3 ELECTRIC RMLWAY SYSTEMS § eer en ae 2+ +i ay The combined trative effort per ton, Art, 48, is $2 420441000 2 Ww 100 ? ‘Substituting the values given in the examples, 1= 12} 445-47 60-444 100= 178 pounds. 50. Limit of Adhesion.—The pressure of the brake shoes against the car wheels tends to stop their rotating, but the pressure of the car wheels on the tails tends 10 keep the wheels rolling; the most cffective pressure will prevail. This means, that, when braking. if the braking pressure is excessive the car wheels will stop rotating, but the car will still mov also, when accelerating, if the tractive effort tending to rotate the wheels exceeds the tendency of the wheel-rail friction called adlesion, to prevent wheel slippage, the wheels will rotate, but the cor may not move, The rate at which ear enn be accelerated, or the steepness of the grade that it can ascent] 4s limited by the railwheol adhesion, which depends on the weight on the drivers and on the coellicent of friction henveen wheel and rail, The latter is lower for street railways, where the rails are liable to be dirty and slippery, than it is for ele~ vated, subway, of interurban roads, where the rails are clean, “Table [I gives coefficients of adhesion for rails under different conditions and assumes uniform tractive effort applied to the wheels, The coefficient of adhesion expresses the ratio between the tractive effort that will just slip the wheels and the weight on the rails directly under the driving wheels. The application of sand increases adhesion, The coefficient of adhesion of 30 per cent. is the maximum value iven in the table, but tests with electric locomotives have recorded as high a coefficient as 35 to 40 per cent. under favor~ able conditions. Except in infrequent-stop, high-speed serv. ice, where lower rates of acceleration prevail, it is customary to provide sufficient motive power to slip the wheels on dry sr ELECTRIC RAILWAY SYSTEMS rail; in high-speed service, this practice is not observed because high-speed equipments are nat intended for high rates of acceleration and efforts to qualify them as such result in enor- mous currents and unnecessarily high cost of equipment. 51, On interurban or elevated roads, the adhesive force may be safely taken as 15 per cent. of the weight on the rails under the drivers: on city strect railways, a safe value is 12 per cent, oof the weight on the rails under the drivers; this gives 2.000% .15 300 pounds per ton for elevated and interurban service and, 2.000X.12=240 pounds per ton in city trolley service. PALE 1 Confition of Rail Clean dry rail 30 Wet rail 18 2 Rail covered with sleet 1s oa Rail covered with dry snow: 10 On single-track, two-motor cars, all wheels are drivers and the weight om the rails under the drivers equals the total weight of the car. This style of equipment is well adapted to hill climbing and to operation under unfavorable rail conditions On double-truck, two-motor cars, from 55 to 70 per cent. of the total weight rests on the rails ander the drivers, thes imit= ing the tractive effort to from 165 to 210 paunds per ton weight of car at 15 per cent, adhesive force On four-motor, double-truck ears, all weight is on the rails under the drivers; these equipments are desirable for roads operating double-truck ears in hilly localit Limiting Grades.—The ear wheels on separate axles are usually not rigidly connected together, therefore, on grades, where weight is transferred from the forward to the rear drivers, less tractive effort can be applied than is the case on a level,38 ELECTRIC RAILWAY SYSTEM: eT because of the tendency of the forward wheels to slip. The motors are usually started while connected in series and, if the wheels connected to one motor slip, the high counter clectro- motive force of the spinning motor reduces the current through both motors to an insufficient value for satisfactory operation, Ii t.=tractive effort required to start ear on level, in pounds per ton; grade, expressed as a percentage; car weight, in tons; peper cent. of total weight on rails under drivers, expressed as a decimal; ‘recocficent of adhesion, expressed as a decimal ‘Then, ‘Weight on rails under drivers, in pounds =2,000 w p Adhesive force, in pounds 2.000. pr Force required to start car on grade g =w +206 g Each per cent. of grade requires 20 pounds per ton additionat tractive effort over that required on a level. When the grade is such that the tractive effort required to start om it is just sufficient to cause wheel slippage; then, Exanue.—If 65 per cent of the weight ofa car rests on the rails under the drivers and if the coefficient of adhesion is 15 per een, what ie the smasimam grade thatthe ear can start on without wBel slippage, assuming that it raquites a tractive effort of 70 pourids pe ton weight of ear to staré con the level? Sotsrtios.—In the formula, p=.65 7 2.000%.65 15 ~70. 15; and t4=70; therefro, 25 percent. Ans. ‘The wheels will slip if the car is started on a grade exceeding, this percentage, assuming the conditions stated in the example, 5B. Acceleration Curve-—Fig. 17 shows typical curves for an electric train equipped for rapid acceleration. Curve A shows the relation between speed and time, curve B shows the gir ELECTRIC RAILWAY SYSTEMS 39, total current supplied, and curve @ shows the voltage, Start= ing from rest, the speed increases almost uniformly up to 25 miles per hour; the speed curve then bends over, thereby: indicating decrease in acecleration; at 37} miles per hour, the ‘curve has become almost horizontal; the speed is then nearly uniform and the acceleration has become practically zero. After 93 seconds, the current is shut off; the train then coasts by virtue of the energy stored in it and the speed is gradually decreased because this stored energy has to overcome train re EE Eampere yer train "seconds Pett resistance. Later, the brakes are applied and the train retarded, as indicated by the straight sloping line at the right, and finally brought to a stop. With all starting resistance in series, the total current is about 1,100 amperes; and as the resistance is, cut out, the current varies as indicated by the notches in the curve during the first 10 seconds. ‘The motors are then thrown into parallel and the total current rises to ahout 2,400 amperes, after which it further increases to 3,200 amperes, as the resis- tance on the parallel notches is cut out. Up to this point the