ESSENTIALS OF MODERN OPEN-HOLE LOG INTERPRETATION. ESSENTIALS OF MODERN OPEN-HOLE LOG INTERPRETATION JOHN T. DEWANte Copyright © 1980 by PennWell Publishing Company 11a South Sheridan RoadRO. Box 1260 ‘oles, Oklahoma 78101 Library of Congres Colalging in Publication Dota Dewan John. Madzrn ope holelog interpretation. Includes inden 1 Geophys well logging. 1. Te TNENEDIS 198 OEE 82 8.4208 IsaNosraleaso All sighs reserved No par of hs book maybe Fepreduced, sored rev system, ‘tansribed in any form ot by any mean elton ‘ot mechanical including photocopying and receding, Stahou the rar writen permission of the publisher Prot nthe Unted Stats of Amarin 248 oT 0 BS DEDICATION This book s dedicated o my former colleagues at Schlumberger, who ‘id much to advance the sslence of wall Iogging. and tomy provon? ‘9st0°Iates and my tomy, who patently endured is preparation,CONTENTS DEDICATION v INTRODUCTION. xi 4 The Logging Environment 4 Theborehole 4 loging procedure 2 The unaistubed reserve & Disturbance caused by ating 8 summary 13 Reterences 15 2 Evaluation of Hydrocarbons 17 Fundamental interpretationelations 17 The basic interpretation procedure. 22 Impacto invasion onresistvy measurements 26 summary 34 Relerences 33 3. Permeable Zone Logs 35 Spontaneous Potential SP) log 35 Soures of spontaneous potential 36 SP behaviorever olongiog 3° Shope ofthe SP cue 40 Computation at Ryton thes? 43 ‘SPloginshaly sands 49 '$? anomalies due 6 vertical migtationeftirate 49 ‘SP anomalies dye to noe 50 The GommaRay (Gx) log. 50 BotieGRiogt 50 Special GRlogs 53 Statiticaltuctuations 57 Summary 60 Relerences. 64ke vw contents Resistivity Logs 63 CCassiteation anc Application 63 Hectical survey (S}tools 65 Fresnmudtools 66 Satmudtools 48 Ranges ot application ofinductionlogt and Lateroiogt 6° ual induction spherically Focused logs 70 The spherically focused og SFL) 78 Log pretentation 77 DuclLoterolog—Ryelogs 82 Th DLLMSFL oo! 63 Depth ct investigation 86 CChoracterisics ofthe MicroSFLMSFL) 8 Log presentation 88 ‘Guickioek hyarocarbon indication 89 Summary 93 Relerances 94 Porosity Logs 95 The current trend in porosity logging 9S Recent developments 9% Compensated Dons and LiheDensiy Logs 97 The compensated density ool 98 Porosity derivation kom he densty log 405 The UthoDensty log. 108 Lunology interpretation wih Py curves 114 Compensated Neutron and Dual Peroty Neutron Logs 45 Neutron footevolution 47, The Compensated Noution 117 Combined DensityNeuton interpretation 128 The Dual Porosity Compensaiad Nouttontog 136 ‘Compensated Sonic and LongSpaced Sonic Logs 139 The borehole compensatediog at Porosty determination rom Sonic loge 146 Tnelongspacing Sonic log 158 ‘conrents i Electromagnetic Propagation Microlog Combination 470, Tho EPEML eonsoraxtay 472 The Microlog 173 The Electromagnetic Propagation tog 177 Summary 194 Reterences 194 6 Clean Formation Interpretation 199 ResisvtyForosty Crossplots 199 The Hingle plot 200, The Picket plot 207 Range of uncertainty in coloulated water saturations; 209 Mutiminetaidentiveation 244 The MN piot 211 The MD plot 214 The LihoDensiiyNouron method 217 Trond In mutinineral identiication 223 Roleronces 225 7. Shaly Formation interpretation 227 Thenoture ofshote 230 Shale or eta aisbution nshaly sands 234 Shalysandinterpretation models 236 Cation exchange capaci 237 Shale porostiy and conductivity. 249 Application athe dul-woter metnod fo shalysonds. 247 Summary of dual wate Interpretation 257 Summary of eotlet shalysand interpretation methods 264 Reterences. 265, 8 Prediction of Producibiliy” 267 Fiow eltions °267 ‘Absolute, relative, and ettectve permeabitios 249 Ineducible water saturation 274 Eximation of permeability rom logs. 279‘The Mutiple Formation Teter 224 Permeobilty om pretest rawdown 290 Permeabiiy rom pressure bulldup 292 Sampling ancsample analysis 201 Applicationsot pressure measurements 307 Summary 313 Relerences 314 9 Wellsite Computed Logs 317 The Ryaloo 318 Porosity overlays 249 Resisvty overiays. 322 ThesPovetiay 324 ‘he Cyberiookiog 327 The Prolognaiyss 394 Ottce-computediogs 333 Summary 334 Retorences 335 10 Recommended Logging Sultes 337 Frosh mud, meciumiosofrecklogging utes 240 Hordock,saltmud logging suet 343 Special stations 346 Reterences 249 Index 354 INTRODUCTION ‘The aim ofthis book sto present modern log Interpretation as simply sand concisely as posable. The book is written for the geologist, petrophysiist, reservoir englner, or production engineer who is familiar with rock properties but has litle experience with logs. T wl help him specify good logging programe with up-to-date tools and hand-Interpret ‘zones of interest with the latest techniques, The book wil sso familiarize him with computer-procesed logs generated by theservicecompaniesat the welt, ‘Accordingly, obsolete logging tous are mentioned only in perspective. Very brief descriptions of theinstrumentsin common weindieatehow they apply to diferent logging conditions. Salient features of new tools, including Spectral Gamma Ray, Litho-Density, Dual Poresity Neutron, and Long: Spacing Sonic, emphasize how these tools fit into the everyday logging picture. The interpreter need not be overly concerned how a tool ‘operttes, What is important is the Instruments response to the various {ormation and borehole variable. In a similar vein interpretation equations and charts are kept tothe sinimum needed for routine evaluation of logs. Fundamental principles fare stresed rather than mechanical application of formule. This i particularly truein the chapter on shaly formation interpretation where an ‘effort as been made to draw together the latest concepts in this ever changing fel, “This book dresses the normal well situation where a standard set of logis unin aliquld-flled open hole to locate hydrocarbonsin place and ‘where promising zones are then tested to evaluate their produalbit. Abnormal situations such as empty’hole, water wel, and geothermal and mineral logging ae nat included, To provide a litde perspective, well logging is in its thied major development stage. The first 20 years, from 1925-1945, saw the Introduction end gradual worldwide acceptance of the so-ralled ES (Electrical Survey) logs. These logs were run with simple downhole tools tnd, while quite repeatable, were often dificult to interpret. The second phase, from 1845-1970, was « major tool development era, made posible by the advent of eletronit ruitable for downhole use, Focused elecriel devices were introduced, having good bed revelation and various depths of penetration. A variety of acouticand nuclear tool we developed to provide porosity and lithology information, There was a progression through second: and even third-generation tools oF increasing ‘apebility and accuracy. Simultaneously, much laboratory and theoretical work was done to place log interpretation on 2 sound, though largely empiclea, basisx INTRODUCTION ‘Thethird andcurreat phase, which began about 1070, may becalledthe Jog procssingera. With the advent of computers, thas become posible to analyzetn ach greater detail the wealth of data sen upholeby the loging tool, Log processing centers, providing sophisticated interpretation of Aligtzed logs transmitted by telephone and satelite, have Been st up by service companies in strategic lotions. Logging tucks have been ited ‘with computes that permit computation of quick lok logs tthe welt. [Aethesametimelogslagtoolshave been combined tothe point that fuse, Of log canbe obtained on single un “Tho present stato ofthe aft & that logs are adequate to determine hydrocarbon insta medium: tohigh-porsty Formations but erepurhed to their limits tn low-porosity, shal. ized thology situations, Nore brcie determination ofthe matric makeup, inching amounts end types Of olay present, tr needed. Promising developments are underway ‘Advances aze being. made in. predicting the. producbility of Idrectins fond inact te rte factor = contin parmesilty log, ssl lacking Meanwhile, point by point permeability tnd presure values can be ebtained by repent formation testing, 2 techelque that is finding increased we. Developments in th testing stage promise to provide more precse thology information, better movable el determination, and adeitionl ‘mechanical properties of formations, Unquestionably, sniwers obtainable from logs wil contin to become more accurate end broaden sope. Chapter 4 THE LOGGING ENVIRONMENT Resour: bout the producing potential of well sit {sbeingdilled. Thisisasurprseto the uninitiated, who have visions of early gushers, Butte dling mud actually pushes hydrocarbons, if encountered, out of the way and prevents thelr return to the surface. faination of returned euttingsindleates the general thology being pen- trated and may reveal races of hydrocarbons, butt allows.n estimates of ‘he amount ofall or gas in place ‘Well logs furnish the data necessary for quantitative evaluation of Inydrocarbont in stu, Modern urves provide « wealth of information on both the rock and id properties of the formations penetrated. From the point of view of decilon- making, logging isthe mast important par ofthe ‘ring and completion process. Obtaining accurate and complete log data isimperative. Logging casts account for only about 5% of completed well cotta 0s false economy to cut corners in this phase, THE BOREHOLE ‘When the logging engin arsives at the wellste with is highly int ‘mented logging nit, he finds ready tobe surveyed a borehole that as the following cherecteristis: ‘an average depth of about 6,000 ft but which may be anywhere ‘between 1,000 and 29,000 f- «+ an average diameter of about 9 fn, but which canbe between 5 in and 15in, “+ tdevieton from vertical that i usually only few degrees on land but typeally 20-40° offshore y + e bottom -hole temperature that averages about 150°F but may be between 100°F and 380°F «+ aimud salinity averaging about 10,000 parts pe milion (ppm) but ‘which ean vary between 3,000 and 200,000 ppm; occasionally the mud may be oll based ‘mud weight averaging about 11 Ibigal but which ean vary from 9 to 16 Ibe ‘bottom: hole presure averaging perhaps 8,000 pl but which ean ‘bea ow as 500 and as igh as 15,000 psi2 [ESSENTIALS OF MODEEN OFENOLELOG INTERPRETATION + a sheath of mud cake on all permeable formations that averages bout 0.5 in. in thickness but may beast as0.1 in, and as much sslin, * an invaded zone extending few inches to a few feet from the borehole in which much of the original pore fuld has been Aisplaced by drling Aulds Even more severe conditions ar occasionally encountered. In any eae 11 sa challenging envizonment from which to derive accurate Informa tion about the state of the formations as they were prio to aay drilling isturbance, LOGGING PROCEDURE Accuttomed tothe challenge, the logging erew proceeds to align the track with the well, spo! the logging cable through the lower and upper sheave wheels, and connect the logging tools, The engineer performs the surface cheeks and calibrations, After this, the loging arrey i dropped bottom as quickly as practicable. Once on bottom the downhole calibra- tions are carried out, recording scales are set up, and he erew “comes up logging” (Fig. 1-1). Survey sped i maltained constant, between 1,800 ‘and 5,400 ihr, depending on the logging tools ‘The loging string ie typically 34 in. in diameter and 0-50 ftlong. Tt casually const of several efferent tol in tendem, The most importants the tool that measures the electrical resistance ofthe formation because Increased resistance occurs when water Is replaced by hydrocerbons ‘Accompanying the resistivity too sat least one too that measures poresity ‘and one that distinguishes permeable from nonpermeable zone. The basie Jogsmay beobtained on asinglerunin theholeormey requretwo runs with “afferent logging tols. Opereting power forthe tools sent down one palt of inculated conductors inside the armored logging cable, and logging data fre transmitted tothe surface on the remaining five conductors In recent years the major service companies have been replacing older surface instrumentation with completely computer-contolled systems that are much more versatile and easier for the engineer to operate (Fig, 1-2). Logging data are digitized and fed into the computer where they are “Dent Gye Seve Ua (SU) by Selene, Comper Logg Sen (GL9) ‘rc Dilan OL) by Wo ad BD one ODL THELOGGING ENVIRONMENT 3 procesed and output to paper, film, and magnetic tape recorders. The Engineer control the sytem almost entirely with commands from the Key: thoard. At the same time, he monitors the output on asreen whieh, during fmm iS = vesESSENTIALS OF MODERN OPEN-HOLE LOG INTERPRETATION Fig, 1-2 Computerized suave inetumentation (courtesy Schlumberger) logging, continuously displays the last 100 ft logged. The options in cal brating, depth shifting, averaging, computing, and scaling the logs are virtually unlimited with the comptter. Further, after the logging is com. pleted, the taped information can be played Back and the various logs ‘edited, combined, and run through Interpretation programe to provide fully interpreted loge at the well, THE UNDISTURBED RESERVOIR ‘An idealized view of porous bydrocarbon-bearing reservoir rock Shown in Fig, 1-3. The rock matrix consists of grains of sand, limestone, THELOGGING ENVIRONMENT 5 dolomite, or mixtures ofthese. Between the grains is pore space filed with ‘water oll and perhaps gu. The water exit at.afilm around the rock gains fand as hour-slss rings at grain contacts; It also occupies the very fine crevices. The water forms a continuous path, although very tortuous, through the rock stricture. Oil eccupies the larger pore spaces. If gas is present, it wil occupy the largest pores, leaving oll in the intermediate spaces. ‘The rock properties important in log analysis are porosity, wate satura tion, and permeability. The former two determine the quantity of gas or ol in place, and the latter determines the rate at which that hydrocarbon can bo produced Porosity Porosity, denoted, isthe faction of total volume thet is pore space. In ‘unconsolidated formations porosity depends on gran siz distribution, nat ‘on absolute grain size. It il be high, in the range of 0.95-0-4 all grains ‘are close to the same size, It ill be lower, down to about 0.25, there is a ‘wide range of grain sizes such that small grains fl the pore spaces between larger ones. At even lower poresites the matrix particles are generally cemented together with liceous or ealeareous material, resulting in €on- tolidated formations, These may have porosities down to virtually zero, Fig. 1-3 Hyarocarben-beoring rock‘ ESSENTIALS OF MODERN OFENOLELOG INTERPRETATION. Water Saturation ‘The fraction of pore space containing water istermed water saturation, denoted S,.. The remaining fraction containing oll or gasis termed hydro: carbon saturation, Sy, which of course; equals (1 ~ 8,). The general ‘assumption {thatthe reservoir was intially filled with water and that over geologic time oll or gas that formed elsewhere migrated into the porous formation, displacing water from the larger pore spaces. However, the ‘migrating hydrocarbons never displace all ofthe interstitial water. There is an freducible wate saturation, Sy representing the water retained by surface tension on grain surfaces, at gran contaes, and in the smallest interstices, Ts value varies fom about 0.05 in very coarse formations with low surface area to0.4 or more in very fine grained formations with high surface area, The irreducible wate will nat low when the formation is put ‘on production ‘The fraction of total formation volume thats hydrocarbons isthen or6 (1 ~ S.). Aimajr objective loggingisto determine this quantity It can vary from zero toa maximum of ¢ (1 ~ Sy) Pormeabilty Permeability, denoted, i the fowability of the formation, It isa measure ofthe rate at which Nuld wil flow through a given area of porous tock under a specified pressure gradient. It le expresed in miligecles (and 1,000 md is high value and 1.0 mad i low valoe for producing Formations Incontrastto porosity, permeability depends strongly on absolute grain sizeof the rock, Large-grained sediments with large pore have high perme abilities, whereas fine-grained rocks with emall pores and more tortuous flow paths have ow permeabilities. Table lists porosities and permeabilities some well-known produc- Ing formations. Poresiy varie only by a factor of 3, whereas permeability varies by «factor of ebout 4,000. Wecasinferthat the Woodbineformation with extremely high permeability iserceptionaly coarse sund, whereas the Strawn formation ofthe sume porosity but low permeability isa very fine- rained sandstone, Hydrocarbon-bearing Rocks Hydrocarbon-besring rocks are primarily sande (Si0,), limestones (CaC0,), and delomites (CaCO, « MgCO,). Most sands are transported by |ELOGGING ENVIRONMENT 7 TABLE(-4/ POROSITIES AND PERMEABILITIS OF SELECTED OIL ‘SANDS. orosty Pormecbity Sond oH (al Gen lve Co. vA 98 09 Wieat Ota, Co. OK 20 100 ‘Culdonk, Goser,Co. Mt 164 wt Sorearila, Anderson Co KS us 25 ‘mete Hanes Co. OK 2s 36 Woostine. vero 1x 2 3390 ‘rawr Coote Co.1% B ot Nugget, Fremont Go. We as 2 ‘Sin Ouvele 1 a ‘30 dow, Cnociow Co. AL 0 0 snd lid down from moving water. The greater the water velocity (he nergy of the environment, the coarser the sand wil be. Benue ofthis ‘nechanism, sands tend to have funy uniform intergranla-type porosty Timestonas onthe other hand, ae not transported as rans but areal down by deposition from ‘Some i preiptation from slution; soiree roi of aie sel orm, Orga pore ace soften altered by subsequent redisaution ofsomeof thwidnater. ‘Feerefore, porosity tends toe less uniform than a sands, with vgs and figures, termed secondary porclty, interspersed withthe primary port Delomites are formed when magnesum-ich water circulate through Aumestons, replacing some ofthe exlcim by magnesium, This proces generally ruts in a eduction of the matrix volume. Therefor, dlom {Eaton fan important mechanism in providing pore space for hydrocar- ten accumulation Formations containing ony sands or carbonate are called clean forma tion, They are relatively easy to interpret with modern logs. When such formations contain clay they ae ealed dirty or shely formations, Sich reservoir rock can be quite dealt to interpret Clay and shale Clays arecommoa components f sedimentary rock, They ae alumkio- silicates ofthe general comporition Al,O,'SIOy"(OH),.. Depending on the tavironment in which they ae formed, they may be of several bse types: ‘montmorllonit, ite, chlorite or kaolinite,° ESSENTIALS OF MODERN OPEN-HOLE LOG INTERPRETATION ‘Clays have very small particle sizes—1 to ordersof magnitudelessthan those of send grains. Surface-to-volume ratios are very high, 109-10,000 times those of sands, Thus, clays oan effectively blnd large quantities of ‘Water that will not flow but that do contribute to log responce Shales are primarily matures of clay ands ine sila) laid down from veryslow-moving waters. While they may have good porosity, permeability ‘Sewsentilly zero, Pare shales are therefore of itl interest in hydrocarbon production, although they are source rock for petroleum. On the other hhand, send or carbonates containing modest amounts of clay or shale may ‘be importan hydrocarbon producers “Accounting fo clay and shale when analyzing bydrocarbon-bearing formations substantially complicates log interpretation, Consequently, i ‘chapters 2 through 6 we establish the principles of log interpretation for len formations and in chapter 7 take up the analy of haly formations DISTURBANCE CAUSED BY DRILLING. ‘The diling proces is hstrated in Fig. 1-4. Adel it tthe end of Jongdriltringis rotated from thesurface at speedo 50-180 rpm Simulta- ‘neously, weights of 10,000-40,000 Ib are applied to the bt, and the cotn- bined action chews up the rock. The cuttings produced are swept from below the bi tothe surface by drilling mud, which is pumped down the center ofthedrltring, passed outholesin the bit, and returnedup Sepipe. formation annulus. During the drilling process formations may erode or eave to diameters larger than bit size, dling uid may Invade permeable zone, end mud ‘kes may build upon the same zones. Invasion in partiular causes logging probleme The Process of Invasion ‘The proces of invasion is abollustratedn ig, 1-4. During drilling the ‘mud presure in the annulus, P, must be kept greater than the hydrostatic resure of fluid inthe formation pores, P., to preventa well blowout, The Aifferental pressure, Py -P., whichis typealy a few hundred pi forces Ariling fuid into the formation. As this happens solid particles in the ring mud plate out onthe formation wall and form a mud eake, Liquid that fitersthrough this mud eake— the mud iltrate—passes int the fort ton and pushes back some of the rezervol lad there. An invaded zone i formed adjacent to the borehole, THELOGGING ENVIRONMENT ’0 ESSENTIALS OF MODERN OPENHOLELOG INTERPRETATION. Invasion involves a mud spurt, nee fitration, and stati filtration! As the bit penetrates a permeable bd, there is an inital spurt of dling fluid into the freshly exposed rock. Tie las for a matter of seconds unt small paticlesin the downcaming mud stream (formed by grinding action ofthe bit) bridge the pore entrance in the rock. Bridging ls most ‘rapid when the patil ie dsebution inthe nad swell matched to the pore entrance distribution inthe reek As the bit pases on, mud cake begins to bulld onthe newly formed borehole wall. Invasion is rapid in the beginning bu sows quicky a the ‘mud eske thickens and increases it resistance to flow. If conditions were static, themudeake would continueto build indefinitely with iltratonate eoressing in accordance with 1/ve, where isthe time fllowing spurt. During driling, however, flow of mud and eutings plus abrasion ‘caused by the tumingand whippingof the drilstlagcontimusly erode the ‘mudenke and even the formation tell. Once the formation ceases tocrode, ‘ dynamic equllrium condition is reached where the mud cake thickest snd the rate of filtration become constant. ‘When the drilstring ispalled to change the it, the abrasive action fsn0 longer present and mud cakeretumesbuildingat the permeable ones under State filtration conditions. When he string un in and deiling is resumed, the soft outer mud eake just formed wil erode away and dynamic equilib. ‘ium once again will be reched, Finally, when the dilstring i pulled fr logging, static filtration will resume and soft mud eake will again build up. ‘The additional buildup is often evidenced by logging tols measuring hole diameter less than bit ameter in permeable zones near bottom. Mud cake is typically Xn. in thickness at the tne of logging. Fig. 1-5 shows schematically the rate of invasion, mud cake thickness, sand depth of invasion ata given permeable bed «function of time sins {he bed was penetrated. The depth of invasion increases reply during the spurt and formation erosion periods. Later it slowe because of dynam ‘equilibrium and because the rate of increase f invasion depth, for acon. stant filteation rato, is aversely proportional tothe invasion depth already reached, Depth OF Invasion At Time Of Logging z ‘The depth to which mud filtrate hes penetrated a porous formation et the time of logging depends on several factors, principal of which are the filtration characteristics ofthe delling mud and the differential pressure between mud and reservoir. Saticfilreton rateof a muds piven as water TELOGGING ENVIRONMENT "“ fia on the log hein. Thithe zou of fate (a) passing ‘hour paper in gO a at 10 paler presureang TF ing sanded PU Atypon poral np mud, and ds & very fod. Unfonunstay, epeimens fave Showa hat thee lite cofatlonGetven ate ttc characterir ‘tac enperature and dynamic terion at borehole eperntares Genser, tact yobl to predic invasion depth ony swale siding oon. Theta mt rtm ean pret, wivertnles, how depth of lnvaon for «gen mo sliets porety as he mad ttc ha artedtobld a prmesblly eames low rivet that ofthe average formation hat amon all of the presur ferential (=P) sacrosthe mud ett snd spied {othe formation: The mul ak thertore onl fitation rate, Cons yin given tne the seme volume ef Dud wil ivace ferent suey, in teats, retest pore or permeable (len perme bys below about 0 an) Thien doth of tvain wl be mi imu aighposty where plenty of poe space avalsble for invading Dern mein at ot ieasin r 0 "co. CC CT) nes ahr senator tee) Fig. 1-6 Invasion atfoctsESSENTIALS OF MODERN OPEN-HOLE LOG INTERPRETATION Fig. 1-6 tnaced rock THELOGGING ENVIRONMENT approximately proportional to AM/® where isthe porasty. Other things beingconstant, invasion depth will double as pororlty reduces from 26% to 9%, for example. However, many other factors come into play, About all that can besa is tht invasion depths can vary from afew inches toa few feet, with typial values perhape 1-2 Ft. Tho Picture OF Invaded Rock Fig, 1-6 lusteatesinvison a is pletured. Proceeding outward from the wallof the hole, there sft a flushed zone, then atransion zone, and turbed formation. In the flushed zone itis generally ‘ofthe formation water has been replaced by mud filtrate (orhich may not be quite true). TF the for then some But not all of the hydrocarbons filtrate. Theresidual hydrocarbon saturation remaining willnermally bein %. The saturation wil depend on the intial hydrocarbon content and on the costrast between the mobility of the filtrate and that of ‘the hydrocarbon, Water digplaces medium-gravity ol fairly well but ds: places high-viseclty heavy oll and ow-viscoalty light gas quite pootly. The Wate fingers through thee media. Tithe transition zonesomect the virgin water and someof the hyarocar- bons, if present, have been replaced by mud filtrate but to a lesser extent ton zone initially iclose tothe borehole bout gradually progresses away from it, It may take a few days after a formation is drilled forthe invasion pattern to reach a more-or-less equilib ‘lum condition. Tinertremely porous and permeablesandsthe invading Muldean gravity. segregate vertically as well asprogresslterally Lowsaliniy filtrate lnvad- Ings high-watersalinty sand wll tend to ise to the top ofthe bed: water {vading an ollsand will end to drop tothe bottom of theo. Suecesvelogs may show ths progression. ‘Shale, by virtue of almost zero permeability, donot invade or build up rmadetke, More often, fresh water in the deiling mud will ease theclay in the shales to swell resulting in sloughing and caving of those formations. Sultable mud conditioning ean miaimize ths problem SUMMARY soReHOLES ‘= Depts 1,000-20,000 ft, average 60001 + Diameters 5-46 in; average 9 in,“ ESSENTIALS OF MODERN OFEN-HOLE LOG INTERPRETATION * Deviations 0-5* onshore; 20-40" offshore + Bottom-hole temperatures 100-350°F; average 150°F + Mud weight 9-#6 lbigal: verage 44 lo/gal + Mud salinity 3,000-200,000 ppm; average 40,000 ppm. + Bottom hole pressure 500-15,000 ps average 3,000 pst + Mud cakes 0.1~* in average 05. + Invaded depth 04-311 ROCK PROPEETES + Porosly faction of total volume that Is pore space ‘+ Water saturation $,:traction of pore spacecccupled by water + reducible wate saturation, Sy: action of pore space occu pled by immovable water + Perreaiity: owabilty measured in milicarcies (ma) HYDROCARBON-SEARING ROCKS + Sand, $0, uniform porosity + Umestones, CoO: nonuniform porosity + Dolomites, CacO,-MgCOs: nonuniform porosity + Clean tf roe of shale or clay: ity tnot INVASION ‘+ Creates mud cake on permeable formations + Displaces formation water with mud fitrate a flushed zone + Leaves 20-20% residual hydrocarbon saturation In flushed! + Exonds a few Inches 10.0 few feet: generally greater at low: Powosties REFERENCES {WELOGGING ENVIRONMENT 8 GK, Fesguon and J.A, Klot, “Fitton fom Mud During Drilling.” Pavleum Trometins AIME, Vol 201 (1954), pp. 29-4.wine Bree Chapter 2 EVALUATION OF HYDROCARBONS the manner in which the presence ofiydrocarbons in pore space 1 {sensed is via the elctrica rsrtanee ofthe formation. For normal Jouping situations, the rock matrixisconsidered a perfect insulator; t conducts no electricity, All conduction shen vie the lid inthe pores. At ‘epths below 2.000, the water found in formation pores i generally fairly alin, which makes ft quite conductive. Water bearing formations thee fovetendtohave high electrical conductivity or, the equivalent, low elect tal estivity since reritvity i the reciprocal of conductivity ‘What happens when sor eof thesaline pote water isreplaced by hydro- carbons? Oil und gas do nat conduct electricity. Thereisthen les pore Fuld Sallabe for conduction, The electrical eurrent that does How is foreed to take « more tortuous path, weaving around the hydrocarbon that occupies the larger pore speces. Both elect increase the clectrcal resistance ofthe formation ‘Therefor, thebasisoflogeingsto measure the actual electrical resist ny of he formation and to compare it with the resistivity that would exist ttlof the pore space coatained water, IFehe measured resistivity i signiti- tanily higher than the ealulated resistivity, the presence ofhydrocarbonsis {inferred Allo! thsis bound up in onesimple equation: the Archie relation hirequationiswell understood and easly manipulated, interpretation of ‘dean formations with modern logs can often be performed without asingle hac. FUNDAMENTAL INTERPRETATION RELATIONS. ‘Tocatablish th relations for hydrocarbon saturation and to clafy the terms lavelved, let us conceptually construct an ll-bearing formation and measure its electrical properties as we dos. bet Hon of | ‘Visualize an open-top cubic tank one meter in all dimensions. It has _ectriallynonconduectingsides except for two opposite wallsthat are metal Sd serve as electrodes. ”ESSENTIALS OF MODERN OFEN-HOLELOG INTERPRETATION. Fi, ha ak fled with wate contlnng soot 1% edu elo tide (CI) by weight to slate an average formation waa. A low. ice seeing tg Vt pl a sd ‘eng caret nenied (ig. 2) hea atlaere Rothe rest af he omaton water, net chet Th rev iain propery fh wet and atu of aly td temperature The gh the two variable, te more condi the rote wil be ed th lower eat. v < cy Fig. 2-4 Deion of rsitvtios [EVALUATION OF HYDROCARBONS, 4” Detintion of Re ‘Next, san is poured into the water-filled tank and the volume of water xplled is measured. When the sand is level with the top, the result i & ‘vous, water bearing formation of one-meter dimensions. About 0.6 cu m tovater will have een expelled othe porosity ofthe formation will be (1~ 0.6 or 04, Again the voltage ie applied and a current [is measured (Fig 2-18). Ip. be less than I sine there i es water to conduet electricity. ‘Theratio ViyisR, the resistivity ofthe water bearing formation Iwill be large than. Formation Factor “The resistivity, Ry, must be proportional to R, since only the water conducts Thus R= PR en “The proportionality constant Fis termed the formation factor. ‘Gn general principles, formation factor must be related to porosity by @ relation ofthe form B= tie 22) because when 6 = 1 (all water, no matrix), R, must equal R.; and when (= 0 no pore water, solid matrix), R, mustbelafinitesince therock itself is Sninsulator. Bq, 2atitier these conditions regardless ofthe value of, ‘whichis termed the cementation exponent "Thevalucofm refletathetortuait of current low through the maze of rock pores. Ifthe pore space consisted of eylindrcal tubes through an ‘therwis sold matrix, eurrent low paths would be straight and m would bel. Inthe ease of porous formations, measurements haveshown m tobe 210 on the average. Accepte” elation fr the range of porosities encoun- tered in logging are F = 1/6tfor limestones aa) F = 0.81/90 0.6216"! for sands! es) ‘We all use thefirstof the saad relation: tisless cumbersome than the second, The constant 1, 0,81, 0F 0,62 rcalled the cementatlon factor and is designated asain general equations.2 ESSENTIALS OF MODERN OFEN-HOLELOG INTERPRETATION Dotinition of Now an eprecibl faction ofthe pore waters replaced by i re singin the sti depicted in Fig 2lo. The sume vtage, V cpl, cure ys measured. 1 wil be le than ysnce even fas wer aiable fr onduction. The rato Vly i theses af theo. Beaving formation. It wl be renter has Water Saturation roving Rand wie strtn, Su th faction of pore space containing water can Bcaleuated, Agen fener prints thee mst ‘be relation of the form Seeansaasataee R= RSs eg beeausewhenS, = 1 (all water inthe pores), R,mustequal Rand when S, = 0 alloil inthe pores, if it were possible), B, mast be infinite, as both, oll and rock matrix are insulators. Bq. 2. satisfies these condition regard Tessof the vale of the exponent, ‘Theconstant nis termed thesaturaton exponent, Its closein valuetom ‘because the low of current cannot distinguish between displacement of pore water by sand grains or ol lobules of lke sizes sine neither conducts, Indeed laboratory experiments have shown n = 2,0 in the average cas, Consequently, water saturation is given by 8. = RR eo ‘This elation can be used directly to calculate the water saturation of a hydrocarbon bearingzone when an obvious water-bearlngzone of thevame ‘porosity and having water of thesamesalinity ts neerby, An example would bea thick sand with an obvious waterol contact inthe middle, Ingeneraltherewillnot bea nearby water sand give R,,so Eq. 2.6 will not apply. Replacing R, by Eq 21 gives S.= Vm en Replacing Fy Eq 2.3 gives 5. = ele es) where om 1.0 for carbonate and 0.90 for sands, EVALUATION OF HYDROCARBONS a ‘This the base equation of log interpretation. *It was initially devel oped by G.E. Archi of Shell nd is termed the Archie relation * The whole swe logging Industry bul upon this equation Eq. 2.8 shows that hydrocarbons in place can be evaluated i there sufficient log to give interstitial water resistivity (Ry), formation reaitiity (), and porosity 4) In practice R,isobtained either fom applying Ea, 28inanearby watersand (S._= 2)or from the SP logor from catalogs or ‘water sample measurements; R, is obtained from deep resitivity readings [Induction or Laterclog); and ¢ i obtained from porosity log: (Denlty, Neutron, or Sone). Hyarocarbonsin Place ‘A good estimate ofthe total quantity of hydrocrbon in sit ean be obtained from log. The product of porosity and hydrocarbon saturation, & x (1 — 8.) isthe fraction of the formation by volume that contains hydrocarbons, Thethicknes of the producing formation, h(t), ean really be determined from logs. However, the areal extent, A (acres), cannot. ‘Bartingother information, iteanbetaken asthe allowed wellspacing. With this assumption the total quantity of hydrocarbons i place can e calcu lated. For ll, the numberof barrels insta N= 7758-6 - Saya 28) ‘Toobtain stock-tankberrelat the surface, this number isdivided bythe formation volume facto B, a value slighty greater than unity, whlch takes {nto aocount the shrinkage of ol volume, principally by gas evolution, ait comes tothe surface For gu, the numberof cubic fet in situs G = 43,500-¢( = S.)-hA 19) sand cn fers tha Te ger equation WS = (up WAYRY. Yalow inde Inept cue, Fis eden hope2 ESSENTIALS OF MODERN OFEN-HOLE LOG INTERPRETATION. This isthe amount of gus at reservoir pressure and temperature, To convert tto standard eubie feet at 14.7 ps and 60°F, the number is malt plied bythe quantity ny where reservol presure, psi not known it may be taken a 0.46 where dis the vertioal depth ofthe reservoir in feet formation temperature, *F, determinable from lg information deviation factor ofthe gas at formation temperature and pres sure, obtainable from charts; wil be loge to unity ‘The amount of hydrocarbons actully recoverable as a fraction ofthe ‘quantity in place will depend on the reservoir type, the inital bydroearbon, “saturation, and the prodction mechanism. A reasonable extimate frp ‘ary production would be 20% for oll and 70% for gu. THE BASIC INTERPRETATION PROCEDURE ‘Thueo basic logs ere sequlted for adequate formation evalation. Ones needed to show permeable ones, onato give resistivity ofthe undisturbed formition and one to record porosity. An idealized sets shown in Fig, 2-2 ‘The permeable zone logis in Teac 1 the resistivity login Track 2, andthe poraity login Track 2, The permeable zone logis either Spontaneous Potential or Gamma Ray, the restivity i either deep Induction or deep Laterlog, andthe pores log ether Density, Neutron, or Sonic. Given such aset fogs, the problem isto determine * where ate the potential producing zones * how much hydrocarbon (oil or gs) do they contain Selection of Productive Zones ‘Thefics step isto locate the permesble zones, This is done by scanning, thelogin Track l thas base lineon theright end occasional swings tothe EVALUATION OF HYDROCARBONS. 2s Fig. 2-2 iaosized iog sotPy ESSENTIALS OF MODERN OFEN-HOLELOG INTERPRETATION. leftover shortintervale. Thebaslineindleatesshale, which simmpermeable and will not produce, and the swings to the left indicate clean zones—generlly sand or limestone — that may produce. The interpreter focuses is atteation immediately onthe zones labeled A, B, C, and D and isregards the res. ‘Next, the revistvity log in Track 2s scanned tosee which of the zones of Snnenet giver high resistivity readings. High restive reflec ether hydro earbonsin the pores, orlow pores (astuming the pore waters reasonably Saline). Zones A and Cshow high resistivity. ZonesB and D havelow values Of resistivity, which ean only bea result ofthe presence of large amounts of saltwater inthe pores, Thote are obvious weter-bearing interval ‘The question then is whether zones A end C contain hydrocarbons oF simply have low porosity. The porosity log in Track shows values of 0.90 ‘and 0.07 for A and C, respectively. AC tis polnt one may guess that A contains hydrocarboss dnd C i simply tight. However, to be suze, i is ‘necessary to apply one of the water saturation relations Bg, 2.60r Eq. 2.8, ‘whichever is applicable. Calculation of Water Saturation tervals A and B constitute a formation of unlform porasty with an “apparent water-oll contact ust above 7,000. Conditions ere appropriate Tor applying Eq 2.6. The revieivity ofthe water baaringsetion, which by definition sR,,e0.4 oham-m. Thatoftheapparentoil-bearingseaton, Ry is, ‘Sohnem. Consequently ‘Thetis, the pore space contains 29% water and 68% hydrocarbons. It shold be a productive interval ‘Turning now to zane C, we cannot utilize Eq, 2.6 because there is 0 ‘obvious measurement of, fr that formation. Eq. 2.8 must be applied. For that, however, «value of water resistivity, R, must be kxown. Thebes way to obtain Risto apply the ve relation, Eq 2.8, withS, = 1 inawaterbearnginteraithatispearby. Thisispermisible because water salinity changes only slowly with depth. Zone D is a nearby water rng interval. Applying Eq. 2.8 to that zone, suming the Formations ands oof 1 05 Va | EVAWUATION OF HYDROCARBONS. 2s which gives Ry = 0.045 cham ‘Thisvalue of R, applies throughout the 30D interval of Interest. For zone then oo. (aos = Bb LS - 008 Consequently, this zone simply tight water bearing section Knowing R,, the interpretation of zone A ean be checked. Applying 59.28 09 [38 se Sey ose “Thisveifies the value previously obtained. In fact, 1 verifies that zone Bs 100% water bearing. (In an old producing field with an advancing water Adie, a one sch as B could contin residual hydrocarbon.) ‘The only hydrocarbon tobe found isin zone A, The logs of Fig. 2-2 do ot indicate whether It sol or gus, although an appropriate pairaf porosity Togs could do s0, Assume fist it sol. A productive thicknes of approx- imately 10 fie indented, With 40-sere spacing the number of reservoir barrels in place i given by Eq. 2.948 N= 7,758 x 0.90 (1 ~ 0.88) « 10 x a 633,000 Assuming formation volume factor of 1.2 and recovery facto of 0.20, the producible amount would be estimated as 0.2 x 633, 000/12 105,000 stocktank barels, This equates toa potential revenue of $2.62 million ata ret pric of $25/bbI. Completed cost of such a well n the U.S. Gulf Coast ‘would be appreximately $700,000. The vious decision, afterfoganaly3is, Wrould be to complete the well and put i on production. ‘Assume ofthe other hand the servo gas bearing. From Eq, 2.10 the umber of euble fet inst, onthe basi of 160-aere spacing, s G = 43,560 x 0,90 (1 ~ 0.82) x 10 x 160 = 14.2 x 10"2 ESSENTIALS OF MODERN OFENHOLELOG INTERPRETATION ‘Reservoir presure would be stimated as 0.46 X 7,900 oF 3,960 pi and reservoir temperature as approximately 150°F, Assuming a gus deviation {actor of 1.0, the amount of gasin placein standard cublofeet would be, by Eq. 2.11 14.2.x 10" x (3,36014.7) x (520/610) 2,770 x 10" With a recovery factor of 0.70, the producible amount is estimated st 0.7 x 2,770 or 1,940 MMsel. A gat price of §8/Mef would yield po- tential revenue of $5.6 milion, Again the well would be definitly worth completing. IMPACT OF INVASION ON RESISTIVITY MEASUREMENTS Inthe foregoing dscusion the formation rst, Ry was asumed to bethat ofthe undisturbed reservoir beyond any invasion. The dficltiesin measuring that reistivity may be appretted by considering te dtr bance cused by invasion, as lustratedin Fig. 2-3, immediatly behind th borehole wall Rahed sone of diameter containing only mud filtrate of resiivty yy snd residual hydrocarbon, ‘Theresstivity ofthat zones denoted andthe water saturations. The thicknesofthis2one sof the order of in. but canbe mich more or much Jes, Behind the fshedonetsthetranston Zane of ameter which may tend several feet. Beyond thatthe undsturbed formation with exis ‘ty, intel water esstity Rand water saturation S, The existence of nvason has forced the development of ristvty log- sing tools that mesure as deeply at posible in an effort to read R unin fnced by mud frets However, nooo has ben developed tat ca etd deeply enough under al cieumrtanoes and sll maintain god vera ‘eolution. Consequenly, the industry gadly tandarding on rn ‘ing thte ett cure atthe same time. One «dep investigation curve, oneise medium curve, and one irtahalow curve, With tre curves the reading ofthe dep one ea be corrected for Invasion effects to provide an Rivalue.Asasidebonelit the Nushed one rest and the diameter of Invasion can alo beetinated, SAI fas EVALUATION OF HYDROCARBONS 2 ‘Mud Fitrate Resistivity; Froth Muds and Solt Muds ‘To appreciate the difference in resistivity readings of shallow, medium, snd deep curves, it isnecesary to consider the contrast between mud fteate ‘estvity, Ry. and interstitial water resistivity, Mud itate resistivity {emearured at the wellite by the logging engineer. He catches a sample oF ‘ud, preferably From the mad returntine, place itn amu filter pres that foros: filtrate through a flter paper end measures the resitivity of the filtrate In a resistvity-measuring cell. The value of Ry along with the temperature at which fs measured ae included in the log heading, T= rey ote soe Oe pi the war ne one D-wor cones) | »2 ESSENTIALS OF MODERN OPENHOLE LOG INTERPRETATION Most wells are dled with “fred (owsalnity) mads that have Ray values inthe range 4-2 ohm-m at surface temperature. In thesecases Ry, ‘will generally be clase to , in very shallow 2anes where formation waters lve fresh but wil be higher by a factor of about 10 in deep zones where formation waters are saline, Typical values at depths of interest are RL 0,02-0.1 chm-m and Ry = 0.2-L0 cham. This means invaded.zone resistivities wil in general be higher than undisturbed-zane resistivities in ‘water bearing intervals. Incertain areas, however, such asthe Permlan Basin of West Texas, salt. beds are penetrated, Saturated salt mud must be used during driling to prevent the salt beds continually dlsalving end caving, Ry values will be (0.1 ohmem or les at surface temperature, In these oases I, willbe much Jowerthan R nea the surface and somewhat lower than R, in deep form tons. Invaded-zone resistivities willin general belower than virgin ress ities at dopths of interest Fig, 2-4 illustrates how invasion manifests itself on the three resistivity curves with different ceptheaf investigation, TheLLy hasa deth ofinvesti- tation of about If, the HL, 2f, and the Ty 5A In the two permeable Sands where the curves separate the LL reads closeto Rand the TLgreads lowe oF ‘Several deductions can be made. Fest, the sands are obviously water. bearing becaute of the low Ty readings relative to that ofthe intervening ‘hale resistivity (an experience judgment), Second, thewell has been drilled ‘vith fresh mudsince the LL, reade much higher than the IL in the water Sends—in fat, from the ratio ofthe readings, Rey = 6 R,. Third, the invasion is shallow in the ssnds because the Ig reading i cove to the Ty value itwete deep they, would be very influenced by the mua filtrate tnd would read lose to Ll Thus, the postion ofthe IL. curve relative to the others 2 quick look indicator of invasion depth. Finally, we can see thatthe shales have no permeability because they have not invaded; all curves read alike. Tn wels drilled with saturated sult muds, the positions of the three resistivity curvesin water-bearingntervals wil reverse. The shallow curve twill ead lowest andthe deep curve will read highest. Invasion Profiles \ ay Fig. 2-5 shows three different resetivity profiles proosoding from the ‘ushed to the undisturbed zone for the fresh mud cae where R, > Ry The ‘assumption made in deriving correction for R, with three resistivity curves Isastep profile—an abrupt change from R, to Ratan equlvalent dlameter EVALUATION OF YDROCAREONS » dn getuality the resistivity will change gradually from the Ry value at diameter do the R, value at dlamater as shown by the dashed curve of Fig) 25, but field and laboratory tests Mave shown thatthe exact shape of the resistivity profile inthe transition zones not too important. Adequate correction for B, usually can be made with thestep prolle assumption ‘Occasionally, however, a condition occurs in high-poresity formations with high hydrocarbon saturation wherein invading fltrate displaces Inydtocarbon faster than the interstitial water. This ereates an annulus oF bank of formation water where the resistivity ie temporally lower than tither Ror Ry (Fig, 25, doted line), tis a transient phenomenon, lasting only afew days.? eh Fig. 2-4 fect of nvaion onresstvly mecsurements (couresy Echumborgen0 ESSENTIALS OF MODERN OPEN-HOLELOG INTERPRETATION Movable Oil Calculation Tvasion has one redeeming feature: I¢ can provide informetion on hydrocarbon producblity through comparizon of hydrocarbon saturation in the fished and undisturbed zones. The diferenee between the two saturations represents hydrocarbon that hes been pushed beck by lavading fluid and therefore should be recoverableon paccton, atleast by «water rive simulating invasion in reverse. ‘The water saturation relations sieady developed ean be applied tothe ‘ushed zone provided appropriate resistivity valoe are used forthe uid. filled rock, Ra, and the pore fuld, Ry. Following Eq. 2.8, the water saturation in the lashed zane is 8. eV Rain @igy ‘The hydrocarbon saturation (1 ~ §,) will be les than that in the uniavaded zone, (1 ~ 8), by virtue of te duplacement caused by filtrate Therefore, the movable ol seturation sthediference, which i, ~ 8). By Eqs 2.12and28 Su ~ Sy =o Rae VITRO 19 Disanee tom tonto wa Fig. 2-5 Rely profies~step, gradual and onnuius EVALUATION OF HYDROCARBONS. ” ‘Ths the fraction of pore fluid that constitutes moved ol. Ierepreents an upper limit of what might be recovered on production. “Astnexample, asumealimestone formation with = 0.18, Ry = 0.50, y= 10, and R, = 25 ohmem 0 (asi ~VoBTTB)I0.18 = 0.43 4, 5-8 Thats, 4% ofthe reservoir porespace constitutes movableoll. Alterna: tively, the bulk volume fraction of movable ol is @ Sy ~ 8,) 7.7% Eg. 213 works well inalt-mud tuations but tends to overestimatethe ‘mount of movable olin resh-mud conditions, Recent investigation hasled {othe conclusion that all ofthe connate water inthe hydrocarbon bearing zone may not be replaced by mud filtrate; some may be shielded by the residual ol and left in place.“ This incomplete replacement doesnot matter ‘when Ry, = R, atin thecaseo salt mud, However for fresh mud where Roy 3> Rays oo high a value to use for flished-zone water resstivity. The «error an be large when the ol is heavy and residual of satration i high, ‘The same overestimation occurs ifthe invasion ie sallow that the B, reading is influenced by the formation water. ‘Consequently, the preferred method of estimating movable olin fresh mud is with the electromagnetic propagation technique described in chapter. SUMMARY ARCHIE RELATIONS FOR WATER SATURATION. Generals, = 6+ VIR /e @ do8p resistivity, hmm Interstitial water resistivity, hem pporosty fraction 4.0 for carbonates, 0.9 or sands Speci: §, = Vig © {osstivty of water-beoring formation of same ‘porosity and R, a8 for formation,2 [ESSENTIALS OF MODERN OPENHOLE LOG INTERPRETATION RECOVERABLE OM, STOCKTANK BBL N= 72680-6:(1=8,)-n- AB @ 1 = recovery factor. «0.2 = thickness of producing formation, ft ‘A = well spacing, acres, B= volume factor of ol. =1.2 RECOVERABLEGAS, MMsct Ge 154 rg (L~S) HA RAZ (46041) ©) 1 = recovery factor, =0.7 P, = reservoir pressure, pl T, = reservoir temperature, °F 2 = gosdeviation octor,0.8-4.2 ‘BASIC INTERPRETATION STEPS 4. Scan thology logsin Track 4(SP andlor GR} plekout perme- ‘able zones; dlscard shaies 2, Scandeep-eadting resistivity cuve in Track2(usuolly Inu: tion) inpeimeable zones, looking for high values. hese must 'be due either to hydrocarbons in pores orto low porosty 3, Read porostisin zones of interes! Track 30" separate log). 4, If there is a nearby water sand of the same poresty, apply Eq, btoobtaln water saturation. at 5. Ifstep 4 does not apply, determine R, by applying Ea. oto the nearby watersand with , = 1. hen oppiy Ea, aagainto the zone of interes to obtain water saturation, 6. Coleulate recoverable hyarocarbon by Eqs. cor a. INVASION + Con correct Rang 1 R with three resstvty curves, * Driling mud may be fresh yg > Ry) OF Sling (Re < Ra) * Movable oll con be caleulated So Sy © (VRifhe —VRIR) 16 a mud filrate resstvity at level of Intorest, ohm @ EVALUATION OF HYDROCARBONS. Rap = fished zone resistivity, cher. {he calcuiation is more rllable with salt mud than fresh mud REFERENCES |W.0, Winsauer, HLM. Shearn Je. P.H. Mason and M. Willams, "Bess da of Brine Saturated Sands in Relation to Pore Geowety,” AAPG Bull, Vo 96 (Pebruary 1059), pp. 253-27. GLE, Arche, “The Elcrcl Resistivity Logat.an Adin Determining Some ‘Reservoir Characters,” SPE-AIME Transactions, Vo, 18 (1949), p. St-€2 “AM. Gandouinend A. Heim, "Experimentally Determined Resist Profiles in invaded Water end Oil Sands for Linear Flows,” SPE peper 712 presented (ctober 60,1063, “C-Boeldiou and A. Sibi, “A Moce Accurate Water Setaratin Evaluation In-The Invade Zane" SPWLA Logalng Synpostm Transact June 100),Chapter 3 PERMEABLE ZONE LOGS hefitststepin analyzing asetoflogy, ss outlined previously, isto pick ‘out the permeable zones, which may be sands or eazbonates, and ‘discard the impermeable shales, The logs used fr this purpose are the Spontancous Potential (SP) andthe Gamma Ray (GR). They ave always recorded in Track 1 “Thetwologs distinguish shale from nonsheles by quitedifferent mecha. nisms The SP isan cletroal meaturement and the GR ca nuclear measure ‘ment, Sometimes the logs are virtually identical; sometimes they are vastly different. Fortunately, when one Is poor, the other is usually gd Fig. -1 compares SP and GR logs i atypical soft rock sand-and-shale sequence, Both curves are good in thisoase and clearly distinguish theshales fn the right from the permeable sands on the Tet, In soft rock the SP generally gives a more Black-and-white distinction btweea the shales and thesands than does the GR, The later shows more variability in bth shale and sand readings. By contrast, n hard limestone formations the SP may be a lazy, poorly developed curve that hardly resolves permeable and impermeable zones. ‘The GR i superior under these conditions, giving good shale-carbonate distinction and bed relation. Both curves aroused to indicate theshele content ofapermeablezone or shaly formation interpretation (chapter 7). The CR is more quantitative than the SP in thisrexpect, On the other hand the SP may beusedt give the formation water resistivity required for saturation calculations ‘SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL (SP) LOG ‘The SP log sa ecordingof thediffarencein electrical potential between fied electrode atthe surface and a movableelectrodein theborehole. The hole mustbe fled with conductive ud, NoSP canbe measured in o-base ‘mud, empty holes, or ented holes, The scale of the SP log isin milivlts ‘There leno absolute zero; only chengas in potential are recorded, 3836 ESSENTIALS OF MODERN OPEN-HOLE LOG INTERPRETATION. Measurement of theSPissimple, but understanding thelog isnot so easy ‘The logs the one curve among modern logs whose boundary response and ‘bed definition vary widely with formation and mud properties, The SP curve used to * select permeable zones * provide Ryvalues ‘timate the degree ofshalines of recervotr rack ‘SOURCE OF SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL ‘The potential sensed ise combinstion of four electreal potential set in ‘motion when the drilhle penetrate the formations. Tete ate shown in Fig. $2 with polarities eppropriate forthe usual feshinud ease where ier ae Ke PERMEABLE ZONELOGS a Rqy> Ry. They aro, inorder of importance n electrochemical potential, Ey, existing across the impermeable hale betwoen itshorizontal interface witha permeable zone and ts vertical interface with the borehole * an electrochemical potential, Ey, existing acres the transition between invaded und noninvaded zones n the permeable bed + an cleotrokineti potenti, E,., existing acres the mud acke «an electrokinetic potential, Egy existing serosa thin layer of shal text to the borehole Fig. 9-4 Comparison of ond Glogs tof farmation (rom ADpiod Openhole Log interpretation courtesy .W. Michie) Fig. 3-2 Origin ol spontaneous potentioh8 ESSENTIALS OF MODERN OPEN-HOLELOG INTERPRETATION Electrochemical Potentias'24 The potential Ey is a membrane potential asociated with selective ppssageof ons inthe shal. Because of layered clay structure andchargeson the layers, shales pass Na+ ions but retain Cl~ fons. When shale separates sodium chloride solution of different concentrations, the Na+ fons move ‘through the shale from the more-concentrated solution (normally the for- ‘mation water) tothe les-concentrated solution (normally the md) This constitutes a current flow. The magnitude ofthe potential causing thisflow {8 function ofthe ion activities of the two scution, these Int related to thelr reativities. For sodkun chloride solutions 17" potential in milivots is Eq = ~50.1 og Rew/R.) an RaandR., are equivalent resistivities closely related to actul values of Rayan R,. The negative sign means the potential snegetive relative the vilue observed in a thick shale fa from a boundary. ‘The potential Ey i a lguid junction or diffusion potential that exists sera the interface of solutions of different salinity. Cl lons have greater ‘mobility than do Na+ ions, so there is « net flow of negative charges ftom the more concentated formation wate to theles-congetrated md ‘Thistsequivalenttoa current low inthe opposite direction. The magni- tude ofthe corresponding potential, i milivats, for sodium chloride salu- Along at TF is MS log PalR) 62) ‘This potential has the same dependeney ae Ey but only one-fifth as large Tels af sch polarity esto add to Ey, ‘Combining the two, the total elctrochemicl potentials 4 Eg Kop a/R) 63) , whichis proportionate absolute temperature, s given by K=o1+ousr (4) where T isin degrees Fahreaheit. ‘Typically, E16 70-100 my for frech mad and saline formation waters, PERMEABLE ZONELOGS ” Hoctrotttration Potentials“ ‘The potential E,. across the mud cake is of a diferent nature. Tt i an lectrofitration or reaming potential thats produced by «low of lectro- Iyte themud filtrate, through a porous medium, the mud cake, The magni tude esnnat be predicted with any accuracy. However, an approximate relation forts value, in my, hasbeen given as . By, = 004+ APVEinT os where AP = pressure differential between borehole and formation, psi yg = mud eake rsitvity, ohm-m tar = mud cake thieknesy, in| P= APL waterlos of the mud, c!20 min With AP = 200, Ry, = 2, to 0.95, and conditions, Eq. 3.5 gives B= 8 mv. “Typically Eq i few miliveltsand addsto , forthenormal ease of Fy > R,_ However, itis partially counterbalanced by a similar potential, Ey, Gt opposite polarity atthe shale-borehole boundary where the shale itself tots esa thick mud cake with very low water los. Consequently, the net > Re Dut poorly in salt mud where Rey = Re obtainable trom SP, but values must be chosen carefully. ‘pecially at depths at lss than 3,000 1 Shaly sands reduce SP especialy when hycroearbon boaring. Maximum value of shale content can be computed trom log. ‘+ Abnormal readings obtained in pressure-depieted zones and in high vertical permeability zones. GAMMA RAYLOG ‘+ Amecturement of gamma-ay intensly in the borehole dueto natural asintegration of Uh. and K * U.Th, and k tend fo concentrate In shales and occur least In clean sands and carbonates, PERMEABLEZONELOGS “ Shales appear as excursions to right: clean foxination 16 the lef. GR curve is good In hard rock regions where $° is deticient. Apilme Indicator of degree of shalinessof formation. Shaliness estimated by interpolating between cleda formation Ine and shale ine Spectral GR logs sepaiate total response inlo.U, Th, ond K contributions, Improves reservolr delineation, ond shale cesimation, © Do not repeat exactly. Statistical fluctuations limit speed to 4,800 fh (vs 5,000 fi or Sonic or Electle). Also holds true for Clinucteariogs. Donotreca sharp peaks, Averages over 3A ft should be token. Repeat run overlays indicate magnilude of statistical fuctuations Depth of penotration—6 in; vertical resolution — 3 REFERENCES, "11.6. Dall “TheSP Lo: Thott Analyse ad tinh of Interreta Trans AIME, Vo, 178 (1048). BACT, Wyll, “A Quantitative Anuj the Blstro-Chemieal Compe nan of th SP Carte,” Jour Pt. Tech, Val. 1 (1040), p17 *M Gondouin, HJ, Hil, and MH. Wann, “Ar Investigation of the lotro, Chemical Component ofthe SP Carve," Jour Pe. Teck (Mare 196}, "SMR. Wyle, “An Investigation ofthe Electrokneie Component ofthe Sa Poyenia Curve," Tran. AIME, Vol 192 (1951, pL Mt Gondouln and C. Seal, "Steaming Poets andthe SP Lo.” Jour. Pat, Tech, (August 1958) x4. Walia AJ. deWitte, and J, Warten, “On the Steaming Peter til Problem.” Trans, AIME, Vl. 219 (198) 40, "HJ. Hiland AE. Anderor, “Steaming Potent! Phanomens in SP Log Innerpetaion,” Troms. ALME, Vo. 316 (1639), p20. Voy E. Althaus, “Eleteokinetic Potente fm South Loui Tertiary Sediments,” Phe Log Analyt (May-July 1987, 9.28 Schlumberger, Lag Interpretation Chars (107), DreserAas, Lop Interpretation Chart (1979) "NG Gandoin MCP. Tiner, and G.L, Simard, "An Experimental Sty on ‘he ntuenc ofthe Chemical Cmpodton of Electayteson te SP Curve,” four Pet Tech. (February 1957. ‘B16. Dal, "The SP Login Shay Sand,” Trans. ATME, Vol 189 (1950). LTA. Sty, “SP Log interpretation in Shaly Sand,” Soc. of Pet. Bing. Vol. 8 198), pp. 123-100 se esre ESSENTIALS OF MODERN OPEN-HOLE LOG INTERPRETATION 24M. Tae, “Sm ef Ivan onthe SF Cae,” 35 IT, Dovan, CV. Kips W.& Mot, A. Peron ‘and W.R. Rabson, “API Calibration Facility for Nuclear Li od. Prac. (Houston: API, 1989). " bap." Dal ond Prod PRTG at Ramer, “eH of Poti Made oo Gamay an Spt Pol Mearns" SPWLA Loa Spee um oe June 1976). ve tion. “Camm fy Log Reon of Shay Sandon: ‘Analy September October 197) ere elon ‘ek nd WA. Hope, “Naural Canna Ry pc Loa The Log Analyst (September-October 1871), Sees eee ‘rete Aes, "Specnlog (18 Hasan, A. Howin nd A. Comba “Pedant Difernia annette SEA aga pn Fe Sen}. Bait. A Qu, Thay od Pri pe ose ata Cane Ray Spectre, SPA Login Spon Trans ‘one Quy 1960). LeenaSymen Wis Fert nd, Fro, J, “Exprnc with Nature Carma ay ‘Spectral Logging In North America,” SPE 1145, New Orleans (September 1082). "ik: Quen) Cardo nt] Watson, “Conbind Neue Cama ay Split Benaly Messen Are o Comper ithsegac' PE 1 New Ores atone 18) ese aay Spec i Chapter 4 RESISTIVITY LOGS heasio interpretation relation in wll ogging, as developed inch ter 2, ithe water saturation relation = eR! 6 cay “The most important input to this equation (since its value ean never be guested) isthe reitivity, R, of the unlnvaded region ofthe formation in question. ‘No resistvity- measuring ool has yet been designed that can reach deep enough to guarantee reading R, under all posible invasion conditions while retaining good bed resolution, Therefore, from early days resistivity logs have consisted of three curves: deep, medium, and shallow investigation. With these three measirements and the assumption ofa sep invasion pro- file, correction ean be made tothe deep reading to obtain ‘Nevertheless, many logs have bon run with only two curves, deep and shallow reading. These clearly show invasion effects but do not permit ‘correction to the deep reading, which must be assumed equal to Ry. The tssuemption is reasonable in high-porositysreas where invasion is shallow butcan eed tosignificanterzorsin low-porosity gions where invasion may be deep. ‘Over the years there has been a continual sucesion of resistivity tools with improved designs replacing older ones. It would be conveniont to Torget the absolete versions, but we cannot. Company files and log ibraries stl abound with old logs that ae continually being reviewed for new ‘siling or production prospect —_—<—— CLASSIFICATION AND APPLICATION aeaeae anes Table 4-1 is clasfication of the major resistivity tools that have been sed or aren use. The curves ae categorized by thelr radiof investigation, Ther deep (8+ fy median (15-3), shallow (0.5-1.54), and flushed zone 6ESSENTIALS OF MODERN OFENHOLE LOG INTERPRETATION RESISTITY LOGS “ (1-8 n.). The number given for any curve represents the SD% response ‘Septn measured from the borehole well, meaning that 50% ofthe response ofthe tol comes from the formation contnined within the indicated depth fd 50% comes from beyond that depth, Asan average the 80% response ‘depth is approximately twice the 50% depth. The figures apply to homoge ‘neous Formations of average resistivity Tal deep, medium, and shallow curves are obtained with electrodes or coils mounted on eylindrieal mandrels that are run more or les centralized fn the hole, Te contrast the flushed zone (miroressivity) curves are ‘obtained with pad-mounted electrodes forced to ride one side of the hole. ext, ‘The combinations circled on Table 4-1 represent those curves that ean be ‘obtained simultancovsly on a single pas inthe bole, ELECTRICAL SURVEY (5) TOOLS' era Pir to 1950, all resistivity measurements were made with simple olee- trode arrays of the type shown in Fig. 4-1 (the Normal) and 4-2 (the Taterl) A constant ervey current [was emitted from electrode A and returned to electrode B, The voltage V between electrodes M snd N was measured. The ratio Vil, multiplied by a constant dependent onthe elec- trode spacing, gave the resistivity. After some period of exper'mentation, the ES tool configuation settled down in oft rock areas toa short Norm with 1@:n, spacing e long Normal with 6-in spacing, and a Lateral with — CLASSIFICATION OF RESISTIVITY TOOLS “Tete, in. spacing, all carves being obtained simultaneously. Other spac: {ngs continued to be used in hard rock areas, The greater the spacing, the {greater the depth of investigation “The ES logs were dificult, sometimes almost imposible, to iterpret. Extensive char are required to correct for borchole, bed thiknes, and “seca Ta SS oe HP TT TT [hdjacent-bedrestivty effects” In particular the curves wore relatively tases for bed thicknesses less than about. timesthespacing {e.,28 ¢40" the Later and 8 ft forthe long Normal. The short Normal curve was the Inost usable, but Itwas sverey affected by invasion. The basi problem Mth the ES logs wes thet the dizection of the survey current was not a Sah TABLE 4-4 ‘ontolled. took the pathof east eistance favoringeonduetive mud and onditive shoulder beds over resistive beds at the level ofthe tol. "As result the Tong Normal and Lateral curves were replaced in the 1900s by focused logs in wich the path of thesurvey current was controlled. ‘The focusing minimized borehole and adjacent bed effets and provided ‘Kmultaneousy both deep penetration and good bed resolution. Two types act naan Ree46 ESSENTIALS OF MODERN OFEN-HOLELOG INTERPRETATION of focused tools were introduced. One waste Induction, which works best in freh-mud, medium-to-high-porosty conditions. The other was the Laterolog, which is best suited to salt-mud, low-poresty conditions. FRESH MUD TOOLS ‘The frst major sytem to replace to ES combination for fresh mud logging was the deep Induction combined wth theshort Normal TAs was called TES or IEL, dependingon theservicecompany. (The deep Induction Resisivi LOGS ” waspreceded fora few yearsby amedium Induction that didnot las). Later Schlumberger replaced the short Normal by ashallow focused tog called the Spherieally Focused.” Thousands of logs have beon run and are stil being run with thete IESITEL/ISF eombinations. ‘nthe mid 1960sthe Dual Induction tool wasintroduced.*Itcomprised a eep-resding Induction, a medium-reading Induction, and a shallow focused-electrode array. The combination was designated DIL-LLS, DIFL, or DISC, depending on the service company. An improved version Meter saci] —| ez Normal Fig. 4-1 Normal ory (courtesy Schlumberger) Meter wo al! 4] SPACING mel ne O Lateral (Basic Arrangement) Fg. 4-2 Loteraamtay (courtesy Sonkemberger)ro ESSENTIALS OF MODERN OFEN-HOLE LOG INTERPRETATION with the Spherieally Focused shallow lg, the DISF, was Introduced by Schlumberger in the mid 1970s. Gradually the Dual Taduction tools are replacing the single Induction systems because oftheir invasion. correcting capabilites ‘Two lushed-zonetoolsareshown {in thefresh mud category. The Miro log, also called Mitlog and Contato, waslntrodiced about 1950."Ttis nonfoewsed device with very shallow depth of tnvestigtion. I primarily indiates the presence or absence of mud cake in grest vertical detall ‘Therefor, i an excellent permeablezone or sand-count indicator—the best available. Under favorable circumstances ican give the Nushed zone Fesitivity, R., buts not really designed for that purpose. The Microlog is discussed in chapter 5 along with the Electromagnetic Propagation Log, ‘with which thas been recently combined, ‘The Proximity lois a focused curve that mesures lashed zone resitiv- ty, Ru in the preence of thick mud cakes that can occu with fresh mud ‘The Ravalue can be used for movable oll calculation or for deriving adai- tional information about the invasion profile. The tol must be run sep rately from the Induction logs but ean be run simultaneously with the “Mlerolog. Tt has been superseded by the MicroSFL, which ean be run simltanoousl with the Induction. SALT MUD TOOLS ‘Two mediuen-Invesigation focused tool were introduced in the 1950's for sat mud surveying. They werethe Lateolog7 andthe Laterolog-, also called the Guerd log At the same time a flushed zone tool called the “Microlaterologor azo, was introduced. Tt could provide ood R, values for mud cakes up to 6 i. thick. The medium and fshed-2one curves had tobe run separstely and could only provide good water saturation and ‘movable oil values if invasion was not to deep -Asaconsequence the separate tols were succeeded inthe 1970sby Dual LLaterlog systems comprising deep and shellow curves run simultaneously ‘with a Pushed zone log." Designation for Dreser and Welex are DLL- MLL and Dual Guard-FoRxo, Inthe ase of Schlumberger, the Dual Later- ‘logis combined with a Micrapherically-Focused curve that ean read, accurately over a wider rengeof conditions than can the MLLIFoRcocarve. ‘The combination is denoted DLL-MSFL. Once again the single Laterolog tools are being phased out i favor ofthe dul aystems with thei invasion correcting capability ResisnvY Logs « RANGES OF APPLICATION OF INDUCTION LOGS AND LATEROLOGS, ‘The Induction combination isthe onesuitabe inthe majority of ease. It applies wherever the mud i reasonably fresh and the resstvity isnot too high. Fig. 4-9 is more specific. It shows that the Induction should be ran whenever Ra/R, fegrestr than approtimately 2and theformation rity ity, Ry, doesnot exceed ebout 200 obm-m the log not accurate at higher resistivities, Restivity increases as porosity dactesses, so there Is & low al INDUCTION LOG + PREFERRED | ABOVE APPROPRIATE at fy CURVE 2 | I > TTT te | 2 cateroros \l TTT 2 PREFERRED AL HR 20.1.0 oral I U eledd Ue L SelpeStonebhare cove a or re) Rint /Ry—> fig, 4-3. Ranges of apptcation of induction bg anc Laeroiog (courtesy Schuumbeross» ESSENTIALS OF MODERN OPENHOLE LOG INTERPRETATION pores limit. The eutffcorzesponding t 200 chan is dependent on the R, value, as indicated. Typically, R, i about 0.05 and RyJR, is approxl- ‘mately 10 in fresh mad, in which ease the low- porosity cuto le 5 TE the mud i conductive relative to formation water, 0, Ry/ Ry < 2, the Laterologshould berun. It isalsothebest in fresh md when reitvities sbove 200 ohms ae encountered bocaus tis accurate a igh resistivities, Tnborderline eases, large boreholes (> 12.) and degp invasion (> 40 In.) favor the Laterolog. This commonly oeurs in the Eastera Hemisphere." ‘The reasons why the Induction and Laterolog are preferred under the Indieated conditions will Become eppareat inthe next two sections where the principles and interpretation of the tol are presented. The discussion is confined to the Schlumberger eomabinatons, the DIL-SFLon theone hand tnd the DLL-MSFL on the other, since they ae the most advanced tools in tach oetegory.Ifthese are understood, there sno dificalty in interpreting fogs run with alder or single-curve versions of Induction of Lateolog tls DUAL INDUCTION—SPHERICALLY FOCUSED LOGS ‘The Induction log inherently senses the conductivity ofthe formation, hich s the inverse ofits eitivty. In commonly used units conductivity in mmho/m = 1,000/restivty, ohm-m “The principle ofthe Induction system i ustrated in Fig. 4-4." A constant current of 20 kHz frequency is fed to a transmitter col. This generates an alternating magnet fel that cause a clcular current (Fou: ‘aul or eddy curren! to flow in the surrounding medium. This cureent in turn creates « magnetic fleld that induce a voltage inthe receiver col. The Induced voltage s approximately proportional tthe surrounding conduc- Listy, From this voltage the formation conductivity and thence Its esiiv- ity i derived for presentation onthe lg. With the singletransmiter, singlerecever system shown, contribu tions from th borehole end invaded zane ar well as from neighboring beds above and below the col pir would conettut a stgificant portion ofthe receiver signal, Practical Induction tools therefore utilize an array of aul- lary transmitter and receiver coll, spaced above and below the main on Resisnvty Loos a vomininiz ths contribution ant aximie depth of poneeation and Seta latin, Typist or mre cals ith appronimatly 40m weet ater the wala tecnmtersecier pl re ed (Fi, 4-8) 6 Bee dcop reading curve, dnote Uy Fewer cols ae used %0 foie the media reading cre, dented Ly ‘Fac ndustionlogregterve conductive sid nthe borehole fori oper ree peti vr well nfacs uti ole with airorgasor with ‘ate mud. No other rast toa canbe asd under thse clear ances Dopih of Penotaton of induction Logs ig. 48shows the depth of penetration ofthe dap, Hay and medi, ase se Ncinepate geomet factor ed therative weight UAE te lot ssa tw ylincial tel of the surrounding mein woes te surface the onde to any ptr diameter Each STUER eth etal eondurvty sina in accordance wih the Sco sconductty an terative weight. Preamp, Cy the y) omar Moose \ reopen |) Ee Hay iH . edd Induction principle (courtesy Schlumbergern ESSENTIALS OF MODERN OFENHOLELOG INTERPRETATION conductivity ofthe invaded 2one, its diameter, and , the conductivity of ‘heundisturbed formation, then the apparent conductivity, Cy, reed by the tool (negleting any borehole signal) 6= 6.6.4 Gl - Gy a2 Tn terms of resistivity UR, = GyiR,,+ (1 = Gai/R, 43) For homogenous formations with no invasion, Fig. 4-6 old line) gives relative signal contributions from different rglons. For example, 50% of thesignal comes from within and 50% comes fom beyond a diameter of 11 {for the I. The corresponding figure forthe IL. i ft s0 thas only balf ‘the dopth of investigation at does the IL, Note thatthe IL assigns greatest ‘eight to that part of the formation situated at about €D in. diameter, the I, assign tt tha part at 40 in. diameter, ae shown by the maximum, slope points on thelr respective curves, a Fig. 4-5 Practica! Induction ary (courtesy Oresor) resistivity LoGs ” For the usual ease of invaded form: used tolustrate why 0 salt med. ‘Consider atypical fresh mud ease where R= 1, R,= 10, Ry, = 20, and = 65 in. The IL geometrical factor for 65 in. 10.2. Eq. 4.3 gives ions, the above equations may be Tductlon works wall in fresh mud and poorly in UR, = 0.2190 + (= 0.310 R= Mobmm “The ILy therefore reads only 10% in erroe. Applyinga small correction factor obtainable from the IL, and SFT readings is reasonable. ‘The situation with salt md is quite diffrent. The same formation, riled with salt mud of Ry=0,05 ohmem, would have R= 1.0. The Hy reading would then be UR, = 0.2/1.0 + (1 ~ 0.9910 R,= 36 ohm Tnthiscase the TL.readsfar from th correct value, It would be impes- ‘leto obtain sufficiently accurate correction factor foi the Ly and SFL. INTEGRATED RADIAL GEOMETRICAL FACTOR GEOMETRICAL FACTOR 64 |——no shin estect Skin Eifect Included: Case of Fag, Ry | Ob DIAMETER} (INCHES) ig. 4-6 Depth of pensation of induction log (courtesy Sehiumberaer)™ ESSENTIALS OF MODERN OPEN-HOLELOG INTERPRETATION Inceality the error in salt mud conditions seven greater than illustrated ‘because the geometrical actor curves of Fig 4-0 that apply toque resistive formations shrink to emaller diameters as resistivity decreases, giving treater welghtto the invaded zone (dashedline) Thisphenomenon scaled {kin or propagation effect. "The important point is thatthe Induction log wil be adversely affected by an invaded zone more conductive then the undisturbed formation. It prefers invaded zone les conductive (more resistive) than the uninvaded formation Borehole tttects ‘Borehole uid contributes an undesiedsgnal tothe Induction response, It's inconsequential when the mud is fresh, the hole size i smal, oF the formation conductivity is high. However, it can be sigalfcant under the reverse conditions. ‘Borehole correction is made by means of Fig, 4-7. For the example ‘tustrated TL,with Sin, standoffina 14.6-n, oe, theboreholegeomet- eal fator is 0,002, With R, = 0.35 obim-m (2887 mmbolm), the bole Signals (0.002 X 2,857) oF 5.7 mmho/m, as indicated by the nomograph. ‘This signal must be subtracted from the I. conductivity reading to obtain ‘hecorrected formation conductivity, The correction sngligibleif the Ty readingilessthan 10 ohan-m (Le. greater than 100 meholm) but signifie ant at higher resistivities. For example, ifthe ILy read 50 ohm-m (20 ‘mmholm), the corestedrestvity would be 000/(0 ~ 5.7} r70 ohm, ‘The situation i aggravated when the mud is more conductive. For the same conditions as efted, except with R= 0.15 ohm-m, the hole signal & 18.3 mmbo/m. An IL, reading of 8 would correct to 149 ohm-m, an cexcesively large adjustment. In goneral, a correction of more than 30% to theindicatedresutivitys unreliable because therelsomeuncertainty inthe hole rometrcal factor, the hole may be oxt-ofround, thestandoff may be affected by madoake orholeragosty,andthere may besome uncertainty in sud rest. Fig 47 shows two additions important points. First, borehole coree- tions are much greater with the Induction tool against the wal than stood of from the wall, A minlmum standoff of 1.5 in. should always be wed. ‘This isnormal procedure for service companiesbut should be checked atthe ‘wells, Standoff devices are sometimes omitted when there difficuty io iting the tol dowahole. Resist LOGS % Second, the hole corr tons are uch larger forthe medium-reading 11, then forthe Infact, corrections become excessive wth hole diame tect lnger than 12, even with fresh mud, Th limits the we ofthe dual Induction tool in some areas. ed Thicknoss Effects “The Induction log ha vertical bed resolution of approximately 4 as determined primally by the main col spacing "There are, however, contributions from beds well above and below the «4-tsection drcetly opposite the tool. These contribution ae negligible in ‘oftrock but aresigitiant in hard rock when the shoulders are much more ‘onductive than the bed of intrest, even when the later fs much thicker [ fig. 4-7 Borehole correction ot id ond im (courtery Sehiumberoer)7% ESSENTIALS OF MODERN OPENHOLELOG INTERPRETATION than {ft Such could be thecaseforeremple of a10-fthydrocarbon- bearing Tow-porosty limestone sandwiched between two shales, The Induction ‘ould read too low by factor of two in a worst case ‘Charts exis in servce-company manual for bed thickness correction. However, they presume thick homogeneous shoulder beds, a condition not folten satisfied in hard rock. For the most pat, then, Induction log bed thickness correction ae ignored, either as Unnecessary or inapplicable to the conditions at hand Sonde Error Ifthe Induction sonde i ifted high in the air with no conductive mate fal in its vicinity, there can stl be a small signal op the order ofa few ‘holm daeto rida! coupling between transmitter and receiver collsor {olmbslenee in the receiver circuits. This termed sonde orrr. Normally the error is balanced out before the logis un. The log heading should 0 Indiate, There sno guarantee however that sone eror remains the same fn the borehole, under high temperature and pressire conditions, This, ‘long with borehole effect isthe reason the Induction logis not accurate in ‘measuring formation conductivtasls than § mmholm (resistivities above 200 chm). ‘THE SPHERICALLY FOCUSED LOG (SF) “The SFLis the shallow-reading resistivity curve ofthe DIL-SFL combi- ration, I is obtained with a set of separate electrodes mounted on the Induction onde. Fig. 4-8illstates the principle Survey current i, flows Hom the center lestrode, A, Avarablefocusingeurret, i, flowsbetween ‘Av and the aunilary electrode pair, A, and A,', connected together. By appropriate adjustment, the focusing current forces the survey curren 10 enter he formation nthesame manner ast wouldif there were no borehole (oith spherical equipotentil lines sch as Band C, hence the name). With this sytem, conflicting requirement of shallow formation penetration and Independence of borehole size and salinity over a wide range are met. “The depth of penetration of the SFL. is shown in Fig, 4-9. Its signifi. cantly shallower than that ofthe predecesor curves, the LL-S (or short Guard) and 16-in, Normal. ‘This means it ives greater weight to the Invadedzone, which desired, butin general itstillendstoodeeptogivean ttcurate measurement of flushed zone resistivity, Ry. "The vertical bed resolution of the SFL, LL-8, andshort Guard sabout 1 fk Bel thickness corrections are not required RESISTIVITY LOGS ” Borehole effector theSFL are normally neigible. Allshallow resistiv- 1 curves tend to reed resistivities too low i the borehole becomes quite large and invaded sone reitivity becomes high lative to mud resistivity {meaning low porosity), For borehole diameters of 6-12 in., SFL. correc tions are negligible up to RyyJ/R,, = 2,000, LL-8 or short Guard eorrction becomes signifieant at R/R,> 10D and 16-in, Normal corrections signif cant if Ry, > 20, Correction charts are fund in service company chart books but are not often necessary. LOG PRESENTATION Fig. 4-10 shows a typleal presentation ofthe Sin_100t DIL-SFI. log when its run in combination with the Sone log. The SP eure, which is “Dbtained simultaneously, is recorded in Track 1 on a linear sele. Alo Shown isan R,, curve; this is deseribed in chapter 9, The thee resistivity furves ave recorded in‘Teack 2 and half of Track 9 on loguithmieseale 9.448 Pincinl of the spherical focused log (couse Serkumberger),7 ESSENTIALS OF MODERN OFEN-HOLE LOG INTERPRETATION covering 0.2-200 ohm, The deep curve is always heavy dashed, the tedium curve is light dashed, and the sallow curve is sold the later is tinaveraged (SFLU) inthis ease nthe contr of Track isthe caliper curve (Gotted) with the bit size (714 in.) shown dashed. The Sonte log, to be ‘Siseused ater, srocordedin theright hand sidaof Track®. Notethe breaks {inthe right and left edges of the grid. These occur at I-min intervals and Serve to indicate logging speed. Ts thls casei was 86 ftimin or 5,200 fh. ‘On the 2in./100f log the reitvities are presented on alinen eae to feclitate correlation with alder linear seal logs. The SFL or LLS is aver~ aged over3 to reduceit dell tothatof the Induction curves. Further, the eep Induction conductivity reading presented in Track3 on ascale from Fight olf This facilitate reading very low I, values, such as may occur in salt-water sands. For example, an Ty vale of 0.55 ohm-m, dificlt to read accurately on the reistvty seal, ean be read easly a 1,820 mmbo!m on the conductivity sale, In Fig. 4-10, which sa og ofthe Travis Peak formation in East Texas, the SP curve indloates permeable zones at A, C, E, and G and relatively RésisTIMITY Loss ” Impermeable intervals at B, D, and F. In the permeable zones the three resistivity curves show wide separation indicating deep Invasion. Th is Supported by the caliper curve where mud eakes up to aboot ' in. in thickness are indicated (Shaded sections). Zones D and F show no curve Separation, indieting th" they are formations, probably shales, with zero permeability. On the ather hand interval B shows some separation of the BFL and Induction curves but none between the two Induction logs. This Fg. 4-9 Deoths otpenetration othe shalow ously curves (coureny ‘Schlumberger Fg. 4-10 Typlcal presentation of Dual Induction FL or L#) og (eourony Schumberged%0 ESSENTIALS OF MODERN OPENHOLELOG INTERPRETATION {plies low but finite permeability with hallow invasion, The section is a shay sand or earbonate, nota pureshale, It is apparent from both the negative SP values and the Bur. > Rh separation inthe permeable onesthat the well was dll with fresh mud, with Ry 5> Ry. However, ti not evident from the resistivity logs alone that hydrocarbons are present. There ino obvious water-besring interval for reference. We could caleulate water saturations with porosities derived from the Soni log but wil reserve this unt later. Determination of ‘The object ofthe interpretation procedure isto tlie the thresresistiv- ity values obtained in a given zone to correct the deep reading for invasion ‘nd thus to arsve at the best posible B, value. This is done by means ofthe tornado chart in Fig. 4-11 ‘The Ly IL. and SF, readings are first corrected for borehole and bed thickness elfecs f neceary, to give corrected Rip, My ane Re, val ‘Then the ratios Ry/Typ and Rey /Ryyareenterodon thechart and hee point (of inlersction is established. From the location of this point, the value of BURip is found by interpolating between the dotted curves. (RR, and invasion diameter, dean also be found from the other sts of curves, but thele value are of academic interes.) Far exemple, inthe middle of zone C where Rp = 5.2, Ry = 9, and Rar. = 29, Ry of 1 and Ben / Rip of 5.0 Uses of 0.85, which means the cortet 60.65 X'5.20r3.4chm-m. {Invasion diameter approximately 1008. Rls found to bed X 8.4 or ohm-m. ‘Several points are noteworthy. Fst, the Ry correction factor isbetween 1Loand0,6, although somechars goto0.5. Thismeansthateven with deep invasion the IL reas close oR, Ts for this reason that single Induction tools were succesful for many years. A 20% error in , translates toonly a 10% error in water saturation, for example, when the saturation equation, Eq. 4.1 applied. ‘Second, tredepth of invasion is reflected by thereativevaluesof the two Induction readings, A ratio Ry fy greater than 1. indicates quite deep {avasion @,> 0 in) and avaluelesthan 1-2 indicates hallow invasion ( ‘240 in). These ratios convert to constant separations between the curves ‘ne logatthmiesealeso the depth of invasion canbe eyebaled easly onthe logs. THiGK ees, || ein 208mm Hoke sun errecr commecteo| | Fg / Fg 100 DIS-€a°R ERUIVALENT, a. 4-14 Invasion coraction chan fer Dual induction SL (courtesy Sehlumboroon@ [ESSENTIALS OF MODERN OPENHOLELOG INTERPRETATION ‘Third the value of R, derive from the chart, generally 1.5 to2 times the SFL reading, i not sufficient accurate for movable ol calculation becuse of approximations and uncertainties Ia thechart. Inanycxse move bleol ealclatton with fresh mud is suspect, for reasons given in chapter 2. DUAL LATEROLOG—R,,LOGS Laterolog systems utilize a multiple electrode array to force survey cu rent to travel eteralyacrosthe mud and into the adjacent formation. The tedvantages that accrue are the ability to operatin very salty mud, excellent bed definition, and independence to neighboring bed resistivities, “There are two basi types of focused-lectode Laterolog arrays. One is thed-lettode system, commonly called Guerdlogor LL3, and the others the 7 to electrade system, with designations suchas LLT, LLB, LL, ad LLL, Both ystems opersteon much ehesame principle, as Hustrated in Fig +13, Fig. 412 Base Loterciog arrays (coureny Sehiumbergen) RESSTIVITY LOGS, % Considering first the LL3, survey currents sent out from the center lectrode A and bucking current is sent from the guard electrodes A and ‘Ay, which are connected together. The bucking current adjusted to main- tain zero voltage between Ay and the Ay-Az pair. There i then no current owing up or dawn the hole, which moans the survey eurent is forced to flow in lateral sheet Into the formation, The width ofthe Ay electrode, ‘commonly Ito 12 In, determines the vertical resolution of the tool. The Tength ofthe guard electrodes, usally 2.5 to5f, and the proximity of the survey eurfent return point determine the depth of penetration. The longer the guards and the more remote the return point, the deeper the penetra Lon, Formation reietivity is proportional to Vii, where V isthe common tlectrode potential relative to far electrode, In the case of multilectrode systems, ilustrated by the Laterolog 7, survey current flows from the A, electrode and bucking curren flows fom the A, and A, electrode, which are connected together. The bucking cur- tent i adjusted to maintain zero voltage across Uhe monitor electrodes Mi land M;' (which are connected toMy and My. respectively). The met results thesame ae forthe guard system THE DLLMSFL TOOL Fig. 4-19 sw schemati ofthis system. The main pat ofthe tool constl- tutes a9-cloctrode aray that provides deep (LL,) endshallow (LL) resi ity carves. On the bottom of the tool & a pad-mounted, Mirospherically ‘Focused erray that provide a flushed zone () resistivity curve. The four sre linkage that support the MSFL pad provides a caliper curve and also ‘centralizes the bottom of the tool. The top of the tool Is centered with shothercentralizer Fig. 4-14 shows how the samme stof electrodes irused to obtain the deep 1Sshallow curves by wsiageurtents at two different frequencies, The deep ‘eaturement ie made at 35 Hz and the shallow one is made 7° 280 Hz. The LLL achieves deep penetration by having a long electrode array (28 f) and returning the current to a rurface electrode. With the LL, current is returned to a nearby electrode that gives It shallow penetration. Beam ‘width and therefore vertical bed resolution is 4 in. for both curves. Fig. 4-15 shows the MSFL array. Five rectangular electrodes are mounted on an insulating pad that is foreed to ride the side ofthe hole. ‘Survey eurrent| flows rom A, and bucking current i flows between A, and 1A. The lattor current ls adjusted to maintain zero veltage between the ‘monitor electrodes Indicated, Thisforeesthesurvey current directly into the“ ESSENTIALS OF MODERN OPENHOLELOG INTERPRETATION. Fig. 4-19 generate of Dual Laterolog/Rxo tool (courtery Schlumberger, OSEAME Ho. 4-44 Curent tow potest ond Ls (courey Schanbor © SPE-AIME) pa « ae Mesaue ‘erage Fig. 4-16 MrosFL array (courtesy Schumbergar, © SPE-AIME)6 ESSENTIALS OF MODERN OFEN-HOLE LOG INTERPRETATION. formation, where itbells out quickly and returnsto anearby electrode, The wollage V between electrode M, and the monitor electrodes is mea- ‘ured Resistivity s proportional to Vil, With thisystem the MicroSFL has Sufficenly shallow penetration to esd flushed-zone resistivity, R, irectly, even inthe presence of mud eakes up to % in. thick DEPTH OF INVESTIGATION Fig 4-16 shows the depth of investigation ofthe Ll. and LL, cures, slong with that of the elder LL3 end LLY tools, now obsolete, The pieudogeometrical factor, J isthe relative welght thet the particular array [sign to the invaded none, The term pseudo is sed because the welght Fig, 4-16 Dap of vestigation of DL curve (courtesy ‘Schimborger, © SPEAIME) ResisTVTTY LO@s ” depends onthe relative resitivites of invaded and walnvaded zones aswell ‘asthe invasion diameter. ‘The invaded and uninvaded zones contribute to the total resistivity read by the tool in accordance with the producto thelr resistivities and weight That is Ruda+ Rl ~ Ja) a “This equation illustrates why the Laterolog s better than the Induction lg. Insalt mud. Consider the me salt-md situation asfor the induction ease: Ra = O05, Ry = 1, R, = 10, 6) = 65 in. The Ly geometrical factor is 0.42. Consequently, the LL, would read an apparent resistivity B= 12042 + 10(1 - 0.43) = 6.20hmm “This is considerably closer to the true value than the Thduction reading, ‘which would belessthan 3.8 ohm-m. Nevertheless, x significant correction Factors eequted, which illustrates the need or a three-curve combination or the same fresh-mud condition as previously cited, Ry = 1.0, Ry = 20, R= 10, d,= 65 in. the Laterolog would giv an approximate value R, = 20 x 0.42 + 10(1 ~ 0.42) © 14.20hm-m ‘The ectual value wouldbe higher beeause (a Sin.) would Ue greater than 0.42 with the more resistveinvaded zone. The Induction og would read 1P oin-munder these conditions; itwould bethe better cholce This ustrates that the Leterolog tool it adversely affected by an invaded zone more Eesistve than theundlsturbed formation, which soppositetothe Induction Verticat Resolution ‘As mentioned, the vertical resolution of the Lg and LL, eurves is 2 ft ‘Adjacent bed effect small" No bed thiknes corrections ae required Borehole ttfects Borehole effeetson the Lt, and LL ae insignificant under most cond tions, For hole diameters inthe range 6-12in., the corrections areles than 154% and therefore, svally be neglected. For larger dismeters the LL, may requite correctionoe [ESSENTIALS OF MODERN OFENHOLE LOG INTERPRETATION. (CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MicroSFL (MSFL) "The MicroSPL succeeded the Micrlaterolog and Proximity log as a device to measure ushed zone rexitivity. The SO% depths of penetration ofthe thre tools for homogeneous Formations are approximately 1,2, and in, respectively; 808 depths of penetration are about twice those values ‘Therefore, the MSFL ha the advantege when invasion i shallow. Bed resolutionof the MSFL and other R tools sextemely good—onthe ‘order of Sin. I fat, there zo much detail the curve isoften averaged over 21 uring recording to make lt more compatible with the LL and LL, Borehole (i.c., mud cake) corrections for the MSFL are negligible (£155) for md-cake thickness betweon and In. On the otherhand, the Micolaterolog requites significant correction for mid cakes greater than Min, thick Sine aud-cake thickness i rarely known with any acct- racy, the MicoSEFL isthe preferred curve. LOG PRESENTATION Fig. 4-17 isanexample ofthe DLL-MSFL loginsalt mud. AGR curve, which ean be run simultaneously, is presented in Track since the? is p00 salt mud, These three rxetiity curves arerocorded in Tracks 2 end Son the sovera-decade logarithm sale. Normal presentation is LL, heavy. dashed, Lislight-dashed, and MSFL solid. With salt mud the sallowest tcurve reads Tower resitivity and the deepest curve reads highest in wator- Bearing zones, which s the reverse ofthe fesh-muld situation. Dotormination of R, Correction ofthe LLy to obtain Ris made by means of Fig. 4-18. The three resistivity curves are read at the point of interest and the chart is tentored with the ratio Byy/R.08 the horizontal scale and Ru /R (where Rua = Ruor) onthe vertical scale, From the platf intersection the correc {on factor RR, ts read from the dotted lines reading northeasterly. For level Aof Fg. 217, Buf Buy, = 2.2and RualR, = 8, which gives Rue 1.6. Ruisthen 6.9 1.80r 10ohm-m. Invasion ameter, as read fromthe dashed lines, 80 in., which squitlarge. Ntice thatthe invasion near the bottom ofthe section is much smaller because the LL,curvefallscloserto the LiLgeurve,ForlevelBthechart indicates an invasion diameter of ony in. Resistivity LOGS co QUICK-LOOK HYDROCARBON INDICATION ! Fig. 4-10 i an example from the Middle East where the DLU-R, ‘was run, not because of salt mud, but because hoe size was larg ‘eeuuse in thehydroearbon-bearing zones (denoted 2and3), > Ry and Ry > 100chim-m, Correcting for invasion by meansof Fig. 4-18 gives = 650 hmm in the centr of Zane 2 and R, = 140 chim-m in Zone 3 ‘Withthe DLL-R,, combination an approximate water saturation can be estimated from the reistivitylogsonly. Combining thesaturation equations = | AAs OHM, 100 jeroiog 290 log fn tol mus (courtesy Schlumberger)%0 ESSENTIALS OF MODERN OFEN-HOLE LOG INTERPRETATION forthe unditrbed and shed zones, ven by Eas. 28 and 2.12 e-[ ME & 5) Ra ia ash a Fig 4-18 invasion corection char for ual Laerelog To (coutony Sshiumbegen) RESISTIVITY LOGS, Fi Experlence Inthe industry has indicated that for average ol conditions seas 8) Combining the two equations aun J «-[ ae] wn Consequently, ifthe ratio Ra/R, is known, water saturation can be este ‘mated directly ‘Normally must be obtained from mad filtrate measurement and R, ‘needs to he known For the interval in question. However, even that isnot ‘necessary if there san obvious water bearing interval. Ta the case of Fig. 4-10, Zone is water bearing, a indicated by thelow value of Ra. Also no. Invasion corection snecessry since Ryxy~ Ruy Bq. 4.5 then gives for this zone, since. = S,.= 1 RylRe= Ry/Ry = 0.45/0.8 = 1.5 Consequently, applying Eq. 4.7 for the center of Zone 2 (21650)/1.53* = 0.02 For Zone (TAAO)/L.SP* = 0.12 “These values are only approximate but tis clear the two zones in question tare hydrocarbon saturated ‘Useofthistechaique provider a iteesta time for completion planning, at the wellsite while the porosity logs are being run. More accurate satura tion values should be computed usingthe Archi equation 2.8 assoon asthe porosity data is obtained. The rato ./S., as obtained from Eq. 4.5 is aio useful as a movable hydrocarbon indicator. If the ratio approaches unity, thy hydrocarbon is Immovable, regards ofthe absolute values of S, and S,; this ean happen swith very heavy oll. Conversely, iit slow, whatever hydrocarbon exists in thereservoiriscertainly producible. Empitical guldeins which have been ‘tablished fr the Permian Basin of West Texas are Su/Sq es than 0.6—hydrocarbon production greater than 0.8 —water production ‘between 0.6 and 0,8—produetion tex requlted2 ESSENTIALS OF MODERN OFEN-HOLELOG INTERPRETATION Sata” [fem wor Fig 4-19 Duallctrciog- R09 nlarge hoe, igh resshlyconctons (CoaonySchumbergay 2/9 9 1orG0 Roe. Nah ressuty concton Resistivity LoGs %3 For Zones | and 3 of "ig 4-19, Bq. 4.5 gives S,/Sq values of 0.04 and 0.18, respectively. Theretore, excellent production would be expected from these zone, In cases of old wells where resistivity bt not potoity logs are avaiable {rom log Iibeares, the reistvitycatio method is the ony tehaque valle bl for estimating water saturation. For best resulta true curve, from MLL, PL, oF MSEL, is required slong witha deep resistivity curve. How ‘ever, under certain circumstances a variation ofthe ratio method, whereln theSFL, LL-8or 16 in. Normal eurves are used ew ofan log, hasbeen tied with soos." ‘Local experience may dictate an exponent other than 0.2in Eq, 4.6: it may vary up to 0.5 in the eae of gas-bearing or viscous cil-bearing form tions where fushing action is poor. Sometimes, rather than using Eq, 4.6, an educated gues of 8, is inserted dicey in i. 4.5. Vacs Teor 0.8 for medium gravity ol 00.8 fr gas or heavy oil ae typical SUMMARY Modern resistivity combinations are Dual Induction SL In fresh ‘mud with medium 10 low resstvly and Dua! LalerologR,, or salt mud or high formation resistivity, DUALINDUCTIONLOGS + Run when Ry > 2R, and R, < 200 onmn, + ILytecding normally close to R, Correction for invasion usualy 0171040. * Vertical resolution—4 ft for Induction, + 1 for $#L. Legging speed=5,000-6,000 tity. ould berun with #.5in. ofstancot fominimize borehole effects + Can be recorded in olsbase (nonconductive} mud orin empty ole. No shallow curve obtained, DUALLATEROLOGS * Run when Rey < 22, oF when R, > 200. ohm... + ULscurve shouldbe corrected ‘or invasion to obtain, even for elise interpretation: correction factors can be os high as 2. + Vertical esoluton—2 f for Latoroiog, < 1 tfor MSFL. Logalng speed~$,000-4,000 ti. + Quickook hydrocarbon saturation and movable oi! indica: tion can be obtained4 ESSENTIALS OF MODERN OPEN:HOLE LOG INTERPRETATION REFERENCES "Fen, Handbook of Well Log Analy (Englewood Cit, N} ren tine Hall in, 108. SPW, Houston Chapter, The Art of Anlent Lag Analy, (Houston SPWLA, 1979, "DW. Michie, Old Electra! Log Interpretation, (Golden, CO: D.W. ili In, 1979), SCH Ter, RP Alor andD.R, Tengu, “New DeveloproentsiaIndue- ‘don ang Soni Logging” SPE 1300.6, Dale (October 150), Sia. Schuster, J.P. Badon, and E.R. Rodbieg, “Apylcation of the Isersonie Combination Tool to Gui Coast Formations," Tremactins of Cull Coat Asociton of Geological Secees (19), "uP. Alger W.P. Digg, andB.N. Carpenter, “Dual eduction Letecog: A ‘New Too for Resitvty Anal,” SPE 713 New Ovears (October 196), FTG. Dal, "The Mictolog." Tron. AIME, Vol. 18910) 1G, Dal “The Laterlog.” Jour et. Tech. Qvovenber 185), 1.6, Dol, "The Micrastralog,” Jour. Pt. Tech, anuaty 1859), Sons, P. Grima, A. Poupon, and Souit, “The Dual Latrlog — 1, Tool” SPE 4018, San Antonio (Ocabe 372). "Np, Sooaite, A. Mik, and A. Poupen, "Determination i the Basten Hemtphere," SPWEA Legzng Symon Pens. Jue 1979) 'H.G, Doll, “Tnrocaction to Faduction Login.” Jou. Fe, Tech. June 194 #18, Morn td KS. Kans, “as Try of ndction Login” eo hii One 1968 1S Stnmbe pr Lg Inepetetion Pcie 057. "Cast and Geagur Popes apr ne eerpeaton of heDeat Later Tl fin Polan Ba SPA Losing Symone Tome ton em 87) {Ia Ter, “Bc Log Anan be Roky Moan" & Gat snare jane 158), iene Lg Interpretation Chore (570). Chapter 5 POROSITY LOGS turning tothe basic log interpretation equation 8. = eViimy 6 oo) ‘we see that porosity ste third and final input needed to ealoulate water Saturation, An accurate value of poroity& roquired since any erro in its ‘Value will ralete to the same percentage error in water saturation. The {rror willbe magnified in calelating hydrecarbon volume, (1 ~ 8,).For ‘example, if is too ow by 10%, 8, il betoo high by 10% and hydrocar bon volume wil be too low by 30% (for a water saturation of 507). "There ae three poroslty-measorng tools in commor use atthe present time — Density, Neutron, and Sonic, Why three whea only one value is jeeded? Its because al three tools respond aot only to poresity but also to the typeof rock matrix and othe make-up of uid filing the pote space — principally whether it contsins gas. When the matrix is known and pore Pui i all quid, one measurement may suffice, In other eases all three ‘measurements are needed to sort out the parameters ‘THE CURRENT TREND IN POROSITY LOGGING ‘For many years the Sonie was the popular porosity tool. It was less sezaitivoto borehole and mud-cake variations than early Density and Neu- fron tools, Teeould be rua in combination with the Indvetion, giving both 1 wid # velues for Eq, 5.1. In shaly sands B, would be abnormally low tndg would be abnormally high, providing acompensatingeffectsuch thet Bq, &.1 would give reasonable water seturation values even under these conditions. Porosity values, however, would be optimistic. "in recent yours the Dassity-Neatron combination has become the pri mary source of porosity information, dsplacingthe Sonic. There areseveral * Porosity can be determined without precise knowledge of roc matric «+ There sno need forthe compaction correction required withSon Porosity. + Overlay of Density. Neutron curves isan excellent gas indicator.% ESSENTIALS OF MODERN OFEN-HOLE LOG INTERPRETATION. «Transitions from one typeof rock mati to another ean often be dlstingulsed. «+ Shale effects are more evident and can be accounted for more precy. ‘Consequently, the Sone is becoming « backup porosity too to be used where the holes very regular, where secondary porosity isimportant, or ‘where heavy minerals suchas pyrite adversely alec the Density. Te also equlred when «synthetic slsmogram willbe generated (from Sonic and Density loge) for depth calibration of selsmic sections, This, n Fact, the pplication for which the Sonic tol was originally designed. RECENT DEVELOPMENTS ‘The porasty tool in common use are the Compensited Density, the CCompessated Neutron, and the Compensated Sonte instruments. These represent second-generatio (hid, inthe cas of the Neutron) tools much Tes sensitive to borehole and mud-eake effect than thelr uncompensated predecessors. They have been in use for the last 10 yeas, Tneach cave, however, there isa new genertion of tool coming into use: the Litho-Density, the Dual Pasty Neutron, andthe Long Spaced Soni. ‘These tols provide new and significant information about the formation. “The Litho-Densityindictes the type of rock matric — whether sand, lime- stone, or dolomite, fr example. The Dual Poresty neutron gives beter gas indication in shaly formations and probably wil provide more accurate porosity determination in tight formations. The Long-Spaced Soni can Field shear wave velocity, which fs important in determining mechanical ‘ropertis ofthe formation, ite alzo the preferred Sonic device when holes Targe and altered shales exis. Inaddition, anew and different poasty curveisenteringthe picture. It is the Electromagnetic Propagation log. In essence it gives water-filled poresty in the formation very lose tothe borehole, Comparison with total fluid poreity derived from the other porosity eurves yields water saturation inthe lushed zone without the benefit of ressvity logs. Consequenty, this promisesto bean excelient device fr il detection in freshwater areas where {lectrleel loge ate not definitive. 1 also can provide, along with standard Togs, movable oil indiestion in freh mud ares. “The principles and reponses ofthese new tools, aswell as the current cones, are dlacisted in the following sections. Tt appears that the Litho PoRosTY 1068 ” Density will eventually displace the Compensated Density, and that the LLong:Spaced Sonie and Electromagnetic Propagation log will find good use. However, i isa little early to speculate on the impact of the Dual Porosity Neutron, COMPENSATED DENSITY AND LITHO-DENSITY Locs ‘The Denuity tool senses formation density by measuringthe attentuation of gamma rays between a source and a detector.” Fig. 5-1 shows the at iment ofthe Compensated Density too. Asource and two detectors are studted ona pad about3ftlongthat isforced against thesideof theborchele witha backup arm Gamma rays emitted continuously by the source (typically 0.68 mer energy, from Cs") are channeled into the formation. There they undergo ‘multiple collisions with electrons that cause them te lose energy and scatter {nal directions — a mechanism called Compton scatteing- When thei energies drop below about 0.1 mev, the gamma raysdieby «process called photoelectric absorption, Compton sattering depends only onthe electron ‘analy of the formation (the numberof eletrons per ce), which Is closely ‘elated to bulk density. "his i the bast ofthe standard density measure- ‘ment, On the other hand, photocletri absorption depends on both elee- ton density and the average stomie number ofthe material making up the formation, Thismechanism is wilized by theLitho-Density too toindiate rook ype. ‘Wemay visualize at any instant a garoma ray cloud with a radius ofa foot oro surrounding thesource. Thesizeof the cloud depends primarily on ‘he formation scatering propertis, therefore on electron density, Itshrinks tnd expands as the density varies, The greater the density, the smaller the ‘loud and vice vers. The population of thecloud, however, which consists ‘mainly of very low-energy gamma rays, depends on the absorption proper ties ofthe formation. The greater the absorption coefficient, thesmaller the population and vie versa8 ESSENTIALS OF MODERN OPEN-HOLELOG INTERPRETATION (cay \ Formation (py) Fig. §-4 Source detector confguriion ofthe Compensated Densiy ook (courtesy Schlumberger, © SPEAME, THE COMPENSATED DENSITY TOOL* ‘Thelong spacing detector, the primary one, generates disreteelectri- ‘al pulie for each gemma ray that happens to strike tt This detector i Situated near the edge ofthe cloud, soit registers more pulses a the loud ‘expands and fewer as it contracts, It i shielded (asf the short-spscing, ‘detector fom the low-energy gamma rays and is nsenltive to sbsorpton properties ofthe formation. The net result istha thepulse rate depends only fon electron density. Typeally, wll decrease exponentially by a factor of “Dated FOG Sener a COD No Caan PoROSITY Loss co {5-10 depending on lastrumentaion details) as bulk density In 2.0027 gle. This provides a sensitive measurement of density. The function of the short-spacing detector i to compensate for the effects of residual mud cake (not plowed away by the pad) and mad-flled hole rogosty interposed between the pad and the formation,” With normal ‘mud these provide an easy path for gamma rays to chanel upward from source to detector, leading to erroneously low density values if ot cor- tected, Firstgeneration Density tools with only single detectors sufered from this problem. The shorespacing deteetor provides a pulse rate that is also inversely proportional to density but which has a shallower depth of investigation than the long-spacing detector. It therefore gives greater ‘welght tothe mud eake and hole rages. Pulse rates from the two detectors ar sont tothe surface and are com bined in computer using laboratory-derived “spine-and-ribs” response data, shown in Fig, 5-2, t provide two signals for log presentation. One is the corrected bulk density, 7, obtained by extrapolating the response at a point such aiO backto thespine, pointP,fllowingthe rection oftheribs. ‘The others the correction, do, shown by the distance P-Q along the spine, ‘which has been added tothe basic Iong-spacing density, point Q, to eli nate the mud cake and rugosty effect Examination of Fig. 5-2 reveals two important points. Fist, Ap correc. tions are ptive for normal nonbarite mud eakes but can be nogative for bariteloaded mud cakes. Such mud eakes can appeer more dense than adjacent formations, in which case the density derived from the long- Spacing rate too high and must be corrected downward. Thesecond point is that dp corrections are adequate up to about 0.18 g/ce but net beyond that point tog sentation Fig. 5-3 shows a typical Compensated Density presentation. The bulk density curve, py, i recorded over Tracks 2 and 3'on a linear sale from 2.0-3.0 glee, Densities typlealy vary from about 2.7-2.0 g/oe as poresity varies from 0-40%. The do correction curve isin Track 3, with zero at the ‘center and #0,25 gic atthe extremes, The correction ndica"ed has already ‘been applied to the curve it snot necesary to add or subtract it again. ‘Thehole diameter, as measured bythe bckyp arm, ispresented in Track \ WaGamma Ray stun simultencously, which iscommon, it isalso recorded in Track ‘Inanalyzing aDensiy log, iisbesttofiestobservethe Ap recording. Iti quality conteol curve, In smooth hole it should be closet the zero line, a100 ESSENTIALS OF MODERN OPEN-HOLE LOG INTERPRETATION Porosity tocs far ate LONG spacing DETECTOR COUNTING SHORT SPACING DETECTOR COUNTING RATE Fig. §-2 Detvation of deny and densi corecton fom short and long- basing detector roles (coutery Schlumberger) 98,53 fmol of @ Compensated beraty eco1ang (corey Tittle tothe right for normal (nonbarte) mud, and tothe left for heavily Toaded baite mud. When mud cake or hole rugostyisencountered, the Ap from 1,924-1,940 ft. The tool eannot compensate for short eaves that correction willinrease.ASlong as ApislesthanO.15 gee, the correction s ‘he pad bridgesif they aregreater than about in, indepth. Correction will, Adequate and the p curve canbe trusted, Above 1S glee the correction is be fnadequate nd thep, curve will exdtoolow in normal mud. Tt lso will, likely to be inadequate and the p curve in error. Corrections are bare not read correctly when the pad tts on entering or leaving a sharp eave. A ly adequate in the washed-out shales from 1,852-1,878 ft and ood example ofthese effect sat 1,892-1,834 ft where the low-density402 ESSENTIALS OF MODERN OFEN-HOLELOG INTERPRETATION ‘reading isclesrly due to short sharp hole washout but the Ap curve shows Almost no correction, Because of the statistical uctuations described in Chapter 9, the Den. sity curve will aot repeat exactly. Averages should agen, bat the stadad Seviation between repeat runs wil be about 0.04 glee a hgh density and bout 0.02 ylenat low density, with thenormal averagingtimeot 9 se and logging speed of 1,800 fhe. Nonrepeatsmay be aguravated bythe fat that ‘he tool can ride different sides of the hole an repeat runs. Where vaguler Porosity exists, formations may aot be uniform around the hole Bloctron Density vs Buk Densily: tog Comection As described, the Density tool responds tothe electron density of th formation, The desired quantity, however, is bulk density, The two dest tes are related by the Z/A ratios ofthe clements mang up the formation, Z being the atomic number and A the atomle weight of given element, or all elements in sedimentary formations except hydrogen, the Z/A rao is almost constant, varyingonly fom 0.48 00.5, For hydrogen, however the vluets 1.0, Consequently, the presence of wateror olin formations sign. ‘antl disturbs the usual proportionality between electron andbulk deny. ‘The Density tool & calibrated to read bulk denity correctly in fresh water saturated limestone formations, using test formation of precisely known bulk densities, The result of this calibrations that ether formations will read a litle inocretl if thts elotron densities difer from those of limestone-water mixtures of ike bulk dente. The difference between true bulk density, py, andlog indicated density, ‘qi shown in Table 5-1 for varioussubstancat of interest Differences, ‘negligible for quartz, dolomite, end alot, However, they are sgnficant for beds such as sylvite, halite, gypsum, and anhydrite, The frst two wl ‘record bulk densities about 0.12 glelower than thettruedensties and the last two will record about 0.02 gc higher than true densities, When these Aiserepancies are seen on log they should not be judged faulty tool opera tion; they are the result ofthe particular calibration choice. Fig, 54 gives the corrections to be applied to log readings to obtain correct bulk densities. Corrections ae zero or negligible liqic.aturated limestone, sandstone and dolomite formations. Fer gus-saturated forma tions, however, log-indicated deastie wil eighty low (ach formations havinglowerelectron densities than water-saturated formetionsofthesamme bulk denis), The wort cases that of very low-pressure gasor ain the ores at a porosity of 40%; the required eorection about 0075 glovat 18 ‘ee, or almast 5% The correction becomes proportionately smaller as gas Porosity oss ' 4103 TABLES-1 COMPARISON OF ACTUAL AND LOG-INDICATED. DENSITIES -———— ees Actual toginaoated comoouna Formula Deny no SE aon SO, 208 cate cach 200 Dolemite caco,aco 2876 sever aio. 207 Syne 0 ‘sas ome Nec zor Sysen 80,2440 23st ‘rina as Bums “73 Satwaler 200080 en as on rich asp +338 athena he pea ca Cues fo 138 Souce Semerbage Lg hosters density increases and gas saturation decrease in the formation pores. In normal logging. no corrections are needed; the toot reads bulk density iret. Fig, 5-4 alio shows the corrections required for magnesium and slumie ‘nur, These point aesignifcant because blocks of these materials are wied as secondary calibration stendards infield locations, Depth of Penetration and Vertical Resolution ‘The 90% depth of investigation of the Compensated Density log is ‘pprotimately in, from theborcholewall t mid density, lightly greats at lower densities, and slighty lest at high densities. This means the log senses the flushed zone, which contains mud filtrate und possibly rest bhydrooarbon inthe pores. There is usually insficiet difference in density between water and oi for the Density to sense residual oll Inthe Flesh? zone. On the other hand, it ean readily sense residual gas, especially if porosity is igh end gas pressure i low.$04 ESSENTIALS OF MODEEN OFEN-HOLE LOG INTERPRETATION T Fre | MENT TO Plog TO CeTAIN TALE | Te ma bit Sarees = co [atm —]" +08] 2 gto soe val! sae | aden Non msens xe Pag (ont) —e Fig. 6-4 Corrections to bjain rue Buk Gens rom log density (courtesy (Geophysics, epsnies by Sevumberge] “The vertical resalution ofthe tol, if run very slowly is appraximately 4.5, Formation density t averaged over that interval However, with the ‘usual averaging time and logging speed, bed resolution is about 3 (ee Chapter), Borehole Effects Tn flu Siled hoes the Density ool responses independent of borehole siceinthe range of6-Bin, This\sa result of good shielding on the backsideof the pad, In large hoes 0.005 gee should be added to the log reading for teach inch of hole diameter above Din, for best accurey. “The Density tol works quite wellinempty hols. The response isnot the same as that shown in Fig. 5-2, but the appropriate data is utilized in the surface computation of density. Tool response isindependentofholedlame- ferinthe range of 6-9in,; abovethat pont 0,01 qleeshould be added tothe log reading for esch additional inc of hele diameter. Mud eake isnot PoRosiTY1ocs 408 _geneallyaproblem in empty hols, which are usually ir drilled. However, fle rugosity may bes problem since extremely low-densly material it) interposed between the pad and the formation. Much less rugosty ean be tolerated in air-filled hols than in iqud-filed holes, POROSITY DERIVATION FROM THE DENSITY LOG ‘Porosity is derive from bulk density i avery straightforward manner, Fors lean formation with mate (or gait) density Py fala density oy and porosity 6, the bulk density, ys given bythe summation of fuk end ‘matrix components ot = ODP 62 from which porosity i given by = mu POM ~ 2) 63) Matric densities in ge typeally are ‘= 2.5 forsands, sandstones, nd quartzites ‘= 268 for limey sands or sandy limes = 2.71 for limestones = 2187 for dolomites In liquid-bearing formations fluid density is typically that of the mud filtrate b= 1.0 for fresh mud 1.0 + 0.73 forsale mud where isthe dedlum chloride concentration in ppm x 10-*. ‘Porosity may be derived from Fig. 5-5, which provides a graphic solution to Eq 5.3. Bulk density is entered on the bottom sale and porost is read on the vertical scale for appropriate valves of yy and py. AS a txample, consider the interval 1,889-1,005 ft in Fig. 5-9 where the lo density averages 2.29 glee. Assuming the formation is limestone and th Fuld density is 1.0 (fesh-mud filtrate, the derived porosity from Eq. 5.30 Fig. S46 24.5% ts more important to know the presse matrix density at low pores than at high porosity. For example, at py = 26 gic, derived porsiti ‘would be 3% for sud and 6% for limestone. Those difer by a factor af land could mean the diference between expecting commeretal and noncom ‘mercial production since autoffisofte set around 5%, Onthe other hand108 ESSENTIALS OF MODERN OPEN-HOLE LOG INTERPRETATION. ‘fy ULE DENSITY, anvee fig. 5-5 Determination of porosiy rom bulcaonsiy (courtesy Schlumberger) tp, = 2.2 glo, derived porosities would be 27% and 20%, which difer only by 10% Many logstoday have density-derved porosity curves recorded asthelog {srun, To effect this the logging engineer rust insert values of metre and ‘uid densities into the surface computer, which continuously salva Eq, 5.3. Normal chotces for matrix density are 2.65 ($8), 2.65, ot 2.71 (LS), those for futd density ae 1.0 and 1.1. The loging engineer chooses values senerally applicable to the area. It isimportant that thes values be shown ‘on the log heading since the reading must often be corrected toa diferent ‘matrix value more appropriate forthe prticular formation being analyzed, Examples of Density porosity curves, overlain with Neutron porosity, are ven late POROSITY Loss 107 ‘Heavy minerals inthe formetion such as pyrite (Fe) inereasethe'ffec. tive matrix density and cause derived porosty tobe too low if not taken into sccount. Oceurrenceisnot frequent butisimportantina few areas, particu Inrly Alaska and the North Sea." Etfect Of Gas As described in chapter 1, considerable gascanbeletin theflushed zone of a gas-bearing formation, bypassed by theavading trate, The density of the pore uid can thea be considerably lee than one. Consequently, in gas bearing formations there is « dual elem if the Density logis the only porosity curve run. Fist is recognizing that there is ges present, since the ‘curve simply shows a decrease in bulk density that would normally be {interpreted as en increase Mid-illedporoniy, Seconds determining the corre poroity. Its nota straightforward matter. To apply Eq, 5.3 the fluid density, pn the zone of investigation must be known. This depends on the water saturation in the invaded zone, S,. the mud filtrate density, at ad the density, py, ofthe gas in the pores, That i PL Pat Su + By (1 ~ Su) (4) Gas density cam be estimated from Fig. 5-8. However, Sis not known beforehand. Ian R, curve i available, then Sq = eVRgTRCIé cy an R, curve snot available (usually theease with fresh mu), onecan ‘make an assumption such 4s 8, = 8.97 = lovR mel 6.) Eng 5.3, 5.4, and 5.5 or 5.6 canbe solved simultaneously or iteratively togivean apparent poresity¢, Allowing for theclectron density elfect gives ‘final porosity 4 = 640.99 + 0.07%) co) example, consider the same interval (1,800-1,005 ft) in Fig. 5-3, ‘Assume itis known to contain gas und thatthe elestrie loge give Ry = 0.05 40 ohm-m for this interval. From Fig. 5-6,-, = 0.07 gle. Following the procedure outlined using Eq 5.6, 6 = 17.5%. This porosity value differs significantly from the 24.59% fundon the assumption of 100% liquid saturation, ‘Thisprocedureis cumbersome and inaccurate, anit is rarely used. The Density og really needs ouside help to establish matrix type, Identify gas,408 ESSENTIALS OF MODERN OPENHOLELOG INTERPRETATION =a 5 z 3g Beh ” Tig. -b Eaton of 98 erat (ron Apple Oporto. Worsbcion cocsessi niche)” — and simplify porosity determination when gasis present, As weshallsee, the [Neutron log fll this requirement admirably. THE LITHO-DENSITY LOG ‘he Ltho-Density tol (LDT)*ieathird-generaton density instrument ‘hat provides in addition tothe bull density log, py, a photoelectric absorp tioneurve, P,'Thiscurvereflects the everageatomie number ofthe forma tion ands therefore a good indictor ofthe typeof rock matrix, Itis helpful ‘in complex lithology interpretation oie aly by Sgr rot ad itl LT PoROSTY 106s 109 ‘Measurement of, "Thesouree detector arrangement ofthe LDT tol isbasially thesamess that ofits predecesor, the FDC (Fig. 5-1). The operation, howeves, Gulferent, With the LDT, mand B, measurements are made by enetay ‘Rleaton ofthe gemma ray that ceach the long-spacing detector, This is Shown in Fig, 5-7, whichis plotoFthe numberof gamma rays -eaching the ‘Bcectr, ase function oftheir energy, for three formationshevingthe same ‘alledensity but different volumetsicebsorption indices, U, designated low, ‘medium, and high “The bane denty measurements madeby reghteringonly those gamma rays that fallin the high-energy rego, designated H. Tn this range only Sltcringof the gamme ysis takingplace andthe numberof gammarays, ‘presented by the area under the curve, depends on electron density only ‘Ghavenion of pulse ate to bul density and correction for mud cake and ‘Sagi Sreareed out in the same manner as forthe Compensated Denslty oo), Statistical uctuations in computed desity however, are reduced by ‘factor of about 2, to the range 0.01 to 0.02 gle, by utiieation of more tffiiont detectors CSV gun of raodce ee ory (ea 0 env) agonal Conlon sctwirg (prnaten en) | L_ Fig. 5-7 Detection windows forthe Lno-Densty tool (courtesy SShumberger ona Sowa)110 ESSENTIALS OF MODERN OFEN.HOLE LOG INTERPRETATION ‘Thephetoeectsie measurement, Py Ismadeby registering those gamma ‘ay that alin the energy window, 8, postonedat vey low energy. In this region gamma rays undergo photodectric absorption as they Interact with the electrons present. The absorption rate depends on the product ofthe tbsorptin coeficlent per electron, P, and the electron density, gy. The pulse rate inthe counting window therefore responds toa photocletric sbiorption inder given by UEP ea 68), ‘Thelarger the valueof U, thesmaller the pulserateund viceversa, With suitable calibration, the value of U for any given formation ean be deter mined, ‘The electron density p,* is related to bulk densty (asa result of eall- berating the ater in water-saturated limestone) by the elation = (oy + 0.18899/1.0704 69) Consequently, from Eqs. 5.8 and 8.9 1.0704 U p= Loney (6.10) From the two independent measurements, U and py, the value of P, is determined, Dependence of P, on Lthology ‘The parameter P,reflets formation lithology because itis strongly dependent an the effective atomie number of the medium absorbing the ys For asingleclementof atomic umber, P,isiven, inlogging electron, with ! bara = 10" em’), by 2, = (znop* 6. Fora formation containing a number of elements, theeffectve, value ts obtaining by suring the (10) values, after weighting each by its relative cletrondentyinthemisture, Table-2, clam’, giverellectivs values for common sedimentary materials, valu or quart, cal, shddolonite are quitedsine,Aniydsteand cle bavesiular, vals but are wel separated in density (column 8). Minerals such os Siderte “poROsITY loss 4 (C0) nd pyrite (FS) hav considerably higher P valu by vu of Segue tric mamber efron ~ 2) Bartehasan exer high tian z= Bp for barium, The consequence are dacsd below ig. 6-8 showsP vac for limestone, clenite, and andtone forma: tus f 0-254 poo with poresconaining iter rah water or methane Uf dnaty 0. gle, Note that earls of porosity or type of Fil the SED the hee types of rock are well epeated Conequeny, when Stlyone mae pet present in formation, the? carve wil unabigo- aly dating Dopin of Penetation and Vertical Resolution Depth of penetration and vertical cation forthe p measurement should be exetily the same wo forthe Compensated Dest. Sia ‘thus weulbe expected forthe Pmesurment, though no vercsion has Ten pulsed yet Borehole tects For the pscurve, borehole effects are much the same forthe Compen- sated Deslty tool, Mud cake and ragesty corretions are made via the coef aaneaal pss 8 6 | es aeos czas 0 fg £8 Protoolectio absorption cooticant os af RSatype (ounesy Senemberger anc SPA)2 ESSENTIALS OF MODERN OPENHOLELOG INTERPRETATION TABLES-2 VALUES OF PHOTOELECTRIC ABSORPTION ‘COEFFICIENT PER ELECTRON, P., AND PER CC, U, FOR VARIOUS SUBSTANCES 0.0% ¥ con Far 2a 2S Cato 0827 as Batorite ae 28 ‘300 omeo Bas 298 a9 faite pret 388 Seer ay 388 59 Pete Go $00 et a Bo 08 1085 Wore oe) oss 400 0398 wot 100K pe Kec ore 108 0880 ‘Wore 200K 9p Neo} wa 42 1 136 ncn Gte per A22peD482 Ot36pat SoH 89s {Sp—wot88 01D “Spine-and-ibs method. Corrections are adequate as long as dp is es than Piggies FortheP, cure thesitation slessclear. Nosnformation hasbeen ‘obiesdon whether the U measurement lscompensated for mud cake and Migmity These data aze needed. Bastelonded dviling mud presents ‘MMfeat problem forthe Litho-Densty log. If bariteloaded mad or mud ake intrades between the pad and the formation, as is almost inevitable, the very high P, vale of bariteswamps the formation value endering the Pecos ules This eversy limits the tity ofthe LDT in areas where Dante mud is uaed, Weighting the mad with iron compounds would eause mush lee effet on the Py curv, Utho-Densy Exomple ‘Anexampleof e Litho-Densitylogrun simultaneously with Gamma Ray and Gomponated Neutron sshown in Fig, 5-8. The pycurve, converted Povey wing limestone matrix density (2.71 gee) srecorded n Track Tell)” Overain (dashed) isthe Neutron porosity curve. The P curve is vedas tn Track 2. Gamma Ray end Caliper logs are in Track 1, On the ‘orton of the example, the P, ranges of sandstone, dolomite, and limestone ven paked for theO-12% porosty interval of interest. Cleary, the forms: ‘oe level A islimestone and tht at level Cs alost pure sindstone, At Porosity toes CALIPER SFY WOEX 4 LIMESTONE wat] COMPENSATED Fonwavion DENSITY POROSITY [conpensaTEo NEUTRON FonOGiTY| GaMna Ray areal * Fig, 6-9 Bxampe of oho Density og (courtesy Schlumberger) 314 ESSENTIALS OF MODERN OPEN-HOLELOG INTERPRETATION level B, however, the matrix cannot be resolved from the Preurve,Itcould becithéraminture of about50% limestoneand 50% detomiteor about 70% limestone and 30% sandstone. Ie could even be a combination of al thee. LITHOLOGY INTERPRETATION WITH P,-P, CURVES only twomatric minerals ate present, thevolumetec fractions of each, long with the porasty, can be derWved from the combination ofp, and values Fig. §-10shows the applicable chart. The logvaluesof and P, steentered and s pointofintersectionisfound, Selecting the almost vertical -Cuate © Boom 0 Ousae Fig. 510 Devaion of prety ana tnolog for avo comeonent mate (SiordS Sia Sng Setonct Schmberger ona sway PoROsiTY Loss us stems representing the two minerals known to be present, porosity is ‘Geduced by interpolating between the equipocesit ins (at porosity-unit {nerval) joining the two stems. Matrix faction is represented by the di ‘lscoment of the point along the equiporosity lie jeining the stems “As un example, consider point Hof Fg. 5-9 and assume the matrix is caletedolomite minture, The log value of py 1s 2.68, corresponding to lImestone-derived porosity of2% (Fig-5-8), and. is4.0.Usingthe calete- Solem lines, porosity is found tobe 6% and thematricisa50-60 mixture 1, however, « misture of elete and sandstone is assumed, porosity is O% tnd the matra is 4 eallte and Ys sandstone. Addtional information is needed to resolve the question, Utlling the Neutron curveshowsthe actual porosity Is 2% and the matrix is about 60% calcite, 20% sandstone, and Sor dolomite, For this purpose the vlumetzi absorption coefictent, U, is tied. Values of U are listed in Table 5-2. The procedure deeribed In chapter 6, COMPENSATED NEUTRON AND DUAL POROSITY NEUTRON LOGS a In its simplest form « Neutron tool illustrated in Fig, S-11. Fast ‘neutrons (8 mey) are continuously emitted by the neutron source and ‘ave! out inal etections into the formation. As they progress, they are ‘owed or modereted by collisions with nucel in their path. When they each very low or thermal energies (~0.025 ev), they zigzag or diffuse “imlesly until they are absorbed or captured by the nuclei present" "Theelement most effective inslowingthe neutronsis hydrogen because neutron und hydrogen nucleus have the same mass. Ina direct collision the eutron wil transfer all of itsenergy tothe hydrogen nucleus andstop dead, ins headon billiard ball collision. Oa tho other hand, other nuclet Common to rlements in sedimentary formations, suchas those of slic, Salclum, erbon, and exygen, are much more masive then neutrons, They recfecavein scattering neutrons into diffrent directions but absorb only Teall faction ofthe neutron energy even inadiect collision ‘Their effect sethe neutron slowingedown proces fs much smaller than that of hydro- fen, though not negligibleS ESSENTIALS OF MODEEN OFEN-HOLE LOG INTERPRETATION Fig. 6-11 Single cetector Neuron too! nborehal Wien The net result is thet one an visualize at any instant @ neutron coud surrounding the source, extending a maximum of about 2 ft As the hydro- en content ofthe formation varies, the size of the loud expands and shrinks. The greater the hydrogen content, the smaller the cloud and vice versa, The population ofthe cloud, which consist mainly of thermal new trons, is dependent on the absorbing qualities of the formation for such ‘neutrons, The population st any instant iesuch thatthe numberof thermal ‘nestronsbeing absorbed exch second equalstherateoffast neutron emission from the source. Consequently, the grester the absorption coefficient ofthe formation, the smaller the population end vice versa, Situated towaed the edge ofthe cloud is a detector that may be one of theee types: thermal neutron detector sensing the density of the low cetenergy neutrons in ts vicinity, an epithermal detector sensing the den sity of neutrons just above thermal energy, ora capture gamma ray detector sensitive tothe gamma rays prodaced by absorption of thermal neutrons in {ts vicinity. Regards of tho typ, the pulse rate registered bythe detector ‘nreaes when the cloud expands (lest hydrogen) and decreases when it contracts (more hydrogen. Pls ate therefore varies inversely with ros ly, since all ofthe hydrogen (in clean formations) i contained inthe pore uid, PoRosiTY Loss “7 NEUTRON TOOL EVOLUTION First-generation Neutron tools, used extensively inthe 1050s, were ofthe symmetric single-detector type thown in Fig. Soll. They utilized ether thermal neutron detectors, capture gumnma ray detectors, ora combination of the two. Those tols were very sensitive to borehole parameters, and conversion of log response to porosity was subject to considerable erro. ‘They have long since been superseded for open-hoe logging, but a linited ‘number ill are uted for correlation logying incase hole, ‘The second-generation tol poplar in the 1960s was the Sidewall Neu tron," pad device very similar in configuration totheDensitysonde.* This ‘tool was much les seritve to borehole parameters then its predeceso, ‘Also it was insensitive to thermal neutron absorbers by virtue of using «epithermal detection. However, depth of investigation was reduced, which resulted in more severe mud eake and hole rugosty effects and prohibited ‘seo the tool in cased holes, For theve reas the Sidewall Neutron snow "ately used. Nevertheless, it remains the best Neutron device torn in t= filled holes, whore it has better porosity response than other typer of New- tron devices, ‘The third-generation tool, the Compensated Neutroa introduced about 1970, ithe current standard." It utilizes a pair of neutron detctors(ther- smal) instead ofa single one. This provides definite advantages A fourth-generation took, the Dual Poresity Neuron, isjust being intro- “duced. I uses apa of thermal neutron detectors on one side of the source and a pai ofepithermal detectors on the other. Each set providesa porosity curve. This toa wil be diseased later THE COMPENSATED NEUTRON ‘The principle of the Compensated Neutron tool** isshown a Fig, 5-12 ‘fast neutron source islocated near thebottom ofthe tol, and two thermal ‘neutron detectors arespaced 1-2 tabovet. Theratioofthe plseratesfrom the near and far detectors, NN, i measured and related to formation porosity. thas been proven, theoretically and experimentally, that ratio ‘esate CNL by Schlumbargr, CNL by Drew as, DSM by Welt and CNS by198 ESSENTIALS OF MODERN OFEN-HOLE LOG INTERPRETATION ‘measurement significantly reduces borehole eects and increases the depth of penetration ofthe tool relative toa single detector measurment." At the same time neutron absorgtion effests are reduced, though not eliminated. "The actual configuration of the logging instrument ie shown in Fg. 5.13. The whele oa isdecentralized by meansof aspring, andthe backside ofthe source detector aray facing the mud column is thielded as much as possible to minimize borehole effets. “The relationship between ratio and porosity for the Schlumberger CNL. su determined by measurements in laboratory formation showin Fig. ‘5-14. The ratio increases with porosity because the thermal neutron density falls off more sharply with distance from the source s porosity increases, even though both counting rates decrease. (Retio-porosity relationships differ among tool models, depending on detector size, placement, and shielding) | | | | Yo 9: | | fem ti faa Hy | \ '| NEUTRON mooenarion! | sett — IB mea! oe Ggigj/2 et coor auton atin bree entonment owes, PoRosiTY toes 19 Fig. 5-13 Skeioh of @ GNI io! (courtesy Schlumberger, © SE120 ESSENTIALS OF MODERN OPENHOLE LOG INTERPRETATION 6 FI 7 © cy Porat. fig. 6-14 CNt response in sanction, Imettone, and dolore fomations (Courtory Schumborger. © SPE AME} While the ratio depends primarily on porosity, there i also asignficant ue smoUs oo-F BI "Lo-g Sh Jo svo;orpaed ayn ya yuassH09 5 9 0 Prnby wos ou jones em alas gpa “Bj au auoNspES poreaME- sD ‘2 por 4,100 mp Aq possBr og pjnoys ee exp os soz ox ft myst 09] 7 Jo won me penpso1 Y oodzo now ou “SHC 10g Butieog 9 dysouod- yy of -wnspaus uy yoo ayy q payeksanut Suioq vores jo oF 0 "af Y a UE UO}CAUT say yo] 8 yep ‘yore mod wo spud 5¥3 Jo aouasaud tp aus [pm 910s 94 9WR9K A, “n> -000"8 9 20} SE PUP 2509 -000°0T ‘29 205 0 nog pororpaxd arwaudop AyooypA RUN, “ATG ottoo pin uy 99z0u funppe ath 30} soyesuadiwoo wexpazow pny o20d sn yo fsuop cf arvaoop pres ae 20u8 urERE serea1ouy AreNpes ADO “aowomon‘eortanges se aeazbut JOWRErYthiak (GES. Ska) HuPeaLoUt ‘ppdes ypqiseuduaes pang amp 30 ves © st HoTy “Kiponsmsp sdosp ‘poy ot 5951 anoge on 9 OH} ENOIOUT MoTTeIN}e 9 cy “sou UayO.G ipaq pawveaidas sy uoqesmes yo pur souH prosauy dq powuosoxdar 5} UR uTOeS 2 OO HORHION U9] 03 agBH 03g Fupo2c04d) QT OF ‘sory ose wopesmis oq’ ¥0spy 5 3} 009° OT-000'S HOA SIREap ‘495 0 + 6¢ sO Jo spues 40jsoRIDO|EePoTETNO|EDSMOHS LEG BH ‘Api YoRpUui63 0} woHngy uo 2982 Yon ‘esmy ping azod area yon] — enemys ans wonoedz0o pue oBzey Soutnjon ood say eoqieu0} Kysos0d-uyy "woTeNs Ut GOP SYBIL (quva 9 "2onamoqt“AipBH Yoo! oF aT sinqlnyu0> pny oxod wey SueIE prem "uiry sy aursead uopoedsros pu mot sf ausnfon oxod ssay suo “funny fasted: ao sadaop au ya woWye 51 ADoyea UY aw=IsOP ON, “yoojpa anos seeazoap pue Aysuap 1 GON sous kp yo0s ayy stam pmb au0d ape dos aye :2(qssaxdut0D dda 5 505) os poteanyne-pibry otros 9 WY ANTES Jono OUT SUN duos ap aearou fm pos yo sped as0d ot) UE Su Jo oousserd ot, suojowio 8u004400 _guuunjoo uy snyen uonnay-ytuaCT ag HAH TPA Kron 968 KL, ‘-sargh og wunpo uy uni uv gg-5 8k 0 S0f Jose! PPS iy oes Buoy poorego snes Aosog "yoo gst-0oT sue [NOUYR44BaINI 901 IOHNEdO NEBOOM 40 STVLLNASS vy186 ESSENTIALS OF MODERN OFEN-HOLELOG INTERPRETATION = g 5 2 a9 | 10 It ar 03 05 07 os oe {BRINE SATURATION (Sy! Fig. 5-38 Compresibity of gos-water msture a a tunction of water salualion (ater Somenles, SEG) an increase in porclty of similar magnitude, Inthe ease of ol, Fig. 5-97 clearly shows that a residual ll saturtion of 30% in the Mashed zone will hhavemuch leseffect than gason theSonilogand thereforewillbe even less litingulshable Secondary Porosity Theneed tohavea Denity-Neutron log that ean giveboth thology and porosity in low-poresiy regions does not completely negate the value ofa Sonle log. It is weful as an indiestor of ssondary porosity, which occurs pelmarilyn carbonates. ‘The Sonic log tends to ignore porosity Inthe form of isolated vugs or channels, Loosely speaking, the tol will not see such porosity if vertical PoROSITY Loss 197 slice of the cireumference of a hole betwoon the two receivers free of such ‘us or channel, the is arrivals wil follow that path. On the other hand, the Density and the Neutron, which respond to average porosity in theit ‘Lin, to l0cin, depths of investigation, will average viguler porosity ‘with intergranular porosity. Secondary porosity may therefore be considered as the difference botwoon theD-N and Sonteporoities (2m, ~ #)-Asocondary porosity index may be defined as SPL = Gn ~ lu 19) ‘The greter the SP, the higher the permeability i likely tobe fora given total porosity, assuming the vugs or channels are interconnected. This is valuable information for estimating formation productivity. Porosity determinations, hove be considered reliable, Taking the 12,595-12, 525.4 intek 5-9, SPL Is ealculated to be (16 ~ 15)/16 or 0.95 if Sone porosity derived $ from Fig. 5-89 is used (carmn 5, but iis only 0.12 the porosity from Fig. 5-06 i ured (column 6). The index is therefore more useful on a ‘comparative than on an absolute basist indicate secondary porosity tends Ina given eld whereholeconditions, logging programs, and interpretation methods ere standardized. ol rergoment nd fometion Aten lis j Seaieloeareveytlerat of ele sae varitiode thin tignormal b-ibinsrange However sro croscan oar rat ines eared Sith vandara BHC) Sone! inarar aero Se With appre Tistermationseration Considering Fig 5 27,onecan readily slzthat ftheholedlameter to lage a the Sone ole centalne, the ad wave proceeding Shel down the hole wl reve at the rerier seat of th formation conpresona wave." ended wavel ine wil thn ot tet orm: ante Gre “The masimum hole sa tolerable depends on the hotest transite. secvr ping th formation tava ime" For the BH ta with & teat rover speclngof fe the mots eras oleae ein fora {ahpomit formation and 3 fore 10D so formation, Efargements af thsnataredoccur, pari sao uncom pate formations Fat aeraton asters effect yeas eration sherwnget watersesiv sles nsoniact with es ling ms160 ESSENTIALS OF MODERN OFEN-HOLE LOG INTERPRETATION PoRosiTy 106s 164 level As frst measured With the two tecsivers spanning that level. Tran mitt, i pulsed twice in tucoasion ard the time difference (Tt, Tu) ‘corresponding tb compressonel arivals placed in memory. I the hole lameterisdifferent at the two reetivers, the measured time willbe inerror, ‘After the tool has moved upholed i, the tio transmitter wil Bespanning the same intervi (between poits of refraction). Each fs pulsed ane, using only receiver R, the time difference (Ty ~ T,R,) iemessured twill bein error by alike amount bu in the opposite diction, ‘This time difference then averaged with the previous value, retrieved from memory, to provide an 8-10 spacing travel time compensated for borehole variation, Using tanimitierT, in the fst position instead of, and receiver, in the second postion instead of , provid 10-12 compensated log in ike fashion Fig: 5-4 shows comparison of standard BHC and long-spacing lagen ‘shallow section of hae through formations that are primal shale, save for a fairly thick sand at level A, Except in the sandy where the tv Togs gic, the conventional logs badly In error. Te the upper third ofthe log, the BEC curve reads «trait ime too long beeause of shale alteration, [nt the sections above aod below the sand, s reads much too long boca of hole washout. By contrast, the LSS log ests cortetl, ‘Anomalous Tlggsring Effects | Wofortunatly, logit spacing lower signal amplitudes at the receivers and aggravate noise triggering snd cycle skipping. When this happens, spikes occur in pairs, spaced 9% fe apars, beeause each T-2 time measure ‘ment is used twice for time computation: once at the level ts talken and again 94 fe higher inthe hole "This behave is lstrated in ig, 5-42, The 8-10-F tog is tabled DTT and the 10-12-flogislabeled DTL. An Incorrect reading reeordet.on the ft spacing will cause two spikes of like polaity spaced 994 Ft apart to ap ‘on the8-10-elog pair). Similarly, anerrron the 12-tspacing will ‘ita similar pa of spas in the 10-19:flog, An error on oa ofthe 10.st ‘measurements, however, will eausealpke of one polarity on theS-10-t log anda displaced spike of opposite polarity inthe 10-12-t log (puts A, By and ©), These anomalies ean be smocthed out by eyeball averaging or eimt- eled more procialy by computer procesing,™ ———_—___________] We can alto expéct to see improper borehole compensation when ronde Fig. $40 Schiumberger Long Spacing Sonic once, sicking causes erratic downhole motion. sticking oseurs, asevidenced by fence163 2 tmasoruconomuoutiocnmancinon | poromices 7 ‘euble tension buildup, a given length of cable may be reeled in at the surface ec an Sin ean Fe oo] | | ret Seam | s S, ¢ ; to 3 é 2 & Fa sep ora rove geting cong salu on So fig. 5-41 Comparlion of slandord and long spaced Soristogrin ated ; ‘Sndcaved snl afer Thom, couneny SH ae ‘Boivod iongspocing Sonic log (otter Purdy, courtesy SLA)164 ESSENTIALS OF MODERN OPEN-HOLE LOG INTERPRETATION. recorded travel time will be in error ifthe hole configuration i different at ‘the two levels No easy solution to this problem exis. “The accuracy of LSS measurementscan be checked, as with thestandard BHC, by observing thatthe travel time in easing reads 57 pscolt. It is ‘mandatory to obtain a reading inthe uncemented section of casing since signal amplitudesin cemented easingaretoosmallat the longspacingsused, Derivation of porcity from LSS travel imesis exactly thesame as forthe standard BHC. Figs. 5-13 and 5-6 are appliable, Shear Hav Time Measurement “The desirability of memuring shear wave velocity in addition to com: presionl velocity hat lng been recognized. The basic reason is that, with thetwo velocities the Fundamental elastic constants ofthe medium ean be ealelated, With thes, mechanical properties af importance such assand i threshold and Fractaring presue can be inferred. Other a are also coming to light for the shear Wave measurement Shear wave measurement requires date aoqulstion with long spacing sondes, digtaing of sonic wave forme atthe wellte, and sophistoated ‘wave form procesing oft "The longer the spacing, the greater the separation {a time batween the ‘compressional and shear wave packets and the esierit istosense accurately. the later shear arivals, Fig. 5-43 ilsteates the point, It isa vatiable- density recording of receiver wave forms a 8. spacing. Once per foot of hole, the receiver signal modulates the intensity ofan electron beam sweep Ingacrossthefaecof cathode ray tube (CRT) with therweepstartingwhen the tranmitter x poled. The modulated sweops are recorded on a moving film to provide a display in which wave smplitudas are transiated into black-and-white contrasts "The compressional arsivals ar sen clearly at about 0.3 mse and the shear arrivals at approximately 0.6 mo. They are well sparated, which facilitates shear wave extraction, ‘Wihile shes transit time can be determined from variabledensity dix ploy, itisatedious and imprecise process, Accurate determination roquires thatthe wave forms be digitized at Sto 10-aee Intervals and processed ‘through correlation and tering technique to suppress the direct compres: sonal wave and reflections asociated with it and to enhance the shear frrival "A tremendous amount of data must be handled, so the processing ‘must be done in computer enter at present. PoRostTy LoGs ° 15 Fo. $48 Varo cengly depiay of wovotorms wi 6 ransmier ‘Slower spacing otter Sugiiag onc Castagna, Courtesy SPWCAT Sehlumbergae’s computation method, direct phase determination, is com merclally available.” Tt computes compressional and sheer travel times, their ati, and energies of the compresional and shear packets. ‘Fg. S-44 is an example of compressional and shear logs corded in @ sand shal series Travel time curves aze displayed in Track 5, and the ‘atl shear to compressional travel times (denoted AT, AT) isplottedasa {ali line in Track 4.*In Tacks 1, 2 and 3 are the grain densities, uid “Aang wie ded Patan’ al168 ESSENTIALS OF MODERN OFEN-HOLELOG INTERPRETATION Fig. 6-44 Example of snoar ond compressional rave tne recorcing in ‘Shcrshote sear (counaty Sonurmborge PoRosiTY Logs: 467 analysis, and matrix analysis computed from a standard logging suite. The ‘most obvious pontsare that theshearloghasmuch thetamecharacter asthe tompresional log, and that Poisson's ztio correlates well with the clay tsoncentation shown in Teack 3. “The various uses of shear wave logging are presented inthe following. section ‘Mechanical Properties Determination ‘Thisis the most clear-cut application of shee transt time logging. The fundamental elastic constants of a medium ean be expresed in terms of compresional and shear velocities and therefor cal Incite are measured. The relations are Poussows nario ose = ye) 6.20) where ew, stieanMoouLus ane 6.2 Bute woputus B = o(Vs~ 1.333 6.2 Youxsnoouuts B= 2+) 62) Pobsons ratios the rt of aterl to asoeated linear strain in a me dium. The moduli represent the resistance of the medium to shearing, volume compression, and linear elongation. They largely determine Imechanleal properties such as sanding threshold fracture pressure, and rock drilabilty. Soft unconsolidated sands will break down and flow during produetion Uf production rates or drawdown prossues are too high. When this hap- pens the well sands up and chokes its own flow. Empirically, breakdown hould not occur ifthe product of shear and compressional moduli exceeds a threshold value given by B= 0.8 x 10" pit wm) ‘This product is recorded on mechanieal properties logs.” ‘rior to shear wave logging, an empirieal relation between the fraction of clay In the pore space (as Gx-ertmined fom los) and Poisson's ratio was {sed to obtain the latter and thus V, from Bq. $.80, The product wB could then becafeulated, With shear wave logging theres no need forthe empiri168 ESSENTIALS OF MODERN OPEN-HOLELOG INTERPRETATION cal relation (which held forthe U.S. Gulf Coast but not necesarlly elie: ‘where. V,and V,are directly measured, leading ton more accurate dter- ‘mination of 4B, actue presute is that hydrostatiopresue in the borehole that. will ‘cause the adjacent formation to split, generally along a vertical plane, and permit borehole fli to flow into the facture. During drilingt is impor {ant not to exceed the facture pressure or etculation will be lost. On the other hand, when fracturing tight formations to improve their productivi- tis, fracture pressures must be exceeded. Fracture pressure may be waite 6.25 where ‘overburden presute (0.9 to 1.0 pil) pore presure (measurable witha formation tester) Constant, approximately 0.5 “The fracture presure is very dependent on Poison’ ratio, Conse «quently, tisimportan tohave an sceraely measured vale rath than ‘alue empieally obtained ar indicated above Fg 9-44 shows tat Pot Son's ato ean vary from 0.15-0.39, a wider range than the empire ‘method predicts. me ” Improved determinations of other derived parameters, such as fracture \widths and heights and rock drillability, canbe expected with more precise kaowledge ofthe elastic moduli. Lthology Identification The ratio of shear to compressional travel time appears to ‘afl! thology for the tre major seiner ser, Type vals or Lithology Sanditone Dolomite 18 Limestone 19 A statistical plot from soverl wells trshown In Fig. 5-45. The limestone and dolomite ratios are independent of porsty over the O-20% range rorosirv ics: 19 covered, The sandstone folnts for lquld-illed pores in the 15-25% range Show an increase in thet, ratio fom 1.6 to 1.8 as porosity Snereass. The ‘ashed line ie the sandstone line from earlier laboratory work with cores. agrees withthe well log data, ‘The tt ati, however, not az definitive an indoaior of lithology as lhe gurveof th Litho Dent tool whore value inereas from 1,805.0, progressing from sand to dolomite tolibiestone. nthe other hand thet, ‘ao éan be usefal in wels drilled with barteloaded mud where the P, curve fe not usable. ‘The constancy of t/t implies that shear trvel time has mudh the sme dependency on porosity as compraslonal velocity. In fact, the ebsisaseale of Fig. 8-98 can be multiplied by the appropriate ratio to produce an tpproximate porosity vshoar travel time curve foreach lithology. clay indication 1 In band shalé sequences the presence of clay and silt increases thet, tatiofrom 2 nominal value of 1.6 as high a5 1.9, alustrated by Fig. 5-44, Once again the range of variation isnot nearly as great as for the Gamma Ray or SP However, ther s evidence tht shear attenuation may be senltiv to the disposition of clay aswell sto the content. If this could distinguish between dispersed and laminated clay, it would significantly enhance formation evaluation, Gostitect Fl ‘The presence of gas in pore space should decrease the shear wave travel time, This beeause shear velocity, V,, of en elastic solids given by i Ve> wal where p isthe shear modulus and phe density, Replacing liquid by gavin the pores should not affect the sheat module, since fluids do not support shear, butt will lower the deasity. A gas saturation of 18% inthe Nushed “oneshould lower thetrave time by about 5%. Iwill increase the compres: ‘onal travel time by about 10%, 9 the t/t rato should deerease by about 155. Fig, 5-45 shows 10% deoreaze in rato, from 1.8 to 1.62, most of ‘which wes due to change in The conclusion Is thatthe shea travel time Jog wil be relatively insensitive to gs (5.26)170 ESSENTIALS OF MODERN OPEN-HOLE LOG INTERPRETATION boiomite Limestone — eS = Fig. 5-45 Comparison belwoon ihalogy and shear to compresional {rGve! me ota wih oka fem several wos couosy Schlumberger and Sway. ELECTROMAGNETIC PROPAGATION-MICROLOG COMBINATION “The Electromagnetic Propagation-Mlcrolog (EPT-ML} combination is ‘a marriage of one of the earliest and simples electrical tools (ML) with one ofthe latest und moe sophisticated electromagnet tools (EP). What they Ihave in common is that ‘both ate pad devices * both have extremly high vertical reslution and very shallow MINV, indieates permeabilty Sie ralog ME) by Sumeger, Minos by Dress, Cotactog by Webs, tribe (MED) by Cerharm4 ESSENTIALS OF MODERN OPENHOLE LOG INTERPRETATION Fxample tog Fig. 5-48 is an example of a Microlog run in combination with GR. Density and Neutron logs. In Track Ii recorded the eaiper and GR. The latter shows two major sands at intervals A and E along with indiations of thin sands at B, C, and D. The Micrlog curves are recorded in Track 2. Positive separation, indicated by the dot coding, clearly shows the perme: able intervals, namely thetop 7 of A, about 2ftin By and 24 in E, fora totalsand count of33ft. Zone Cisindicated astightandzoneD asimperme PoRosIY Lo@s 7 TELEMETRY 8 GAMMA RAY -—GR MEASURE PT. ELECTROMAGNETIC PROPAGATION )-—EPT MEASURE PT, POWERED CALIPER MICROLOG ML CALIPER MEASURE PT. COMPENSATED NEUTRON “CNL MEASURE PT. FORMATION DENSITY ) Foc Measure PT. ig. 5-47 EPI Microieg in combination with FOC, CNL, and/G (courtesy SShumbergen Fo. £48 Mierolog showing preamble zones oA. 8. and Einfervts (cBarosy Sesumoorgen176 ESSENTIALS OF MODERN OFEN-HOLELOG INTERPRETATION able. Readings greater than 10timesthe nud cake resistivity Ro (estimated sasabout 1 ohim-min thiseas), indicate ight zones, Separation ofthe curves at high esstivtes Ig mesninglss due to current leakage acund the ped Mud-Cake Thickness Estimation alu mda eke canbe can othe sake resistivity, Ry, must be obtained from the log heading and converted tothe temperature of interest, The ratios Rp/Rye and Rye y/R,. give a point of intersection from which mud cake thickest, hye can be estimated, For zone E of Fig, 5-48, Ry" = 2.9 and Ry gy 2.Tohmem. ASSUMIng Rye = ly hacBestimated at A=" in asindl- cated on Fig 5-49. However, if Ry, were 0.5 chat Ng would be esti- rated as aboot % in, Consequently, the procedure is act very accurate yy YA yy Yi) Fig. 5-49 Micro9 iverpreiaion chan (courtesy Shumberger) yuk ” beets R.. values onthe log heading afe;not measured values but are derived from the yy measurement, asoming average mud properties. The ‘main val ofthe Microlog i indleating the presence of mud ake. “The Microlog works best in fresh mud Ieishot suited tosalt ad because, mud etkestendtobever thininsuch rnudsand because thehigh conductive ity of alt mud tend to short-circuit the survey current. " Inearly days before porosity logs were available, the Microlog was used toestimate poraity""R,, would be extimated from Fig, 5-19, 8, would be {guesed ind ¢ would be derived from Eq. 2-12. However this was — ands Bir ven inaccurate method, The Micrlogis nota poraity device nr even ‘oR, measuring device, Mirolog curves bear lite semblance to tut Ry ‘onvesabtained with focused" ILL, PL, or MSFL electrode systems 1 THE ELECTROMAGNETIC PROPAGATION LOG. “the BP tool mots he travel ean attenuation cae of mic vvaves propagating long the bree nthe fist ew inches of Formation. [etheveny high fequneyatized, 1110" Hi (11 gle), the ratook tree olsuch waves determine alos entirely y th certs proper Uist the formation and yr itieby testy. (The opposteitroe for fnduction snd Laterlog tools, whch operte alow reenes) Ta term the det pormitinty lng faetion a the water comer theonmation.* ig 850 shows the EPT sensor arangement. Two rowave rn mito fr and eves) aremonntdon abe pad forced {ninth Drala wall: Spacing betwen transite and meres ee SSirisBemang between thetworsceivrs tom. Thetwo transite ere rermely pale, and upgeng end dwnglng travel times mesired iciveonthetworsscvenreaveraged.Thislisinatestinterderafeasol troven snc, thckne, ad titan inrmentation ‘imbalaecs. ‘rmvelvimesmessredbysesngthe pase difference inecivedsignalat there eeiver complete menrurement oftaveltime sndsignal tent ation ismade every /woF a second and transmitted to'the surface. There the treuements ae averaged over Si, o rn. depth tervals i" f Vertical Resolution, Depth ot| netration, and Borehole Ettects, Vertical resaliston of the EPT logis extrmely good, It sestentially the span between receivers, about 2 in, Depth of penetration is quite small, ‘erying from about In in low-resistivity formetions to about in. in high