DOCUMENT RESUME ED 238 289 FL 014 154 AUTHOR Collier, Catherine TITLE Introduction to Language. Linguistics 101. : INSTITUTION Kuskokwim Community Coll., Bethel, Alaska. SPONS AGENCY Department of Education, Washington, DC. PUB DATE 79 NOTE 133p.; Best copy available. PUB TYPE Guides - Classroom Use ~ Materials (For Learner) (051 . EDRS PRICE MFO1/PC06 Plus Postage. - : DESCRIPTORS Assignments; *Bilingual Education Programs; *English; *Eskimo Aleut Languages; Grading; Higher Education; Introductory Courses; *Language Teachers ‘Linguistics; Multicultural Education; Second Language Instruction; *Teacher Education; Testing IDENTIFIERS *yupik ABSTRACT - : The syllabus of an introductory course in linguistics intended as a foundation for studies in bilingual/bicultural education, Alaskan native languages, and anthropology is presented The course was designed for a program for teachers of Yupik as a second language. The course objectives are to introduce students to the internal structure of language and the relationship between language and culture. Analyses of English, Yupik, and some other languages are included. The course consists of six units of read: and assignments: (1) introduction to language (linguistics and related disciplines, communication); (2) language, culture, and change (including dialects); (3) introduction to phonemes and phonetics (including the international phonetic alphabet); (4) articulatory phonetics (articulation, contoids, vocoids, stress pitch, intonation); (5) introduction to morphemes and morphology (including. some semantics); and (6) language analysis. Each unit has questions and/or activity assignments in addition to readings, and _ the final examination is included in the course materials for student Preview, Illustrations and a glossary are included. (MSE Ags JOBE III IEEE III HEISE ISIE TIBI IIIS TEI ITI TIE II IR: * Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made * * from the original document. * TEER IIE O IU IOI HII ICSE ICO EEO Ia II IAAI TATA TRIAD AITSST COPY AVAILABLE Linguistics — LING.1OI Oo eon DIANGUAGE Catherine. Comer Koskoxwier Coveney Cousse ED238289 + FLOI4Sa VWGUISTICS 101 THE win LANGUAGE IUSTRUCTOR: . CATHERINE, COLLIER COURSE DESCRIPTION A beginning course in the study of language. Systematic analysis of human language: articulation, unite of soud (phonenes),- units of meaning (norphenes), ‘analysie of these elenents and how they interrelate. ouRsE OBJECTIVES Students will be introduced ito the internal structure of language and the re- lationship between Language’and culture, Students vill get soms experience in analyzing the internal structure of English and Yupik through phonevic and mor- phologic patterns. Some work with other languages will also be done. COURSE ADMINISTRATION Thie is an introductory, course-designed to provide a foundation to studi bilingual/bicultural education, Alaska Native languages, anthzopology, other gaguages and Linguistic analysis. Students mejoring in bilingual/bicultural education, Yupik, and Anthropology should take this course early.in their degree program. ‘The course consists of six units of readings and assignments about language and Amnguage structure. Each unit has questions and/or actévity assignments to be completed in addition to the readings. There will be a final examination. The exam is included in the course materiale for student preview. ‘The exam, questions, and ‘activities will be gradéd on @ percentile correct basis. ‘The grade for thie course is determined by thé total precentile ‘core achteve atudent'e total ipercentile points... y crate total possible percentile points BIBLIOGRAPEY aquired ‘Text * Frowkin, V..and Rodman, R., Aa Introduction to Languages Holt, Rinehart, & Winston Buchanan, C:D., A Programmed Instroduction to Linguistics; D.C. Health & Co. Gleason, H.A., a Introduction to Descriptive Linguistics; Holt, Rinehart & Winston Laffey, J. & Shuy, R., Tanguage Differences: Do They Interfere? International “Reading: Association Lender, H., Language and Culture,; Oxford University Pre Reed, Miyacka, et al, Yupik Eskino Grammar; Alaska Native Language Center Wardbaugh, B., Introduction to. Linguistics; McGraw-Hill Book Co. Several paseages from Wardhaugh's book are quoted-at lengthi: by permission of the publisher. . : : i 3| | COURSE OUTLINE I. UNIT I INTRODUCTION TO LANGUAGE : Language and Linguistics Linguistics and Related Disciplines Commmication Assignments: Read Fromkin/Rodman pp. 1-13, 15-28 : Questions and Exercises on pp. 28-30. of Manual Supplemental Readings: pp. 173-188 Froukin/Rodman " UNIT II LANGUAGE, CULTURE, & CHANGE - . Language & Culture Diveraity of Language & Dialects Language Change Assignments: Read Fromkin/Rodman pp. 226-235, 252-258, 269-276, 191-220 Questions and Exercises on pp Sé=46 of Manual, Supplemental: Readings: pp. 236-246 Fromkin/Rodman pp. 258-269 Fromkin/Rodman pp. 33-63, 129-231 Lander UNIT ITI INTRODUCTION TO PHONEMES AND PHONETICS Phonemes International Phonetic Alphabet Coneonanta Vowels Ausignments: Read Fromkin/Rodman pp. 30-60, 69-79 Questions and Exercises on pp. 65-67 of Manual ‘Transcriptions pp. 98 . Supplemental Readings: pp. 79-94 Fromkin/Rodman pps 257-285. Gleason ‘UNIT IV ARTICULATORY PHONETICS : Articulation - Contoide Vécoide : 7 Stress Pitch, & Intonation Assignments: Read Fonkin/Rodman pp.. 40-64 - Read pp. 1-17 in Yupik Zokimo Grammar - Questions and Exercises on pp. 62-84 of Manual ‘Transcriptions pp. 99-101 i Supplemental Readings: pp. 239-256 Gleason * 4UNIT V INTRODUCTION TO MORPHEMES AND MORPHOLOGY Morphenes Morphology Meaning Assignments: Read Fronkin/Rodman pp. 101-131 Questions and Exercises pp. 88-90 of Manual Transcriptions pp. 102-103 of Manual UNIT VI LANGUAGE ANALYSIS. Analysis of Kurdish Bontoc Samoan Swahili Tepehua Tagalog Project: Yupik Analysis. 5 Transcriptions pp. 104-106 of Manual Supplemental Reading: pp. 136-168 Fromkin/Rodman Glossary po, 107-119 FINAL FKAM pp, 120-125 of Manual aUNIT I INTRODUCTION TO LANGUAGE i : ; Have you ever wondered abéut your language? Why it 1s the way it 4s and how it/felates to other means of couimmication? Language is one wef in which we communicate with one another: It is the word intonations, gad other vocal means we use to communicate our feelings, thoughts, and idea with one another. Language is made up of words (vocabulary) and how they are put together to com- » mmicate thoughts (grammar). It is a set of principles relating meanings und sound sequences. These principles enable speakers‘of a language to éxchange ideas by means of apeech sounds. Linguistic analysis is the attempt to discoyer and describe language dtructure, to clarify the patterns in the sound/meaning correlations of language. A LANGUAGE AND LINGUISTICS Linguistics 1s often called the science of, language. “A person whose field of study i¢ linguistics and who possesses certain specialized knowledge abou: “language ia called a linguist. A linguist may or may not speak ore than one Language. A Linguist makes observations about language in general or about indtvidual languages, Ho then classifies these Gbservations in the form of “general rules. ' Linguists are in broad agreement about: some ‘of the important characterietica of human language, and one definition of language widely associated “ath ling- uieties may be used:, "language 1s a syaten of arbitrary vocal symbols used for fmman commmication", Communication can be more than language; ve all use geat- ares and "body language" to commmicate also, However, the iain mode of commmi~ eatdon that human beings use is language. . ‘Language is systematic, Language contains two systems, a system of sounds and a system of meanings. Only certain sounds are used by speakers of any lang- *. yage, and oly certain combinations of these sounds are possible in a particular. ea : 6language. For exemple, we have the sounds /n/ and /g/ in English and they can * be coubitied into “ng” as at the end of “hang”. In English “ng” is never at the beginning of a word, it is only at the end of words or syllables. ‘Al1 languages have dual systems of sounds and meanings. Linguists concern, themselves not only with characteristics of the two syatens but also with how the systems relate to each other within one overall linguistic: system for a particular language. : . bufferent languages are made up of different speech sounds. The sounds peculiar to one language differ frou the sounds peculiar to other Languages with some exception For example, in Yupik there is a sound written "11" which does not exist in English, “but does exist in Navajo " 4m Yupik does not occur in English or Navajo. There are a large number of sounds that a person can produce and discriminate, These human sounde are virtually unlimited, but the number of sounds-used hy any one ‘language is Limited. No single language uses all of the'speech sounds which can be pro- duced and discriminated. : ‘A language serves its speakers as a system of communication and is made up of a limited number of speech sounds. By sound system we mean both in~ dividual sounds of a language and the way in whic these sounds are organized. Every language is a highly organized system of sounds. Every, language is a unique structure of arbitrarily chosen and arbitrarily organized sounds which serve ite speakers as a ueans of communication. : ‘The term “arbitrary” does not mean that everything about language is un- predictable, for languages do not vary in every possible way. It means that we can not predidt exactly vhich particular features we will find in a parti- cupar language 1£ ve are unfamiliar with that language. There is no: way to predict what a word means just from hearing it, although you tght make a good guess’ based on the actions of the person saying the word. There.is mo way to . : . "3 predict what sounds wil} occur in a irnguage, what the ratio of consonants to vowéls will be or whether the nasal passages will be involved in the production of certain vowels. AJl‘of these are things that a linguist considers as he studies Language. ‘A Linguist may list and describe speech sounds as individual units, but speech sounds always occur in combinations. Words are combinations of speech sounds. Speech sounds are arranged cording to rules. For example, I already mentioned the "ng" sound and another ie the sound combination "sn" which occurs in Englich at the beginning of words such as "snap" but never at the end such as in "paso". This systematic arrangement of sounds is the sound system of the language. ° . The primary medium of all languages is sound no’ matter how well developed their writing systens. All the evidence we have, from the continued existence of preliterate societies, through the knowledge we have of language acquisition by children, to the’ existence of historical records, confirms the fact that writing 1e based on speaking. Writing systens are attempts to capture sounds and meanings on paper. The primary purpose of writing is to lend some kind of Permanence to the spoken language and not to prescribe that spoken language in any way. In our attempts to describe a language, we must keep this fact in mind; therefore, we are not free to ignore the sounds s speaker makes in favor of studying the writing aystens, jor to invent some kind of abstract system that makes no reference to sound in order to describe what we find. - ie must acknowledge the centrality of speech to any study of language and therefore take an interest in phonetics “and phonology. These comments should not be taken as a denial of the importance of writing and writing systems and of the possible effects of mass literacy on language -systems: and Linguistics usage. Writing undeniably influences speaking. a 8 ‘& . 4 “an fnsistence on the vocal basis of language is an insisteuce on the importance of the historical primacy of speech over writing and therefore a denial of the common misunderstanding thatvjspeech is a spoken form of writing. ~ There 1s no connection, or at least in a fev cases only a minimal con- nection, between the sounds that people use ‘andthe objects to which these sounds refer. Language is a aymbolic syatem, a aystem in which words are associated with’ objects," ideas, and actions by convention so that "a rose by any cther natie would ‘smell as sweet." In only ‘a few cases is there sone divect representational connection between a Word and sone phenomenon in the "real" World. Onomatopoeic works like "bang", "crash", and "roar" are examples from English, although the meanings of these words would not be at’ all obvious to * peakers of ‘either Chinese or Eskino. More marginal are words like "soft" and “hareh" or "slither" and "slimy", in which any connection between sound and sense may well bé disputed by native speakers, More than one person has claimed that English words beginning with "sl" and "sn" as in "slime", "gnarl", and "snob", are-used to denote a variety of unpleasant things. In much the same way the vowel sound in twig" and "bit" is said to be associated with small things and different vowel sounds in “huge” and "moose" with large things. However, once again we are in an area of subjectivity, counterexan- ples are not difficult to find, for example "sleep" "hil", and "spoon". “tm the ctreunstances, thén, Little evidence exists to refute the claim that languages are systens of arbitrary symbols: The Kind.of commmication system that interests us in Linguistics 1s pouseued only by human beings and is very different from the commmication aystems that other forms of life possess. just how different, of course, is ‘a question of sone interest, for it can shed light on language to know in what ways human languages are different from systems of nonhuman communication.7 oe The differences may be ascribed to the process of evolution that man has gone through and result from the genetic characteristics that distinguish man from’ other species. No system of aninal: communication makes use of the duality feature,’ that is, of concurrent’ systems of sound and meanings and few systems of animal communication employ discréte arbitrary signals. Moreover, none sllows its users to do all that language allows hunin beings to do: rentatece over the past, speculate about the future, tell ‘livs at will, and devise theories, Bees do not discuss last year's supply of food, dolphins are not next-year ofiented, birds do not deceive each other with their calls, and dogs do not bark about barking. — Language is,used for communication. Language allows people to say thinge to each other and express their communicative needs. These needs are strong, whether they are the neéds of a Robinson Crusoe for somethir® Sr someone to address his remarks to, or of Trappist monks who devise sophisticated ‘signal systems to avoid breaking their vows of perpetual silence. Language is the cement of society, allowing people to live, work, and play together, to tell the truth but also to tell a lie or Les. Sometimes it"{s"used merely to keep communi-. cation channels open so that if any need arises to say"souetiing of importance @ suitable channel is available. This Yast function is met through the con-,,. vention of greeting and leave-taking, by small talk at parties, and in the chatter of secretaries in a large office. It 1s most cohspicuous in its ab- 7 . § sence, as witnessed by the image of the tall "silent" stranger in the movies or by such @ statement ae "She didn't ‘even speak 'to me when we pagsed in the . street" Language also functions to communicate general attitudes toward Jife and others, creating what ‘the anthropologist Bronislaw Malinowski’ called ch in vhich ties of union are “a phatic communion‘among ... a type of sp created by a mere exchange of words." We need only notice how absurd it would, be'to take each of the following expressions literally: "How do you do?" : * lo“How's it going?" "What have you been up to since we last met?" and "What's happening?” The commmication Of mst interest to us is, of course, the conmmnication of meaning. A languagé allows ite speakers to talk about anything within their Tealm of knowledge, We must therefore take an interest in the topic of meaning, evea though at times precise questions about meaning cannot e: ily be formulated. Tater in the course we will further discuss meanings and communicc-ion in lang- wage. : . Another thing to renember about any language is that it {s learned. You ate not born speaking your language, “A ne.som child does not know how to. speak any language. Speech is learned. In order to communicate, a child must learn to produce the speech sounds used by other speakers of his language. The ‘child Produces a wide variety of. sounds, come of which are appropriate to his lang- luage. The child hears the speech sounds used by adults aromd hin and is en- couraged in his imitation of them. When a child produces sounds not appropriate to the language he is generally ignored or corrected. The child learns that his ‘Language contains only a limited number of sounds. Even those few sounds éan be combined only in certain set ways. This language learning process takes a Jong time. The infant is immersed in a "sea of sound” for months before making trial sounds and it takes several more months before he begins putting them together into vords and short phrases. Learning ».ur first language takea several years, but language skills dearned in thé first language can be applied to learning a second, third, or more languages. Yc ng children exposed to several languages develop language skills as quickly as (and in some cases quicker than) children learning only one language. For further information about the linguistic study of language, read the following passages from In- troduction to Linguistics, by R. Wardhaugh: 2 : : di...”SOME BASIC DISTINCTIONS Before investigating language phenonena in any detail, we should be cd familiar with a set of distinctions widely recognized in Linguistics. These distinctions are between pairs of related terms: description and prescription; synéhrony and diachrony; form and substance; and competence and performance. Description and prescription : The description-prescription dletinction relates to the fact that we qust try not to make prejudicial judgments about data. A sentence such as "He ain't ~ got none" ia to be explained not criticized. Such sentences occur, and must be accounted for. They may produce undesireable consequences when uttered in certain circumstances, but this observation 1s a sociological one not a Ling- istic one. To say that "He ain't got noue” is s "bad" seatence 12 to make sone kind of prescriptive statenent about behavior, not sone kind of descriptive statement about a linguistic phenomenon, We would not want to call it an un- ‘grammatical sentence. For example, we should compare it with a collection of words such as "*¢ot he ain't noné , a collection which is definitely ungran- matical for any speaker of English, It is our task to describe thevoccurrence of "He ain't got none" and, if we can, to account for it in some way within a general, theory. “In addition, we may consider that we should also account for the nonoccurrence of the other group of words; however, not everyone would agree that this vecond task is a proper one. On-no account, though, can we dismiss “He ain't got none" as either “incorrect” or of no interest, merely because such an expression is in low repute in certain social circles. Synchrony and diachrony The synchrony-diachrony distinction refers to the fact that languages exist in time ‘and that we can study a language as it exists at any‘one time 12or over a period of time, A synchronic statenent is a statement about a language at one period in time whereas @ diachronic statement is a statenent about a change or changes that took place over a period of time. Synchronic statements should make no reference to previous stages in the lenguage so thet "meet" and "neat" must be said to be proncurced the same, that is, to be homonyms, in current English, It is irrelevant in a synchronic statement that they were once differently proriounced, a fact to which their epelling attests. A synchronic. statement may well reflect certain historical developments: for example, in one treatment of the sounds of current English the vovels of “reel” and "real" are described as being basically different rather than alike because the second word has a derived form"reality' which contains a two-vowel. pronunci- ation of “ea, Thus historical facts indeed show different sources for the fee" and the "ea". However, such a similarity between the synchronic statement for current English and the diachronic c-idence, that is, the historical facts, should never influence decisions as to what are the synchronic facts. Competence and performance The ability the reader has to understand novel sentences derives from his competence in English. This same competence euuees him to rejecté “the ate goldfish John" as a possible English sentence, tells him that “Time flies" ie ambiguous, and indicates to hia that the speaker got sidetracked in the aiddle of such a sentence as "I was going along the street ’and met, well, no, it was raining at the time as I said to Peter before leaving..." Linguistic perfor- mance is full of utterances like this Tast one, as close listening to almost any conversation will reveal. Many linguists consider that the correct ap~ Proach is not to describe such utterances, but to deacribe the underlying ayacia GF gombittuce, iich laste, o apeakad Alstedich to produce aad’ ander staild thes: 13At the saue time the underlying system sould allow us to account for the ambiguity of "Time flies” and the ungrammaticality of the collection of words about John and the goldfish. Actual utterances will not, however, be ignored, but neither will they limit the scope of our inquiries. We may also coneult the judgement and intuitions of native speakers about their language. LINGUISTICS AND RELATED DISCIPLINES Not only linguists are interested in the study of language. Anthropot- ogists, pailosophers, psychologists, and teachers of languages have long been interested in language, and linguistic has close ties with each of the other. diediplines. These ties have been stronger at some times than others as in- terests change and as the influences of one discipline on another grows or diminishes Linguistics and Anthropology The tie vith anthropology is first of all a historical one in that much Linguistic endeavor grew out of a necessity for understanding the languages cf "primitive" peoples. Exotic languages proved to be very different in many ways frou the Indo-European languages beloved’ of the philologists and grammarians of the nineteenth century. Linguiste who wanted to describe the exotic languages of the Americas, Southeast Asia, and the Pacific found that they had to devise completely new techniques of linguistics analysis. The branch of linguistics called structural linguistics derived its characteristic descriptive approach largely from a concern for exotié languages while its approach to historical mattera cane largely from the discoveries of nineteenth century philologist Today the relationship between anthropology and ling- sietics is less close than in the past; Janguages no longer appear to vary in all sorts of unpredictable ways as we find out more about different languages and some of the ideas which intrigued early linguiste,- such as the relationshiy between language and culture, no longer generate the same kind of excitement. 14 ‘10 Linguistics and Philosophy 7 If the relationship of anthropology has weakened in recent years, the one between linguistics and philosophy has strengthened during the same time. Linguists are interested once ‘nore in questions of meaning after passeing through a period in which they almost totally disregarded the study of meaning. For a long time no suitable procedures seemed to exist for investigating qu fons of meaning; consequently, meaning in language was largely ignored because it was felt that nothing worthwhile could be said in the absence of suitable procedures. Although we can acknowlege that a language is a system for relating sounds to meanings, we encounter great difficulty in understanding how this relationship is effected. We still know very little about what is involved when we say that something “means” something. There ie-a new interest in some of the same questions of meaning that have long interested certain philosophers. Linguistics and Psychology Linguists share an interest with psychologists in the "human" properties of language, in language learning, and in “creativity.” Language is uniquely human. Languages also appear to share some universal constraints. We can ume that these constraints exist because of human limitations or predis. positions. Children apparently léarn languages in the sane way no matter how different the cultures in which they are raised. Such universal learning is of interest to both psychologists and linguists. Language is also probably the most creative system pos: sed by man. Psychologists and linguists, therefore, have an interest. in linguistic phenomena, the former to explain behavior in general, the latter to explain linguistic behavior, in particular: Linguistics and TeacKing Finally, although lenguages are learned, they must also occasionally be taught, or there must be some teaching about linguistic matters. Linguists ceu can be expected to contribute some understanding of language to this teaching. We may also sometimes offer advice about the substance of what must be taught. Occasionally, we venture statements about how what apparently must be taught should be taught. When uch statements are made with a full understanding of the complex processes of teaching and learning, they should be listened to with attention, However, too often they are not made with ouch an under prone as any other professionals to offer standing, for Linguists are just gratuitous advice in areas outside their realm of competence, Nor are ve” always coupletely objective in our ova use of language. But such is to be expected. Language is heady stuff and not even the most self-disciplined Linguist can entirely resist being influenced now and again by some of its nore mysterious properties nor avold being trapped occasionally during act- ual. linguistic performance. COMMUNICATION Language ia used to commmicate meaning and linguists are coucerned.with trying to understand the systenatic ways in which such communication is achieved. The specific focus is on Linguistic system general aspects of commnication are aot covered beyond vhat is said in this section. The remarks about com munication in the following pages are included mainly because of the light they throw on matters in which linguists take an interest when they discuss language rather than communication. © Mids section is concerned with certain aspects of to kinds of commni~ cation: nonlingutetic human communication and animal commmicationu. Some Linguiats have shown an interest in nonlinguistic hunan communication because parte of it are apparently well structured and because it either "supports! or denies the-content of linguistic communication. Animal commmication is also syatens are different 16 pe of interest because certain ‘syatens. emerge, but the:12 from the systems we need in describing language. As ve shall see, it is difficult to explain how the gap between animal’ communication and human lang~ uage can be bridged, or was bridged, in the evolutionary process. Wonlinguistic Human Communication _ Hogan beings learn to communicate with each other through nonlinguistic means as well as Linguistic ones. All of us are familiar with the saying "It wasn't vhat he said; it was thé vay that he uaid it "when, by using the word "way", ve mean something about the particular voice quality that was in evid- ence, or the eet of a shoulder, or the obvious tension in certain muscles. A message may even be contradicted by the accompanying tone and gestures, 50 that cach of "I'm ready", "You're beautiful", and "I don't know where he io" can mean the opposite of any literal interpretation. Often we experience difficulty in pinpointing exactly what in the commmication causes the change of meaning, and any statement we make as to the source of the discrepancy between the literal meaning of the words and the total message coumunicated is likely to refer to sonething like a "glint" ina pergowf eye, or a "threat~ ening" gesture, or a "provocative" mainer. We are likely to make similar Ampressiondetic statenente about ccmmication between nenbers of different _ cultures: Sonetines we renark that French-men "talk with their hands," Japanese "giggle" on inappropriate occasions, arid American Indiane are “etone faced." As a result, tendencies'extat to stereotype, peopld'who"come from other linguistic and cuiturai! backgrounds on tha basis of impressions - * about théir language, gestures, customary sovinenta, and usea of space. Within @ particular-language or culture, sublinguistic and subcultural , Patterns may be even harder to describe. Certain behavior may strike us ae “effeminate” in a man, "lethargic" in a young person, or "pompous" in a bureaucrat ,but. again we may have little real understanding of just vhat makes hie vardous kinds of’ behavior Seen! effeminate, erhargic, or pompous,.. that 13 though, the person has communicated something about himself, or is assumed by the observer to have,done so. The interesting questions to be asked concern how a particular bit of communication has been effected, the ways in which the nonlinguistic signal are patterned and systematic, .and how the patterns and syatems @re learned. We could, of course, make random'observations about the kinds of' behavior ;company speech. For example, we can observe that in North Américan cul~ ture normally only females flutter their eyelashes, although no anatomi¢ reason / prevents uisies from doing so. A woman may also on occasion weep in public, but a man's tears must be shed privately. “Women are act suopoded to indulge in the , so-called belly laugh, whichis reserved for males, and then only jn @ narrow range of cirumstances. Again only young children can throw tantrums, in’ public at least, since public tantrun-throwing 18 considered “immature” in adults. We can also observed that in certain subcultures gentlemen stand when ladies enter a room and that women may kiss each other though men may not. Such be- havior is learned, communicates something about the people involved,” and varies from culture to culture and within cultures. The Linguir“s who have looked at such behavior have done so in an attempt to discover in what ways certain characterisitcs of nonlinguistic behavior Aight be structured in ways regenbiing the structures found in language. We know from experience that sone people are more responsive thee! others to the kinds of ménlinguistic eignals just mentionéd. People exhibiting this kind of ability are often said to be "sensitive", "percaptive “or “skillful at personal We would like to be able to describe the precise cues to which relationships. auch people react, so that gone explanation can'be offered of the total commni- cation process, not just the linguistic part of it. Although language undoubt edly plays the central role“in the totul process, other parte of thé process must be explored if the ultimate goal is a comprehensive description of how 1B :u human beings comunicate with each other. Language itself appeare to be used most effectively when there is communicative congruence, that is, when words, gestures, and behavior support one another, being appropriate to the speaker and the listener and to the content and the context of the uessage. Paralanguage Those who have worked on problems of communication claim to have digcover~ ed what they call a paralingvistic syatem existing alongside the Linguistic one. Previously language itself was described as being systematic. This further ~ claim is that. superimposed on the linguistic system is encther vhich adds extra dimensions’ of ‘meaning to utterance: ‘The paralinguistic system is composed of various scales, and we assume that in normal commurication, utterances fall near the center point of each scale.” Special types of conmunication require speakers to move up or down a particular scale or scales. Sometimes such movements occur Anappropriately with consequences that are not always predictable. Nolume scale The first scale of importance is 4 loudness-to-softness scale. Most utterances do not draw attention to themselves on this scale, but , appear to be uttered with just the right intensity, of sound. However, an oc~ _castonal utterance will strike us as being overloud, whereas-another will appear oversoft. Likewise, some people seen to epeak too loudly and others too softly. Sometines overfoudness, is a necessary characteristic of certain types of con~ munication, as when the carnival barker shout: "Roll up! Roll up! See this beautiful young lady shot 60 feet up in the air frona cannon!" Oversoftness & too may on occasion be used to invoke suspense in a story, as in“And then what do you.think happened to the little girl when she got lost in the woods and that big bad wolf found her?” sonetines, however, the degree of loudness or ooftness nay be quite inappropriate: lovers do not normally shout at each other when they sit together holding hads; and a stateonan’ does not normally : 1915 whieper at a press conference. Me would tend to wonder about the durability of the first relationship and to suspect the motives of the whisperer. Over~ loudness or oversoftness can suggest to the listener that the actual neaning of'an utterance 4s different from its-Literal meaning. Unfortunately, he may not dnterest in the paralinguistic, kinesic, and proxemic systems so that they ° might be better able to recognize cues to abnormal behavior during. {nterviews; such behivior being signaled by some deficiency in titegration, ANDMAL COMMUNICATION : Just as students of language need to know that other systens of ‘human ~ communication exist beyond the linguistic one, theyineed to kage aonechiog 26° GaSe ee. 21 of the systems of communication employed by other forms of life. We sometines examine the characteristics of animal communication to try to achieve a better eee eee ee teen noe tes wmique characteristics. And, from time to time, following such an examination, the occasional linguist has even.ventured into an attempt to explain what must have been involved in-.the genesis of human language at some, distant time in the past. : A great deal of. myth exists concerning communication between human beings and animals and between animals. ‘There are stories of horses, cats, and dogs 80 “{ntelligent" that ‘they can both understand verbal instructions and even read hunan’minds.. One arca of potential interest, therefore, is interspecies communication. However, a more fruitful area is intraspecies communication, about which a considerable literture exists, covering creatures as different e bees and dolphins.’ For example, the latter are often credited with both "intelligence" and a sophisticated "language." Finally, several ambitious attempts have been made to teach human language to young apes raised either alongside human children or as substitutes for children. Of some interest then are questions of the following Kinds: Which an- “ fiiale have highly developed communication systens? What are the main characy teristics of these ayatens, and how do. these differ from the characteristics of fmman language? Can animale acquire language.through deliberate teaching during the process of rearing? Ts animal comunication quantitatively 4if- ferent from human language, that‘la, 12 it really a smaller.amount of the sane: kind of ability? Or is the difference qualitative, that is, of a completely : different order? If it 1s the former, how far can the quantitative possibili~ ties be developed in animale? if it isthe latter, how did the qualitative @afference arise? These questions, of course, are ordered in such a way as to ‘OF out22 kmowledge, we must regard some of the answers as expressions of faith rather than as empirically justified conclusions. Among the studies of intraspecies communication is that of the jackdaw by Konrad Lorenz. Lorenz noted that jackdave have a small repertoire of dis- tinguishable calls. One is a male courtship call, and two others relate to flying, one indicating flight away from "home" and the other flight toward “home.” In addition to the calls, the birds sometimes emit a rattling sound to signal anger at che sight of a threatening object. Lorenz noted that thes calls and the rattle are found in jackdavs in all parts of the world, so they may be regarded as universal characteristics of jackdaws. They are also found in Jackdawe reared in isolation. Jackdaws then, appear to possessonly a very Limited system of genetically acquired calls enabling the birds to send but a handful of messages te contrast: with the infinite number of messages that humans can send with their system. Just as Lorenz studied life and communication among jackdaws for many years, Karl von Frisch, studied the habits of bees in their natural settings. He was particularly intérested in the, bee dance, the dance performed by a foraging bee on its return to the hive to report information about a nectar source to the other-bees. Von Frisch observed that the returning bee used a system which involved the speed of the dance and the direction of the dance in relation to the sun to inform the other, bees of the distance and direction ‘of ‘the nectar source from the hive. According to von-Frisch, all bees can ust the” eyetem, for it shows only occasional winor variations among different coloniés of bees. «| Other investigators have examined the call systems of gibbons and dol- phing. The results show that gibbons employ a small set of calls for various . ‘The calls allow gibbons to commnicat purpo: he lo- certain cation of food, danger, and oo on, and also to keep in touch with each othér as ~ 28,; 23 @ group vorks ite way through dense thickets. Dolphins have a still more sop- histicatéd cali system. They use it to relate their positions to the positions of other objects, particularly to the positions of other living things. The systen is not unlike certain sophisticated pieces of sounding equipment invent ed by man for similar purposes. ALL these communication syatens are much more sophisticated than the sin- ple neighing of horses, the growling and barking of dogs, and the purring of cate, Rather surprisingly, donesticated.aninals rate very. low in their ability to comunicate with man and even with each other, the claiss of owners notwith= standing. Any communication that exists between human beings and animals is almost inevitably achieved through some kind of ‘conditioning of an animal by fa human being. Tt is not the kind of comminication that interests us, because it makes almost no use of either a code derived from human Language or any Kind of systematic interspecies |cemmmication. Instead, euch interspecies | Communication employs a aet of signale which are quite arbitrary and which must be devised anew for each separate relationship. The set is also extre~ mely bnall and completely nonproductive. Parrots do not create novel sent~ ences; doge do not understand complicated commands; and even the sometimes fantastic’ performances of circus animale must be explained aé resulting from the successful chaining of series of discrete arbitrary responses. FEATURES OF HUMAN LANGUAGE The Linguist ‘and anthropologist Charles Hockett has pointed out that hunen language has certain design features that np system of animal communication posse We con note how niany of these features each of the systems of ani~ mal Communication mentioned above possesses. Duality An important design feature of human language is ite duality, the fact that it contains two subsystems, ona of sounds and the other of meanings. In * . 2924 this way language achieves a basic economy, because a discrete number of functional units of sound can be grouped and regrouped into unite of meaning, and then these unite of meaning grouped and regrouped into an infinite number of sentences. The permissible groupings are ‘sonetimes called tactical arrange~ ments: phonotactic arrangements when they refer to the possible sequences of sounds, and. syntactic arrangements when they refer, to the possible sequences , of meanings. No system of aniual communication possesses duality, or even- coues near to possessing {t. The calls of a gibbon or of @ jackdaw are‘ dis crete unitary calle, and bhe barks of a dog are unanalyzable vholes. Productivity ' : ‘A second feature is productivity. This féature refers to the fact that Language provides opportunities for sending messages that have never been sent before and for understanding novel messages. A gibbon call system lacks pro- ductivity, for gibbons draw all their calls from a fixed repertoire which 1 apidly exhausted and which disallows ay possiblity of novelty. Likewise, the communication systems of most other forns of life are nonproductive, The bee dance, however,+does have a limited productivity ii that it can be used to com mmicate about nectar sources within a few miles of ‘the hive in any direction, “We should emphasize though that messages about such sources are the only kind that can be communicated through the beé dance: bees cannot communicate about people, animals, hopes, failures, and so on. Arbitrariness There is almost A third design feature of language ie its arbitrarines: no predictability in many of its characteristics, and there is almost never any connection between symbol and object. A bee dance is iconic rather than arbit- rarys © vather dives that is, y representa ite subject-matter; because-a-dir~ —_ ect connection exists between the dance itself and the source of nectar in the : 30 :25 nusber and direction-of the gyrations.Any search for. similar iconicity in language will reveal language to be almost entirely noniconic. For example, the English number system proceeds as follows: one, two, three, fowr, ... ten + thousand, and so on, mot one, one-one, one-one-one, one-one-one-one, sess and 90 on. Four is not four times as long as one. Of course, iost call systems are arbitrary, but in this case the arbitrariness ie minimal because the systems themselves are quite limited both in the number of calle available and the uses made of the calls. Interchangeability £ | A fourth design feature is interchangeability. Any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. The’ ¢ommunications systems of gibbons and bees have this feature, but those of certain other animals do not: for example, some male birds possess calls which females do not have, and certain fish have similar sex-restricted types of commnication. The calle and patterus are not ‘interchangeable between the sexes. Displacement A £4£th deeign feature 1s displacement: language can be used to refer “to real or imagined matters in the past, present or future. It can even be used to talk about language itself, A gibbon's food call results from con— tact with food and is madé in the presence of food. A gibbon never utters @ call about something he ate last year, unlike sone gastronomically minded human beings. Of course, bees commmticate the fact that they have found nectar when they are not in the presence of that nactar, but they must do this immedi- ely on returning to-the hive. They,éo no dance about the nectar they dis~ covered on some previous occasion, nor do they speculate‘about future discover~ +4e0,—Only-himan beings indulge in ‘complicated sessions of questioning and answering, and talk about talking, even to the extent of iaventing 5 3126 .Betalanguages with which to talk about language. Specialization . (A sixth deaign feature is specialization, which refers to the fact that commmicating organions should not, have a total physical involvement in the act of commmication. They should not have to atop vhat they are doing to make a response, nor should the response be totally determined by the stimlus. Huma beings can talk while engaged in activities totally unrelated to the subject under discussion: they can talk about strenuous pursuite without making ony kind of abnormal effort. A bee in a bee dance, however, is completely involved physically in the communication proce! Cultural Transmission I . A final design feature is that of cultural tranemtssion, which refers co the fact that the detailé of the linguistic system must be iearned anew by each speaker, They are not biologically transmitted from generation to generation. Aniual systens, on the other hand, are genetically transmitted. They are com pletely determined by the genetic structure of the animal with even minor "d4alect" differences apparently resulting from small genetic differences ather than from learning. If a particular animal does not develop its char- acteristié conmuhication system, the cause is almost inevitably either pathologic or a lack of triggering;that isit is either a genetic or maturational defici- ency, Admittedly, the capacity for language in human beings has ‘a genetic baa: but the particular language a human being learns is a cultural fact not a genetic one. On the other hand, all jackdaws, gibbons, and bees have eyatems hich are Mentical to those of all other jackdaws, gibbons, and bees. All gibbona are mutually intelligible no matterwhere reared,whereas, Of course, * a Russian-spesking monolingual and an English-speaking monolingual are not. : oe 32° ;27 We can conclude from the above brief survey that no systen of animal communication has all the features of hunsn language. Particularly lacking are the duality feature eo central co human language and the productivity feature, vhich allows a hunan speaker the "infinite use of finite means.” The symbolic nature of human language and its arbitrariness appéar to be a Little less important, ‘for obviously some symbclism is involved in aninal coumumication, and sone degree of arbitrariness is present. Attempts to teach human language to ainals have been characterized on the whole by, . failure. An alnost unbridgeable gap seems to exist between man and aninale in the,kinds of ayatens that,they can use. Attenpts to train animals to” respond to human language and to use what language items they learn meaning- fully have not been successful because in each cage the animal has been unable co bridge the duality gap. It h leamed no more than to respond to words __ as the whole units and to certain combinations of words also as whole unit: ‘There ie minimal productivity and absolutely no duality. TE we attempt to account for the origin of human language by maintaining that 4t evolved from one.of the kinds of communication systens used by aitt- mils-today, we must explain exactly how the feature of duality arose, The fact that animals apparently cannot learn human language even with very deliberate Anstructiod might suggest that the difficulty is genetic in origin, so that aninals lack the very capacity for language. Not even the “brightest” animal haa the "intelligence" to master a human language, whereas all human beings, wnless pathologically afflicted, learn to use language—and most of them de~ complish this learning in the first four years of their lives to all intents « and purposes! The question then becones one of explaining a genetic change that occurred. However, we mist also decide exactly which characteristics af language are genetic, and therefore universal, and.which are nongenetic, and therefore learned. . 33: z28 ‘Assignment: 1. For further information about language and linguistics, tead pp. 1-13 and pp. 15-28 in Fronkin/Rodman An Introduction to Language. 2, Answer the quesions and do the exercises on pages 29-30 of this manual. Supplemental Reading: For more information about animal communication read pp. 173-188 in Fromkin Rodman, For more information about linguistics and language read pp. 1-21 in Buchanan. For more infcrmation about language acquisition and th¢ bradn hertspheres read pp. 307-323 in Fromkin/Rodman.1. 3. 5 29 UNIT I QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES language Linguistics c grammat Construct four ungrammatical sentences in English. State why you think they are ungranmatical. ‘ Construct two ungramatical gentences in Yupik (or other language). State why you think they are ungranmatical. (If you don't know 4 second language, use English) Sounds and meanings of some words seem to be related in some‘way. This is not necessarily true in all systems of communication, in which the “sign" reveals the "meaning". I . A. Describe or draw five different signs which directly show what they nean. (Example: a road sign indicating an S curve) ; : Deseribe any other commiication system which, like language, consists of arbitrary. form meaning symbols. (Example: traffic signale = red light meane stop, green light means go, in the traffic’stgnal communication system.) list as many onomatopoeic English words as you can, If you can think of any Yupik ones, put them aleo. (For tengtengaagq “guitar") Complete the folloying sentences: A. 4 person who ‘studies the science of language is called a + The science of language is called ~ 35 430 7. True or False? a. Every language must be learned. b. The number of sounds used in a particular language is limited. cs The total number of sounds which can be produced and discriminated is unlimited. Linguistics is the study of science.31 UNIT IT LANGUAGE, CULTURE, & CHANGE Just as all humans have some kindof language system, they also all have some kind of cultural aysten. Culture is around and within us every day of our live: It affects our perceptions end thoughts about the world around us and thus how ve express these perceptions and thoughts through our language, It determines to a large extent our way of 1ige and what, we think about ourselves and other people. Culture carfnot exist in a vacuum; it existe within human octet i Culture is a set ‘of shared ideals, values, and standards of be~ havdour.. You leamed your culture as you grew up in your society. This learning took place through language, gestures and patterns of interaction. Language is an expression of culture and is the major way in which culture is transmitted fron one generation to the next. When you teach children language, you are algo teaching them culture. It 4s duportant to reménber that connection if you are a language teacher. ‘The language and culture are integral to one another and you should not try to’ separate then.in your lessons. Some Yupik language curricula do thie by trying to teach Yupik language by translating Engliai: stories and ideas into Yupik. This can lead to confusion and miscommunication if no adjustmente are made in either the content, the presentation, or language. Culture and language are two uniquely human characteristics and affect the quality of our lives everyday. Every culture has a language which meets its specific needs. ach Language 1s suited to the culture to which it belongs, but it may be a very inadequate instrument for expressing any other culture. An expression of preference for a given Language is actually an expression of preference for the culture ehat uses the language. Each language seems logical ~ and preferable to the speaker of that language because it is the best medium to expresa their culture. No language is more or less logical than or perferable 3732 to any other. Some people may say "English is better than Yupik" but this 1s an expression of cultural preference and prejudice. Languages are neither * better nor worse thn one another. Each culture develops its language to communicate ite particular perception of reality. Every language provides for the expression of concepts important to the culture of its speakers. Yupik has many specific words for fish and environmental conditions that English has only very general terms for. Anthropologists are interested in studying and constrasting the various cultures which exist in the world today, Linguists are interested in studying and con- trasting the structures of the different languages. They do not (should not) wake value judgements of these contrasted languages or. cultures, There is great diversity and variation in the languages used in the world. There are over 3000 different languages in use in the world. There are ‘even numerous variations within each of these different languages Languages vary internally and externally in different ways. Here are some varieties .£ language as described by R. Wardhaugh: By Age Of course, other kinds of , Laguists have shown af interest in some of these varieties. For example, tation than dialect variation occur, and Janguage varies according to the age of the person using it: It-varies in this way because language must be leamed, and there appear to be stages through which individuals progress in the proce: of Language acquisition. However, six-year-old children seem to have gone through most of these stages. Changes do still contiiue to occur, but these changes are more typical of the age-grading phenomenon, than of the kinds of changes that occur during the acquisition proc We all recognize that old peoplé speak differently froin young people and that linguistic generation gaps exist. Likewise: q 3. 33 accepted patterns exist for communicating between and within the generation: ola people to young, young to old, fathers to young children, young children to fathers, adolescents to their peers, and so on. Consequently, variation by age 1s one Kind of Lagulatic phenoasnon we can atudy and about witch we can ask a variety of linguistic, psychological, and sociological questions. By Sex and Occupation Language also varies according to sex and occupation. The language of men differ subtly from that of women. Meit do not usually use expressions ouch ac"It's darling} and women tend not to use profanity as extensively a men, Likewise, the language used in addressing men and women varies sub! we can complinent a man on a nev necktie with the words What a pretty tie that is!"but not with"How pretty you look today!) an expression ‘reserved for complimenting a womin. The occupation of a person causes his language to vary} particularly in the use he makes of tectinical terms, that is, in the use he makes of the Jargon of his vocation. Soldiers, dentists, hatr- dreai mechanics, yachtmmen, and skiers, all have their particular special vocabularies. Sonetines the consequence ie that such persone experience dif- a coumusicating with people outside the Vocation on professional training, we must also note that all occupations employ some jarg7n, even | those of the criminal undervorld. There may well be a more highly developed use of*jargon ‘in occupations that require considerable education, tn which words, and the concepts they express, are manipulated rathér thari objects, - for example in the legal and teaching professions and in the world of finance, By Function Still another kind of variation is related to function. There ate both . formal ‘and informal styles of speaking and writing. Writing also tends to be. more formal than speaking in the sense that more conscious manipulation of | - . 33 .vocabulary and syntax takes place. Tho most informal styles of speaking, are often unjustly condemied, for very few words used to describe’ sleng aré anything other thin pejorative. Slang, with‘its clipped and shortened forns, ite novel uses and combinations of. words, and its exotic quicksilver display of languag is a. mniversal-Linguistic phenomenon. Slang is easier to criti- cize than to study, because ite very transience does not leave behind in the language the kind of evidence linguists prefer to study. Discussions of slang tend to bring out expressions of dismay and condemnation from those who mis~ understand its natural function as the exuberant word play of a group oftén used to achieve some kind of group identity. Slang in’ particular and/linguistic usage in general have been studied in terms of cultural associations and functional uses. Yet the educated public has shown little acceptance of the few objective statements that can be made about the varieties of usage ‘that occur in a Language like English. Good vidence’of thie attitude can be seen” tn the predominantly hostile criticiom that-greeted the publication of Web- © ster's ‘Third New International Dictionary in 1961, which had the "audacity" to describe the language as it is rather: than to prescbibe it aa it should be. Dictionaries published after that dictionary were less atridedtly ob- Jective and consequently more palatable to the critica, a result that 1s more a comentary op tie state of the art of criticien then of the art of dictionary" making. . ee REGIONAL VARIATION * * The kind of variation that has most interested linguists ig dialect vari ation. Such an interest results in part from the connection between modern lin- guistics and older philological studies in which languages were “peaa ae contans ually fragnenting through dislect variation. ‘The process led to the evolution of new Languagt BS aN gc tee 20 : . for example the evolution of Proto-Indo-European into Greek,35 latin, Sanskrit and so on, and then, in turn, Latin into French, Spanish, ‘ and Italian. Consequently, linguists have studied didlects in relation to their geographic distribution since they recognize that people in one location often speak a language differently from speakers souewhere else, and that speakers ina third place speak it differently again. In recent years a new dimension has been added to dialect studies partly os a result of the growth of sociology and the development of refined techniques for sampling large erfation populations of speakers. The new dimension is that of the social of language in social dialects. The ‘concern of the rest of this section devwith these two aspects of language variation: regional dialect and social ‘dialect. A dialect itself is a variety of a language.associated with a particular group of speakers and mutually intelligible with other varieties. According to this definition, Cantonese and Mandarin, both of which’ are often called Chinese, are different, languages rather than different dialects of one lan~ guage because they are not mutually intelligible in thetr spoken forms. How- ever, Danish and Norwegian, sonetines called two different languages. aie really dialects of one language in that they have a high degree of mtual in- telligibility. | TYPES OF VARIATION \ 7 A es We will now consider each of phonology, ‘grammar, and vocabulary in turn to see how American English dialects have been established and how the regional speech of one area may be said to differ.from that of"other areas, The differences feferred to are all well known, having been pointed out in a number of stud- ies which have been completed, for example in dialect-atlas projecte or in derivative studies. Only a few differences are mentioned in each category. : 41 rat36 Phonology = a Tn phonology, liguiste have investigated such matters as the inventory of : + vowels and consonants of a particular region and the phonetic values of the Phonemic contracts that exist. Yor example, the vowels of New York City Eng- _ Heh differ from those of Austin, Texas, and each dialect has ite own set of contracts and its ova phonetic realizations of these contracts, In examining vegion al dialects we try to determine the phonetic values of the vovels in such words as "house", "tide", and "noise", that is, those vowels that are usually ‘pronounced as-diphthongs in most varieties of English but which may have very different phonetic realizations of the diphthongs. In sone dialects too these vords may contaja monophthongs. rather than diphthongs. The tense vowels of words such as "beat", "bait' and "boat" also ‘show interesting variations from dialect to dialect. Certain constracta may be prasent or : lacking, particularly in combination with certain phonemes, for example with /r/ : 1 or a nagal phonene, "Mary", “aerry", and "narry" may show no distinction, one distinction, or two distinctions in pronunciation. “Horse” and “hoaree" may be Pronounced alike or they may be contrasted in pronunciation, as nay "pin" and “pen”. A dialect may alao tack a distinction that ‘most other dialects have, as when "cot" end "caught" become honophonous-in some ateas. The choice of vowel Phoneme often varies from region to region, for example in words such as "hot", "hog", “orange, "creek", and "roof". ‘In some areas the vovele of “house” has 4 very noticeably different phonetic value from that of the first vowel in “housés", and a similar difference may exist between the vowels of “wife” and "wives". ae : Consonantal differences are generally much less useful in establishing dialect boundaries. than vowel differences, This is especially true in English. In Yupik, howaver, consonantal differences are tmportant = yuk, cuk, suk (ougpiag Alutug). ‘The presence or absence of postvocalic /r/ te inportent, hovever, for 42 : r37 “caught" and "Court" can easily become homophonous, Likewise the pronounci- ations of the inithal consonants in viitp (/w/ or /bw/) and tune (/t/ or /ty/) and the mid consonant in greapy (/s/ or /z/) correlate with important diatect areas. Certain other differences can be important, ns for example the choice of the initial consonant in then (/4/ or 0/), or of the final consonant or con sousats in cold (/1/ or /14/) and. otnging (/n/ or /y/), but euch differences are ‘often leas regionsl'in distribution than they are social, a matter to vhich we will return later in the chapter, \_ Grammar ~ ‘Grammatical differences among dialects are largely: morphological in na~ — = ture. For example, the "past tense" forms and “past participle" forms of cer tain verbs often have interesting variants, as in such verbs as dive (dived, ‘dove), waka (waked,’ waked up, and so on), and climb (climbed, clun). The plu- tals of wasp and post sonet: occur, as “waspes" and "post Cetain phrasal forms reveal different usages that can be related to re~ gional characteristics: "quarter (of, till, to) ten"; "names the boy (after, at, for, from) his father"; "she was sick (at, in, of, on, to) her stomach"; and “he stood (behind, buck-of, in back of( the door “are representative ex- amples, In atill larger syntactic units other variations appear: “he (didn't ought, hadn't ought, ought not) to do it"; "he doesn’t have any, ain't got none, hasn't any)"; and "that's (yours, yourn)", Some of these last differences . ate possibly related more closely to level of education than they sre to, particular regions, Syntactic differences are apparently less tolerated thar are phonological differences enong educated speakers of a Language; therefore, : such speakers tend to eliminate them. These stigmatized differences are re~ . garded ‘as nonstandard by linguists, nonstandard being the nonpejorative equiv alent of the more ‘usual substandard designation, ‘ 43Vocabulary Differences in vocabulary may also be observed among dislects. Such differences often relate to the commonplace activities of life rather than to what are usually regarded as scientific, cultural, and business activities, for which the vocabulary tends to be quite uniform throughout the languagt The "folk" vocabulary often contains the clearest differences. There are different nanes for.a window covering that can be rolled up: blinds, shades, window blinds, window shades, roller shades; for a web made by a epider: the the side~ walk and the street: boulevard, lawn extension, tree lawn, city strip; for relatives: folks, kin, kinfolks, relations, family; for a worm used in fish~ ing: angleworm, fish bait, earthvorm, fishworm; ‘for a carbonated soft drink: pop, soda, tonic, soft drink; for a certain kind of nut: peanuts, goobers, ground nut: and for a piece of playground equipment: teetes-totrer, teeter- horse, seesaw, riding horse. s SPEECH COMMUNITIES AND DIALECTS AND IDIOLECTS . ‘A group of people living within the same geographical boundaries and speaking the same language make up ene type of speech community, However, within a larger speech conmnity, many smaller speech communities may exist. For example, in the United States, an Anerican-Gnglish speach comunity, several smaller speech communities exist:. the Puerto Rican section of New York City 18 a Spanieh speech comunity within the Anerican-English speech commmity, This is also true of Native American languages. The Yupik speak ing area of Alaska is a Yupik speech comunity. within the larger Auerican-English epecch community of Alaska. The map on the following page shows the Eskimo 7 speech communities of Alaska. There are also several-dialects within th : ‘ 4439 within these Eskimo speech communities, The Eskimo languages are: (Central) Yupik, Inupicg, Sugpiaq or Alutiiq, and (Siberian) Yupik. The dialects in Cen~ tral Yupik are regional dialects: For example Nelson Ieland, Nunivak Island, Hooper Bay and Chevak, Yukon, Kuskolwim, Bristol Bay, Iliamna, etc. hiss: ms Lp ad oVetrbasks (sel sy me \ Nelsen Ts. apg ge CoA) (qangaag) . \ 5 Ne hal 4 (Yanteriileq) \ tunivak Ts. : & \. (coma) mitt \ Tht ap shows the area of Alaska vhere tp! 1k Eokino 4s spoken. ‘The Siberian Yupik language and the Sugplaq language are closely" related to (Central) Yup'ik but are not mutually intelligible with it nok with eachother. “Ifupiaq Eskimo ia further removed from the other three though it too shares any 4 (nam vith Yup'tk and ite syntax 18 very close to that of Yup'ik. 47a * Not all speakers within a speech commmity speak exactly alike. Some Eng~ Jigh speakers say "you all”, some say “podner" (partner), and some say "Bah~ ‘atan"~(Boston).—~The partaof the United States where these are used are not called separate speech communities but dialect regions. There are uany dif- ferent dialects of English spoken. When a dialect is characteristic of a given region it is called a regional dialect..-Dialects can be found within ~gany epeech communities, 1.e. Navajo and Yupik both have several regions}. dialects. The speech of people in Nelson Teland differs from the speech of the people at St. Marys. They all apeak the same language, Yupik, but use different dialects. , > All dialects share a common structure with the language of the speech com | munity, Every Language consists of a nuuber, of structurally sintlar dte~ lects. “A dialect of any language is sufficiently different from the standard form to be considered a parate or distinct entity, but not eufficiéntly ditgerent to be classified as a different language. Dialects of the sane language may differ from each other fa pronunciation, grammaticel construct- ion; and vocabulary, but conmunicaiton between speakers of the different dtalects renains possible. Differéat dislects become differest languages when a spesker of one dialect can 10 longer understand a speaker of another. If dialect X vere'teolated from contact vith all other dialects of the same speech commmity, it would develop and. change along Lines of ite om and eventually become a separate language. Yupik and Inupiag used to be one language but have changed independently of one another to the point vhere they are seperate languags Ig two dialects of 2 language become so dif- ferent that the speakers of one dialect can no longer understand the speakers , of the other, they are no longer considered to be different dialects of the sane lenguage, but different languages, vith different atructures. The re~ gions in which they are spoken faceing longer referred to as dialect regions, 48° °42 “bat aa distinct qpecch communities. When two dialect regions of the oui speech community become distinct speech communities, a different language is spoken in each community. The two languages no longer share a common struct ure, Wot only do regional dialects differ within a speech commmity but each men- ber of the community represents a different way of speaking. The unique wy in which an individual speaks bis language is called idiolect. His idiglect will share structural features with the Adiolects of the menberé of. hie speech coumunity, and region.| By observing an individual's speech habits, we can often tell his approximate age, social position, and geographical origin. ALL speakers of the same language are permitted a-certain range of variation but order is, however, imposed by the structure of the language. All speakers of the eame language are subject to tle ruies of the same system. Their adherence ‘td these rules makes communication possible, Breaking the speech rules results $n a breakdown of commmication. All speakers of. the same . language must observe the iles inherent im the structure-of, their language in order to communicate. In. summary; 8 speech conmmity isa group of people living 12 the.eame geo: graphical region and speaking the same language, Dia! are speech vari~ ations characteristic of different groups of people within’ a speech community. An ddtolect is the ufjue way in which dach individual speaks his language. - Your idiolect will be different from your sisters and brothers although your @falect abd latguage will be the same. \ ; : $ a : _ : INTERDIALECT COMMUNICATION ‘A particularly interesting question to ask about dialects is how it is that speakers of different disleéts of a language understand each other when One angwer is that they sometimes do not, for 49. iis numerous differences exiaas many. people have had the’ experience of being hardly able to communicate with someone who was obviously speaking English; but wio was speaking a very dif- ferent dialect from their ovn. On the whole, however, easy communication is possible because all speaker use very much thé sane system of rules. The ~ system varies little from diglect to dialect; indeed a-dialect may be defined as one of the eystems of olightly varying rules the whole set of which com prises a language. A particular dialect nay have @ neutralization rule for 4 pate of vovele in a certain envirodaent (/4/ and /e/ before aasals), so- other rule, for dropping certain syllables (initial metressed syllables) or. certain consonants (final stops in totally voiced or totally voiceless clusters, or postvocalic rs), and still another rule for negation (negate every word that can be negated: “He ain't never done nobody no haril), rules that are mot found in other, dfalects. In each case, hovever, thé dialect is produced by the systematic application of’ rules and shares the vast majority of tts rules with the other dialects of the language. : This systematic operation cf rules in dialects can be illustrated by ‘reference to thr well-known’ examples of dialect variation, In one dialect the word desk is pronounced like dess, phonetically esp and its plural ie d knowing that in this dialect final voiceless stops are not pronounced in a fuse] The pronunciations of these words can be predicted from~ voiceless cluster, and.that this rule applies before plurals are added. Consequently, Asst] becomes fe] by a rule peculiar to this dialect, and then pluralizes'to Beseq] by general English rule chat adds /az/ after In atill another dialect the vowel tn wige differs in quality from that in vives, beginning in a nore central position: phonetically foatf] ena foorve]. This characteristic results from :a rule that c®atralizes sucha diphthong before voiceless consonants, [f] in thie case, but not before voiced consonants, [v] in this sae ~“ : : 5a : =An ddentical centralization is sometimes found in the pair ho (Thaug] and [hauzaz]), which involves aifgerent diphthong. This third example is perhape the most interesting of all. It involves ‘the pronunciation of the words writ { and"rider’, in which there are two po- tential differences, the quality of the diphthong and of the medial conso~ nant. .Often medial t's are voice’ “English so that medial underlying phonemic Jt/ 49 pronounced phonetically as {d\ (or [¥]). In dialect A this rule op- erates before the rule to centralize the diphithong before voiceless consonants. Consequently, writer is pronounced as follove: writer = /rostor/—» [cardar] In this case the centralization rule cannot apply because there 1s no vpiceless consonant following the diphthong. However, in dialect B the order of ‘ules is reverned so that the rule to centralize the diphthong before voicele: ‘consonants applies first and then the voicing rule for /t/ applies. The result ie the following pronunciation: 5 weiter = /rattac/ > [cartad] S[ cacdar] - Consequently, in dialect A'writer’ ie phonetically [@tdar] and in dialect B at is [ratdar]. Bowever, in both dialects"rider’ is pronounced [eoEdac) by still a third rule which lengthens the diphthong before the /d/ in the under- lying phonemic representation of rider (/cazda/),, Consevuently, ‘writer’ and : “rider are kept apart in both dialects: by vowel length in dislect A and by * a combination of vowel quality and vowel length in dialect B, : “ ‘The last dialect example: “using rules and rule-ordéring bring us back to the problems of what language is and how languages change. To speak a language is to have mastered a a t Of rules for producing sentences in that + language. However, language is not an unvarying system. All kinds of people speak it in a variety of ways and circumstances. ' Every child who ‘lésirms a language must learn the most economical systen’he can from the ’ 5 et 51 LL .: . 4 45 varieties that are present in‘his environment. He must compose his owm rul2e and devise his own gramar. In large measure this grammar will be the same “ag everyone else's, but it will have idfosyncracies, particularly if the child ia in an environbent, in which many different varieties of the language are ‘spoken. It appears inevitable that in euch circumstances linguistic change will occur over the generatioris ao learners add, delete, and rearrange rules in their attempt to construct optimal gramiats to suit the variations to which théy are exposed. : “LANGUAGE CHANGE : ‘Languages, 1ike other pects of human culture, change over the course of time. What you wear. today ie different from what your ancestors wore, just the wif you apeak and your vocabulary today are different from the way your ancestors spoke. Both written and spoken language changes overtine. Read the folloving passages fron R. Wardhaygh about change: The first kind of evidence that language’ changes is the cxtotence of old inecriptions ‘and manuscripts, that is written evidence. Of course, the survival of such documentation is often accidental. Obviously no such relics * can be ‘found for nonliterate peoples.- With Literate peoples the survival of evidence varies according to “factora euch as the attitudes ‘that prevailed toward permanent recordkeeping, the incidence of destructivé ware, and the clinetie conditions affecting preservation. Writing itself is a fairly recent phenomenon in man's history, dating back no‘more than 5,000 to 6,000 years, and alphabetic writing is even more recent. Consequently, written records are not only accidental, but also provide no more than a very shallow time~ depth ‘for Language history, since uan probably Has been capable of Language “for at least twenty times longer. . . If we aseume that any surviving writing, alphabetic or not, is eystenatic (Zor otherwise it would be ineffective), atid 1f ve kmow the meaning of the writing, then wwe shold be able to say something about an‘ older stage of the z Me haat RO .46 language. Sometimes we do not know'vhat a particular piece of writing 1s ein the” cass of the Mayan inecrip— ~-about-or-know-only-parteof-the-meaning; tions in Mexico. If the writing is not in either a eyllabic or an alphabetic system, wa can say very little about the sounds of an older form of a language, but fortunately the~majority of surviving documents do provide phonological evidence. Decipherable documents are invaluable in historical work, parti— cularly documents whose provenance is know, that 4 3 es of origin, In addition, good readings of such texts are mandatory, so some ——-#pecialiste—(paleographers) choose to work on pfoblens of determining the Provenance of texts and the best readings. The quality of the data that the historical Linguist finds ir. documentary sources can be uo better than the Feadings provided for these sources. : Much of the vork on Languages that are videly spoken in the world today haa been done with the aid of historical documents, since numerous written : Fecords are available dating back several thourand years. With many Languages of the world, such as Tupik however, ao such dotments exiat to show that « language has changed or how it has changed. Consequently, other feptunaaaf @ Lesgeage must provide ‘the evidence for change. a x We can postulate a historical relationship among different Languages rather than an accidental one. An inspection of the vords, cited in normal spellings, for the numbers one.to ten in various {dnguages on the chart below Leads us to conclude that a historical relationship existe ‘among ‘these lang- ages; an ‘alternative explanation of extensive borrowing among the languages tran Less satisfactory. ‘Paglieh - “German Danioh Greek Polish . one eine ea hete jeden ‘two zwet to duo ava three drei tre trets trzy foiir vier fire tettares eztery five finé fen pente pied —~ six sects eka hex szeéé 1 seven sieben | ayv hepta sieden stake acht otte oes osien neun nt ennes, dziewigd ten zehn th. deka deteaigd - BR. a7 quattuor quinque sex septen oct ‘movem._ decen Observations of data like these prompted Sir William Jones to make the first mon stateneat about their importance in hiotorical Lingutetice. Tn 1786 he addressed the Royal Sotiety of England as follows: "The Sanskrit “language, whatever be its antiquity, is of 2 wonderful structure; more perfect than the Greek, more copious than the Latin, and more exquisitely refined than either, yet bearing'to both of them a stronger af- findty, both Ym the roots of verbs and in the forms of gramar, than could possibly have been produced by accident; oo strong indeed, that’no philologer « “ could examine them all three, without believing them to have sprung from sone “common source, which, perhaps, no longer exists: There’ia a similar reason though not quite so forcible, for supposing that both the Gothick ‘arid the Celtick, though blended with a very different idiom, had the same origin ‘with the Sanskrit; and. the old Tersian might be added to the same family, if | this were the place for discussing any question concérning ‘the antiquities of Persia." 5 ~ Such evidence ‘led Jones and othere to conclude that lenguages do change and that simtlarities among lenguages are often not accidental. Ye can also see that whereas certain “languages do have similarities, for exemple Buglich ‘! and Sanskrit, others do not, for example English and Japanese:English Japanes one + hdtoteu two futateu three | mitteu . four yottou- five iteuteu etx mutteu seven nanatsu : eight yatteu nava nine kokonotsu : dada tea to a contained on the charts may lead us to make hypothes about pre~ vious states of a language, about "parent" languages; that is languages’ from which other languages may have descended, end about the process of linguistic change. An investigator need not be daunted by the absence of written record: He can use the evidence from the speech he observes and, in investigating the languages of nonliterate peoples or peopled who have left no written records themselves, can sometimes draw on. observations. recorded by travelers, ex- Plorera, and missionaries, Many’ interesting possibilities open up once the data are recognized, but ve require basic assumpttona.and techaiqués to explore the possiblities. The most important sssumption is that’ change is systematic, not erratic nor » random, Without such an aésumption reputable work ia, impossible. Without the additional assumption that only certain kinds of changes can occur and thet these changes must be "natural," we would be free to say that anything | ~ could change’to anything at any time for any reason. “Although it may te so that anything cen change to anything else in a language, such a change must take place over a long period of time with each individual change in the total: °_ Pros "natural" one. cE The ‘change of *[nar)to [mee i] 1s an instance of vowel fronting and that of *{bis] to [haud] 1s an instance of the diphthongizationof a long high vo- wel. The falling together of the pronunciations of "cleait and ‘green! {s an in- stance of vowel raising: [K18@n] > [kled]> [klix] end [gr@i] > [eri]. * Such processes are. relatively simple because vowels do tend to move to adja—— gent phonetic positions (forward or back, up or down) or to ‘diphthongize.49 One interesting kind of change that affects vowele is called vovel unlaut. Vowel umlaut is a change in the quality of a vovel brought about by the pre- sence of a front vowel or a front glide in the following syllable. The vow ‘ele in “sing” and “singe” have different historical origins. In a pre-Old English stage "sing" was *[erngar| but “singe” vas *[ssngjail . The presence of the *[j] im the second syllable brought about the raising of the vowel in the first syllable: *[¢] > [t]. Some further examples of the procesa of. wmlaut can be geen in the alternations between mouse-mice, foot-feet, and g008e~geen Geruanic 01d English Modern English 0 tas aie nas ‘taiiet aye nals ae0e £8t ue we5t4 fet fit spans 908 gus “genet sie gis “The differences between the Moderd English singular and plural forms result . from the presence of a front vowel [1] in the second syllable of the orginal plural foras. JAktually both umlauted and nonumlauted forms occurred for a while in certain inflections of both the singular and plural; however, the unlauted forns became . identified with the plural and the nonumlauted forms with the singular. Apother kind ‘of change can be observed in the nasslization of a vovel from an original sequence of vowel plus nasal, as in French cent [ed] from Latin [kgntuni].' Sométines the result is two pronunciations froma single voéabulary item depending on its grammatical distribution, ao chat French "pon"ie pronounced [bon], that is, with an oral vowel and a nasal, before .a vowel, but [b3], that is, with a nasalized vowel, before a pause or a consonant. Occasionally, a-consonant is lost and compensatory lengthening of @ preceding vowel occurs. Old English"niht"[nixt” "night" lost ite fri- _cative [x] and the vowel lengthened (and tensed), so that [ntxt] became [nie]. Bventually the (7 dipthongized and produced the current pronunciation [malt]. In thia case the spelling’night” fill reflects the Old English pronunciation 9650 rather well, just as do the epellings of most words ending in "ght", such aa fight, bright, knight, and so on, Lengthening and shortening often work to produce interesting sete of pronunciation variants when inflectional or deri- vatiowsl patterns are involved or when vowels occur in different syllable typ for example, in open and closed syllables or before two or more consonants. Numerous such sets exist, in English, among them wise-wisdom, keep-kept, steal~ ith, clesn-cleanse, Moon-Monday, and holy-holiday. These are difficult passages to understand at this poiat in this course, but are included aa examples of how linguists study language’ changes and exam pl of some of the kinds of changes that take pla in a language kmow of similar changes in Yupik if you have studied Yupik linguistics or gram ‘You may mar, There are other kinds of language chang » such ag grammatical and voc=" abulary changes. Examples of thie type of change in Yupik can be seen by the addition of certain words into Yupik after the Russians came into this region, The Yupik people “borroved" several new vocabulary words when they "bortowed" new objects end ideas from the Russians, such as "luuskaaq" (spoon), “estusliq” (table), saas'aq (clock), Kase'ag (cossack "vhitensn"), An especially good éx ample of change through borrowing 4s "tea" or “cai” “seayuq", and “caayuq" in Yupik; and in Navajo: All of these words for tea come from the Chinese word "cha", As tea, which originally came from China, has spread around the world, the word for tea has spread vith the substance, An interesting article about word borrowing follows page 52. Wardhaugh has the following to say about how to'account for these changes fo Lenguagei “Languages change in all kinds of way, but the ways themselves are to some extent predictable, Only certain Kinds of change take place. In phono logy, a feature changes, or rules are avitched, or some other kind of restruct- , uring takes place, In syntax, a certain syntactic device develops, or case endings. weaken, or word order patterns change.” In meaning, changes result myhe from language contact, from cultural developments requiring new vocabulary, and from reshaping existing meanings. But in no case does a radical change occur overnight. .The processes are predictable in that only certain kinds of things happen and they happen slowly. The exact changes are not predict able, for example that a certain set of stops will Yose their stop quality and become fricatives, or a particular inflection will disappear, or a parti- cular item will stay in the language after it has been borrowed or undergone a change in meaning. Nor is the process of change itself well understood. Many reasons for change have been advanced, but mainly by nonlinguiste and persons only peripherally interested in language. The subject has been almost as fascinating those of the creation of language and of the possi- bilities of intraspecies and interspecies communication. Consequently, theories of change have been advanced to fit many systems of esthetics, politics, economics, and so on. : The Current View . Most Linguists who have coneidered the subject of change find little of value in these theories. Few of the theories really attempt to deal with Linguistic issues, and:those that do, for example those of least effort, economy, and substratum, are too inexact to be of much value, Linguists acknowledge that languages.are not neat systems. For example: , they, ate us— ually spoken in a variety of dialects and each person usually has contact with several dialects. Language is only coupletely systematic in the grammaré we write, and even these grammars are fragnentary:vorks. Each person too continues to learn more about his lang~ ‘wage aa he gets older, and changes in age bring about changes in usage, a certain usages become appropriate to certain ages, a phenomanon known age-grading. Languages also have to be learned anew by avery generation, and even though we might want to claim that certain kinds of prinéiples do set, - + 5832 not have to be learned, because they are innate, enough must be learned #0 thet variation between generations 1a 1ikely to occur. Perhaps the clue to language change resides in that last observation. ‘A child must learn the language of the commumity into which he is born. Wevertheless, that language is not a completely static’ fixed entity, It has msny variations according to dislect, age, sex, and usage. Of, course, the child ie not alone in his'iearning task. Other children, some older and aoee younger, are engaged in the sane task, The learngre share a com mon characteristic, however, and that is a tendency to internalize the maxi~ mally efficient set of rules to account for the kind of language that meets with the approval of immediate peers snd acquaintances, and to a lesser ex- tent, of the general coummity of speakers. This maximally efficient set of rules will vary between euccesiing generations. The consequence of this - variation is linguisti¢ change over a pericd of time; however, thie change will be almost imperceptible between succe ive generations.reat ee yi fom ern word bazaar Language: the international trader no tariff can stop > by Mary Helen Dohan ASHOP.on Shanghai's Nanking Road.the meschant seks “Hokal?” “Okay,” you respond, smiling’and nodding. You are comfartabie with the word-—exchang,. ing common coin, Itis good in Shanghai, good in Nairobi, rings a0 true in. Lisbon as Tehran. In the Great -Word ‘Baxaar where cultures and products meet, widely recog- nized words are an international medium of exchange. None of the many proposals far.a universal hundreds over the yeam, has ever bare fruit. Yet al} of us see’ our world divenie peoples shrinking, wiley nie cornet tat oles for ae oeuicr eCan it be that language, independene i slays data have no nationality, nor dé teria tike DIVA, RNA, tamer Qapanese) and typhoon (Chinese) are common coin. ‘Aa never before, science spills over into technology: have become the, newromern adapt to .native 2 Jape re gl ialanaegtis ake tonya Actalong the way, language scatters frail of words over which idaes wal eorly follows ‘A few yeani ago, mackismd and macho were not in the ; us been going on since thr weet angele Why aiheay more significant today? Principally because of its, itumediacy, That kilied ambassador, language, was long accustomed to slow and leigurely through the host Ie scattered its words at random in the courts of the learned or among, connection intact? In our developing global village, the Inegragtofecencnsppronches enivemtiy systole 6 jor and molets de 4 Se eae pene ‘and of multinational corporations.’ nomic eumamita bring fo any countries terme thet are ‘often borrowed whole to: pane Hindi, Lingwiats fell a invented words fo a day’, technology. Language ao tig freely with’ ipinigrants, No longér do they aeitle enclaves and keep their ta themselves he 5 ACs eay Femeret nia Dutch, Todiy, ‘and Vietnamese, familiar to appears unchanged Feohend els rnow eetpn Rian orp tity besser hi Bored ‘usiful Swedishombudsman because they had no other word ‘nearly 23 ‘good; and the proliferating United Nations agencies, the WHO’sand the UNESCO’sand the UNRRA'’s, have created a lexicon universally understood. But serious company can become boring. Language often slips away to travel with more frivolous groups— even grabs rides on fashion’s coattails. With the help of the hippies of the 60h, it spread their naine over the earth, in exchange for such exotic terms as Karma, swami, and ankh, and ensured the worldwide adoption of jeans. Spelled djimns in India oF jénzx in Japan or jeans almost anywhere else, the word has almost caught up with OK. (Other words are’scattered:in arenas and on playing fields; sport itself is understood all over the world, with satellite tranamissions of sporting events to beam it everywhere. In Barcelona or Madrid aficionados can see not only the matadores but players of btibol, too; they can cheer for jonréns—which saay not be spelled like “home runs” but sounds just the same. And while schusers (German) at Stowe (Vermont, USA) perform slaloms (Gwedish) and gather by the fire for an aprés ski (French) drink, fans in France watch the bore and shout for a knock-oute and Ruisians watch tennisti in Kiev. What a glorious time language will haveat the Moscow Olympics + TV and radio and movies bring Im Wilden Westen to Germany, along with terma like combvy’and howdy. Jazz | has no boundaries at all. In return for rocanrole, France sent discotheque. Americans reduced it to disco and sent it allover the world as adjective, noun, and verb; and then, <> ae Lngniappe, sent le freak to France. Babs Hopu took his show to China, where American film crews taught their Chinese counterparts terms like zoom and pan and expanded their own vocabularies beyond the traditional chow mein and wok. * Language the ambassador is a gourmet and enjoys international cuisine, especially the French. So associated are food terms with their country of origin that national prejudices are often formed according, literally, to one’s taste, Italian pastas, Russian borscht, Arabic shish kebab, Chinese chow mein, English roast beef (rosif,rosbiffe)—all ‘evoke images of their cfeators. Burger, that offshoot of a borrowed term (it began with Hamburg steak), may be the United States’s most notable contribution to the gastronomical lexicon, but the indigenous hot dog has made an even more extraordinary journey. Jaunting merrily from Coney Island (New York, "US.A) tothe rest of the nation, then leaping the oceans, it has landed in diverse languages—and taken off. The Japanese, for example, have split doggw from hottu as the USS. did burger from ham and produced such wondrous combinations as doggu pan, “hot-dog bun” (using Fortu- guese pan, dread); sarada doggu, “salad in a bun” and—surely the ultimate extension—hambaaga daggu. ‘Most linguistic chauvinists have given up trying to keep language in its place. The French, with a Gallic shrug, have muted their protests against Franglais; the Russians mutter less darkly against Sovengliki. The Japanese, Germans, and Malaysians, always hospitable to other languages, and even the new and sensitive African rations, are welcoming those foreign words that link them with the rest of the world. ‘As communication becomes instantaneous, and it will, acceptance of alien words, even teaching out for them, ‘will be taken for granted. It may be only pidgin that most of us will ever achieve, but even that smattering of other tongues establishes potential for understanding —as the clever Chinese have long known! The late Chairman Mao ‘Tse-tung once said that a knowledge of foreign languages is, “a tool, which, if properly used, will help us to know the world.” In their eagerness to give their people this tool, Chinese authorities have even pressed pedicab operators, with their street awareness of foreign terms, into service as instructors. {As citizens of avery land trade in the busy global ‘exchange, they will discover curious likenesses. Cn the streets of Cairo today, US. businessmen hear from friendly passersby. the English words welcome and . These words have circled the world, pethape, just ‘as the useful phrase ao long was carried through the Malay Peninsula and on to England by colonial troopea century 260. So does language tmvel, acitering ite words. Thove who follow the trail are promised at least a fascinating journey, at best part in forging links to patch together a ‘broken world. 2s . ‘Helen Dohan has published one book, “Our Own Words,” ssiratin tie nhttlsei eae ores aninemnre ease ghia siren generar 61¢53° Assignments: ‘ 1, Read Fromkin/Rodman pp. 224-235 and 246-247 for information about the diversity of Language. 2, Read Fromkin/Rodman pp. 252-258 and 269-276 for more information’ about dialects and language variation. 3. For more information about language fhange read Fromkin/Rodman pp, 191-220. 4, Answer the questions and do the exercises on pp 55-56 of this manual. Supplemental Reading: % Fronkin/Rodman pp. 236-246 for information about the classification of world languages. Fromkin/Rodman pp. 258-269 for information about particular dialects "por more information about culture and language read pp. 33-63, 129-231 in Lander: 6254 UNIT II QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 1. Define: culture speech community dialect . Adiolect slang 2, Here is.a list of possible language universals. Which of them do you " think are truly universal? Which are not? Give your reasons in each case. 1, ALL languages have kinship terms (that 1s, words that refer to parents, - siblings, inlave, etc.) , 2. “ALL Languageihave three nasal phonenes, 3. ALL Languageshave idioms. 4, All languages have a "syntactic plural” (a way of changing the form of @ noun to indicate that it is plural). 5. All Languageshave pronouns. . 6. All Languageahave phonological rules that delete unstressed vowels. 7. ALL languages have glides in their phonemic inventory. ' 8. All languages have:a phonological rule that aspirates voiceless stops / in word-initial position. 7 9. ALL languages have a "syntactic past tense” (a way of changing the form of the verb to indicate that it is in the past tense). 10. ALL languages have rules thet determine what sounds can occur next to each other. : ; 3. Hare is how to count to five in ten languages: Six of these languages are Indo-European aud four are not, Identify which are the 6 related languages. 1G. 2 16.2 Ls. 3 Lo. & Le. 5 1s. 6 Lea Jedya 4 eka cht = sechad. 2 twene ¢ ovaj Liang dvau at shnayin 3 thria tet ean trayas san * shlosha 4. f4uwar styri seu catur ent arba a 5 fit pec wu panca 80 chamishsha 6355 LG. Le. Le. Le. wm shana yaw uno duos tul daw dos trais set. dre tres quater net tsaloor cuatro techinch © tasot » pindze cinco , We have stated that more than three theusand languages exist in the world today. © State one reason why this number might grow larger and one reason why it might grow smaller. Do you think the number of languages will in- crease or decrease in the next one hundred years? Why? Suppose someone asked you to help him compile items for a new dictionary of slang. List ten “slang” words that you use regularly and provide'a dictionary definition for each. 7 Find someone who epeaks a dialect of English or Yupik different from yours. See if you can list some. of the systematic (reguldr) differences in the Pronunciation of word’. The vocabulary of English consists of “native” vorde and also thousands of borrowed words. . Look up the following words in a dictionary which provides the etymologies (history) of words, State the source of each of them. 1. atze _5.° okill 9. check 33. potato: 7 2. royal 6. ranch 10. banana 14, muskrat 3. aquatic 7. blouse 1L. keel : 4, heavenly 8. robot 12. fact, List as many borroved words in Yupik as you can think of: . Ra: 56 UNIT ITT INTRODUCTION TO PHONEMES AND PHONOLOGY As mentioned in Unit I, each language is mide up of particular spoken sounds, and the particular sounds used in each language are different from one another. Thereare sounds in Yupik which do not occur in English and vice versa. One of the first steps in learning and teaching a new language is to learn and to teach students to hear the particular sounds of that language. These sounds may be discriminated from one another into individual unique _ unite of sound. These units of sound are called "phonenedt Bach sound we speak can be represent by a written symbol. In written English ve represent the sounds of our language by the ABC letters of the alphabet. However, linguists use their own alphabet to write or, transcribe Language because most languages do not have entirely phonetic alphabets. Letters do not alvays represent single sounds nor do particular letters al- ways represent the sane sound in each word, which can be confusing vhen you are trying to study a language. For example, the English alphabet represents ther the letter the phoneme /s/,:the sound at the beginning of "see", by of the letter ", as in the words "circus," "silly," "eate.” A Linguist would-‘tranecribe these as /sirkes/, /siliH/ and /sayt/ for both aire” and "cite." In linguistic transcription using the International Phonetic Alphabet, there is just one and only oie phonetic symbol for each speech sound» There is only one syubol for each phoneme in“the IPA., Many Americar iinguists: use a slightly modified version of the IPA. Copies of the symbol used are on the following pages. These are taken. fom Gleason's Descriptive Linguistics text and workbook. Look also at pp: 37-40 in Fromkin/Rodman where they compare the IPA and American symbols systems. We will use the American version of IPA. Remember to distinguish between ‘The sound /#/ in Yupik is written with the letters "11" and the sound /6/ in English is written with the letters c . 65SYMBOLS USED c TY] CONSONANTS 3 2 : al él y| 3 3 3/8) 4) 8) e| 3) q 3\ 3) si 3 & 3 2 a\3| 3| 8] | 8) 3) 3] 3 a] 3 2) S| aj 2] 2] a) ele) s & 2 a8 ie "| Bins nme |p el el ele ele le ' va. |b a] 4) aly} gle | dated he ‘el 5 rey : ‘Aapirate: wm |e 1 aefrioated a ls a $ | |" tateratiy a a 7 x affricat va. m Gottelized we + & ; z : | = +—|—+} Tmplosive aoe z By] h. ——_— r £ Grcoved ‘batered CO yoived : A raised ¥ marke Lobislisation, A raised * marks definite Lack of aspiration. & dot , below marke farther back articulation. A , below Serks farther forward articulation. A,, below marke voiceleseness; in Tone cance tiie ark ie used to transcribe voiceless lenis sounds. 66538 ‘The following vowel synbols have been used in the problemi : 4 a high front unrounded vowel. When there ara two euch, this 10 the higher. © lower high front unrounded vowel. ‘amid front unrounded vowel. When there are two such, this is the higher. @ lower mid front unrounded: vowel. @ low front unrounded vowel. . @ central or beok low unrounded vowel. @ low back rounded vowal, or a lower mid back rounded vowel. amid back rounded vowel. When there are two such, this is the higher. ‘a high back rounded vowel. When there are two euch, this is the higher. @ lower high back rounded vowel. a bigh front rounded vowel. amid front rounded’ vowel. high beck unrounded vowel. high central or back unrounded vowel. : amid central or back unrounded vowel. - A few additional vowel eym¥ole are explained in the problems in whoih they ooour. The use of vowel syabole necessarily varice considerably from language to language, particularly in phonemic transcriptions, but in general they are used in such « way as to preserve their relative positions. That 10, 1 always represents a higher vowel than e, though in some languagse @ my prepresent a higher vowel then Bnglish /\/+ Some, consonant symbols aleo vary in usage, but the varietion ie generally 1 Long vowels or long consonants are inlicated by either doubling the symbol or by a raised * following, e.g. either aa tt or a* t* for lorg a and t. Nasal vowels-are indionted by a tilde ~ over the vowel. Pitches are indicated either by diacritics.” low, ' mid, “ high, ~ riving or by mmerale. Stresses are scuetines marked by the same diacritics. those languages in vhich a diactritic appears over every vowel ay be aseumed to have pitch marked, those in whlch there is only one diactritic to a vord may be aseuned to have stress. In many of the probleme stress and pitch are unmarked, though eetually phonenio. The following vill indicate soceptable handwritten forua for the English phonemic synbols end for some others. Lines ars given merely to indicate thoee = * which are higher than most, oF those which descend below the lina. pbidkgt}fvtiszszmngtruyhy— Textadi0r SEHD OE oye. CATED erromchoop Boe59 ‘As you can see, many of the phonetic syntols are'the sane as the lettoxp Of the English and Yupik alphabets, but in order to have one symbol for each Phoneme, some nev, synbols have Been developed. You will be expected to lea a modified linguiatic alphabet and use it in transcription. We will learn consonants first ond vovele seperately. ‘When transcribing, phonente syabols are enclosed within élanted Lines Ply, Jal’ and words transcribed using these —rC—— “peracs ‘cat » plswakad? euskag”, (Gxanple transcriptions are based on my own pronunciation: Each person's pronunciation + may-vary slightly from one another depending on their idfolect and dialect). To be @ phoneme, a sound must be phonentcally different from all other sounds of the cane language. ‘That is, the sound must contrast with all other speech sounds of the eame language. In the sound structure-of a language, the Ya difference phoneme ie the smallest, cr minimal unit of sound capable of making’ in meaning. 7 Different sounds are phonemically different only if they contrast in the - same environment. If two sounds contrast in the same environment, substitution of one sound for another widl make a difference in meaning. For example, sub- stituting /p/ for /b/ in the word "bin" makes a difference in meaning, ch=nging "bin!" to “pin.” Ther: ‘.1e /p/ and /b/ ‘are separate phonemes. The Linguists trot atep in etudying a’ spoken’ language 1e to determine the phonemic contrasts. We will study these contrasts by a leason about minimal pairs. Minimal pairs are words which differ in only one phoneme, like /pin/ and fbin/ and ‘thus 11lustra’ that /p/ and /b/ are separate phonenes. A native speaker of English establishes the phonemic contrasts of English with little difficulty. But. to-a persoa With a different Linguistic back- ground, the phonemic contrasts of English are not necessarily apparent. The speaker of a non-English language already po: ses a bet of phonemes, The phonemic contraste in a speaker's native language do not necessarily correspond BBE a2 60 to those of English. A person learning English wiil try to pronounce the sounde of English the way he hears them. The way he hears them will depend upon hie linguistic backgroud. The speaker of a language other than English will tend to hear the phonemic contrasts of English in terms of the phonemic contrasts of his own language. For exaiple, most Yupik 9} akers have: difficulty discriminating /t/ and /4/, /g/ and /k/ in English. And most Enlgsh speakers have difficulty discrimininating /q/ and /k/ in Yupik and difficulty pronounéing "réy/",: "g/gy/" and "11 /47" in Yupik as these sounds do not exist in English. We-will use primarily Maglish in this course, because it 1s a language known by and common to both instructor and students.. For your own information you may wish to develop lists of consonants and vowel: sounds and mininal pairs in Yupik, This could also be used as part of your field work project, which “40 the final assignment. Be sure to use several sources to cross~check pro~ nunciations. I will explain more about your field work project. later, but you may wish to begin ‘collecting’ phonemes. I-will try to use as many Yupik examples as possible, but most will be in English. * CONSONANTS _. Here are the phonenes for the English consonants with example"vords shoving the sound in the initial and final position. ‘In inglish 7#/ and /y/ never occur initially.,-/b/, /w/, and /y/ never oceur fitally, Remeaber to attend to the sound not the letter. Phonemes are units of ecund uo matter héw they are written. If you are “maure of the distinction between some of these sounds, have a native apéaker of English say the ‘words caréfully for you to listen to the sounds. . ‘PRONEME - INTTEAL rw fol “ bug cub ; fat : os. eat 461 Phonene Initial Pinal Baglich seh fix tough Tel food rag Pel hat ; Mel cat pack al low real fol mine cob: fof net ten tel © point hop ; del ream peer : dsl sour = kiss ns top kite Wwf vile give : tel wish . . Iyf yell . : * dal zeal booze bath | é bathe rash beige 2 catch’ ‘ hedge song English phonemes do no occur in Yupik, There are several which occur in Yupik and aot in English, auch as /q/ qaneq iruq + ~ fol-as-taMeessetier" VOWELS VERSUS CONSONANTS ‘ALL consonant phonemes of English have.a common characteristic: each ts produced with obstruction somewhere in the vocal tract. Unlike the consonants, vowels are produced with a totally unobstructed oral cavity. Vowel quality degenda upon the size and shape of the resonance chambers. The resonant con- sonants are very similar to the vowels.” Both. resonant consonents and vowels depend on thé size and slape of the resonance chambers for their individual qualities. But while the resonant consonant are produced with a partial obstruction, vovele are produced with a,totally unobstructed oral ‘cavity. (he oniy consonant which ie produced with a totally unobstructed oral cavity ie the glottal fricative /h/ which varies according to the sound. following it.) oo6LA YUP'IK SOUNDS YOWELS Standard Orthogeaph English Translation Phonemic Representation 4 asin piurea ("goodbye") piuban u tuntu (caribou, reindeer") tuntu a ena. (“house" ’ ona a acak . ("aunt") acak CONSONANTS Pp pitegcaus (arrow) pitexcaun t tengsuun ("airplane") tajsuun e ca (something, what") ca > k kumlaneq (“frozen fish") kumlonsq : q qelta ("€ish scale, tree qatta : bark") £. qavein . ("how many") qafcin ww. wit cm") Wei : we adgkut /avkue (those going aay") aFeut z ella ("weather, world") ota . a. uksuq ("winter") uksuq x kaigtuq © (tahe's hungry’ kaixtuq * itertuq ("he's entering! ) Ataxtuq v ivruciq ("wading boot") | svbuetq we taaam ("but, although") tawFaum vw asnaGtluq (poof, dear mother") aanaw#luq 1 ila (relative, part of") ila 2 qasgiq ("conmmity house, qaz¥ig . men's hous 8 kevgaq : ("messenger") keveaq, s tralug ("woon") ia-lug + v cavik ("netal, knife") éawik = qayaq qayaq618 M elina (a Little" atta N cola (ahore") cova piecedrue ("they are servants") — pistalyuut 2 maklak ("bearded seal’ makiak a aiitaa : (ehe hears hi niitaa 9 ungungesiq ("animal") upugsia NOTE: In phonemic representations, a doubled vowel or a yowel with a raised dot after it 1s pronounced long. A doubled consonant is also pronounced "long"; that is, it is geminated.. 7 Sine an axiculator does not come into contact with @ point of articula- ‘tion for the production of a vowel, vowels do not have, properly speaking, points of articulation. In the production of’ vowels, the breath stream has free passage through the vocal tract. Thus the manner of articulation of all vowels is the same, We will talk further about articulation in Unit IV. VOWEL PRONUNCIATION ‘Two factora are responsible for the quality of English vowels: — < 1. The height of the tongue in the oral cavity (mouth). 2, The position of the tongue with regard to front and back in the oral cavity. For example, a high front vowel is produced with thestongue high in front of the mouth or oral cavity, 7 Moving from front to back ‘or from high to low in the oral cavity, the ‘tongue can assine numerous positions which modify the shape of the oral cavity to produce a virtually unlimited nusber of different vowels, Because the posi— tions of the vowels are less precise thai those of the consonants; there is great individual variation in the formation of vowels. No ‘one language in— cludes more than a very enall number of the vowels which can be produced. But the range of individual and dialect variation in the. production of vowels ie gre For example, the French language does ‘not use the central tongue position. French vowels are classified as front and: back—English:vowels are classified as front, central and back. Within each category, the vowel phonemes for English are further cldssi— fied with regard to the relative height of the tongue in the oral cavity. ‘The symbols used in-this vowel chart are a Glight modification of the Intevantional Phonetic Alphabet. Many American lingudate‘use'this modifi- cotton. A copy of the IPA vowel chart is on p. 41 of Wardhaugh, The chart on the following page uees the modified symbola we will use in this cla! . Cees63 {—__1—_—_ Front Central Back . high minimal pairs: 3 d+ ou fat mid put:putt:pit:pat:pet :pot payat 2 Istulal 181 el Jel Jaf PALE 11 low 7 ‘THE SYLLABLE NUCLEUS : In the vord "bit", the vowel /i/ is the pesk.of.the syllable. A vowel i alvays the peak of the syllable. syllabic stress falle on the vowel. If yllable begins with a vovel, as in "am", the syllable peak occurs at the ‘beginning of the syllable. If a consonant begins the syllable, as:in "tan", “the eyllabie peak occura in the middle of the syllable. A consonant, @ consonant cluster, or a vowel may begin a syllable: “pat”, ‘splat, "at". A syllable may both begin and end with a consonant or a con- Sonant cluster: "bat", "blank". We will call the part of the syli le which Teceives stress tic s/\lable nucleus. A syllable nucleus always contains a vowel. A ingle syllable nucleus contains only one phoneme, which is, of course, a vowel. A complex syllable nucleus can consist of a vowel and a ” following glide. a Glides (w,y,h) are a special class of consonants vhich enter in combina toa with a preceding vowel “to form a complex syliable nucleus. Glides are sometines classified as semi-consonant, sometimes as seni~yowels. They share characteristics of both consonants and vowels. Phoneticslly, glides have voceiic shnracteriatics they a produced very 1ike vowels, The nc ion ; 7464 of any apeech sound is determined by its distribution. Speech sounds are classified consonants or vowels on the basis of two criteria: production and distribution. Production is related to phonetics, distribution to, phone mica. a If a,eound 1s distributed 1ike a consonant it functions 1ike a consonant. Glides are diétributed like consonants, Thus ve say that their function 18 consonantal and phonemically we classify them as consonants. In English, a stressed vowel must be followed by.a ‘consonant or by a, glide. The “long” vowel sound that speakers of English / think of ae a single vowel 1a often a combination of two vowel-like sounds (a vowel plus @ glide). Such combinations make up the complex syllable nucled, of English. Speakers of English use approximately the same set of vowel phone~ mes, which are distributed differently in different dialects, You may have already noticed some discrepancies between your idiolect and the examples which we have written phonemically.. When @ glide precedes 8 vowel , ite fumetion 4s purely consonantal, but when it follows a vowel, a glide becones « part of « complex syllable nucleus. In a complex syllable nucleus, the glide is closely related to the vowel. A vowel and following glide are thought of as a unit. ASSIGNMENTS: 1, "Read Fronkin/Rodman pp. 30-40, pp. 69-79 for more discussion of phonemes and the International Phonetic Alphabet 2, Angwer Questions snd Exercises on pp. 656-67 of manual, 3, Do four of the paragraphs on the Reading Practice on p.98 of the Manual. Put your ‘interpretations on the back of your questions pages when you hand them in. . SUPPLEMENTAL READINGS: : 1.. For more on phonology, read pp. 79-94 in Fromkin/Rodman ao 2. Gleason pp, 14-37 for- more on vowels and consonants in English. * 75 .a UNIT III QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 1, Give ‘two words for each phonene represented, one with the phoneme in im the initial, one in the final position. fof Jal. /t1. 1 Ie/. Dol. Med, AL. Tal, Jol. del. rl. — _—_ Isl. Iel: fol bl. Yel. 191. Al. wes - iy. i" : a : 74. I.2. 3: Minimal pairs are words that differ in-only one phoneme. 66 “For each of the following pairs of English consonant phonemes, find two mininal show, contrast in initial position and one in pair: fyelf Check each pair of words that are minimal pairs! a be. One pair should + thie ds chin: possibl gin, etch: edge /zi®, zer For example: Ip:b/ paste: 2 te ste, , cldse: clothe Le hit:hidis a mininal pair. thing:this is not a minimal pair (it differs in “th” /Q/ and “th” /§/ and in “ag” /p/ and "o" /0/) . piuasbal, raink: ink peek: feet: courpan meant fest shin: eink hatch:hack he 4. 4 k. L sex:set catch:ketch seige: beige mate: made dutch:touch87 4, Give the phoneme symbol for the initial sound of each of the following words (Example: £ this) c a. fan he goat b. van 4. thin : ; ce. cat 4. then 4.. ctreus k. tide e. shine 1. died £. George . m. thought . +g jump a. church - 5. English-speaking péople differ as to how many and which of the 36 possible syllable nuclei they usé in speech. If you are to transéribe accurately, you will need to ascertain which ones you commonly use. It will also be helpfu to have a list of key words. Prepare such a list based on your ovn Profiunciation. Examples are given based on my own pronunciation—yours may vary slightly. ; . , pat /4/ meet /iy/ really /48/ met /e/ may /ey/ egg /eH/ hat “Ae/, pase /ean/_- noth /all kin /4/ pala /an/ cow /aw/ hit /a/, kite /ay/ - could /u/ wot /a/__ shoe /uw/_ awed /oH/____-. Look /u/ boy /oy/ 7 odd /o/, calm /on/_ : call /o/_. hoe Jaw! 6. You can also make tiinimal pairs for vowels sounds. Try some for these basic phonemes: “Examplea: /ize/ win: when Jeqta/ hat thot uu] show: shoe Mires : al ~ . Jeva/ fresel - ‘68 UNIT IV ARTICULATORY PHONETICS There are two branches of the study of phonetics: articulatory and acoustic. Acoustic phonetics deals with the perception of speech sounds. Articulatory phonetics deais primarily with the Production of speech sounds. We will concentrate on the production and formation of speech sounds, arti~ culatory phonetics. Here are charts showing the points of articulation vhich produce English and Yupik sounds. ARTICULATION Lover Articulator Upper Articulator Qower) lip (upper) lip Labiodental Gower)-1ip (upper) teeth Dental tip of ‘tongue Alveolar | tip of tongue (upper) gums Alveopalatal front of tongue far front of palate Velar ; back of tongue- velum (soft palate) Glottal The two vocal cords _ velum (soft palate) Alveolae cars. Palate N a ais Coot gi Ss‘YUPIK PHONEMES & ARTICULATION by Miyaoka Table 1: Vowels. Table 7; Consonants (phonological). ~ velar : Consonants (phonemic). Table 3: Labial apical + velar velarized| dental alveo- | front back i" : palatal jgenination: doubling of the consonant Z . £ - we Y ia 5 volcelese optrant| yt wR 2 °Y glide w ee a” . p = : 9 6970 Yurie ARTICULATION - (Figure 3) . labials Ormene— + apteale (t,1.11,n,c5 : . yas, iy aA front velars (k.g,ggsng,1g) ) . back velars (4,r,r7) ENGLsH ARricuLA by Bilabial wasal i ! * Bilebiat sea fa) Alveolar nasal iW) Alveolar stop /+//c) _ Plveoler Pricative, f=/ Ailutolaw semivowel ef Lotert alveolar /1/ ARSE * Alveogalatal . : (Fiewee 4) _ Sumivewel /y / 8imn . More Everish ARTICULATIONS Sf, Lobiodeinbal. fetcati Velo natal /i/ hy vel stop fle] /9/ a (Revues sy Figure 1 indicates those parts of the articulatory apparatus that are of greatest interest to us. An examination of the figure suggests that the areas below the larynx, particularly the lungs, are of no great concern. The lungs are obviously important in speaking, since they provide the airflow to rt speech, but they seem to have no function in articulation. A possibifity does exist that the lunge are used differently in speaking different Language: Attempts have been iaade tojzelate the different syllable structures of lang- ages to different kinds of muscular control in the chest ‘in ordor to establish relationships between syllables and chest pulses. However, the postulated relationships are very coutroversial. : The articulatory apparatus in Figure 1 contains three important areas or cavities: the pharyngeal cavity (throat); the oral cavity (mouth); and the nasal cavity (nose). The airstream coming from the lungs may be modified in these cavities in a variety of ways. It may also be modified in the larynx or "voicebox" before it reaches any of the cavities. Such modification results from some kind of interference with the movement of the airstream, This modi- fication can be achieved by completely interrupting the airstream or by partial interference tm one or nore ways. The principal source of euch modification 4s thetongue, and the vord language itself derives from the Latin word lingua meming "tongue." oy 822 Larynx . In any detailed description of the apparatus shova in Figure ( we usually proceed through the vhole vocal tract: from the "south" to the “north”, that 4s, from the lary" to the Lipa. The larynx 1s a bony borlike structure in the front of thecghroat which contains a valvelike opening consiating of two nenbranous tisaues, the vocal cords. The airstream proceeds’ to and from the Jungs through this opening, called the glottis. Normally,” only egressive air, that 1e, air beiag relessed from the lugs, 2 used in producing speech, ‘but sometimes ingresaive air, that is, at going to the lungs, may also be used. The membranous’ tissues can be used to close off the opening in the laryax, just as a valve can be closed. The glottal passage ie closed, for example, in lifting heavy objects in order to stabilize air pressure in the chest. In certain pronunciations of”bottle"the middle consonant"t"is pronouaced. simply by making a brief glottal cloaure, called a glottal stop, rather than, as with the"t"in"top, by placing the tip of the tongue behind the upper teeth. The symbol for & glottal stop is [2], and it is enclosed within aquare brackets to show that it ia a phonetic symbol. The uiddle consonant offbottle, then, may be pronounced exactly like most prosuciatious of the initial part of “ouch that is, the part thet precedes the vowel, ‘the runtLike") soynd ‘at the very beginning. More usually in speaking, the tia- suse, or vocal cords, are either open and vibrating or ‘open and not vibrating. In the firat cai the vibrattons establish a condition called voicing, notice- able in the initial sounds of*bisl, vat, and" this} tn the second case ‘the con- dition 4e called voice ness, noticeable in the initial counds of” pit” and"think. A third kind of opening results in whisper. Pharyngeal Cavity In the pharyngeal. cavity the epiglottis serve! @ protective cover for es - . 8373 the larynx so that food does not "go down the wrong way." It sérves no pur— Pose in the production of speech. The pharyngeal cavity may be used as a whole or various parte can be used. The total size can be altered so that ita use as 4 resonating chanber for the sounde produced by vibrations of the vocal corda ‘may vary considerably, either in different languagés or in different styles of speaking within a single language. The pharyngeal cavity cai algo be modified to produce couplete ‘stoppages in the airstream or partial stop- paged resulting in local friction. However, speakers of English do not use the pharyngeal cavity in this way. Oral Cavity The greatest source of modifications of the airstream is the oral cavity. The modifications reeult from movements of the uvula, lower lip, and tongue. The uvula is limited in ite function in that it can only be made to vibrate to produce a uvular"r*[R], a sound found in Yuptk but not in English. . The lower 1ip can be moved to meet the upper'lip, as at the beginning of "bin" [b),- or the upper teeth, as at the beginning of fat"[f]. The tongue is much more flexible in its uses than either the uvula or the lower’ lip. All parts “of the tongue can be moved: the dack of the tongue can be raised to meet the top of the mouth, as at the beginning of “cat" [i] the forward ‘part of ‘the tongue can be raised too, as at the beginning (oftahtp' [9]; the tip of tongue can be thrust between the teeth, as at the beginning of thin [9]; and the _ tongue may even be thrust out'to the lips and beyond, so as to protrude from the mouth, Jn addition, the tongue can be trillet) curled, and turned back (or retroflexed). The tongue te the articulator par excellence and, for the purposss of describing most sounds madé in the orel cavity, we need to “refer only to certain parte of che tongue (the back, center, front, and tip) acting in combination with certain parts of the mouth (soft palate, the hard : 84 - uo74 palate, and alveolar ridge). The teeth, both upper and lower, and the lips make up the rest of the apparatus we need to refer to in order to describe how sounds are produced in the mouth. 1 Cavity : ‘The nasal cavity is easier to describe than the previous two cavities. It is connected to the oral cavity by way of the velic at the back of the mouth, The soft part of the roof of the mouth, the velum, can be drawn back to close the velic so that all air exiting from the lungs must proceed through the nose. Generally, the:velic 4g either definitely ‘open or definitely closed, although im some styles of speaking or in sone dialects partial opening may be observ— " No possibility ed, the result being speech with a nasal coloring or "twang exiate for any further modification once air is in the nasal cavity, for there are no parts of that cavity which can be used to produce a stoppage or create friction. ‘There 1s periaps one exception. When a speaker has a severe head cold, his nasal passages becone unserviceable for speech. Nonnasal sounds, like the begirining sounds gétbat*[b] and“doze"[d], are not affected, but nasal sounds, like the beginning sounds’ of ‘nat" [nu] and‘nose"[n], are in- possibl the nasals.are realized like the nonnasale made with the same articulations eo that “mat' sounds 1ike“batY and"nosd’ like"doze’ A epeaker with a very bad tiead cold is never "nasai," except jn popular parlance: ‘he te, an fact, quite the opposite—completely nonnasal. Before introducing sore dotail ve should point out that the articulazory apparatus discussed above does not have speech as its primary function. The apparatus extets prinarily for breathing and eating: | itidoes not exist for * sppaking.; Speech is an "overlaid function" so that the "speech organs" basi~ cally exiat to serve other purposes.’ In most respects thé anatonic features of other primates" mouths resemble those of hunan beings, but other primates do not speak, Languageis alnost ‘certainly therefore a mental phenomenon in that it. does 2 _ 78S75 Rot seem to depend exclusively on the development of certain physical organi The articulatory apparatus shown in Figure | is used in a variety of ways. Phoneticians and linguists try to describe certain distinctive accivities of the apparatus which seen to recur frequently in the languages they observe They notice one basic distinction that ems to occur universally: the dis— tinction between consonants and vovels. Many linguists prefer to use "the terms "contoid" and "vocoid” rather than consonant and-vowel in diacussing Phonetic phenomena, reserving the latter teraa for discussion of how such’ phenomena function in the sound system of a particular language. A contoid is a sound characterized by marked interruption in the afrstrean, ranging from @ couplet interruption, as at the beginning of" din"(4], through an tncomplete one accompanied by friction, as at the beginning of"200"[z], to various kinds of trills, not usually found in English, and résonants, as at tha begisning of "red"(r]; a voeoid, on the other hand, 4e a continuous, . therefore uninterrupted, frictionless soud, as in the middle of*bid' [¥] and“bed"[@]. Such a distinction between contoid and vocoid seems easy and presents no difficulties in words such as*beat’,"king’“pan’ and“fislf, each of which may be said to consiat of three sounds, the middle one of which 48 a vocoid and the other two contoids: [bit], [kin], [pwen], and [£13]. However, the-initial sounds of ‘yet’,"wet, "led; and"red’ are not so readily nae or exclisively classifiable aa efther cojtoids or vocoide, ‘as we shall see. _ CONTOIDS a e ¢ One of the firet activities noticed to recur frequently in languages 4a activity of the'vocal corde, or the lack of such activity. Sounds may be either voiced or voiceless, that 1s, the vocal cords are either vibrating or not. The initial sounde of erch of the following pairs contrast in vole~ ing, the first meuber of each pair beginning with a voiced contoid and the 8676 second beginning with a voiceless contoid. The appropriate phonetic symbol for the sound is provided in each case: bin [b] pin [p) dea [4] ten [e] geal (g] coal (k] vat [v] fat [£] zip [2] dip [0] Place of Articulation A second kind of distinctive activity is related to the location of any imterference that occurs in the vocal tract. We must’ know whether the inter- ference occurs in the pharyngeal cavity.or in the oral cavity, what parte of the cavity are involved, and how t'.ese parts are involved. Articulation al- most alvays involves the movement of an articulator toward a point of arti- culation. In very few cases does articulation involve, only an articulator being set in mtion, aa vhen either the uvula or the tongue tip is trilled by being made to vibrate very quickly. More generally, in contoid arti~ culations, an articulator is-made to touch the back of the pharynx or the top of the mouth at some point. The combinationof articulator and point of contact is called the place of ‘articulation. -For example, the bottom lip may touch the top teeth to prodice Labiodental sounds, as at the begin~ nings of " [£] and"vat"[v]; the tongue tip may touch the gim ridge to produce apicoalveolar sounds, as at the beginnings of"tin"[t] and"din"[d]; «the back of the tongue may touch the soft palate to produce dorsovelar sounds, 6 Bt the beginnings of ‘cap" [k] and "gap"'[g]; and so on, im a great variety of/combinations Limited only by anatomic “impossibility, for example, the fapossibility of the bottom lip touching the soft palate. In each case the articulator is located on the lower jav, vherese the point of articulation 4e.located on the upper jaw. The place of articulation alvays specifies the ‘articulator firat-when both terms seem necessary. ‘gerneManner of Articulation ‘The manner ‘of the articulation is also extremely important. ‘Ban!’ end"ban" share the sane articulator and point of articulation in their tnittal sounde {b] and [m], for both sounds are bilabial and voiced. However, there must be a further difference between the initial sounds because the vords have quite different meanings. ‘The difference is a distinction im the manner of © articulation of the initiel sounds. In‘nan"part of the airstream escapes through the nose during the’time that the vocal cords: are vibrating arid the lips are closed. In"ban‘the airstream cannot escape through the nose since < the velic 1s closed. The voicing is actually not apparent until the lips are opened when it ie immediately apparent in comparison to the initial sound [p] of "pin" in which a noticeable delay in voicing occurs. The basic difference in the manner of articulation of the initfal sounds of ‘man" and "ban'arises from the opening of the velic in the firec sound [m] of"man" but ite closure in the [b] of "ban, 2 . “rid, "thin “shin are likewise different in the manner of articulation of their initial sounds [t}, {9], and [8]. In"tasf the tip of the tongue com- pletely stops the airstream on the alveolar ridge; in“thin* the airstream ie forced through a narrow slit made by the tip of the tongue on the toy teeth; and in"shin"thé airstream is forced around the edges of the’ front and tip of the tongue as they are brought into iight contact with the al~ veolar ridgé and hard palate. In each case the articulator and point of articulation are quite similar, but the different manners oF contact or neéar-contact produce different kinds of sounds. The principal manners of articulhtion are stopping the airstream com~ pletely, as in stops, for exampleatHe sounds at the beginnings of ‘toc"[t] and"doe" [4]; interfering noticeably with the airstream as in fricatives, aN for-example the sounds at the beginnings of 'Sue*(s] and “zoo” [z]} and making78 a closure a for a stop, but allowing the air to be released through the noi » as in nasale, for example the sounds at the beginnings of map" (m] and > “nap*{n]. Other manners of articulation involve the production of different curvatures of the tongue as the afretrean passes over is: with laterals the airstream past over each side of the tongue but net’ over the center, for example the sound at the beginning of "let" [I]; ond with retroflexes the air stream passes over the tongue tip vhich ia. curled back, for example the _ sound at the beginning of “red"{r]. Finally, we can have trille and flaps, 7 Any loose piece of flesh may be trilled, for example the tongue tip or uvula, oF there nay be juit one quick tap or flap, aa when the tongue t1P 4s tapped to the gun ridge in the middie of most North Anericen pronuncié~ tions of butter to produce a flap [¥]. Airflow Direction A further distinction involves the direction of the airstream: whether it 48 going into the lungs and is ingressive, or coming from the!lunge and da egressive. 10 nearly all languages sounds are made using egressive air only, Ingressives are rare indeed, in English confined perhaps to certain kinds of exclamatozy sounds made in moments of pain, surprise, or tension. Naturally, breathing must go on while speaking occurs, and it is remarkable ~ haw bréathing patterns change during speaking without the physiologic die- ruptions normally associated with marked breathing changes, as for example, in hyperventilation. ~ Tenseness =.) * of the total vocai apparatus, parti~ + Finally, the tenseness or lexe: cularly of the tongue and lower jaw, is important in'articulation. A notice~ able tensing or tightne: is involved in the production of some sounds, whereas others ‘have no such accompanying tenseness and are lax. The initial eo 83° ’ fee79 sounds in*pit" (p], "fat" [£], and "sip [s] are tense, vhereas the initial sounds of “bit* [b],*vat»[v], and"zip' [2] are lax. vocorps “In many ways it 4g much easier to discuss contoid articulation than vocoid articulations. = Vocoids are continuous sounds. which are not ly located by reference to movements of the tongue, closures or openings of certain passages ~ typ a simple illustration, of interruption and friction, and so on. To w! we can fairly easily say certain things about what happens in the mouth at the beginning and ending of a vord such as"bit) for there is noticeable lip- . closure at the beginning and a definite closure behind the teeth at the end. Howaver, the sound in the middle of the word is very much more difficult to describe, and the novenente in the mouth are much harder to specify, one solution, of course, wollld be to devise a set of symbols to represent an arbitrary set of somde. In this way we could pick out the middle sound of "bit" and represent it ae [I] without being concerned with how the sound is tually. produced ér with how 4t differs from the middle sounds of “bet “pat “boot and do on, Such a method would hardly be very satifactory, since _ if would provide no way of indicating the phonetic similarities that exist in such paira as"bit-bet"and"bit~beat’ but do not exist in such peirs “bit-boat” and"bit-bout We must, therefore, search for those, characteristics, or parameters, vhich are’important in the production of vocoids, just as we searched for suitable parameters for contoids. Tongue and Lip Position ‘ The basic parameters required to discuss vocoids derive fron the positions of the tongue and lips. Basically, vocoids are made by holding the tongueFront Back, Wigh front | Righ back unrounded rounded Low front Low back unrounded rounded Figure 6 Basic Vocoid Parameters in the Oral Cavity. High! Low in certain positions and sending the airstream over it without any kind of daterruption or friction. Further modifications may be made, but all such modifications must be associated with a basic tongue position. A simple understanding of the importance of tongue position can be gained through pronouncing ”beatand"bat’, followed by"beat"and"boot) In order to pronounce "bat after“beat’ the lower jaw is dropped 60 that the tongue may be lowered | 4h the mouth. To pronounce” boot” after™beat” the tongue is pulled back. A ~ noticeable rounding of the lips occurs as the vocoid in*boot" is pronounced. This discussion of beat’, "bat’, and boot” introduces the three basic parameters “necessary to account for ‘the production of vocoida: the relative height of - the tongue, the retative frontiess-backa of the tongue, and 1ip-roundiny Figure 6 is a schematic drawing of the oral cavity showing these parameters. It accounts for only four basic vocoid positions: high front, low front, high back, and low back. In addition, the front vowels are epeci- fied\'s's' mrounded and,the back vowels as rounded, in accord with vhat ve regard aa the normal relationship of roundedness to frontness and backress, 4istinction 1s reversed, an additional four vocoids may be. accougeda fof : high front rounded, low’front rounded,’ high back unrcunded, and low back unrownded. "A high front rounded vocoid occurs: in the French word“lunewhich may be distinguished:from the English worde’ leat!’ and"loon; which respectively have a high front unroutided vocoid and a high back roune-d~ vocoid. ae fi : O94aL SURESS, PITCH & INTONATION Every language hi a rhythm. The rhythm is ‘made up of the stri intonation given to the spoken words. Stress and intonation are phonemic. You can find minimal pairs where'a shift in strei + not in sound, changes the meaning. Yor example, /pétvart/ and pervstt/ and also, /pstmit/ Iperntt/.- Every English utterance has some degree of stress. A one-eyllable word, spoken in isolation, has primary: etre: Thus, t6,be complete, the phonemic representation of any one-syllable utterance should include Ih, the ayabol for primary. stress, However, we have been omitting these stée marks in the transcription of dsclated words since no confusion would result from omitting them. In words occuring in sentences, on the other hand, stre: (and intonation) becomes en important part of communication. Read this pass- ~. age from Wardhaugh for more on etress and pitch: ‘ Still other phenomena in the sound stream of. speech ate of interest of us. Certain vocoids, for example, are uttered with more intensity, or stress, than others, as for exemple in the different vocoids of the'nan‘or of"blick-, board", or in the vocoids of a more complicated example'a dusty blackboard: Stresses must be defined relative 'to each other,-so the distribution of stress is.much less easy to describe than the incidences of occurrence of voicel bilabial stops, ‘The stress on the first vocoid of‘ the man"can be described 8 lighter than the stress on the second’ vocoid, but reference to an at aqlute : scale 1s impossible, fér we can say the total utterance etther quietly or loud- ly, We.can try to record what differences in stress we hear by using various ‘accent marks so that"the man"is recorded ae Bt wa} and blackboard as Tene Word]. Vocoide may also be uttered wich different degrees of pitch. “These differences are aleo relative differences because the basic pitch of voice : - 92°82° ie determined by certain characteristics of the speaker's vocal apparatus euch as the length and thickness of the menbranes in the larynx.. It. is often important’ to note the pitch level of the different vocoids, since in some language pitch differentiatesone utterance from another. : Thus, an utter= ance containing a high-pitched vocoid means something quite different from an utterance contiming the same vocoid under a mid, low, rising, or falling pitch. changes in pitch level. ASSIGNMENTS: . 1. Read pp. 40-64 in Fromkin/Rodaan %. Read pp. 1-17 in Yupik Bakimo Grammar 3. 4. ‘Complete four nore.paragraphs from the, Redding Pract: ‘Manual. 5. Diacritics may also be used to indicate noticeable differences or Answer the Questions ‘and Exercises on pp. 83-84 of, this manual. ice on p. 93 of this Complete 3 pages of transcription. from Transcription Practice on pager 99-101 of this manual. 93' ~t UNIT IV QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 5 4 Match the English and Yupik consonant phonemes with their poirits of articulation and types of sound (Example /b/: bilabial stop) ~ Pointe of articulation: bilabial (labial) — aiyee2ar (apical) 2 biodental (labial) velar dental alveopa! Type of sound: stop Sosa . fricative nasal 7 voiced voiceless : . English : English and Yupik Pel. . Il. = It i WI. a fel, lal, /01__« : Jol, " Isls an © ial sal. Cl : Il. : hy = Pel, Isl. ‘Yupik Only Jy. is - Jal__- Mel. “AL. Mei. a 2. Label the poiata of articulation on the following figure: -84 3. a, Mark the primary stress on each of the following words by placing an ‘acute accent (’) over tha stressed syllable. Example: language. 1. together 6. digest (noun)-digest: (verb) 2. horrible 7. convert (noun)~convert (verb) 3. 8. epectal a 9. spectfic ~ “5. phonetic 10. specify b. Mark the primary stress (as above) and the secondary stress (by a_ —grave-accent-()-on-the following. Example: findaméatal 1, laboratory 6. general 7 2. medicine 7. generality 3. specialize 8. mystify 4. professorial 9. productivizy = 5 5. conversation 10. experienc? 4. Transcribe these words indicating which syllable gM@s the stre: (Example: nachine/mes{yn/ passion/pseten/ ocean. azure + leseure “ explosion, . e “setzure garage _mangage + genius congress. finger singer | kindnes! a85 UNIT V INTRODUCTION TO MORPHEMES & MORPHOLOGY We have been talking about the individual'minimal units of sound in s.lang- uage, the phonemes We will now discuss the-minimel unite of meaning in 8 Language, the morphenes. A morpheme ie an elenent of spéech which conveys meaning. It may be made up of one or more phonemes. -It may be the intonation you use. A morpheme combines the expression and the content of a language. \ One of the ways we identify morphemes is similar to how we identified phonemes by contrast. For example, look at the folloving-words in Navajo: . shina ny mother shiyazh "my soa 7 shilah my brother shiched ay grandfather ; : Tagge vords have one syllable in common and one in contrast to each other. By contrasting these words, you should determine that the morphene for "ay" is "shi". You could then proceéd to determine the morphemes for the other unite of meaning in these words. You can do the same kind of analysis in ‘ Yupik o€ Bagilsh. Yor example, contrast: angyaq one boat arnaq angyak two boats angyat | three (t) boat arnat three’ (t) women, ‘This tells the analyst that -q, -k, and -t refer to differences in nuniler, how many people are doing the ‘sction indicated. You can-also use ‘contrast to show that intonation ie a morphene. You can say "Ion't that nice" with various intonations which alter the meaning of vhat you are ‘saying. "Isn't that nice” with a rising tone at the end indicat oo :86 that you actually consider it nice while a sustained tone may indicate sar- casm or actual displeasur: Of course, just as with phonemes, your idiolect or dialect may differ considerably from mine and therefore your particular intonation morphenes may differ. Some vocabulary words to keep in mind while working on morphemes are: root: basic morpher- which can stand alone ~ or to which affixes and other morphemes can be attached. Example (verbs) walk, run, talk, see, etc. (nouns) road, house, cat, man, etc. affix: subsidiary to roots;morpheme attached to root or stem infix: affix occuring somewhere within the root word - not at beginning or ends suffix: affix following the root (ex: /-a,/-ed/) prefix: affix preceding the root (ex. /en-/, /re~/) stem: morpheme or combination of morphenes to which an affix can be added (only one root) Example: friends = /frtend/is a stem which is also a root /-2/ is the affix (euffix/ friendships = /frend/ is the root /frendSip / is the stem (made of root + morpheme) J-s/ is the affix (suffix) compound: stems containing two or more roots (example: blackbird, eyeglass,) ‘blackbirds = /blaek bard/ is the compound stem /-2/ is the affix (suffix) atrese: emphasis or accent on a vowel or syllable nucleus prinary stress /“/ secondary /*/ open transition: /+/ a pause ot a brehk in sound between utterances 9787 allonorph: a variant of a morpheme which occurs in certain definable environ— mente (Example: /-2/ /-s/ +2/ are glYnorphaof the same morpheme. ‘They have the same meaning -“plural'~ and occur in definable eitua— tions: /-+2/ occurs only after grooved fricatives and affricates /art8f]s busi J-s/ occurs only after voiceless sounds /ptfkQ/: cups, cats, tack roses, catches, etc. ete. J-2/ occurs only after voiced sounds: /bévgt/: tags, saws, hides, etc. (and vowele) Intonation contour: a morphent nade up of two, three, or f8t pitch phonemes plus one clause terminal, hich marks off and holds to- gether every clause, The intonation you use in English commmicates meaning, therefore it ie considered a mor- “Mother Inober7/ "Mother!" /maborW clause: a long utterance characterized by a break at the end and the pre~ sence of a /%/. clause terminal: break marking the end of a clause; the pause between clauses fading /W rising (Af sustained /—W pitch: highness or lomesa of tones of speech AI low /2/ wid (normal speech level) 131 high 14] extra high Types of notation to keep in mind: ‘vt this means "varies with", "alternates with", "or" as used in d-zev-8 ante! these are used in phonetic transeriptiow—pronounciation recorded as heard not including functional differences. t] 7 [+ these are used in phonemic transcription - pronunciation recorded as to include functional differences. (+ wevteaie seprenmtion = one smbol wed to sepranes etch sor pheme and its allomoiphs. Does not give information about pronun— 93etation. Example: {2} «/-z /-0 tz a o.e/ glosses ~ translations or indications of meaning " I to go store’ an impossible, unknown, or incorrect utterance (ex., ASSIGNMENT: 1. Read Fromkin/Rodman pp. 101-131 on Mofphemes and Morphology. + Answer Questions and Exercises on pp. 89-90 of this manual. 3. Complete the last four paragraphs of the Read‘ng Practice exercise on Pp. 980f this Manual. 4. Do 2 more pages of transcriptions form pp. 102-103 of this manual.vrune 89 UNIT V QUESTIONS & EXERCISES 1. Divide these words into their separate morphenes by placing a + between each worpheme. 1. moralizers 7. ddachronic 13. strawberry 2. retroactive 8. synchronic 14. irreplaceable 3. dnclinatson 9. totalitarianien 15. replacement 4. befriended 10. experiential 16. stature 5. televise 11. predetermination 17. respectability 6. endearment 12. psycholinguistics 18. introductory 2. Divide these sentences into their separate morphemes by placing a + between each morpheme. 1. The American tourists visited thirteen cities. 2. Our English literature teacher writes his grandmother daily. 3, Linguistics 1a the scieatific study of human Language. 3. Give five English idioms and their meanings. Example: kick the bucket, “to die." 4. Give a synonym (perfect or "near") for the following words: 1. appeal 6. teach 2. applaud 7. mate 3. beg 8. fact 4. pal 9. funny 5. behavior 10. scent 5. Ladk at the following examples from other languages. Determine the morphemes as indicated. KANURI (Nigeria) is done as en exauple. gana CAdjestives) nongena — kara, big nenkure bigness tarugu Jong, namleurugy Length karite excellent nomiarite excellence abd bad nomi bs dadnes: What type of affix is shown! What is its form and approximate meaning? The affix is a prefix, Its form is /nam-/ and indicates a noun. Given /coJi/ ‘sweot', what is a likely form for 'sweetness'T ‘Sweetness would be /nenieYi/ Given /namole/ 'goodness', vhat is a likely form for ‘good’? /g2ie/ would mean good. 106GANDA (Uganda) 90 4 voman abakasi vonen 2 doctor abasewo dostors 3 heir ebasika heirs 4 girl abawala girls 5 omilenzi ‘boy abalenzi boys What type of affixessirashownt What are-their forus end approximate meanings? Given /abslongo/ 'twins', what is « likely form for 'twin'T ILOCANO (Philippine Islands) pfogen ee piopfogan Atohes talon field taltéion fields adlen road dalddian roads blag Laid bibles lives fa beens muméy buffaloda wo head lilo heads What type of affix is used to form the plural? Deeoribe ite form dnd relationship to the stem. Be sure to make clear exactly how mich is involved. Given /mile/’ 'plant', what would be the most likely forn meaning ‘planta! ? Given /tawtdva/ 'windowe', what would be the most likely form meaning ‘window! taL UNIT VI LANGUAGE ANALYSIS In this unit we will practice the methods of analysis you have already learn- ed end apply then to various languages. Your major project for this wit and for the class is to compile a report and analysis of some aspect of Yupik. You should use the Yupik Grammar and Orthography books as resources, as well as your on knowledge of the language. You may pattern your report after the exercises we will do in this unit about other languages. The following ex- ercises are taken from Gleason, Workbook in Descriptive Linguistics. You should work through these in class as a group, but you may wish to previéw them on your own. In the following problems you are to identify the affixes ‘The ‘ata will, in most cas be arranged in colums to facilita' your work. Oompare the words within each colum. Also compare wor dn the same line from colum to colum. For example: MENDE ‘(Sierra Leone) 2 pélé house péléf the house 2 mm ginsn mimt{ the glass 3 Gut story @Qmff the story 4 will hoe whif the hoe 5 S16 © elephant néléf the elephant 6 khimd teacher iham{ the teacher 7 navé boy navéf the boy 6 mimi person mimif the person If you will look down the columns, you will find that all th worda in the second colum are alike in ending with /-£/. There ie no wuoh feature in vhtoh all the words in tbe first column are alike. Moreover, each pair of words, /pélé : péléf/ for example, differ solely 4n the presence of the /-{/ in the second. We may accordingly answer questions of the sort found with these problems in the following vay? What type of affix is show! A suffix. What is ite form and approximate meaning? /-f/ 'the! Given /s616/ 'proverb', wnat ie a likely meaning for /adlé{/? f£/ what i ue rome night! Given /kpindff{/ tthe night’, what is a ly form for ‘night! io Aepinat/92 The question asks for “approximate meaning". If we wore to examine 2 series of whole sentences in Mende, we would find that-sometines /pé1$/ might ooour where the English translation would use ‘the house’, oF 7peets ware the translation would use 'a house’. Glosses can aver give e very exact idea of meanings. Such a gloso as 'the' is particularly Unreliable, since ths use of 'the' is co much determined by Bnglieh grammer (rether than semantics). So also, Mende /-{/ will be determined ty Mende gramar. The two cannot be expected to be equivalent in any Precise way. Hote also: Tha question asks for “a likely forn’ or "a likely meaning". Until you become well eoquainted with a language, it ie not - tafe to be dognatic about matters of this sort. There are always idiomatic expressions which don't mean exactiy what you might expect, ani irregular formations which don't follow the rules you might at first formulate. You can only gues# at questions like these. It is perfeotiy legitimate to fuess, provided you do not take your guesses to seriously. If you were in the field you would check with on informant. As you gather experience you can be more confident. The final question, however, is always "What Setually occurs.in the speech of native speakeret® not "What would my grammatical formulations lead ne to create?" KURDISH (Near East) 2 awgha vse aagilit forethought 2 ate 8 robber isis robbery 3 draik long drei Eis Length 4 ceonna wise sasnaasi, erudition 3 gern vera germs vernth What type of affix is shownt What 1s its form and approximate meaning? Mote the two words glossed alike. Gan you comment? Given /raae/ ‘true’, what is u likely meaning for /raasii/TS@AHILI (Bast Afsica) oe 1 atanipenda he wil). Like ue 15° atantpiga he wtll beat me 2 atalupenda he will like you 46 atelupiga he will beat you 5 atampenda he will Like hin 17 atempiga he will beat him 4 atatupenda he wl. Like ue 18 ananipiga —he is beating me 5 atawapenda he vill Like them 19 aralupiga —he de beating you 6 nitakupenda I will like you 20. anempiga he is beating him 7 nitempenda I will Like him 21 amenipiga he has beaten me 8 nitawapenda [ will like thes 22 amelaupiga he has beaten you 9 wtanipenta you will like 23 amempiga he has beaten him 10 utempenda =» you will like him 24 alinipiga —he beat me 11 tutempenda we will like him 25 alilmupiga == he beat you 12 watenpenda © they will like him 26 alimpiga he beat him 15 atalusumbua he will annoy you © 27 wametulipa —they have paid us 14 unameumbua © you are annoying him 26 tulilulipa we paid you Note? The forme glossed 'he' could as well be glossed 'she!. The forme glossed 'you' are all singular. The plural 'you' ie omitted from this Problem becsuse of a minor complication. Give the morphenes associated with each of the following meanings: subjects: object: they future Present perfect past What {2 the order of the morphemes in a wordt Supply the probable forms for the following meaning! .T have beaten then hey-aro beating me they have annoyed me... you have beaten us we beat them I am paying him Supply the probable meanings for ths folloving foras: atanilipa ._. utawapiga walilupenda ...............TEPEHUA (Mexico) Laqatan one Lagakaawt?utu lagat/uy two Jagap’uban lagat’utu three Lagap’wFantem Tngat’eat’4 = four lagap’uSemkasw Leqakiie five lagap’uBenkaawt uy ‘Lagakeaw ten ‘Lagap’uSamkaawnahaes lagakaewtam —oleven Lagat’ sat? Liki iep’udam lagakaewt’uy twelve leqakiiektisp’uven _ These forms are used with certain nouns only? lagatan kaweyuh one horde Jegatan Fanta Other nouns require different forms? Yagit’uy Talnikii two pieos Sagét’ant’ii Saapumh of paper qanksaw k’iv ten trees qankiie maka? List the morphemes? What, vould you expect for the fpllowing: nine twenty-five thirty-four : ‘three hundred osnmnnvinnn on What is: the significance in the order of the worphem 105 94 thirteen twenty twenty-one thirty thirty-tvo thirty-nine four buntred © five hundred one flower of soap five fingers The meanings of these cannot be determined without much more data. (Give both form and meaning.)95 BONTOC (Philippine Islands) tL fikas strong fumikas he is becoming strong 2 idled red lomilad he 48 becoming red 3 bato stone bumato he is becoming stone 4 tum oneny fumugul he 4s becoming an eneny What type of affix ie used to form the verbo? Desoribe its form and relationship to the stem. Given /pusi/ 'poor', what would be the most likely meanizz of /pumei/? Given /yitad/ ‘dark’, what would be the most likely form meaning 'he 1s becoming dark't Given /pumikaw/ 'he is becoming white’, what te the most likely form Meaning 'yhite! ? SAMOAN (The Pacizic) 2 manso (he) wishes mananao’ (the; ) veh 2 matua (he) 48 ota matutua (they) are old 3 maloai (he) 48 strong malolosi © (they) are strong 4 | punow (he) bende panonou (they) bend 5 eavali (he) travels savavali (they) travel 6 (he) sings pert (they) sing 7. lege (ne) weaves lelags (they) weave 8 atema?i (he) is wise atemama’’ (they) are wise Yat type of affix is used to make the form of the verb used with « plural subjest? Describe ite form and relationship to the etem. Given /gaiue/ '(he) works', what would be the most likely form with a plural subject? Given /alolofs/ '(they) love’, what would be the most likely form with a cingular subject? 7 10696 TAGALOG (Philippine Islands) 1 sumlat writel 16 tumarel teach! 2 sumlet wrote 17 Yumared taught 3 susulat will write 18 Yetarad will teach 4% sumsulet de writing 19° "umatared is teaching 5 sulatin de written! 20 Yaralin be taught! 6 etmiat was written 21 *neral was taught 7 sumulatin will be vritten 22 *e%aralin will be taught 8 sinusulat ie being written 25 tine’arel ie being teughd 9 habanap will look for 24 Tumibig Jove! 10 hanapin be sought! 25 ‘umibig loved 11 hinehanap de being sought 26 Mumi?ibig. 4s loving 12 hinenap yas sought 27 *Aribig will love 13° bumabase reads 28° ginawa? was done 14 bumasag broke 29° Luaapit approach! 15 dumatin arrived 350 tinawag was called Let the roote: write teach . look for . leve future __. present .. Passive? commanis...... past... future present, . Supply the forma you would expect for the following m anings? — oall! . ie oadving sssumasane OppRORChEd,97 ASSIGNMENTS: 1. Do the rest of the transcriptions. in the Manual, 2, Compile an analysis report of Yupik. Apply the things you've learned to your native language or choose another. This should be 4-5 pages Jong and may include: Jets of phonenes and minimal pairs transcriptions of words, phr: stories word analysis (morphemes/affixes) articulation charts @ particular facet of Yupik(for example the numbering system) 3, FINAL EXAM 4, Supplemental Reading: Read pp. 136-168 of Fromkin/Rodman 10898 READING PRACTICE The folloving may be used for reading practice to familiarize yourself with English in phonemio transoription. Sone features of. spoken English to be described in Chapter 4 are not marked, so that it ie necessary to use the conventional written word divieiove and conventional punctuation, ‘Neither cf these properly belongs in a representation of spoken English. 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Ber wos 9 yon felo neymi hon) wuw fel in 3a sprig in Se fon. twd ov bin 9 amd Gin Af Ayd dayd tm 30 sprig, dor ty didint, hiy dayd an 50 foul. | Wanunoon 1m Desenserive Lisesseries, Bo veyn it reynk@ an So Jost on oflsow ano onfost folo. bet Siyfliy an do Jeet, bhicos Bo onfoat stiyls eo Josts onbre! 2s 9 byttiy ay am nat o starr, Sor or o8ara mony bensom bay fanr, bot may feys, ay dont mayni st, for ay om bkhaynd. £3 Ate 80 piyptl 4n front get So Jair flow wos fend ov ebéntyzor, eb for Sourt ¥iy komld or bow, touk ov tayds ov lov, greyt siyzor! yuw tud siy om, ob on flow. hines to 30 igor dkts nat eniy bigir %n 30 hed ov o veriy sms] pin, ot So Lemp Skt Ay reyzhs ABkn Ley bleyzks, on Sete war So rob lows in. Sor wes on owld men ov tarenten, tuw meySt in fowlts tiyd th) ty bent oa hvkn Bey wat fan 30 oust ~ ov wot dy od loust, hy rkpleyd “ay kent sey for ey ren! ea” Ser wos on ovld men uw sepowsd Bot 8 etriyt dour wos parséliy kloizd; bat som veriy lasrf rete eyt £2 cowts on és hete, hhyayl Be, fykwtkl ovld Jentélmin dows 10599 TRANSCRIPTION riob ridge sham jan gen bush mush knot myth gap his hiss bung box zest 5 things that dumb book Scotob i guess witob which sbould tbank vex shook Buten oup depot ring wring lateb lath sould top this them thump jug yes Rive zino hodpeas peace prize price loud foe eyes raise race shout lose loose choose coat code root rude mate made though. pined pint down bound through sight signed place daze throw do due dew freeze ebeese east eased roast posed don't loaf bealed knifed wheezed boned101 TRANSCRIPTION ohper jeer sheer there ehair oar star soore pure poor sir fur her oar floor cork fork hoarse borse course thwart queered hard hoart barn are George forge pearl first more tour / wore war feared air sharp shirt bird | barred bared beard hareb hearth soorned meres a feneacoe in