Review - Basic Concepts 1. External defects : '* The extemal type is just what its name implies, the defects ‘or imperfections represented by a boundary. The external surface of the material is an imperfection itself, because the atomic bonds do not extend beyond it. The surface atoms have neighbours on one side only. while atoms inside the crystal have neighbours on either side of them, Since these surface atoms are not entiely surrounded by aters they possess higher energy than those af internal po 2» Cea caneco solo © The energy of surface atom, for most metals is of the order of 1 J/m?, Fig. 22 shows the external surface defects, 2. Internal defects + These defects are discussed below : (© Grain boundaries : © Grain boundaries are thove imperfections which separate erystals or grains of different orientation in polycrystalline aggregation during nucleation or crystallisation, In materials Tike copper there may be crystals of various orientations. These individual crystals are called grains. In one grain atoms are arranged with one orientation and one pattern However, there is a transition zone between two adjacent grains which are not aligned with either grain, © As shown in Fig. 23 various degrees of crystallographic misalignment between adjacent arains are possible. When this orientation mismatch is slight, on the order of a few ‘degrees, then the term small or low angle grain boundary is used, In the boundary where the crystals or grains change abruptly and orientation difference between neighbouring ‘grain is more than 10-15", the boundaries are known as high angle grain boundaries Angle of misalignment Smallangle ‘grain boundary ‘Angle of misaignement Fig. 23. Schematic diagram showing small and high-angle grain boundaries and the adjacent atom postions.