THE [MAGE AND [1S CONTEXT position in space, movement) belong to the non-mimetic plane of the visual work of art. But as signifiers, they are capable of conveying concepts, values, feelings, and attitudes; and are constituted to form the image on the mi- metic plane, which with the thematic plane that relates the work to its larger social and historical context contribute to form the total meaning of the work. e | She elements in themselves (line, value, color, texture, form and shape,com- In the visual arts, the image is also called an icon (from the Greek word meaning likeness, image, or representation). While a road or traffic sign is @.con- ventional sign and appears in the same form in similar situations, an icon or pictorial sign, which may be a painting, drawing, illustration, and so on, bears a rich and highly nuanced meaning that arises from its unique visual form. In looking at a representational or figurative work—be it a drawing or paint- ing, a piece of sculpture, or a tapestry-we may recognize its subject matter as representations of human beings, animals, plants, natural scenery and non-living things, artifacts used by people, and so on. But we do not limit ‘ourselves to recog nizing them in general as people or things on the purely mimetic plane of the image, We proceed to the thematic plane to situate the subjects in their social and historical context. If the visual work is a portrait, we ask: Who is this person? To what group or class of people does he/she belong? What values, ideas or qualities does he/she stand for? What does the painting say about him/her? If the picture is genre showing people engaged in activities, we ask: What are these people doing? What is their social context? What are these places and things? ill| But to know the full meaning of a visual work, it is also necessary to study the manner of presentation, the relationship of the figures to one another, their relationship to the viewer, as well as implied concepts of time as movement, narra- tive, and process. Are the human figures, for instance, consciously oriented to a hypothetical viewer or viewers as figures on a stage? Ordo they seem to occupy a self-contained universe, in which the viewer is but an unbidden witness? Aside from the way the figures relate to the ground and to the entire pictorial field, there is also a question as to how they are situated in the field. Is there a strong central focusing or are the principal figures on one side, asymmetrically, or even cropped at the sides to imply the extension of the figure into the viewer's space? What is the relationship between the space of the painting and the space of the viewer? Are there devices in the painting that link the two spaces? Styles of Figuration A discussion of the styles of figuration requires the elucidation of a number of terms, namely, representational art, naturalism, and realism, This is not an easy task because their meanings have not been fixed once and for all by aestheticians and writers on art, and there exists a considerable variability in their usage. To be able to arrive at working definitions, it is necessary to consider that 1) the usage of these terms occurs in particular cultural contexts, such as Western art history or 19th century French literature, which have to be initially identified, for their mean- ings change according to their contexts; 2) terms form their meanings, values, qualities, priorities in relation or in.contradistinction to certain terms in the satne cultural context; 3) a term‘can have several related meanings in’a broader or nar roWer sense or with emphases on different aspects arising from the history of their usage and 4) the meaning of a term may undergo change in the course of art history in one country or in general, Of the above-mentioned terms, “representational” is the broadest. With “figurative,” as synonym, it is @ general term used in opposition to “abstract,” “non-figurative and “non-objective.” “Representational” thus describes any paint- ing, sculpture, or form of visual art where the subject matter is recognizable as taken from the world of people and nature, in, opposition to “abstract,” “non- figurative,” or “non-objective" in which the subject is a composition of lines, shapes, colors, and textures which do not constitute images and figures from the natural world. In-representational art, the figures may be highly stylized or distorted, but the work is representational as long as the subject can be identified. ‘Of course, there may be semi-abstract works, or figurative works tending towards the abstract because they place emphasis on abstract or non-mimetic (non-imagistic) aspects of the work. “Naturalisen” is used in art history and criticism to denote a type of art which “puts the mirror up fo nature,” that is, seeks to represent natural objects as they appear, in contrast to stylized or “conceptual” art such as that of the Eqyp- tians. Itis important here not to lose sight of the terms in opposition: naturalist, on 22 rn Be A . Carlos “Botong” Francisco, *Camote Gatherers,” 1956, oil on canvas ‘one hand; explicitly “stylized” or “conceptual,” on the other hand, but both within the framework of representational art. Following this definition, the sculptures of the Greek Archaic Period, the kouros and the kore are stylized, while those of Phidias, Polycleitos, and Praxiteles of the later Hellenic and Hellenistic Periods {although idealized) are naturalistic. Nonetheless, “naturalism” is also used in the limited sense of stressing the human and commonplace over the divine and symbolic, Bernard Myers in Artand Civilization points out the-shift from the idealization of the Hellenic Period (5th c. B,C.) to the naturalism of the Hellenistic Period (4th ¢ B.C.) Sculpture in the Hellenic Period was characterized by the “suprahuman idealization of Greek gods” and while it was marked by keen observation, the aim of the artist was “to raise these forms to a symbolic level above the human or specific.” With the fourth century B.C., the influence of the Sophist philosophy “which stressed the rational cover the divine and accentuated the possibility of developing intelligent citizens by education rather than by birth... was increasingly felt in art through growing natu- ralism and emotionalism.” With naturalism, the stress was on the human, the worldly, even the commonplace. Of the Hellenistic Period, Myers writes: “the most outstanding art trend of the age was toward naturalism, often running over into extreme exaggeration Portraits which had been infrequent even in the 4th century B.C., now became a staple item, symbolizing an interest in the personality of the individual and his accurate physical appearance.” These portraits which, moreover, of elderly men and women with wrinkled faces, shepherdesses, fisherfolk, and street types were 113marked by the detailed treatment of human frailty, anatomical knowledge. and emotionalism. This definition of naturalism goes beyond the general one of repre- seritation according to what the eve sees. as opposed to stylized treatment. ‘The term “realism” rust, first of all, be contextualized in Western art his- tory, specifically 19th century Realism as practised by Gustave Courbet, Francois Millet. and Honare Daumier. who consciously assumed the qualification of realist. Courbet defined as realist artists those who, in apposition to’ Classicism with its idealization and generalized types and to Romanticism with its emotionalism and imaginative content, drew their subjects from contemporary life, especially from the lives of the folk, the urban workers, and the peasants, in socialist sympathy with their aspirations. Later artists who follow in this trend, including subject (contemporary life and the masses of workers and peasants) and attitude (sympathy with the aspirations of the people) can be called realists, or even social realists if they have a strong and consistent socio-political content based on specific conditions. Whether realism is used, as Harold Osborne points out, in opposition to absiraction, to distortion, to stylization (with naturalism), to idealization, or gener- alization, it always involves verisimilitude or truthfulness to observed physical data. As Linda Nochilin in her book Realism sums itup: “All forms of realism, regardless of time or place, are marked by a desire fora verisimilitude of one kind or another. But there can be no perception in a cultural vacuurn, and certainly no notational system for recording it, unaffected by both the coarser and subtler variants’ of period. personality, and milieu." One can go even farther, however, to:say that while both naturalism and realism involve the effort towards verisimilitude, a difference emerges between the two. Describing Rembrandi’s Landscape with Thunderstorm as “an emotional vision.” RUH. Fuchs writes: “This landscape is so beyond naturalism, in its structure as in its imaginary colour, that to look for a-natural explanation (for instance. that the weird light is the realistic reproduction of lightning) is to deny its prime mean- ing, which is to be imagination: to be Art.” What develops then is that naturalism: has to-do with the faithful adherence to sensory data in a scientific framework. It can lead to:the»preoccupation with detail in itself, in a piling up of observed fact, and an assiduity in rendering different “types.” And realism, in a general sense, while it is likewise based on the observation and depiction of the external world as it appears to the senses, therefore shedding formal conventions, formulas, and schemata, goes beyond fidelity to sensory and empirical fact toa thorough explora tion of reality, the world of people and nature, in all its dimensions. In realism at its best, physical form becomes a vehicle for the spirit within, as Sir Kenneth Clark wrote of Rembrandt's nudes Since the 19th century, realism developed a number of variations. The: most vigorous branch of realism is social realism which involves not only observa tion but also comment and protest, as well as directions towards a truly just and 4human order. Important schools of Social Realism appeared in Mexico in the 1930s with the production of the artists Jose Clemerite Orozco, David Alfaro Siquieros, and Diego Rivera who worked on murals aflame with the spirit of Revo- lution. In a social realist genre. they drew their subjects from the working classes. the miners, vegetable and fruit growers, indtstrial workers. They painted large murals on public buildings depicting the history of the struggle of the Mexican people against colonial domination. Social Realist also flourished in the United States during the Depression that followed the crash of Wall Street. The widespread poverty and economic dislocation, along with the tise of labor unionism: was the subject of paintings and murals by Ben Shahn, Philip Evergood. Ralph Soyer, and others. In the Philip- pines, Social Realism had its roots in the period before Martial Law with the awak- ening of nationalist consciousness. ft developed in the protest movement of the Marcos years and continues up to the present. Members of the Kaisahan. the first:group of social realists, were Pablo Baens Santos, Edgar Fernandez, Renato Habulan, Antipas Delotavo: they were later joined by Neil Doloricon, Jose Tence Ruiz, Al Manrique. and Papo:de Asis. With each artist working in his own indi- vidtial style. social realism is riot a’stylistic term but isa shared point of view. @ socio-political critique of present society and a'vision of a new human order. Another branch of realism is “Magic Realism" of which the foremost expo- nent is the Americarvartist Andrew Wyeth. It is a style of meticulous derail in which familiar objects are seen with a freshness and purity of vision. His painting Wind from the Sea has a haunting air of melancholy in the image of an open window of anvold house. its lace curtains stirring in the wind and hintingat human presence Also along this vein is the work of Georgia’ O'Keefe'with her paintings of flowers magnified by several times. the better to dwell on their exquisite properties of shape. color texture; and tone. Related to Magic Realism is Hyper-realism or Photorealism in which the painting ha’ the clarity and sharpness of photographie print Also‘in the realist vein is the miniaturismo of Filipino portrait painters of the 19th century in which the criterion of skill was the consummate ability to render the delicate transparency of fabric and the elaborate emiyroidery an the native costume as marks ‘of social ascendance. Surrealism, jparticularly Veristic Surrealismn, also renders people and ob- jects in faithful and realistic detail, as in the works of Salvador Dali, Rene Magritte, and Paul Delvauix, It is in fact this sharp realism which enhances the dreamlike quality of the work as objects from different contexts are juxtaposed to spark new meanings, or figures and situations incongruous in the light of day are given vistial! forni. One must, however, distinguish between a work of art and a'documentary record: A\Work of art expresses an artist's vision of people and society. It conveys ‘of communicates a set’of concepts, values, attitudes, and feelings towards a sub- ject. A work of documentation, on the other hand, presents empirical data and 115facts about a subject and its physical characteristics. But even a work of documen- tation may elicit strong reactions because ‘of the choice of subject-which is why repressive regimes may ban documentary films of slums or the seedy side of a city - and the public exposure of ills that documentation often involves. An illustration is a visual work done in relation to a text. If the text is a literary work, such as a novel or a story, the illustration may be an integral work of art in itself as it conveys the vision of the creative writer or as the visual artist lends his or her own interpretation of the literary work. When an. illustration is a work of art, it has the dimension of vision and human value that a simple record does not have. As Matisse succinctly put it: “L’exactitude n'est pas la verite.” Exactness does not in itself constitute the truth. ‘As we have seen, in the context of Western art history, Realism as a school refers in particular to the French Realists of the 19th century. But the adjective “realist” is also applied to the work of Baroque painters such as Caravaggio and the Dutch masters of the 17th century such as Rembrandt, Vermeer, and Ruysdael because of their keen sense of the social life of the period, their insight into individual characier, and their eye for the telling detail It must be stressed, however, that Realism in the Western tradition is not the universal standard for “truth” in art. And ways of seeing become artistic and cultural conventions or schemas relative to particular societies, so that there is not one “correct” or truthful way. The arts of China, Japan, and India have their own conventions in figuration and the representation of ‘external reality. In Chinese painting, for instance, the aim of the artist is not so much to be faithful to concrete and physical fact as to capture the spirit of alll living things. In European art. the Expressionist art of Edward Munch, as in The Scream, is the powerful image of inner psychological reality. But while these styles also have to do with capturing reality, the term “realist” in its art historical usage is not applied to them Classical figuration has its roots in the Hellenic Period or the Golden Age of Greece in the 5th century B.C. It is representational, of course, but it cannot be called realist. This is because its basic principle is not observation but idealization. Classical art is grounded in the philosophy of Platonic idealism according to which beauty has two aspects, the moral and the mathematical. The moral aspect of beauty emphasizes the values of balance, restraint, detachment, serenity, and elegance. This is why the classical statues of athletes, gods and goddesses done by Phidias, Polycleitos. and Praxiteles have an expres: sion of elegant detachment and emotional restraint following the classical dictum of “everything in moderation, nothing in excess.” Ideal figures are to be depicted as above human struggle and strife, thus they should not manifest emotions such as happiness, sadness, anger, or fear. For emotions are transitory and can have no place in an art which strives towards the eternal, and absolute. According to Plato, above the everyday world of appearances, there is a transcendent realm of Univer- 116sal Ideas Which are unchanging, eternal and absolute. It is to this realm that art should aspire: artists thus should idealize their forms and banish all traces: of the transitory, the particular, the imperfect. and the mortal Classical beauty aspires towards divine perfection and perfection is at- tained through mathematics, God being the Eternal Geometer. Classical art has reflected the search for perfect proportions. It was the sculptor Polycleitos who first formulated a system of ideal mathematical proportions for the human figure and its paris. With the head as module. the ideal figure according to Polycleitos stands at 7 1/2 heads. His own sculpture of the Doryphorus or Lance-bearer exemplifies the classical norms, Classical proportions were also applied to the three orders of architecture: the Doric, lonic, and Corinthian. These orders are distinguished by their capitals, the abacus for the Doric, and the acanthus leaves for the Corinthian. but even more, each order was a distinct system of measurements and proportions. Inthe turmoil of the Peloponnesian Wars in which Athens was finally de- feated by Sparta. and in the subsequent campaigns of Alexander the Great which resulted in the colonization of Greece, the lofty ideals of Classicism could no longer be maintained. In the Hellenistic Period (4th ¢.B.C) permeated by the influence of Asia Minor, the proportions of the human figure were modified to 8 or 8 1/2 heads, asin Praxiteles's Hermes and the Infant Dionysus which has.a pronounced S-curve and an expression of dreamy languor, as well as in Lysippos’s Apoxyomenos or The Scraper. As the Hellenic Period (5th c/B.C) gave way to the Hellenistic Period (4th . BiC), there was-a change from idealism to naturalism. This new direction is shown in the sculptures of Laocoon and the Dying Gaul which in their suffering and agonized expressions are a far cry from the earlier detached and elegant fig- tires. The Hellenistic Period was a period of true portraiture which brought out the particular characteristics of individual subjects, with all their moles. warts. and physical imperlections; and manifested their all-too-human feelings of pain, anguish, and despair. At the same time,genre showing people engaged in everyday activities made its appearance, such as the old market vendor and Spinario or the boy removing a thorn from his foot, whereas previously, Hellenic art disdained to por- tray these subjects as banal. Naturalism which was cartied to trompe J'oell extremes became much admired. This is brought out by the Well-known anecdote regarding the two artists Zeuxis and Apollodorus:As the most famous artists of their time, the rivals held a competion.Zeuxis wa® said to have painted such a lifelike bunch of grapes that the birds came to peck at them. His skill was such that even the birds were deceived Apollodorus, in turn, invited Zeuxis to unveil his painting as wes the custom. Butas Zouxis made a move to draw the veil aside.he suddenly realized to his chagrin that the veil itself was the painting. Thus, Apollodorus won the competition because his 7painting in its verisimilitude fooled not only the birds but 4 human being, and an artist at that. ‘The Renaissance which began in Italy and reached its maturity in the 15th century revived the Greek ideals of Classicism in art, Taking up from where Polycleitos left, Leonardo da Vinci resumed the systematization of the proportions of the hu- man figure, but this time the ratios and proportions of the body parts reckoned with movement, which involves muscular contraction and expansion:Imbued with the scientific spirit of his age. da Vinci dissected cadavers because he wanted to go beyond superficial form to dynamic structure.After the Mannerist. Baroque, and Rococo periods, Classicism reappeared in the Neo-Classicism of the 18th century, particularly in the work of the French artists Jacques Louis David and Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres.contemporaneous with Romanticism, Eventually, Neo- Classicism with its Olympian deities of old declined into an outworn academicism to be later challenged by Realism and Impressionism, which sought to bring back art to coritemporaty life. Expressionism is a'style in which emotion is the motivating principle that gives shape to the figures. Thus, this figurative style is not restricted by ideal norms nor by the tenet of fidelity to nature but is free to express the artist’s strong feeling. Because of this, Expressionism often involves distortion in the elongation, attenuation, or exaggeration of the ordinary proportions in @ manner of represen- tation that invites the wrath of classical-mindedartists, who can only see it as ugly. Expressionist distortion, while it also takes design into account, primarily follows emotional impulse, mood, and feeling. It captures subjective reality, inner states of mind, Also part of Expressionism is the personal or subjective use of calor to convey emotion, independently of the color of subjects in nature. Colors are used vividly and strongly as vehicles of feelings. It is particularly in this respect that Expressionism is allied to Fauvism, as in the works of Matisse, André Derain, and Pierre Bonnard. But while Fauvism distorted form and brought out the most valid intensities of color in search of a new and fresh approach to art in order to discover primitive harmonies, Expressionism had a morbid side, as in the work of Munch, Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, and Emil Nolde, which reflected the decadent and militaristic society before World War I. With Expressionism, the traditional criterion of classical beauty that long provided the basis of aesthetics was replaced by expressiveness, which permitted the wide range of contemporary art. Among the Expressionist works are Picasso's Blind Man With a Guitar, Van Gogh's Starry Night and Sunflowers, Munch's Scream, and Kirchner’s Women in the Street. Some Filipino Expressionists are Ang Kiu Kok, Onib Olmedo, and Danilo Dalena. ‘The precursor of Cubism was Cezanne with his dictum that “everything in nature can be reduced to'the cube, the cone, and the cylinder.” In his landscapes of Mont St. Victoire and his still lifes of apples on a table, he introdticed multiple isperspective in which the subject is painted as though from different angles or points of view, thereby overcoming the limitation of single-point or linear perspective. Further- more, Cezanne as a Post- Impressionist sought to regain the structure of forms by simplifying and geometrizing them: Braque and Picasso carried Cubism further with the influence of African masks and what they convey of primitive strength and power. Picasso's portrait of Gertrude Stein and . his painting Les Demoisellesd’ =~ Aulanorall Oui sorecses ie. oe om new bold influence in figuration. In Analytical Cubism, the human figure is fragmented into small monochromatic facets and planes, as in Picasso's portrait of Kahnweiler. In the later Synthetic phase, the planes become larger, color returns, and decorative textures make thier appearance. Picasso's Guernica, painted in protest against the fascist bombing of the small Basque town, also shows the capability of a modernist style such as Cubism to express strong feeling. Guillermo Tolentino, “Oblation,” cast bronze. Cubist influence is seen in the works of the Philippine artist Vicente Manansala who developed the style of transparent Cubism. But unlike in the ten- dency exhibited by the European artist, there is evidently a reluctance to subject the human figure to dfastic fragmentation in Manansala’s style. The best example of this style in the Philippine context is his Madonna of the Slums and his murals on Philippine Life for the Philamlife Insurance Building on U.N. Avenue, The figurative style of Pop derives inspiration from popular visual forms, particularly the comic strip, as well as from commercial design. Roy Lichtenstein. for instance, did blow-ups of Dick Tracy frames into paintings of figures made of simulated Ben Day dots for an authentic effect, Andy Warhol is known for his Marilyn Monroe series as well as his Campbell Soup and Dollar Bill serial images which make a sly comment on American consumer society. There are many styles of figuration. They can be highly invidual and resist labeling. Artists have moved away from the original formulations of the modernist styles in the first quarter of this century to develop their own styles more expressive 119time and place. What is important is the ability of the style to signify, or express certain qualities, values, or concepts which are an integral part neaning of the work, Schooled artists, for instance. may choose to render ian figure in a folk-naive style (as in Medieval, folk. or chikiren’s art). thereby 3 opposition to the dominant style (classical. academic); and when trans- ito the thematic plane may subtly suggest a position taken’ in favor of the s interest. and aspiration vis-a-vis dominant oligarchic or superpower inter- n works of anti-nuclear or human rights themes. Thus, a style of figuration is not the mere expression of an artist's passing r choice of the moment; it is rather contextualized in a particular society, its lic and political conditions, its social concerns and interests. as well as its traditions, and values, Subject matter and its Presentation Subject in the visual arts is what the image 1s generally about: it is the that we view and that we identify. It may be representational or ie in which case we are able to recognize it as drawn from the world around as forming relationships and associations with things, people.and events. tract, non-representational, or non-figurative when it does not have a zable subject; its subject is the very composition of lines. colors, shapes. tures. If the subject is representational. it may be a portrait of an individual ora it may be genre which shows people in everyday activities, It may be a c interior or a nude. It may also be a landscape, seascape, or cityscape, a na of nature or the urban environment, It may be a still life showing a Lof flowers, an arrangement of fruits on a table, musical instruments, or cultural artifacts and household objects. The subject may alse be historical. gical. literary, religious, or surrealistic. A poritait is the representation of an individual. More than capturing sical likeness of a person, a good portrait gives insight into the character of ject. The first true portraits appeared in the sculpture of the Hellenistic 4th c.B.C.); these were representations of real living persons, old or young, their particularizing features that distinguished them as individuals, unlike ees which were generalized idealized types. often composites of models, The subject may be shown full face and occupying the center of the pitto- 1. thereby strongly asserting his or her presence and possibly directly ad- 1 the viewer. Or he or she may be shawn in three-fourths or in profile, ntly absorbed in thought, thereby suggesting a reflective character or bring- the subjective quality of the person. We should likewise note if the subject is ter or if cropping is used as a signifying device. 120hand, European genre has a different spirit. In the paintings of Vermeer of the Dutch middle class of the 17th century, the viewer is an unbidden spectator to a scene of quiet, measured gestures of people ina self-contained world. In the same period, paintings of the folk exploited their picturesque qualities and showed them carousing and quarelling rather than working inthe fields. Landscapes may be realist, romantic, classical, or symbolic. Realist land- scapes are often titled with the name of a place because they are often done on the spot and bring out the specific features of a site which, moreover, may be one’s familiar backyard. Romantic landscapes, on the other hand, are picturesque, ex- otic, mysterious, or awe-inspiring, with the suggestion of the divine spirit in nature reflecting the pantheism of the romantic vision. 19th century romantic landscapes are exotic in the quest for unfamiliar realism of beauty. In general, romantic land- scapes are also subjective, expressive of inner mood, with nafure seen through the refracting lens of the emotions. Classical landscapes are studio landscapes often following formulas of ideal proportion such as the Golden Section. They are visions of arcadian woodlands, idealized setting for the Olympian deities and people of the epic past. In the vistas of harmony, balance, and serenity, the paths wind slowly by graceful leafy trees and porticoed temples. Architecture with what it conveys of ideal proportion, per- manence, and immutability is part of the classical landscape, as in the works of Nicolas Poussin and Claude Lorraine. The huge classical canvases for 19th century salon competitions often have architectural backgrounds. Landscapes can also be Vicente Manansala. “Angelus (I Believe in God),” 1948, oi! on lawanit. 122The direction where the subject parlays his or her gaze is part of the mean- ing of the painting. Does he or she directly address the viewer witha look, thereby projecting an imaginary line between him or her and the viewer and unifying their space? A good example here is Juan Luna's Chula leaning forward and holding a cigarette between her fingers. Does the subject tend to look upwards, downwards, or sidewards; or does he or she engage the viewer directly with his or her gaze? What is the angle of the gaze? Is the subject lost in thought or intently scnutinizing an object inside or outside the pictorial field, thereby extending it, as in Degas’s Woman with Crysanthemums? Likewise, what is the quality of the gaze? Soft, contemplative, and in reverie; or hard, alert, challenging, insolent? What does the general posture convey? How is the angle of the head to the body? The dress or costume and accesories worn by the subject, as well as the background and surrounding objects should also be taken into account in arriving at the meaning of the work. Dress and accessories are indicators of social class and cultural identity. They constitute what may be called the “iconography” of the sub- ject, a term originally applicable to religious imagery, such as statues of saints which are identified by their iconographic features. Color symbolism also plays'a more or less important part in costume. If the subject is a full figure. it is also important te take note of the general . orientation of the body with respect to the viewer who now takes over the place of the artist contemplating the subject. What kind of relationship is suggested? Is the subject-to-iewer relationship erotic, hostile, indifferent, domineering? Does the subject seem to offer himself or herself passively to the pleasure of the viewer or does it assert his or her integrity as an independent person? The manner of pre- sentation ofthe figure is particularly significant in paintings of nudes, usually of women. John Berger in Ways of Seeing explains how nudes subtly convey sexist attitudes as women in seductive poses are proffered as passive objects for the erotic gratification of the male viewer. In genre painting, the subject is people engaged in daily activities. Much of Philippine genre. for instance, centers around occupations and fiestas that are communal activities. Amorsolo's Planting Rice genre integrates the figures of farmers into a rural background of fields and mountains. Often, painters rooted in the folk traditions tend to orient the figures towards the viewer as ina tableau, for their most significant visual influence is the folk theater, the komedya, moro-moro, and sarsuwela. The fullest expression of the fiesta theme is found in Blanco's San Isidro Festival in which the principal figures enact a small outdoor skit. ‘The development of Philippine gente from the 19th century with Flores's Feeding the Chicken and Primeras Letras through Amorsolo's Planting Rice to Legaspi’s Gadgets and the construction workers of social realist Antipas Delotavo records the social and economic changes in the life of the people. On the other 121symbolic, although their meanings are often obscure, as in Giorgione's Tempest or in some Mannerist paintings. Human figures are often found in landscapes, and their scales in relation to the entire scenery express the relationship between people and the universe. In the Dutch landscapes of the 17th century, people are tiny cteatures in the vastness and infinity of the universe. Classical landscapes are meant to be contemplated from a distance; realist landscapes are meant to be shared with the viewer. The still life or nature morte focuses on natural objects or artifacts. In Western still lifes, they are often natural objects appropriated by people such as cut flowers in a’vase or fruits ina basket. Sometimes they are objects that belong toa society's or period's material culture, such as porcelain, glassware and metalware, as well as maps, books, and household utensils. A stil life shows the interest, tastes, and concerns of a social class or of the members of the households of a particular place and time as in the paintings of Jean Baptiste Simeon Chardin. Again, the Dutch 17th century was a high point far the still life as.it was the fashionable expression of the material prosperity of the new bourgeoisie. Distch still lifes, such as those of William Claesz Heda in austere monochrome, implied a story in the overturned glasses and the repast left unfinished as though by people suddenly called away from their mundane pleasures. Flemish still lifes are more sumptuous, with piles of cheeses and other food among glowing crystals and clusters of grapes ‘The first European still lifes. however, where called vanitas or memento mori (reminders of death) because their subjects invariably included a skull. Moreover, the many beautiful and assorted flowers in different stages of bloom and decay showed, upon closer scrutiny, tiny bugs and worms boring into the petals, thus alluding to the finite existence of people. At the beginning, it was niot enough to indulge in the purely hedonistic pleasure of appreciating flowers for their ‘own sake, the still lifes had to bear a moralistic message which lent them a larger sigificance. The spirit of the European nature morte 1s alien to Chinese flower paint ing. For one thing, in traditional Chinese painting, flowers are never shown as cut and appropriated by people for their personal delight, Different flowers are never massed together in a vase. Instead, the Chinese artist takes pleasure in rendering them as living plants, flowers filled with ch’i or spirit. as they interact with one another and subtly respond to the changes in their environment Classical paintings of the European academies long derived their subjects from Greek mythology and from ancient Greek and Roman history. Venus, the goddess of love and beauty was the perfect pretext for the classical nude. Subjects from contemporary history appeared later with Romanticism and the images of Bonaparte’s North African campaigns or the Greek struggle for independence from the Turks. Surrealistic subject matter is derived from dreams and nightmares and draws from Freudian symbolism, which plumbs the subconscious and unconscious levels of the mind. Veristic surrealism is executed in meticulously naturalistic style 123but juxtaposes in an incongruous manner objects not found together in real life. For religious subjects, it is necessary to know the traditional iconography of the figures in order to identify them properly and to understand the narrative aspect of painting, if any, and its meaning. Having analyzed the image, one has to refer to the elements to see how their use confirms, reinforces, or strengthens the meanings that the image itself conveys, The Thematic Plane When we view a painting, we initially note its basic data which include the title, the artist, the medium, the dimension, and the year in which it was made. Beyond proving the documentary identification of the work, these data make it possible for us to situate art ina particular period and social milieu. To arrive at the full meaning of the work, one should necessarily view it in its social and historical context as indicated by texts, symbols, and allusions or references. In case of texts, the image may be supplemented by texts within the work itself and appended to it. In many cases, the title merely serves to identify or state the subject of the work, Sometimes, the title may bear an ironic relationship with the image. In the case of some Surrealist works, the title extends the meaning of the work and provides a literary dimension. Texts may be in the form of collage elements, stich as printed words, news- paper headlines, clippings, or corporate logos. They can also be printed by the artist. In any case, the very typeface of the text, be it bold face, script, or ancient alibata, signifies values and concepts. Artists may use printed elements to bring in allusions (as multinational logos suggest economic imperialism), to evoke memories and emotional associations, or to serve as units of visual design. Street graffiti and Jeepney signs (Katas ng Saudi) have been used by visual artists to convey the temper and spirit of the times. ‘Then, too, there are works of visual arts which are accompanied by texts suich as poems, aphorisms, or lines of insight. In Chinese painting, calligraphy is part of the entire visual design at the same that it expands the meaning of the work. Sometimes, beautifully executed calligraphy alone constitutes the figure on the pic- torial space, Itis also on the thematic plane that symbolism and allegory operate. Sym- bols may be human figures, animals, objects, whether natural or made by people, ‘or geometric figures. Symbolism may be personal — in which case the artist's explanation may be called for, or it may be conventional or commonly understood. Usually, symbols can be understood in the context of an artist's thematic concerns, Some young artists, such as Arnel Agawin, for instance, have a strong anti-nuclear sentiment, and the yellow mushrooming cloud is the symbol of universal holocaust. 124‘Tequi’s Retablo Series has an underlying anti-fascist theme in which political per- sonalities and events are transposed into a religious idiom. For social realist Jose Tence Ruiz, the beast’s carcass in his Katay Series symbolizes the decaying system which spawns such ills as prostitution and crime. An allegory, on the other hand, is a system of symbols in which an image or narrative contains elements in a one-to-one correspondence with another image ‘or narrative with which they have a parallel relationship, Luna's Spoliarium, the subject of which is drawn from Roman antiquity, specifically the era of imperial Rome (spoliarium meaning the hall to which the dead and dying gladiators were dragged after the combat and in which they were despoiled or stripped of their last worldly effects) is considered to be an allegory of Spain's colonization of the Philippines. In order to fully understand an artist's vision, philosophy, or interpretation of reality, it is also necessary to go beyond the single piece to the entire body ‘of work and to see how the various themes and thematic elements interrelate. Itis also in surveying the body of work that one understands the artist's thematic development and the growth and elaboration of personal philosophy, as one be- comes aware of the appearance of new interests, concerns, and values that shape artistic direction. Itis also here that one reckons with influences on the artist-cul- tural, artistic, social, personal, and po- litical—and that one views his or her prac- tice in relation to the work of contempo- raries with their own themes, interests, and concerns, their own ways of looking, at life and reality. A work of art may also bear ref- erences orallusions whether _ personal, social, religious, and political. The artist's biographical data may shed light on char- acteristics, tendencies, and preferences; or on personal allusions that appear in a particular period of his or her career. ‘These contribute their own meariing to the artist's work as a whole, a meaning which derives from socio-cultural back- ground and unique psychology of the artist. Allusions may also be to social and political events and personalities, past or contemporary; and the artist ex- presses particular attitudes and value- Edgar Talusan Fernandez, *Kahapon, judgements with respect to these. While Ngayon at Pangarap,” 1990, oil on canvas. 125different artists may draw images from the 19th century, the ilustrados, the Propa- ganda Movement, and the Revolution, they may convey different Tmeanings or shades of meaning. An artist lives in a period marked by issues, debates, events of greater or lesser importance, and crises, How does he or she respond to the issues of his or her time? Of the artist as political being, Picasso has this to say in 1945: “What do you think an artist is? An imbecile who has only his eyes if he’s a painter, or ears if he's a musician, or a lyre at every level of his heart if he’s a poet, or even, if he's a boxer, just his muscle? On the contrary, he’s at the same time a political being, constantly alive to heartrending, fiery, or happy events, to which he responds in every way. How would it be possible to pay no interest in other people and by virtue in an ivory indifference to detach yourself from the life which they so copi- ‘ously bring you? No, painting is not done ta decorate apartments. It is an intrument of war to attack and defend against the enemy.” From the foregoing, from the medium and expressive elements, from the image and its larger social context, one arrives at the meaning of the work of art, its value and its espousals, its philosopy and vision of life and reality. Art is a product ‘ofa particular time and place to which it is primarily relevant, though often it has meanings that go beyond these in the universal struggle for tnith, freedom, and equality. Art thus reflects the concerns, interests, and ideologies of a society, more especially of particular sectors, groups, or classes, at the same time that it may in its highest aspirations become a catalyst for change towards the realization of a people's full humanity. (A.G. G.) ‘Onib Olmedo, “Homage to Nureyeu,” 1994. 126