VVER Reactor

The VVER is the Russian version of the Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR). There are 3 standard
designs - two 6 loop- 440 Megawatt [440-230 (older) and 440-213 (newer)] and 4 loop-1000
Megawatt output designs. As with PWRs, refuelings are conducted with the plant shutdown.

Graphic courtesy Argonne National Lab and Nuclear Energy Institute

As in the western European and U.S. versions of the pressurized water reactor,
each Reactor Coolant Loop includes a Steam Generator and a Reactor Coolant
Pump. The water passes through the inside of the tubes in the steam generator.
The Reactor Coolant Pump circulates the water for cooling the Reactor Core. The
system is pressurized to 2200+ pounds per square inch by a Pressurizer (not shown),
which is connected to one of the reactor coolant loops. Spray valves and heaters are
used to control pressure within the allowed band. A major difference between western
designed PWRs and the VVERs is that the latter have horizontal steam generators. The
older VVERs have isolation valves in the reactor coolant loops and accident localization
compartments. Please click for an illustration of a VVER plant layout with a
containment. Example diagrams courtesy IVO Group - Finland

Water passing on the outside of the steam generator tubes is heated and converted to
steam. The steam passes to the Turbine as in the Pressurized Water Reactor case
discussed elsewhere at this site. TheTurbine drives the Generator as in all cases
discussed. Steam in the VVER design is not expected to be radioactive.

CANDU and Heavy Water Moderated Reactors

The CANDU reactor was designed by Atomic Energy Canada Limited (AECL) as an alternative
to other reactor designs which use slightly enriched uranium (2-5% U-235). The CANDU allows
more local input in nations that do not have the capability to cast a pressure vessel. The CANDU
fuel contains pellets of uranium dioxide with natural uranium (0.7% U-235). As a result, the
CANDU is cheaper to fuel, and can theoretically give higher lifetime capacity factors. Details on
why the CANDU design was developed and engineering specifics can be found at Dr. Jeremy
Whitlock's The Canadian Nuclear FAQsite.
The CANDU design consists of a horizontal calandria (Vessel) which has tubes for the fuel rods
and cooling water (heavy water). Around these tubes is heavy water, which acts as the
moderator to slow down the neutrons. Heavy water consists of 2 atoms of deuterium (a nonradioactive isotope of hydrogen) and 1 atom of oxygen. Deuterium atoms represent about 1.5%
of hydrogen found in nature. Deuterium is much more efficient as a moderator than light water,
thus allowing the use of natural uranium as a fuel. Special processing plants, e.g. at the Bruce
facility near Tiverton, Ontario, are used to separate heavy water from natural water. The
deuterium separation is an added initial capital cost which, over the plant lifetime, is offset by the
lower natural uranium fuel costs.
As in the case of the pressurized water reactor, reactor cooling pumps circulate heavy water
through the reactor then to the steam generators in a closed loop. The moderator heavy water
system has a separate heat exchanger with circulation system for cooling the moderator.

Metal Cooled Reactors

Metal Cooled Reactors usually use liquid sodium or a combination of sodium and potassium.
Sometimes these are called breeder, fast, or fast breeder reactors. The United States, France, and
Russia have done most of the development in this area.
An advantage of this type of reactor is that the liquid metal has great heat transfer properties so
that the reactor can be operated at much lower pressures and higher temperatures. Fuel
enrichment is very low, if at all.
The United States operated, first EBR-1, and then EBR-2, in Idaho for many years. Argonne
National Laboratory is the prime contractor for the experimental breeder reactor, EBR-2 project.
As some are aware, the commercial breeder reactor program was shutdown in the late 1970's
because of nuclear proliferation concerns.
On the other hand, France first developed the Phenix reactor and then the Super Phenix. The
Russians started with 2, 5, and 10 MW prototypes and subsequently developed BN-350, BN-600,

BN-800, and BN-1600 designs. The BN-600 is illustrated by the following figure. The BN-600
is considered a pool-type reactor.

Gas Cooled & Advanced Gas Cooled Reactors

The Gas Cooled Reactor was one of the original designs. In the Gas Cooled Reactor
(GCR), the moderator is graphite. Inert gas, e.g. helium or carbon dioxide, is used as the coolant.
The advantage of the design is that the coolant can be heated to higher temperatures than water.
As a result, higher plant efficiency (40% or more) could be obtained compared to the water
cooled design (33-34%).

In the United States, Gulf General Atomics was the proponent of this design. Public
Service of Colorado (now Xcel Energy) built the Fort Saint Vrain facility north of
Denver. The NRC has also written NUREG/CR-6839, Fort Saint Vrain Gas Cooled
Reactor Operational Experience that provides a history of the operation of the facility.
Currently, there is little movement toward the gas cooled design in the US or
elsewhere.

In the United Kingdom, the government was the proponent that developed,
constructed, and operated a number of gas cooled reactors. The older design
used carbon dioxide gas circulating through the core at a pressure of ~1.6 MPa or 230 pounds
per square inch to remove the heat from the fuel elements. The fuel consists of natural uranium
metal clad with an alloy of magnesium known as Magnox (thus the name for the reactor type).
The newer Advanced Gas Cooled (AGR) Reactors use a slightly enriched uranium dioxide clad
with stainless steel. Carbon dioxide is the coolant gas used.
Two key advantages of this design are:

higher operating temperature with a higher thermal efficiency

not susceptible to accidents of the type possible with water cooled/moderated reactors.

The Gas Cooled Reactor or Advanced Gas Reactor cycle is illustrated in the simple sketch
below: