Semiconductors and Transistors

Question 1:
A semiconductor is a material that has resistance between that of a conductor
and an insulator. Unlike a conductor (in which resistance increases as
temperature increases), a semiconductor's resistance decreases as its
temperature increases. This can be explained by the band theory of solids. \

The highest energy band of electrons is the conduction band, responsible for
the conduction of electric currents. Below this is the valence band, and in
conductors the valence band and conduction band overlap as electrons are
delocalised and free to move amongst the metal ions. When a conductor is
heated, the kinetic energy of the ions increases, making it hard for the
electrons to travel through the lattice without colliding and losing energy.
In insulators the gap between the valence band and conduction band is so
large that it is very difficult for the electrons to move from the valence band
and into the conduction band, causing them to have very high resistance.
In semiconductors however, the
gap is small enough to allow
electrons to pass if energy (such
as heat) is added. If the
semiconductor is heated, more
electrons can jump to the
conduction band, causing the
current to increase and the
resistance to decrease. As
electrons are freed and jump into
the conduction band, positive
'holes' are left behind. These
holes cause more electrons to
move up and more holes are
created. This creates a positive hole current in the opposite direction of the
electron current.
The group IV elements Silicon and Germanium are the most commonly used
semiconductors materials, and often impurities of group III or group V elements
such as boron or phosphorus are added to increase electrical conductivity

(called doping).
Question 2:
a) A transistor is a tiny switch that changes the size or
direction of current as a result of very small changes in
the voltage across it. Two types of transistors are solid
state devices and thermionic devices. Transistors are
used in virtually all electronic devices such as radios,
televisions, ipods and computers.
b) A knowledge of semiconductor materials was
important in the development of transistors as it lead to
the creation of solid state
devices. Solid state devices
use semiconductors to generate a flow of electrons.
Semiconductors can be doped to produce an excess
negative charge (called n-type) with a group V
element such as phosphorus, as the extra valence
electron increases the conductivity of the material.
P-type doping is achieved by using a group III
element such as Boron and the lack of a valence electron increases electrical
conductivity and causes an excess positive charge. Solid state devices use
junctions between n-type and p-type semiconductors to act as a transistor. A
switch is achieved by a junction between an n-type and p-type semiconductor,
where as an amplifier consists of two junctions between n-type and p-type,
either a pnp or npn. The three connections are called the emitter, collector and
base. Small changes in the voltage of the base cause large changes in the
voltage drop across the collector resistance, making it an amplifier.
Question 3:
Germanium was initially used in transistors as it was the first semiconductor
material we could purify easily. When techniques to produce pure, crystal forms
of Silicon were developed, it quickly replaced Germanium as the main semi
conducting material. Silicon is the second most abundant element in the
Earth's crust (much cheaper than Germanium), retains it's properties at higher
temperatures, forms an oxide layer and can withstand higher currents before
overheating.

Question 4:
A thermionic device is a transistor
that consists of two or more
electrodes enclosed in a glass
vacuum tube. A diode has two
electrodes, a cathode and an anode.
The cathode is heated, freeing
electrons that flow to the anode
creating an electric current that will
only flow in one direction. This acts as
an electronic
switch. The
addition of a
third electrode
or 'grid' with an alternating current causes the device to
act as an amplifier.
There were many problems with the thermionic devices.
They were bulky, produced lots of heat and required high
voltages and pressures. They were unreliable as they
had short lifetimes due to their fragility, metal coating
boiling off and seals breaking. Thermionic devices also
required a separate heating circuit to heat the cathode
which took time.
It was because of these problems that solid state devices
replaced thermionic devices. A solid state device that
uses semiconductors to generate a flow of electrons has
many advantages. Solid state devices work immediately
and do not require a heating circuit. They operate at
normal air pressure, low voltages and are much smaller
than thermionic devices. Intel produces solid state devices that are only 45

nano metres in length!

Question 5:
The invention of transistors led to the development of the integrated circuit.
Early solid state devices were discrete components that consisted of a single
transistor or diode. These were much smaller and more reliable compared to
thermionic devices. Integrated circuits are tiny circuits made by diffusing
impurities into a single crystal of silicon and comprise of many components
such as resistors and transistors (solid state
devices). The transistors act as tiny switches
that turn on and off in binary code to convey
information. In 1971 Intel produced its first
microprocessor and by 1983 over half a million
components could fit in one chip. Microchips
and microprocessors have led to huge
improvements in the processing and storage of
information, and today virtually all electronics
use ICs.
There have been many advances in science,
medicine, entertainment, communications and
industry thanks to the increased capacity to
handle information.
Bibliography
Michael, A., Gaut, R., Pentland, P., McKay, P., & Tacon, J. (2003). Jacaranda HSC
Science: Physics HSC Course. Milton: John Wiley & Sons Australia.
Nave, R. (2005). Band Theory of Solids. Retrieved June, 2010, from
Hyperphysics: http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/solids/band.html
Nave, R. (2005). Band Theory of Solids. Retrieved June, 2010, from
Hyperphysics: http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/solids/band.html#c2
Prof. Haviland, D. (2002, December 19th). The Transistor History. Retrieved
June, 2010, from Nobelprize.org:
http://nobelprize.org/educational/physics/transistor/history/index.html
Portz, S. (n.d.). How does a transistor work? Retrieved June, 2010, from
Physlink.com: http://www.physlink.com/education/askexperts/ae430.cfm
Hewes, John. (2010). Transistors. Retrieved June, 2010, from The Electronics
Club: http://www.kpsec.freeuk.com/components/tran.htm
CSU. (n.d.). Transistors. Retrieved June, 2010, from HSC online:
http://www.hsc.csu.edu.au/physics/core/implementation/9_4_3/943net.html
Intel Corporation. (n.d). Fact Sheet. Retrieved June, 2010, from Intel.com:
http://www.intel.com/pressroom/kits/45nm/Intel45nmFunFacts_FINAL.pdf

The American Institute of Physics. (1999). Integrated Circuit. Retrieved June,

2010, from PBS.org:
http://www.pbs.org/transistor/background1/events/icinv.html
Jeanty, J. (n.d.). How Does a Microchip Work? Retrieved June, 2010, from eHow:
http://www.ehow.com/how-does_4596010_a-microchip-work.html
(n.d.). n-p-n-symbol.gif. Retrieved June, 2010, from Markallen.com:
http://www.markallen.com/teaching/images/electronics/n-p-n-symbol.gif
(n.d.). Intrin2.gif. Retrieved June, 2010, from Hyperphysics:
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/solids/imgsol/intrin2.gif
(n.d.). Silicon-2.jpg. Retrieved June, 2010, from Images of Elements:
fromhttp://images-of-elements.com/silicon-2.jpg
Ellen Rose Lee