Okeh1

ChelseaOkeh
Ms.Curtin
G/TIndependentResearch
15April2016

TheyallLookAliketoMe:AStudyoftheCrossRaceEffectinEyewitnessCourt

AmanbythenameofAndrewjustcamebackfromwork.Heistheaverage95
workerinanoffice.Comeshometoadog,twokidsandalovingwifeeveryday.Today,
Andrewisoutwithhisfamily,eatingatanicerestaurant.Onhiswaybackhome,heis
stoppedbylawenforcementbecausehiscarkindalookslikethecarofamissingmurderer,
andhekindalookslikethatmurderer.Andrewistakentothestation,triedforFirstdegree
murder,andincarceratedforlifehepleadsinnocent,butnoonebelieveshim.Hiswife
leaveshimbecauseshedoesnotknowwhattobelieve.Hischildrenstarttodopoorlyin
school,andstartgettingintotrouble.Hislife,inshort,isinshambles,becausehelookslikea
murderer.TherearecountlesscriminalmisidentificationsbecauseoftheCrossRaceEffect,
(CRE)andthelimitedabilitytodifferentiateindividualsofracesotherthanonesown.A
characteristicprominentinthesecasesisthatmoreaccurateidentificationsaremadeifthe
eyewitnessandtheconvictareofthesamerace.If,however,thetestsubjectlivesinalimited
orsingleracecommunity,he/shewillhavegreatertroublewithrecognitionofotherracial
groupsbecauseoflessexperiencewithoutsideraceinteraction.
Sincethemajorityof
misidentificationsarethroughfalseeyewitnesstestimony,courtrulingsoftheaccusedbased
onphotolineupsshouldconsidertheCrossRaceEffectanditstendencytoincreasethe
amountofmisconvictionsbasedonrace.

Okeh2

ThephenomenonoftheCrossRaceEffectbegandevelopinginhumansforcenturies,
buthasbecomeprominentinhistorywithitsoriginationunderthatnameinWWIIand
japaneseinternment.Inthecourseofhumangrowthanddevelopment,theCREstartsfrom
theearlyinfancystage,andcontinuestotakeeffectintooldage.Inhumandevelopment,the
earlyinfancystageiswhereitisobservedinyoungchildrenandcontinuesintodotage
(Bornstein,Laub,Meissner&Kyle,2013).Thistheoryistracedbackasearlyasthe
preschoolyears,whereitismostprominentifaninfantssocialcategoriesaffecttheirsocial
selections,andtheinfantisverysensitivetorace,aswellasadditionalpatternsintheir
observationalskills(Burns&Sommerville,2014).Infantsactivelychooseplaymatesbased
onthecharacteristicstheyfindrelevant(Burns&Sommerville,2014).Thistendencyhas
visibleoriginswheremajorityofchildrenbefriendthosemostsimilartothemsameage,
gender,andsometimesrace,similartohowadultsemployedinbusinesslookforpartnerslike
themsamerace,age,socioeconomicstatus,etc(Burns&Sommerville,2014).Thethree
leadingexplanationsfortheCREarethecontacthypothesis,theencodinghypothesis,andthe
retrievalbasedprocesseshypothesis(Bornstein,Laub,Meissner&Kyle,2013).The
neuroopticalanalysisdonewhenobservingamemberofabelongingracevsamemberof
another.Reflectionsonrecollectionprocessesatthetimeofretrievalofinformationwithin
thebrain,respectively.
Racialidentification,andprejudicetowardsJapaneseintheWorldWarIIinternment
campsareemphasizedtostresstheexcessracismtowardsaspecificracesolelybasedon
physicalappearance(Caniff,1942).AtthetimeAmericaunderwentaninfluxofAsiansfrom
bothChina,Japan,Korea,etc.,withouttimetobeaccustomedtoasingleracefromAsia.In
addition,theattackonPearlHarborcreatedpublicstrainbetweentheAsianandAmerican
Races.Negativeconnotationsandpersonalbiasofanotherraceleadstomorewrongful

Okeh3

convictionsratherthanfacialrecognition.Asaresult,someoftheChinese,Korean,Thaiand
racesofAsiawereraciallydiscriminatedaswellbecauseofthewaythattheylooked(Caniff,
1942).Americansresortedtojudgingandidentificationbasedoffofarbitraryaspectsofones
appearanceregardlessofexternalfactors:interracialmarriage,geneticdisorders,groupsnot
affectedbythewar,orsimplybeingbornlookinglikeanotherracethusalteringperceptual
expertiseandsocialcognition.
PerceptualexpertiseandsocialcognitionplayavitalroleintheCrossRaceEffect,
andtheyarethetwomainfactorsthatcontroltheoutcomeinsuchphenomena.
Thesocial
cognitivetheoryisbasedonthetendencyforindividualstothinkcategoricallyabout
nongroup(nonrace)members
(
Shriver,Young,Hugenberg&Bernstein,2008).
Social
cognition,theuse,storageandprocessoftheinformationofotherpeople
(Chiroro,Tredoux,
Radaelli,&Meissner,2008).
Thisinvestigateswhetherornotdifferentracesandethnicities
finditeasiertoidentifyothermembersofthatracevsotherraces
(Chiroro,Tredoux,
Radaelli,&Meissner,2008).
Inthesocialcognitivetheory,thereisthefirmbeliefthata
growinglackofsocialinterestandinotherracesmakespeoplemorerecognitionblind
.
PerceptualexpertisetheoriesrefertoDeFactoracialsegregationleadingtotheprocessing
ofCrossRacefacesinrelationtosameracefaces
(
Shriver,Young,Hugenberg&Bernstein,
2008).
Theprimefactorofhumansidentificationskillsistailoredbysurroundings(Kloth,
Shields&Rhodes2014).Studiesregardingthesejustificationsprovetheeffectsofingroup
(samerace)andoutgroup(crossrace)categorizationcanimpactmemorybasedrecognition
(Kloth,Shields&Rhodes2014).Someexplanationsforwhyperceptualexpertiseoccurs
varyfromenvironment,andcontactwithotherraces,totheideaofautomaticracial
categorizationasanearlyperceptualencounter,especiallyineyewitnesscourt
(Chiroro,
Tredoux,Radaelli,&Meissner,2008).

Okeh4

Inthecourtsystem,theCREisrarely,ifatallconsideredintheoutcomeofwhether
ornotanaccusedindividualwillberuledasinnocentorguilty.
Therearemanycriminal
misidentificationsbecauseoftheCrossRaceEffect,(CRE)andthelimitedabilityto
differentiateindividualsofracesoutsideofonesown(Goff,2014).Sinceeyewitness
testimoniesandidentificationsleavegreatroomforerrorandmisidentifications,the
InnocenceProjectwasinitiateddecreasingthenumberofmisconvictionsannually
(
Pezdek
,OBrian&Wasson,2011).Thiswasduetothefacialrecognitionandstudyskillsalsodone
throughtheCrossRaceEffect
(
Pezdek,OBrian&Wasson,2011).

Incourttestimonial,
eyewitnessesidentifyingtheirperpetratorswere
1.4timesmorelikely
toidentifytheactual
convictgiventheyarethesameraceratherthancrossrace
(
Pezdek,OBrian&Wasson,
2011).Inmisidentification,however,theeyewitnessis
1.56timesmorelikely
toidentify
thewrongsuspect,simplybecauseofthecomplicationinrecognizingotherraces
(
Pezdek,
OBrian&Wasson,2011).
Biasedassociationsorraceoriginatefromcertainfacialfeatures
andbehaviorsthatareconsideredtobecriminaltype
(
Knuycky,Kleider,&Cavrak,2014).
Stereotypicalblackmaleswithcertainfeaturesandcharacteristicse.g.fullerlips,widernose/
nosebridge,anddarkerskinaremorecommonlymisconvictedthosewhodonotpossess
suchtraitswhenontrialformurderofwhiteindividual.
(
Knuycky,Kleider,&Cavrak,2014).
Astudyonthecorrelationbetweenblackandwhiteprisonersfoundthatthosewhohavethe
stereotypicalcriminallookreceivedonaveragelongersentencesthantypicalfaces
regardlessofrace.
(
Knuycky,Kleider,&Cavrak,2014).
MemorycontributestomajorityoftheCrossRaceEffectandhowitaffects
eyewitnessesincourt.Insomecases,CongenitalProsopagnosiablursfacialidentification
overall,regardlessofraceandwhencombinedwiththeCrossRaceEffect,createasurefire
misconviction.CongenitalProsopagnosiaoccurswhenthereisadeficitinfacial

Okeh5

identification,startingfrombirthandgrowingthroughoutchildhood.
Steadyfacial
recognitioncanbedisturbedbyCongenitalprosopagnosia,ortheCrossRaceEffect
(
Esins,
Schultz,Wallraven,&Blthoff,2014).
TypicallyDeveloping(TD)childrendemonstratethe
CrossRaceEffect,whilechildrenwithAutismSpectrumDisorderorASDarenotas
susceptibletotheCRE(LiYietal.2015).P
rocessingandrecognitionmechanismsarethe
sameinbothfacialandracialrecognitionimpairments
(
Esins,Schultz,Wallraven,&
Blthoff,2014).Infacialrecognition,humansuseholisticprocessing:combiningcertain
characteristicsoftheface(eyes,mouth,nose,etc)andidentifyingpeoplewiththeface,
ratherthanindividualaspects
(
Esins,Schultz,Wallraven,&Blthoff,2014).
Thestudies
doneonindividualswithASDreportthattheyspendlesstimelookingattheeyesthanthe
mouth,unlikeTDindividuals.OthercontributionstothistheoryarethatTDindividuals
spendmoretimeandhavemoreexperienceidentifyingmembersoftheotherracewhenthey
areassociatingwiththemonadailybasis(LiYietal.2015).
Threecontributionstothe
categorizationindividuationoftheCRE,andwhyitaffectsindividualsthewayitdoes.This
isthroughthecombinationofperceptualexpertise,motivatedindividuation,andsocial
cognition
(
Tullis,Benjamin,&Liu,X,2014).Mnemonicshowever,havebecomeadeficit
notbecauseofcognitivedismissalasformerlyattributedto,butbecauseofindividuation.
Individuationcausesmoretimetobespentstudyingapictureinordertobetteridentifyitin
thefuture
(
Tullis,Benjamin,&Liu,X,2014).
IndividualswithASDdonothavethechanceandabilitytofinetunesuchskills,and
thisinattentionmayplayamajorroleinrecognitionskills,perceptualexpertise,andsocial
cognition(LiYietal.2015).Theprocessesthatpeopleuseinordertodistinguishdifferent
racesaremnemonicmeaningtheyusepatternlikeskillssuchasletters,ideasetc.toaidin
memorization
(
Tullis,Benjamin,&Liu,X,2014).Thefactorsthatattributetothis

Okeh6

earlydevelopingexpertiseareimagesofelectrophysiologicalbehaviorofthebrainthatshow
thedevelopmentofthiseffect
(
Tullis,Benjamin,&Liu,X,2014).IndividualswithASDdo
nothavethechanceandabilitytofinetunesuchskills,andthisinattentionmayplayamajor
roleinrecognitionskills,perceptualexpertise,andsocialcognition(LiYietal.2015).

People
whofallunderCPencountersocialdisabilitiesoftenconsideredarrogantbecauseoffailure
togreetrelatives
(
Esins,Schultz,Wallraven,&Blthoff,2014).
Sincemajorityofmisidentificationsarethroughfalseeyewitnesstestimony,court
rulingsoftheaccusedbasedonphotolineupsshouldconsidertheCrossRaceEffect,andits
tendencytoincreasetheamountofmisconvictionsbasedonrace.
Therearemanycriminal
misidentificationsbecauseoftheCrossRaceEffect,(CRE)andthelimitedabilityto
differentiateindividualsofracesotherthanonesown.
ThroughtheCrossRaceEffect,false
identificationsbyeyewitnessmisidentificationscausemorefalseconvictions.Also,
considerationofpeoplewhohaveAutismSpectrumDisorderwhoarebornwithCongenital
Prosopagnosia,givingthemanidentificationdeficit.Judgesandcourtofficialsrelytoo
heavilyoneyewitnesseswherethereisalargemarginoferrorduetomemorieschanging,and
losingofsignificantinformationunderthepressureofthecourtroomorovertimeasanatural
progressionoflossofshorttermmemory.

Okeh7

WorksCited
BornsteinB.H.,LaubC.E.,MeissnerC.A.,andKyleS.J.,2013TheCrossRaceEffect:
ResistanttoInstructions,In
JournalofCriminology
,vol.2013,ArticleID745836,
6pages,2013.2/5/2015,HindawiPublishingCorporation
Burns,M.P.,&Sommerville,J.A.(2014).Ipickyou:theimpactoffairnessandraceon
infantsselectionofsocialpartners.FrontiersinPsychology,5(93),110.
Caniff,M.A.1942HowtoSpotaJap.In
APocketGuidetoChina
[Pamphlet]10pages,
1942.9/22/15,WashingtonD.C.WarandNavaldepartment.
Chiroro,P.M.,Tredoux,C.G.,Radaelli,S.,Meissner,C.A.,(June2008).RecognizingFaces
AcrosstheContinents:TheEffectofWithinRaceVariationsontheOwnRaceBiasin
FaceRecognition
InPsychonomicSociety
15(6),10891091(Nov.27.2014)

RetrievedfromthelibraryofUMBConNov.27.2014
EsinsJ,SchultzJ,WallravenCandBlthoffI(2014)Docongenitalprosopagnosiaandthe
otherraceeffectaffectthesamefacerecognitionmechanisms?Front.Hum.
Neurosci.8:759.doi:10.3389/fnhum.2014.00759
KlothN,ShieldsSE,RhodesG(2014)OntheOtherSideoftheFence:EffectsofSocial

CategorizationandSpatialGroupingonMemoryandAttentionforOwnRaceand
OtherRaceFaces.PLoSONE9(9):e105979.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0105979

Okeh8

Knuycky,L.R.,Kleider,H.M.,&Cavrak,S.E.(2014).LineupMisidentifications:When
Being'PrototypicallyBlack'isPerceivedasCriminal.AppliedCognitivePsychology,
28(1),3946.doi:10.1002/acp.2954
LiYi,PaulC.Quinn,CongFeng,JiaoLi,HaiyanDing,KangLee(February2015).Autistic
ChildrenDoNotExhibitanOwnRaceAdvantageasComparedtoTypically
DevelopingChildren.
ResearchinAutismSpectrumDisorders,Volume8,Issue11,
15441551.RetrievedonOctober9,2015fromScienceDirect
PezdekK,OBrian.M,Wasson,C.(Dec2011)CrossRace(ButNotSameRace)Face
IdentificationisImpairedbyPresentingFacesinaGroupRatherThan

Individually.
InLawandHumanBehaviors,
36(6)488495.Retrievedfrom
thelibraryofUMBCNov.272014.
Shriver,E.R.,Young,S.G.,Hugenberg,K.Bernstein,M.J.,(January2008)Class,Race,and
theFace:SocialContextModulatedtheCrossRaceEffectinFace
Recognition.
SocietyforPersonalityandPsychologyBulletin
34(2)260274.
RetrievedfromthelibraryofUMBCNov.272014.
Tullis,J.G.,Benjamin,A.S.,&Liu,X.(2014).Selfpacingstudyoffacesofdifferent
races:Metacognitivecontroloverstudydoesnoteliminatethecrossracerecognition
effect.Memory&Cognition,42(6),86375.Retrievedfrom

http://search.proquest.
com/docview/1550519128?accountid=28903