk
xj
(10.4-15)
and
(uj ) =
() +
t
xj
xj
"
C2
t
+
+ C1 S
xj
2
+ C1 C3 Gb + S (10.4-16)
k +
k
where
C1 = max 0.43,
+5
and
10-25
Modeling Turbulence
=S
k
10-26
t = C
k2
(10.4-17)
The difference between the realizable k- model and the standard and
RNG k- models is that C is no longer constant. It is computed from
1
A0 + As kU
(10.4-18)
ij
ij
Sij Sij +
(10.4-19)
C =
where
U
and
ij = ij 2ijk k
ij = ij ijk k
where ij is the mean rate-of-rotation tensor viewed in a rotating reference frame with the angular velocity k . The model constants A0 and
As are given by
A0 = 4.04, As =
6 cos
where
=
uj
ui
+
xi
xj
It can be seen that C is a function of the mean strain and rotation rates,
the angular velocity of the system rotation, and the turbulence fields (k
10-27
Modeling Turbulence
uj
xi
(10.4-20)
(10.4-21)
2Sij Sij
(10.4-22)
When a non-zero gravity field and temperature gradient are present simultaneously, the k- models in FLUENT account for the generation of k
due to buoyancy (Gb in Equations 10.4-1, 10.4-4, and 10.4-15), and the
corresponding contribution to the production of in Equations 10.4-2,
10.4-5, and 10.4-16.
10-28
t T
Prt xi
(10.4-23)
where Prt is the turbulent Prandtl number for energy and gi is the component of the gravitational vector in the ith direction. For the standard
and realizable k- models, the default value of Prt is 0.85. In the case
of the RNG k- model, Prt = 1/, where is given by Equation 10.4-9,
but with 0 = 1/Pr = k/cp . The coefficient of thermal expansion, , is
defined as
1
=
(10.4-24)
p
t
Prt xi
(10.4-25)
10-29
Modeling Turbulence
v
C3 = tanh
u
(10.4-26)
where v is the component of the flow velocity parallel to the gravitational vector and u is the component of the flow velocity perpendicular
to the gravitational vector. In this way, C3 will become 1 for buoyant
shear layers for which the main flow direction is aligned with the direction of gravity. For buoyant shear layers that are perpendicular to the
gravitational vector, C3 will become zero.
10.4.6
(10.4-27)
Mt =
where a (
k
a2
(10.4-28)
This compressibility modification always takes effect when the compressible form of the ideal gas law is used.
10-30
10.4.7
[ui (E + p)] =
(E) +
t
xi
xj
T
keff
+ ui (ij )eff
xj
+ Sh (10.4-29)
uj
ui
+
xi
xj
ui
2
eff
ij
3
xi
The term involving (ij )eff represents the viscous heating, and is always
computed in the coupled solvers. It is not computed by default in the
segregated solver, but it can be enabled in the Viscous Model panel.
Additional terms may appear in the energy equation, depending on the
physical models you are using. See Section 11.2.1 for more details.
For the standard and realizable k- models, the effective thermal conductivity is given by
keff = k +
cp t
Prt
10-31
Modeling Turbulence
10-32
10.5
This section presents the standard and shear-stress transport (SST) k models. Both models have similar forms, with transport equations
for k and . The major ways in which the SST model differs from the
standard model are as follows:
gradual change from the standard k- model in the inner region of
the boundary layer to a high-Reynolds-number version of the k-
model in the outer part of the boundary layer
modified turbulent viscosity formulation to account for the transport effects of the principal turbulent shear stress
The transport equations, methods of calculating turbulent viscosity, and
methods of calculating model constants and other terms are presented
separately for each model.
10.5.1
(kui ) =
(k) +
t
xi
xj
k
k
xj
+ Gk Yk + Sk
(10.5-1)
and
10-33
Modeling Turbulence
(ui ) =
() +
t
xi
xj
xj
+ G Y + S
(10.5-2)
k = +
(10.5-3)
(10.5-4)
where k and are the turbulent Prandtl numbers for k and , respectively. The turbulent viscosity, t , is computed by combining k and
as follows:
t =
(10.5-5)
Low-Reynolds-Number Correction
The coefficient damps the turbulent viscosity causing a low-Reynoldsnumber correction. It is given by
=
0 + Ret /Rk
1 + Ret /Rk
(10.5-6)
where
Ret =
10-34
(10.5-7)
Rk = 6
i
0 =
3
i = 0.072
(10.5-8)
(10.5-9)
(10.5-10)
uj
xi
(10.5-11)
(10.5-12)
G = Gk
k
(10.5-13)
0 + Ret /R
1 + Ret /R
(10.5-14)
10-35
Modeling Turbulence
where R = 2.95. and Ret are given by Equations 10.5-6 and 10.5-7,
respectively.
Note that, in the high-Reynolds-number form of the k- model, =
= 1.
Modeling the Turbulence Dissipation
Dissipation of k
The dissipation of k is given by
Yk = f k
(10.5-15)
where
f =
1+6802k
1+4002k
where
k
k 0
(10.5-16)
k > 0
1 k
3 xj xj
(10.5-17)
and
= i [1 + F (Mt )]
i =
)4
4/15 + (Ret /R
1 + (Ret /R )4
= 1.5
(10.5-18)
(10.5-19)
(10.5-20)
R = 8
(10.5-21)
(10.5-22)
= 0.09
10-36
Y = f 2
(10.5-23)
where
1 + 70
1 + 80
ij jk Ski
=
)3
(
f =
1
2
ij =
ui
uj
xj
xi
(10.5-24)
(10.5-25)
!
(10.5-26)
= i 1
i
F (Mt )
i
(10.5-27)
F (Mt ) =
0
Mt Mt0
M2t M2t0 Mt > Mt0
(10.5-28)
where
2k
a2
= 0.25
M2t
Mt0
a =
RT
(10.5-29)
(10.5-30)
(10.5-31)
.
Note that, in the high-Reynolds-number form of the k- model, i =
10-37
Modeling Turbulence
Model Constants
1
= 0.09, i = 0.072, R = 8
,
9
Rk = 6, R = 2.95, = 1.5, Mt0 = 0.25, k = 2.0, = 2.0
= 1, = 0.52, 0 =
w =
(u )2 +
(10.5-32)
where
+
w
=
6
(y + )2
2
50
ks+ < 25
ks+
ks
100
ks+
ks+
(10.5-33)
(10.5-34)
25
where
ks u
= max 1.0,
(10.5-35)
(10.5-36)
(10.5-37)
Note that in the case of a wall cell being placed in the buffer region,
FLUENT will blend + between the logarithmic and laminar sublayer
values.
10.5.2
In addition to the standard k- model described in Section 10.5.1, FLUENT also provides a variation called the shear-stress transport (SST)
k- model, so named because the definition of the turbulent viscosity
is modified to account for the transport of the principal turbulent shear
stress. It is this feature that gives the SST k- model an advantage in
terms of performance over both the standard k- model and the standard
k- model. Other modifications include the addition of a cross-diffusion
term in the equation and a blending function to ensure that the model
equations behave appropriately in both the near-wall and far-field zones.
Transport Equations for the SST k- Model
The SST k- model has a similar form to the standard k- model:
(kui ) =
(k) +
t
xi
xj
k
k
xj
+ Gk Yk + Sk
(10.5-38)
and
(ui ) =
() +
t
xi
xj
xj
+ G Y + D + S (10.5-39)
10-39
Modeling Turbulence
t
k
t
= +
k = +
(10.5-40)
(10.5-41)
where k and are the turbulent Prandtl numbers for k and , respectively. The turbulent viscosity, t , is computed as follows:
t =
k
1
h
i
max 1 , F2
a1
(10.5-42)
where
k =
=
2ij ij
(10.5-43)
1
F1 /k,1 + (1 F1 )/k,2
1
F1 /,1 + (1 F1 )/,2
(10.5-44)
(10.5-45)
F1 = tanh 41
10-40
(10.5-46)
1 = min max
"
D+
!
#
k
4k
500
,
,
0.09y y 2
,2 D+ y 2
1 1 k
= max 2
, 1020
,2 xj xj
"
F2 = tanh 22
2 = max 2
k 500
,
0.09y y 2
(10.5-47)
(10.5-48)
(10.5-49)
(10.5-50)
where y is the distance to the next surface and D+ is the positive portion
of the cross-diffusion term (see Equation 10.5-60).
Modeling the Turbulence Production
Production of k
The term Gk represents the production of turbulence kinetic energy,
and is defined in the same manner as in the standard k- model. See
Section 10.5.1 for details.
Production of
The term G represents the production of and is given by
G =
Gk
t
(10.5-51)
Note that this formulation differs from the standard k- model. The
difference between the two models also exists in the way the term
is evaluated. In the standard k- model, is defined as a constant
(0.52). For the SST k- model, is given by
= F1 ,1 + (1 F1 ),2
(10.5-52)
where
10-41
Modeling Turbulence
,1 =
,2 =
i,1
2
p
w,1
2
i,2
w,2
(10.5-53)
(10.5-54)
where is 0.41. i,1 and i,2 are given by Equations 10.5-58 and 10.5-59,
respectively.
Modeling the Turbulence Dissipation
Dissipation of k
The term Yk represents the dissipation of turbulence kinetic energy, and
is defined in a similar manner as in the standard k- model (see Section 10.5.1). The difference is in the way the term f is evaluated. In
the standard k- model, f is defined as a piecewise function. For the
SST k- model, f is a constant equal to 1. Thus,
Yk = k
(10.5-55)
Dissipation of
The term Y represents the dissipation of , and is defined in a similar
manner as in the standard k- model (see Section 10.5.1). The difference is in the way the terms i and f are evaluated. In the standard
k- model, i is defined as a constant (0.072) and f is defined in Equation 10.5-24. For the SST k- model, f is a constant equal to 1. Thus,
Yk = 2
(10.5-56)
(10.5-57)
where
10-42
i,1 = 0.075
(10.5-58)
i,2 = 0.0828
(10.5-59)
1 k
xj xj
(10.5-60)
For details about the various k- models, see Section 10.4.
Model Constants
k,1 = 1.176, ,1 = 2.0, k,2 = 1.0, ,2 = 1.168
k
Mt0 ) have the same values as for the standard k- model (see Section 10.5.1).
10.6
The Reynolds stress model [75, 125, 126] involves calculation of the individual Reynolds stresses, u0i u0j , using differential transport equations.
The individual Reynolds stresses are then used to obtain closure of the
Reynolds-averaged momentum equation (Equation 10.2-4).
10-43
Modeling Turbulence
The exact form of the Reynolds stress transport equations may be derived by taking moments of the exact momentum equation. This is
a process wherein the exact momentum equations are multiplied by a
fluctuating property, the product then being Reynolds-averaged. Unfortunately, several of the terms in the exact equation are unknown and
modeling assumptions are required in order to close the equations.
In this section, the Reynolds stress transport equations are presented
together with the modeling assumptions required to attain closure.
10.6.1
The exact transport equations for the transport of the Reynolds stresses,
u0i u0j , may be written as follows:
u0i u0k
uj
ui
+ u0j u0k
xk
xk
u0j
u0i
+
xj
xi
{z
{z
{z
2
|
ij Pressure Strain
{z
(u0 u0 )
xk
xk i j
{z
u0i u0j
xk xk
{z
ij Dissipation
}
Suser
| {z }
10-44
Of the various terms in these exact equations, Cij , DL,ij , Pij , and Fij
do not require any modeling. However, DT,ij , Gij , ij , and ij need to
be modeled to close the equations. The following sections describe the
modeling assumptions required to close the equation set.
10.6.2
DT,ij
= Cs
xk
x`
(10.6-2)
DT,ij
=
xk
t u0i u0j
k xk
(10.6-3)
(10.6-4)
10-45
Modeling Turbulence
where ij,1 is the slow pressure-strain term, also known as the return-toisotropy term, ij,2 is called the rapid pressure-strain term, and ij,w is
the wall-reflection term.
The slow pressure-strain term, ij,1 , is modeled as
ij,1 C1
0 0
2
u u ij k
k i j 3
(10.6-5)
with C1 = 1.8.
The rapid pressure-strain term, ij,2 , is modeled as
ij,2 C2
2
(Pij + Fij + Gij Cij ) ij (P + G C)
3
(10.6-6)
where C2 = 0.60, Pij , Fij , Gij , and Cij are defined as in Equation 10.6-1,
P = 12 Pkk , G = 12 Gkk , and C = 12 Ckk .
The wall-reflection term, ij,w , is responsible for the redistribution of
normal stresses near the wall. It tends to damp the normal stress perpendicular to the wall, while enhancing the stresses parallel to the wall.
This term is modeled as
ij,w
k3/2
3
3
where C10 = 0.5, C20 = 0.3, nk is the xk component of the unit normal to
3/4
the wall, d is the normal distance to the wall, and C` = C /, where
C = 0.09 and is the von Karm
an constant (= 0.4187).
ij,w is included by default in the Reynolds stress model.
10-46
C2 = 0.75 A
2
C10 = C1 + 1.67
3
"
C20
= max
2
3 C2
C2
1
6
io
(10.6-8)
(10.6-9)
(10.6-10)
,0
(10.6-11)
with the turbulent Reynolds number defined as Ret = (k2 /). The
parameter A and tensor invariants, A2 and A3 , are defined as
9
A 1 (A2 A3 )
8
A2 aik aki
(10.6-12)
(10.6-13)
(10.6-14)
(10.6-15)
The modifications detailed above are employed only when the enhanced
wall treatment is selected in the Viscous Model panel.
10-47
Modeling Turbulence
ij = (C1 +
C1 P ) bij
+ C2 bik bkj
1
bmn bmn ij
3
q
2
+C4 k bik Sjk + bjk Sik bmn Smn ij
3
+C5 k (bik jk + bjk ik ) (10.6-16)
where bij is the Reynolds-stress anisotropy tensor defined as
u0i u0j + 23 kij
bij =
2k
(10.6-17)
uj
ui
+
xi
xj
(10.6-18)
10-48
ui
uj
xj
xi
(10.6-19)
T
T
gi
+ gj
xj
xi
(10.6-20)
where Prt is the turbulent Prandtl number for energy, with a default
value of 0.85.
Using the definition of the coefficient of thermal expansion, , given by
Equation 10.4-24, the following expression is obtained for Gij for ideal
gases:
t
Gij =
Prt
10.6.5
gi
+ gj
xj
xi
(10.6-21)
1 0 0
uu
2 i i
(10.6-22)
10-49
Modeling Turbulence
t k
(kui ) =
+
+
(k) +
t
xi
xj
k xj
1
(Pii + Gii ) (1 + 2M2t ) + Sk
2
(10.6-23)
(10.6-24)
where YM = 2M2t is an additional dilatation dissipation term according to the model by Sarkar [197]. The turbulent Mach number in
this term is defined as
s
Mt =
10-50
k
a2
(10.6-25)
where a ( RT ) is the speed of sound. This compressibility modification always takes effect when the compressible form of the ideal gas
law is used.
The scalar dissipation rate, , is computed with a model transport equation similar to that used in the standard k- model:
(ui ) =
() +
t
xi
xj
"
t
+
+
xj
1
2
C1 [Pii + C3 Gii ] C2 + S
2
k
k
(10.6-26)
k2
(10.6-27)
where C = 0.09.
10.6.8
Whenever flow enters the domain, FLUENT requires values for individual
Reynolds stresses, u0i u0j , and for the turbulence dissipation rate, . These
quantities can be input directly or derived from the turbulence intensity
and characteristic length, as described in Section 10.10.2.
At walls, FLUENT computes the near-wall values of the Reynolds stresses
and from wall functions (see Section 10.8.2). FLUENT applies explicit
wall boundary conditions for the Reynolds stresses by using the log-law
and the assumption of equilibrium, disregarding convection and diffusion
in the transport equations for the stresses (Equation 10.6-1). Using
a local coordinate system, where is the tangential coordinate, is
10-51
Modeling Turbulence
0
u02
u0 u0
u2
u0 2
= 1.098,
= 0.247,
= 0.655,
= 0.255
k
k
k
k
(10.6-28)
= 1.0
u2
u2
u2
u2
(10.6-29)
[ui (E + p)] =
(E) +
t
xi
xj
10-52
"
cp t
k+
Prt
T
+ ui (ij )eff + Sh
xj
(10.6-30)
where E is the total energy and (ij )eff is the deviatoric stress tensor,
defined as
uj
ui
+
xi
xj
ui
2
eff
ij
3
xi
The term involving (ij )eff represents the viscous heating, and is always
computed in the coupled solvers. It is not computed by default in the
segregated solver, but it can be enabled in the Viscous Model panel. The
default value of the turbulent Prandtl number is 0.85. You can change
the value of Prt in the Viscous Model panel.
Turbulent mass transfer is treated similarly, with a default turbulent
Schmidt number of 0.7. This default value can be changed in the Viscous
Model panel.
10.7
10-53
Modeling Turbulence
As explained in Section 10.2.1, the conventional approach to flow simulations employs the solution of the Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes
(RANS) equations. In the RANS approach, all the turbulent motions
are modeled, resulting in a significant savings in computational effort.
Conceptually, large eddy simulation (LES) is situated somewhere between DNS and the RANS approach. Basically large eddies are resolved
directly in LES, while small eddies are modeled. The rationale behind
LES can be summarized as follows:
Momentum, mass, energy, and other passive scalars are transported mostly by large eddies.
Large eddies are more problem-dependent. They are dictated by
the geometries and boundary conditions of the flow involved.
Small eddies are less dependent on the geometry, tend to be more
isotropic, and are consequently more universal.
The chance of finding a universal model is much higher when only
small eddies are modeled.
Solving only for the large eddies and modeling the smaller scales results
in mesh resolution requirements that are much less restrictive than with
DNS. Typically, mesh sizes can be at least one order of magnitude smaller
than with DNS. Furthermore, the time step sizes will be proportional to
the eddy-turnover time, which is much less restrictive than with DNS.
In practical terms, however, extremely fine meshes are still required. It
is only due to the explosive increases in computer hardware performance
coupled with the availability of parallel processing that LES can even be
considered as a possibility for engineering calculations.
The following sections give details of the governing equations for LES,
present the two options for modeling the subgrid-scale stresses (necessary
to achieve closure of the governing equations), and discuss the relevant
boundary conditions.
10-54
10.7.1
The governing equations employed for LES are obtained by filtering the
time-dependent Navier-Stokes equations in either Fourier (wave-number)
space or configuration (physical) space. The filtering process effectively
filters out the eddies whose scales are smaller than the filter width or grid
spacing used in the computations. The resulting equations thus govern
the dynamics of large eddies.
A filtered variable (denoted by an overbar) is defined by
Z
(x) =
(10.7-1)
where D is the fluid domain, and G is the filter function that determines
the scale of the resolved eddies.
In FLUENT, the finite-volume discretization itself implicitly provides the
filtering operation:
(x) =
1
V
Z
V
(x0 ) dx0 , x0 V
(10.7-2)
G(x, x )
1/V, x0 V
0,
x0 otherwise
(10.7-3)
(ui ) = 0
+
t
xi
(10.7-4)
10-55
Modeling Turbulence
and
(ui uj ) =
(ui ) +
t
xj
xj
ui
xj
p
ij
xi
xj
(10.7-5)
(10.7-6)
The similarity between the filtered equations, 10.7-4 through 10.7-6, and
the incompressible form of the RANS equations, Equations 10.2-3 and
10.2-4, is obvious. The major difference is that the dependent variables
are now filtered quantities rather than mean quantities, and the expressions for the turbulent stresses differ.
10.7.2
Subgrid-Scale Models
The subgrid-scale stresses resulting from the filtering operation are unknown, and require modeling. The majority of subgrid-scale models in
use today are eddy viscosity models of the following form:
1
ij kk ij = 2t S ij
3
(10.7-7)
where t is the subgrid-scale turbulent viscosity, and S ij is the rate-ofstrain tensor for the resolved scale defined by
S ij
ui
uj
+
xj
xi
(10.7-8)
10-56
Smagorinsky-Lilly Model
The most basic of subgrid-scale models was proposed by Smagorinsky [214] and further developed by Lilly [139]. In the Smagorinsky-Lilly
model, the eddy viscosity is modeled by
t = L2s S
(10.7-9)
Ls = min d, Cs V 1/3
(10.7-10)
(10.7-11)
H(x) =
x, x > 0
0, x 0
(10.7-12)
where
10-57
Modeling Turbulence
x=
2s eff
C
3
(10.7-13)
and
q
s = (Crng V 1/3 )2 2S ij S ij
(10.7-14)
where V is the volume of the computational cell. The theory gives Crng =
0.157 and C = 100.
In highly turbulent regions of the flow (t ), eff s , and the
RNG-based subgrid-scale model reduces to the Smagorinsky-Lilly model
with a different model constant. In low-Reynolds-number regions of
the flow, the argument of the ramp function becomes negative and the
effective viscosity recovers molecular viscosity. This enables the RNGbased subgrid-scale eddy viscosity to model the low-Reynolds-number
effects encountered in transitional flows and near-wall regions.
10.7.3
(10.7-15)
10-58
(10.7-16)
u y
(10.7-17)
10.8
10.8.1
Turbulent flows are significantly affected by the presence of walls. Obviously, the mean velocity field is affected through the no-slip condition
that has to be satisfied at the wall. However, the turbulence is also
changed by the presence of the wall in non-trivial ways. Very close to
the wall, viscous damping reduces the tangential velocity fluctuations,
while kinematic blocking reduces the normal fluctuations. Toward the
outer part of the near-wall region, however, the turbulence is rapidly
augmented by the production of turbulence kinetic energy due to the
large gradients in mean velocity.
The near-wall modeling significantly impacts the fidelity of numerical solutions, inasmuch as walls are the main source of mean vorticity and turbulence. After all, it is in the near-wall region that the solution variables
have large gradients, and the momentum and other scalar transports occur most vigorously. Therefore, accurate representation of the flow in
the near-wall region determines successful predictions of wall-bounded
turbulent flows.
The k- models, the RSM, and the LES model are primarily valid for
turbulent core flows (i.e., the flow in the regions somewhat far from
walls). Consideration therefore needs to be given as to how to make
these models suitable for wall-bounded flows. The Spalart-Allmaras and
k- models were designed to be applied throughout the boundary layer,
provided that the near-wall mesh resolution is sufficient.
10-59
Modeling Turbulence
U/U
U/U = U y/
outer layer
viscous sublayer
buffer layer
or
blending
region
y+
5
60
y+
Upper limit
depends on
Reynolds no.
ln U y/
10-60
turbulent core
buffer &
sublayer
In most high-Reynolds-number flows, the wall function approach substantially saves computational resources, because the viscosity-affected
near-wall region, in which the solution variables change most rapidly,
does not need to be resolved. The wall function approach is popular because it is economical, robust, and reasonably accurate. It is a practical
option for the near-wall treatments for industrial flow simulations.
The wall function approach, however, is inadequate in situations where
the low-Reynolds-number effects are pervasive in the flow domain in
question, and the hypotheses underlying the wall functions cease to be
valid. Such situations require near-wall models that are valid in the
viscosity-affected region and accordingly integrable all the way to the
wall.
10-61
Modeling Turbulence
FLUENT provides both the wall function approach and the near-wall
modeling approach.
Near-Wall Treatments for the Spalart-Allmaras, k-, and LES
Models
See Sections 10.3.6, 10.5.1, and 10.7.3, respectively, for a description of
the near-wall treatments applied by the Spalart-Allmaras, k-, and LES
models.
10.8.2
Wall Functions
10-62
U =
1
ln(Ey )
(10.8-1)
where
U
1/4 1/2
UP C kP
w /
1/4 1/2
C kP yP
y
and
E
UP
kP
yP
=
=
=
=
=
=
(10.8-2)
(10.8-3)
The logarithmic law for mean velocity is known to be valid for y >
about 30 to 60. In FLUENT, the log-law is employed when y > 11.225.
When the mesh is such that y < 11.225 at the wall-adjacent cells, FLUENT applies the laminar stress-strain relationship that can be written
as
U = y
(10.8-4)
It should be noted that, in FLUENT, the laws-of-the-wall for mean velocity and temperature are based on the wall unit, y , rather than y +
( u y/). These quantities are approximately equal in equilibrium
turbulent boundary layers.
Energy
Reynolds analogy between momentum and energy transport gives a similar logarithmic law for mean temperature. As in the law-of-the-wall for
10-63
Modeling Turbulence
1/4 1/2
(Tw TP ) cp C kP
q
1/4 1/2
+ 1 Pr C kP U 2
Pr
y
2
q i P
h
Pr 1 ln(Ey ) + P +
t
1 C1/4 kP1/2
q
2
(y < yT )
(10.8-5)
(y
>
yT )
P = 9.24
10-64
3/4
1 + 0.28e0.007/t
(10.8-6)
and
kf
cp
q
TP
Tw
Pr
Prt
A
E
Uc
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
1
C kP
Pr
UP2
2
q
and
o
1 C kP n
Prt UP2 + (Pr Prt )Uc2
2
q
will be included in Equation 10.8-5 only for compressible flow calculations.
1/4 1/2
10-65
Modeling Turbulence
Species
When using wall functions for species transport, FLUENT assumes that
species transport behaves analogously to heat transfer. Similarly to
Equation 10.8-5, the law-of-the-wall for species can be expressed for constant property flow with no viscous dissipation as
1/4 1/2
(Yi,w Yi ) C kP
Ji,w
Sc yh
i
Sct 1 ln(Ey ) + Pc
(y < yc )
(y > yc )
(10.8-7)
where Yi is the local species mass fraction, Sc and Sct are molecular and
turbulent Schmidt numbers, and Ji,w is the diffusion flux of species i
at the wall. Note that Pc and yc are calculated in a similar way as P
and yT , with the difference being that the Prandtl numbers are always
replaced by the corresponding Schmidt numbers.
Turbulence
In the k- models and in the RSM (if the option to obtain wall boundary
conditions from the k equation is enabled), the k equation is solved in the
whole domain including the wall-adjacent cells. The boundary condition
for k imposed at the wall is
k
=0
n
(10.8-8)
10-66
Gk w
U
w
= w
1/4 1/2
y
C k yP
(10.8-9)
C kP
P =
yP
(10.8-10)
10-67
Modeling Turbulence
(10.8-11)
where
"
yv
y
= U 1 dp
ln
U
2 dx k
yv
y yv
y2
+ v
+
(10.8-12)
yv
(10.8-13)
1/4 1/2
C kP
where yv = 11.225.
The non-equilibrium wall function employs the two-layer concept in computing the budget of turbulence kinetic energy at the wall-adjacent cells,
which is needed to solve the k equation at the wall-neighboring cells. The
wall-neighboring cells are assumed to consist of a viscous sublayer and
a fully turbulent layer. The following profile assumptions for turbulence
quantities are made:
(
t =
10-68
y
0, y < yv
yv
k=
k ,
w , y > y v
P
2
kP , y < yv
=
y > yv
2k
y2 ,
k 3/2
C` y ,
y < yv
y > yv
(10.8-14)
3/4
Gk
=
yn
U
1
t
dy
yn 0
y
1
w2
yn
ln
1/4
1/2
yn C k
yv
P
(10.8-15)
and
=
1
yn
1
yn
yn
dy
0
"
1/2
2
yn
k
+ P ln
yv
C`
yv
#
kP
(10.8-16)
where yn is the height of the cell (yn = 2yP ). For cells with other shapes
(e.g., triangular and tetrahedral grids), the appropriate volume averages
are used.
In Equations 10.8-15 and 10.8-16, the turbulence kinetic energy budget
for the wall-neighboring cells is effectively sensitized to the proportions
of the viscous sublayer and the fully turbulent layer, which varies widely
from cell to cell in highly non-equilibrium flows. It effectively relaxes the
local equilibrium assumption (production = dissipation) that is adopted
by the standard wall function in computing the budget of the turbulence
kinetic energy at wall-neighboring cells. Thus, the non-equilibrium wall
functions, in effect, partly account for non-equilibrium effects neglected
in the standard wall function.
10-69
Modeling Turbulence
10-70
near-wall region. FLUENT provides the enhanced wall treatment for such
situations. This approach can be used with the three k- models and the
RSM.
10.8.3
Enhanced wall treatment is a near-wall modeling method that combines a two-layer model with enhanced wall functions. If the near-wall
mesh is fine enough to be able to resolve the laminar sublayer (typically
y + 1), then the enhanced wall treatment will be identical to the traditional two-layer zonal model (see below for details). However, the restriction that the near-wall mesh must be sufficiently fine everywhere might
impose too large a computational requirement. Ideally, then, one would
like to have a near-wall formulation that can be used with coarse meshes
(usually referred to as wall-function meshes) as well as fine meshes (lowReynolds-number meshes). In addition, excessive error should not be
incurred for intermediate meshes that are too fine for the near-wall cell
centroid to lie in the fully turbulent region, but also too coarse to properly resolve the sublayer.
To achieve the goal of having a near-wall modeling approach that will
possess the accuracy of the standard two-layer approach for fine near-wall
meshes and that, at the same time, will not significantly reduce accuracy
for wall-function meshes, FLUENT can combine the two-layer model with
enhanced wall functions, as described in the following sections.
Two-Layer Model for Enhanced Wall Treatment
In FLUENTs near-wall model, the viscosity-affected near-wall region is
completely resolved all the way to the viscous sublayer. The two-layer
approach is an integral part of the enhanced wall treatment and is used
to specify both and the turbulent viscosity in the near-wall cells. In
this approach, the whole domain is subdivided into a viscosity-affected
region and a fully-turbulent region. The demarcation of the two regions
is determined by a wall-distance-based, turbulent Reynolds number, Rey ,
defined as
10-71
Modeling Turbulence
y k
Rey
(10.8-17)
where y is the normal distance from the wall at the cell centers. In
FLUENT, y is interpreted as the distance to the nearest wall:
y min k~r ~rw k
(10.8-18)
~
rw w
where ~r is the position vector at the field point, and ~rw is the position
vector on the wall boundary. w is the union of all the wall boundaries
involved. This interpretation allows y to be uniquely defined in flow domains of complex shape involving multiple walls. Furthermore, y defined
in this way is independent of the mesh topology used, and is definable
even on unstructured meshes.
In the fully turbulent region (Rey > Rey ; Rey = 200), the k- models or
the RSM (described in Sections 10.4 and 10.6) are employed.
In the viscosity-affected near-wall region (Rey < Rey ), the one-equation
model of Wolfstein [269] is employed. In the one-equation model, the
momentum equations and the k equation are retained as described in
Sections 10.4 and 10.6. However, the turbulent viscosity, t , is computed
from
t,2layer = C ` k
(10.8-19)
` = yc` 1 eRey /A
(10.8-20)
10-72
t,enh = t + (1 )t,2layer
(10.8-21)
where t is the high-Reynolds-number definition as described in Section 10.4 or 10.6 for the k- models or the RSM. A blending function,
, is defined in such a way that it is equal to unity far from walls and
is zero very near to walls. The blending function chosen is
"
1
=
1 + tanh
2
Rey Rey
A
!#
(10.8-22)
The constant A determines the width of the blending function. By defining a width such that the value of will be within 1% of its far-field
value given a variation of Rey , the result is
A=
|Rey |
tanh(0.98)
(10.8-23)
=
k3/2
`
(10.8-24)
The length scales that appear in Equation 10.8-24 are again computed
from Chen and Patel [34]:
(10.8-25)
10-73
Modeling Turbulence
A = 2c`
(10.8-26)
u+ = e u+
lam + e uturb
(10.8-27)
a(y + )4
1 + by +
E
c = exp
1.0
E 00
a = 0.01c
5
b =
c
(10.8-28)
(10.8-29)
(10.8-30)
(10.8-31)
du+
dy +
+
+
1 du
du+
dulam
turb
=
e
+
e
dy +
dy +
dy +
10-74
is
(10.8-32)
This approach allows the fully turbulent law to be easily modified and
extended to take into account other effects such as pressure gradients or
variable properties. This formula also guarantees the correct asymptotic
behavior for large and small values of y + and reasonable representation
of velocity profiles in the cases where y + falls inside the wall buffer region
(3 < y + < 10).
The enhanced wall functions were developed by smoothly blending an
enhanced turbulent wall law with the laminar wall law. The enhanced
turbulent law-of-the-wall for compressible flow with heat transfer and
pressure gradients has been derived by combining the approaches of
White and Cristoph [266] and Huang et al. [95]:
i
du+
1 h 0
+
+ 2 1/2
turb
=
S
(1
(u
)
)
dy +
y +
(
where
0
S =
(10.8-33)
(10.8-34)
and
w dp
dp
= 2 3
w u dx
(u ) dx
t q w u
t q w
=
cp w Tw
cp u Tw
t (u )2
2cp Tw
(10.8-35)
(10.8-36)
(10.8-37)
where ys+ is the location at which the log-law slope will remain fixed. By
default, ys+ = 60. The coefficient in Equation 10.8-33 represents the
influences of pressure gradients while the coefficients and represent
thermal effects. Equation 10.8-33 is an ordinary differential equation and
FLUENT will provide an appropriate analytical solution. If , , and
all equal 0, an analytical solution would lead to the classical turbulent
logarithmic law-of-the-wall.
The laminar law-of-the-wall is determined from the following expression:
10-75
Modeling Turbulence
du+
lam
= 1 + y +
dy +
(10.8-38)
Note that the above expression only includes effects of pressure gradients
through , while the effects of variable properties due to heat transfer
and compressibility on the laminar wall law are neglected. These effects
are neglected because they are thought to be of minor importance when
they occur close to the wall. Integration of Equation 10.8-38 results in
+
u+
1+
lam = y
+
y
2
(10.8-39)
+
+
T + = e Tlam
+ e Tturb
(10.8-40)
where
=
a(Pr y + )4
1 + bPr3 y +
(10.8-41)
10.9
The distance from the wall at the wall-adjacent cells must be determined
by considering the range over which the log-law is valid. The distance
is usually measured in the wall unit, y + ( u y/), or y . Note that
y + and y have comparable values when the first cell is placed in the
log-layer.
It is known that the log-law is valid for y + > 30 to 60.
Although FLUENT employs the linear (laminar) law when y + <
11.225, using an excessively fine mesh near the walls should be
avoided, because the wall functions cease to be valid in the viscous
sublayer.
10-77
Modeling Turbulence
The upper bound of the log-layer depends on, among others, pressure gradients and Reynolds number. As the Reynolds number
increases, the upper bound tends to also increase. y + values that
are too large are not desirable, because the wake component becomes substantially large above the log-layer.
A y + value close to the lower bound (y + 30) is most desirable.
Using excessive stretching in the direction normal to the wall should
be avoided.
It is important to have at least a few cells inside the boundary
layer.
10.9.2
Although the enhanced wall treatment is designed to extend the validity of near-wall modeling beyond the viscous sublayer, it is still recommended that you construct a mesh that will fully resolve the viscosityaffected near-wall region. In such a case, the two-layer component of
the enhanced wall treatment will be dominant and the following mesh
requirements are recommended (note that, here, the mesh requirements
are in terms of y + , not y ):
When the enhanced wall treatment is employed with the intention of resolving the laminar sublayer, y + at the wall-adjacent cell
should be on the order of y + = 1. However, a higher y + is acceptable as long as it is well inside the viscous sublayer (y + < 4 to
5).
You should have at least 10 cells within the viscosity-affected nearwall region (Rey < 200) to be able to resolve the mean velocity
and turbulent quantities in that region.
10.9.3
The Spalart-Allmaras model in its complete implementation is a lowReynolds-number model. This means that it is designed to be used with
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Both k- models available in FLUENT are available as low-Reynoldsnumber models as well as high-Reynolds-number models. If the Transitional Flows option is enabled in the Viscous Model panel, low-Reynoldsnumber variants will be used, and, in that case, mesh guidelines should
be the same as for the enhanced wall treatment. However, if this option
is not active, then the mesh guidelines should be the same as for the wall
functions.
10.9.5
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Modeling Turbulence
10.10
When your FLUENT model includes turbulence you need to activate the
relevant model and options, and supply turbulent boundary conditions.
These inputs are described in this section.
The procedure for setting up a turbulent flow problem is described below.
(Note that this procedure includes only those steps necessary for the
turbulence model itself; you will need to set up other models, boundary
conditions, etc. as usual.)
1. To activate the turbulence model, select Spalart-Allmaras, k-epsilon,
k-omega, Reynolds Stress, or (in 3D) Large Eddy Simulation under
Model in the Viscous Model panel (Figure 10.10.1).
Define Models Viscous...
If you choose the k-epsilon model, select Standard, RNG, or Realizable under k-epsilon Model. If you choose the k-omega model, select
Standard or SST under k-omega Model.
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Modeling Turbulence
Turbulence Options
The various options available for the turbulence models are described
in detail in Sections 10.3 through 10.7. Instructions for activating these
options are provided here.
If you choose the Spalart-Allmaras model, the following options are available:
Vorticity-based production
Strain/vorticity-based production
Viscous heating (always activated for the coupled solvers)
If you choose the standard k- model or the realizable k- model, the
following options are available:
Viscous heating (always activated for the coupled solvers)
Inclusion of buoyancy effects on
If you choose the RNG k- model, the following options are available:
Differential viscosity model
Swirl modification
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Modeling Turbulence
If you choose the LES model, the following options are available:
Smagorinsky-Lilly model for the subgrid-scale viscosity
RNG model for the subgrid-scale viscosity
Viscous heating (always activated for the coupled solvers)
It is also possible to modify the Model Constants, but this is not necessary for most applications. See Sections 10.3 through 10.7 for details
about these constants. Note that C1-PS and C2-PS are the constants C1
and C2 in the linear pressure-strain approximation of Equations 10.6-5
and 10.6-6, and C1-PS and C2-PS are the constants C10 and C20 in
Equation 10.6-7. C1-SSG-PS, C1-SSG-PS, C2-SSG-PS, C3-SSG-PS, C3SSG-PS, C4-SSG-PS, and C5-SSG-PS are the constants C1 , C1 , C2 , C3 ,
C3 , C4 , and C5 in the quadratic pressure-strain approximation of Equation 10.6-16.
Including the Viscous Heating Effects
See Sections 11.2.1 and 11.2.2 for information on including viscous heating effects in your model.
Including Turbulence Generation Due to Buoyancy
If you specify a non-zero gravity force (in the Operating Conditions panel),
and you are modeling a non-isothermal flow, the generation of turbulent
kinetic energy due to buoyancy (Gb in Equation 10.4-1) is, by default, always included in the k equation. However, FLUENT does not, by default,
include the buoyancy effects on .
To include the buoyancy effects on , you must turn on the Full Buoyancy
Effects option under Options in the Viscous Model panel.
This option is available for the three k- models and for the RSM.
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Modeling Turbulence
Transitional Flows
If either of the k- models are used, you may enable a low-Reynoldsnumber correction to the turbulent viscosity by enabling the Transitional
Flows option under k-omega Options in the Viscous Model panel. By
default, this option is not enabled, and the damping coefficient ( in
Equation 10.5-6) is equal to 1.
Shear Flow Corrections
In the standard k- model, you also have the option of including corrections to improve the accuracy in predicting free shear flows. The Shear
Flow Corrections option under k-omega Options is enabled by default in
the Viscous Model panel, as these corrections are included in the standard
k- model [267]. When this option is enabled, FLUENT will calculate f
and f using Equations 10.5-16 and 10.5-24, respectively. If this option
is disabled, f and f will be set equal to 1.
Including Pressure Gradient Effects
If the enhanced wall treatment is used, you may include the effects of
pressure gradients by enabling the Pressure Gradient Effects option under
Enhanced Wall Treatment Options. When this option is enabled, FLUENT
will include the coefficient in Equation 10.8-33.
Including Thermal Effects
If the enhanced wall treatment is used, you may include thermal effects
by enabling the Thermal Effects option under Enhanced Wall Treatment
Options. When this option is enabled, FLUENT will include the coefficient in Equation 10.8-33. will also be included in Equation 10.8-33
when the Thermal Effects option is enabled if the ideal gas law is selected
for the fluid density in the Materials panel.
Including the Wall Reflection Term
If the RSM is used with the default model for pressure strain, FLUENT
will, by default, include the wall-reflection effects in the pressure-strain
term. That is, FLUENT will calculate w
ij using Equation 10.6-7 and
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w
ij are calibrated for simple canonical flows such as channel flows and
flat-plate boundary layers involving a single wall. If the flow involves
multiple walls and the wall has significant curvature (e.g., an axisymmetric pipe or curvilinear duct), the inclusion of the wall-reflection term
in Equation 10.6-7 may not improve the accuracy of the RSM predictions. In such cases, you can disable the wall-reflection effects by turning
off the Wall Reflection Effects under Reynolds-Stress Options in the Viscous
Model panel.
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Modeling Turbulence
Subgrid-Scale Model
If you have selected the Large Eddy Simulation model, you will be able to
choose which of the two subgrid-scale models described in Section 10.7.2
is to be used. You can choose either the Smagorinsky-Lilly or the RNG
subgrid-scale model.
(These options will not appear unless you have activated the LES model.)
Customizing the Turbulent Viscosity
If you are using the Spalart-Allmaras, k-, k-, or LES model, a userdefined function can be used to customize the turbulent viscosity. This
option will enable you to modify t in the case of the Spalart-Allmaras,
k-, and k- models, and incorporate completely new subgrid models in
the case of the LES model. See the separate UDF Manual for information
about user-defined functions.
In the Viscous Model panel, under User-Defined Functions, select the appropriate user-defined function in the Turbulent Viscosity drop-down list.
10.10.2
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You may want to include the effects of the wall roughness on selected
wall boundaries. In such cases, you can specify the roughness parameters (roughness height and roughness constant) in the panels for the
corresponding wall boundaries (see Section 6.13.1).
The Spalart-Allmaras Model
When you are modeling turbulent flows in FLUENT using the SpalartAllmaras model, you must provide the boundary conditions for in
addition to other mean solution variables. The boundary conditions for
at the walls are internally taken care of by FLUENT, which obviates
the need for your inputs. The boundary condition input for you must
supply to FLUENT is the one at inlet boundaries (velocity inlet, pressure
inlet, etc.). In many situations, it is important to specify correct or
realistic boundary conditions at the inlets, because the inlet turbulence
can significantly affect the downstream flow.
See Section 6.2.2 for details about specifying the boundary condition for
at the inlets.
You may want to include the effects of the wall roughness on selected
wall boundaries. In such cases, you can specify the roughness parameters (roughness height and roughness constant) in the panels for the
corresponding wall boundaries (see Section 6.13.1).
Reynolds Stress Model
The specification of turbulent boundary conditions for the RSM is the
same as for the other turbulence models for all boundaries except at
boundaries where flow enters the domain. Additional input methods are
available for these boundaries and are described here.
When you choose to use the RSM, the default inlet boundary condition
inputs required are identical to those required when the k- model is
active. You can input the turbulence quantities using any of the turbulence specification methods described in Section 6.2.2. FLUENT then
uses the specified turbulence quantities to derive the Reynolds stresses
at the inlet from the assumption of isotropy of turbulence:
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Modeling Turbulence
2
k
3
= 0.0
ui2 =
u0i u0j
(i = 1, 2, 3)
(10.10-1)
(10.10-2)
For flows using one of the k- models, one of the k- models, or the RSM,
the converged solutions or (for unsteady calculations) the solutions after
a sufficiently long time has elapsed should be independent of the initial
values for k and (or k and ). For better convergence, however, it is
beneficial to use a reasonable initial guess for k and (or k and ).
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Modeling Turbulence
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10.11
Compared to laminar flows, simulations of turbulent flows are more challenging in many ways. For the Reynolds-averaged approach, additional
equations are solved for the turbulence quantities. Since the equations
for mean quantities and the turbulent quantities (t , k, , , or the
Reynolds stresses) are strongly coupled in a highly non-linear fashion,
it takes more computational effort to obtain a converged turbulent solution than to obtain a converged laminar solution. The LES model, while
embodying a simpler, algebraic model for the subgrid-scale viscosity, requires a transient solution on a very fine mesh.
The fidelity of the results for turbulent flows is largely determined by the
turbulence model being used. Here are some guidelines that can enhance
the quality of your turbulent flow simulations.
10.11.1
Mesh Generation
The following are suggestions to follow when generating the mesh for use
in your turbulent flow simulation:
Picture in your mind the flow under consideration using your physical intuition or any data for a similar flow situation, and identify
the main flow features expected in the flow you want to model.
Generate a mesh that can resolve the major features that you expect.
If the flow is wall-bounded, and the wall is expected to significantly
affect the flow, take additional care when generating the mesh. You
should avoid using a mesh that is too fine (for the wall function approach) or too coarse (for the enhanced wall treatment approach).
See Section 10.9 for details.
10.11.2
Accuracy
The suggestions below are provided to help you obtain better accuracy
in your results:
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Modeling Turbulence
Use the turbulence model that is better suited for the salient features you expect to see in the flow (see Section 10.2).
Because the mean quantities have larger gradients in turbulent
flows than in laminar flows, it is recommended that you use highorder schemes for the convection terms. This is especially true if
you employ a triangular or tetrahedral mesh. Note that excessive
numerical diffusion adversely affects the solution accuracy, even
with the most elaborate turbulence model.
In some flow situations involving inlet boundaries, the flow downstream of the inlet is dictated by the boundary conditions at the
inlet. In such cases, you should exercise care to make sure that
reasonably realistic boundary values are specified.
10.11.3
Convergence
The suggestions below are provided to help you enhance convergence for
turbulent flow calculations:
Starting with excessively crude initial guesses for mean and turbulence quantities may cause the solution to diverge. A safe approach is to start your calculation using conservative (small) underrelaxation parameters and (for the coupled solvers) a conservative
Courant number, and increase them gradually as the iterations
proceed and the solution begins to settle down.
It is also helpful for faster convergence to start with reasonable initial guesses for the k and (or k and ) fields. Particularly when
the enhanced wall treatment is used, it is important to start with
a sufficiently developed turbulence field, as recommended in Section 10.10.3, to avoid the need for an excessive number of iterations
to develop the turbulence field.
When you are using the RNG k- model, an approach that might
help you achieve better convergence is to obtain a solution with
the standard k- model before switching to the RNG model. Due
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to the additional non-linearities in the RNG model, lower underrelaxation factors and (for the coupled solvers) a lower Courant
number might also be necessary.
Note that when you use the enhanced wall treatment, you may sometimes find during the calculation that the residual for is reported to
be zero. This happens when your flow is such that Rey is less than 200
in the entire flow domain, and is obtained from the algebraic formula
(Equation 10.8-24) instead of from its transport equation.
10.11.4
Using the RSM creates a high degree of coupling between the momentum
equations and the turbulent stresses in the flow, and thus the calculation
can be more prone to stability and convergence difficulties than with the
k- models. When you use the RSM, therefore, you may need to adopt
special solution strategies in order to obtain a converged solution. The
following strategies are generally recommended:
Begin the calculations using the standard k- model. Turn on the
RSM and use the k- solution data as a starting point for the RSM
calculation.
Use low under-relaxation factors (0.2 to 0.3) and (for the coupled
solvers) a low Courant number for highly swirling flows or highly
complex flows. In these cases, you may need to reduce the underrelaxation factors both for the velocities and for all of the stresses.
Instructions for setting these solution parameters are provided below. If
you are applying the RSM to prediction of a highly swirling flow, you
will want to consider the solution strategies discussed in Section 8.4 as
well.
Under-Relaxation of the Reynolds Stresses
FLUENT applies under-relaxation to the Reynolds stresses. You can set
under-relaxation factors using the Solution Controls panel.
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Modeling Turbulence
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Modeling Turbulence
10.12
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Modeling Turbulence
Turbulence Intensity
UU Reynolds Stress
VV Reynolds Stress
WW Reynolds Stress
UV Reynolds Stress
VW Reynolds Stress
UW Reynolds Stress
Turbulent Dissipation Rate (Epsilon)
Production of k
Turbulent Viscosity
Effective Viscosity
Turbulent Viscosity Ratio
Effective Thermal Conductivity
Effective Prandtl Number
Wall Yplus
Wall Ystar
Turbulent Reynolds Number (Re y)
Turbulence quantities that can be reported for the LES model are as
follows:
Subgrid Turbulent Kinetic Energy
Subgrid Turbulent Viscosity
Subgrid Effective Viscosity
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In addition to the quantities listed above, you can define your own turbulence quantities using the Custom Field Function Calculator panel.
Define Custom Field Functions...
The following functions may be useful:
Ratio of production of k to its dissipation (Gk /)
Ratio of the mean flow to turbulent time scale, ( Sk/)
Reynolds stresses derived from the Boussinesq formula (e.g., uv =
t u
y )
10.12.2
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Modeling Turbulence
10.12.3
Troubleshooting
You can use the postprocessing options not only for the purpose of interpreting your results but also for investigating any anomalies that may
appear in the solution. For instance, you may want to plot contours of
the k field to check if there are any regions where k is erroneously large
or small. You should see a high k region in the region where the production of k is large. You may want to display the turbulent viscosity ratio
field in order to see whether or not turbulence takes full effect. Usually turbulent viscosity is at least two orders of magnitude larger than
molecular viscosity for fully-developed turbulent flows modeled using the
RANS approach (i.e., not using LES). You may also want to see whether
you are using a proper near-wall mesh for the enhanced wall treatment.
In this case, you can display filled contours of Rey (turbulent Reynolds
number) overlaid on the mesh.
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