Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Solid State
Power Electronics
Semiconductor Division
Youngwood, Pennsylvania 15697
Acknowledgement February 1977
The material for this updated text was originally COPYRIGHT© 1977 BY POWEREX, INC.
written by Dr. William E. Newell, a noted authority
on power electronics with the aid of his associates at All Rights Reserved
the Westinghouse Research and Development Information furnished in this text is believed to be
Center. Until his untimely death in 1976, Dr. Newell accurate and reliable. However, Powerex can assume
had devoted much of his life to helping practicing no responsibility for its use; nor any infringements of
engineers and students alike better understand the patents, or other rights of third parties which may
field of power electronics. As a “teacher” within result from its use. No license is granted by
Westinghouse, as well as at Carnegie Mellon implication or other use under any patent or patent
University, Dr. Newell tested the materials in this text rights of Powerex.
well, with over five years of use and refinement.
POWEREX, Inc.
200 Hillis Street
Youngwood, PA 15697-1800
i
Foreword This text is divided into the following major
chapters:
Although power electronics has a considerably
longer history than many better known areas of I. Introduction
electrical engineering, its widespread significance is II. Diodes and Uncontrolled Rectifiers
only now beginning to gain recognition. In a sense, III. Thyristors, AC/DC Converters, and Other
power electronics is the marriage of techniques Naturally Commutated Circuits
which are characteristically power. But the IV. Turn-off Devices and Self-commutated Circuits
incompatibilities which have traditionally separated V. Power Semiconductor Device Protection
these two specialties makes the consummation of this Each of these chapters is further divided into concise
marriage far from simple. Power engineers find it discussions of the topics and ideas that are felt to be of
difficult to adapt their intuitive thought patterns to a greatest importance in appreciating both the
microsecond time scale, and electronics engineers capabilities and limitations of power electronics. This
have similar problems in adjusting to the demands of format should allow the reader to quickly and
a megawatt power scale. Thus there is a growing selectively locate the section(s) of greatest interest to
need for electrical engineers whose capabilities him.
transcend the two fields.
Although a familiarity with the vocabulary of power
At least three current trends dictate that in spite of electronics may result from reading or listening,
its slow rise to prominence, power electronics will experience has shown that relatively little useful
soon emerge as a discipline and profession of learning (defined as the acquisition of new skills)
major importance: occurs in this way. The problems at the end of each
1. The growing shortage of oil and gas and growing chapter are the “meat” of the text. These problems
environmental concern will stimulate the seek to illustrate important results while encouraging
utilization of clean electrical power in countless the reader to think and analyze in terms of broadly
new areas now predominantly served by other applicable physical principles. They seek to avoid
forms of energy. both routine “formula plugging” and excessive
mathematical grinding.
2. Efficiency in the manipulation and control of
electrical power will have increasing priority as Once power electronics has penetrated your
the rising cost of power forces the abandonment “awareness barrier,” hopefully you will be aroused to
of techniques which are short-term cheap but continue your involvement with the field, becoming
long-term wasteful. a contributor to the profession as well as a
benefactor from the technology.
3. The evolution of present applications and the
creation of new applications will cause increasing
demands for speed, precision, and reliability in
power control that can be satisfied by no other
technology.This text seeks to introduce power
electronics in a way which emphasizes both the
shared and the unique aspects of a wide variety
of circuits for power conversion and control. It
also seeks to build on elementary fundamentals
with which all electrical engineers should be
familiar. A review of these fundamental principals
needed to establish a basic understanding of
power electronics is concisely stated in Appendix
I as the “Ten Cornerstones of Power Electronics.”
ii
Table of Contents CHAPTER 3
THYRISTORS, AC/DC CONVERTERS AND
CHAPTER 1 OTHER NATURALLY COMMUTATED CIRCUITS
INTRODUCTION TO POWER ELECTRONICS
Section
Section 1. Type 2 Switch Thyristor
1. What is power electronics? 2. Steady-State V-I Characteristic of a Thyristor
2. Power Converters as Switching Matrices 3. Two-Transistor Analog for Explaining Thyristor Turn On
3. The Role of Power Filters 4. Gate Characteristics
4. Types of Solid-State Switches 5. Transient V-I Characteristic of a Thyristor
5. Commutation 6. Thyristor Ratings – Design Tradeoffs and
6. The Internal Functional Sections of a Commercial Availability
Generalized Power Converter 7. Circuit Functions Performed by Type 2 Switches
7. Power/Frequency Domains of Power Electronics 8. Two-Pulse AC/DC Converter Operating as a
8. Specialized Technologies of Power Electronics Controlled Rectifier
9. Converter Terminology Defined 9. Two-Pulse AC/DC Converter Operating as a
10. Operation of an AC/DC Converter Synchronous Inverter
11. Functional Categories of Applications 10. AC/DC Converter as a linear Amplifier
12. Power Electronics – Lab.. Curiosity or 11. AC/DC Converter as a DC Motor Drive
Competitive Necessity? 12. Two-Pulse Semiconverter
13. Power Electronics Books 13. Two-Pulse Dual Converter
14. Problems 14. Waveform Derivation for a 3-Phase Bridge
AC/DC Converter
15. Naturally Commutated Cycloconverter
CHAPTER 2 16. Bilateral Solid-State Switches
DIODES AND UNCONTROLLED RECTIFIERS 17. Triac
18. AC Switches and Regulators
Section 19. Varegulators
1. Type 1 Switch or Diode 20. Brushless Machines
2. Steady-State V-I Characteristic of a Diode 21. Summary
3. Transient V-I Characteristic of a Diode 22. Problems
4. Pulse Number
5. Simplifying Assumptions
6. Single-Phase Half-Wave Diode Rectifier CHAPTER 4
7. Single-Phase Half-Wave Diode Rectifier – R/L Loads TURN-OFF DEVICES AND SELF
8. Single-Phase Half-Wave Diode Rectifier – Other Loads COMMUTATED CIRCUITS
9. Single-Phase Full-Wave Diode Rectifiers and
Continuous Current Section
10. Average Voltage Across an Inductance 1. Power Transistor
11. Two-Pulse Rectifier with Inductance Filter 2. Gate Controlled Switch
12. Power Relationships 3. DC Switching and Regulation
13. Three-Phase Diode Rectifiers 4. Chopper Using Thyristors
14. Generalized Center-Tap Rectifier 5. Fundamentals of Inverters
15. Generalized Bridge Rectifier 6. Full-Bridge Inverter
16. Applications of Diode Rectifiers 7. Half-Bridge Inverter with an Inductive Load
17. Transformers and Nonsinusoidal Waveforms 8. Thyristor Inverters with Forced Commutation
18. Problems 9. Types of Forced Commutation
10. Series Inverter
11. Parallel Inverter
12. Complementary Impulse – Commutated Inverter
13. Inverter Output Voltage Control
14. Inverter Output Waveform Improvement
15. Frequency and Power Factor Changers
16. Problems
iiii
CHAPTER 5
POWER SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICE
PROTECTION
Section
1. The Power Module
2. Importance of Junction Temperature
3. Components of Dissipation
4. Average Dissipation at 60 Hz Switching Rate
5. Average Dissipation at 40 KHz Switching Rate
6. Simplified Geometry Assumed for the “Typical” Device
7. Junction-to-Case Thermal Resistance
8. Heat Sink Calculation
9. Selection of Device Package and Type of Heat Sink
10. Natural Connection Air Cooling
11. Forced Air Cooling
12. Water Cooling
13. Using the Data Sheet for Heat Sink Calculations
14. Thermal Capacity
15. Transmission Line for Transient Thermal Analysis
16. Initial Temperature Rise
17. Transient Thermal Impedance of Each Section
18. Calculation of Thermal Time Constant
19. Junction-to-Case Transient Thermal Impedance
20. Using Transient Thermal Impedance
21. Calculation of Pulse and Surge Current Capabilities
22. Turn-On di/dt
23. Transient Overvoltage
24. Off-State dv/dt
25. Series/Parallel Arrays for High-Power Applications
26. Summary
27. Problems
APPENDIX I
Ten Cornerstones of Power Electronics
APPENDIX II
Selected Symbol List
APPENDIX III
Power Electronic Circuit Configurations — Voltage and
Current Relationships
iv
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
TO POWER
ELECTRONICS
Section Introduction
1. What is power electronics? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-2
2. Power Converters as Switching Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . .1-3 The objectives of this chapter are to establish a
3. The Role of Power Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-3 perspective for the entire text which will enable
4. Types of Solid-State Switches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-4 the reader:
5. Commutation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-5
6. The Internal Functional Sections of a a. To relate and distinguish power electronics from
Generalized Power Converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-5 other fields of electronics and electrical engineering;
7. Power/Frequency Domains of Power Electronics . . . . . . .1-6
8. Specialized Technologies of Power Electronics . . . . . . . . .1-7 b. To recognize the importance of power efficiency
9. Converter Terminology Defined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-7 and to understand how it is achieved;
10. Operation of an AC/DC Converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-8 c. To distinguish between the basic types of
11. Functional Categories of Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-8 solid-state switching devices;
12. Power Electronics – Lab. Curiosity or
Competitive Necessity? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-9 d. To define the basic functional sections within a
13. Power Electronics Books . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-10 power converter, the specialized technologies
14. Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-12 involved in converter design, and the functional
applications which converters serve.
1-1
electrical power flows through and is controlled by
EQ
ST PME
ITS
one or more solid-state power devices. (Note that this
IC
UI
PO
AT NT
ON
CU
definition excludes such applications as those where
IC
WE
R
TR
CI
POWER a low-level electronic control circuit actuates an
EC
R
electromechanical relay in the power circuit.)
RO IPM
EQ
EL
ES
TA EN
U
IC
TIN T
V All of the important parameters of the electrical
DE
G
waveform are subject to regulation or conversion by
ELECTRONICS
solid-state power devices, including effective voltage,
CONTINUOUS SAMPLED effective current, frequency, and/or power factor.
DATA Often the control of electrical power is desired
simply as a means for controlling some non-electrical
CONTROL parameter. For example, drives for controlling the
speed of a motor. In other applications, power
electronics is used to control the temperature of an
oven, the rate of an electrochemical refining process,
the intensity of lighting, etc.
Figure 1.1 The design of power electronics equipment involves
Power Electronics… interactions with the source and the load, and
Interstitial to all of the major disciplines of utilizes small-signal electronic control circuits as well
electrical engineering. as power devices. Therefore power electronics draws
upon, and indeed depends upon all of the other
areas of electrical engineering. Obviously, the
potential scope of this field is quite vast!
1. What is Power Electronics? (Figure 1.1) Despite the growing importance of power
electronics, very few universities presently offer
For descriptive purposes, it is frequently useful to
courses devoted to this area, and few courses in the
divide the overall field of electrical engineering into
other areas deals significantly with it either. Therein
three areas of specialization: electronics, power, and
lies the motivation for this text. To keep the text
control. The electronics area deals primarily with
within bounds, we will assume that you have a basic
devices and circuits for the processing of
knowledge of the other areas of electrical
information; the power area deals with both rotating
engineering. We will concentrate most heavily on
and static equipment for the generation,
those important topics which are either ignored or
transmission, distribution, and utilization of vast
given inadequate emphasis in available texts in the
quantities of electrical power; and the control area
other areas.
deals with the stability and response characteristics of
closed-loop systems using feedback on either a Probably the single most important distinction
continuous or sampled-data basis. between power electronics and small-signal
electronics is the importance attached to overall
Interstitial to all three of these areas is power
power efficiency. In most cases, other factors
electronics, which deals with the use of electronics for
outweigh power efficiency in small-signal electronic
the control and conversion of large amounts of
circuits, and power efficiency is calculated as an
electrical power.
interesting after thought, if at all. But in power
The origins of power electronics can be traced back electronics, power efficiency is critical because both
many years, at which time mercury-arc devices were the cost of dissipating the heat and the cost of the
utilized for the rectification of AC to DC or the wasted power are significant compared to the total
inversion of DC to AC. However, today’s rapidly cost of the equipment.
growing usage of power electronics has resulted from
The importance of power efficiency dictates that the
the development of solid-state power devices.
basic control element in power electronics must be a
Specifically, then, we will limit the use of the name switch, NOT a continuously variable element.
power electronics to those applications in which
1-2
intersection degenerate to a short circuit. Other
Switching Control
circuits require only one-way conduction so that 1 of
Signals
the 2 switches at each intersection can be discarded.
In summary, the number of solid-state switches in a
m Input n Output particular converter circuit may be less than or equal
Lines Lines to 2 x m x n, but any converter circuit can be derived
from the general switching matrix.
1-3
excess power flow and returning energy to the circuit
during intervals of insufficient power flow.
Input Output
Filters contribute significantly to the cost, size, and Filter Filter
weight of power electronics equipment, as well as to
its performance. The cost and weight of the filters Switching Control
depend on the maximum energy storage which is Signals
required, which depends in turn on both the power
rating of the circuit and the frequency of the m Input n Output
undesired ripple. The lower the ripple frequency, the Lines Lines
longer the interval during which the filter must be
able to absorb or supply a significant portion of the
rated power. Conversely, if the ripple frequency can
be increased, comparable performance can be
obtained from smaller and less costly filters.
1-4
switch can replace either a Type 2 or a Type 1 switch, whether the required characteristics are inherent in
and a Type 2 switch can replace a Type 1 switch. But the load or must be produced artificially.
they are not interchangeable in the opposite order.
Most applications of turn-off circuits were not
feasible until the advent of solid-state power devices.
This technology is developing rapidly and is
5. Commutation providing many new opportunities for applying
Definitions Regarding Commutation: solid-state power electronics.
1-5
The power devices are the solid-state devices which (c) In a frequency changer, the gating signals must
have made modern power electronics possible. We be properly synchronized with both the AC
will emphasize their important terminal source frequency and the desired output
characteristics, but the details of semiconductor frequency. In effect, the smaller of these two
physics and device fabrication are outside the scope frequencies modulates the larger frequency.
of this text.
The design of the switching control signal generator
Each power device or group of devices is embedded utilizes all of the applicable circuit technology from
within a power module which interfaces it with the both analog and digital electronics.
surrounding power circuit. The power module
implements the function of a single switch in the This text will concentrate most heavily on various
switching matrix. In addition to one or more power common configurations for the power circuit and on
devices, each power module contains one or more some aspects of the power module. Appropriate
heat sinks, fuses and other components to protect timing of the switching control signals will be
the power devices, and sometimes local circuitry for discussed, but the design of the control circuits which
gating and forced commutation. generate these signals is outside the scope of the text.
In Amps
and processes them to generate appropriate gating Current High 10k
pulses to actuate each Type 2 or Type 3 switch. These Fr High 100kW (Parallel Power
eq Devices)
gating pulses usually have a periodicity which is u
(F en 1k
determined in one of three ways: De ast cy
vic
es
)
(a) In the simplest case, the gating signals are 100k High 100
1kW
Current
Medium Voltage
synchronized in frequency with the AC supply, 10k
Power (Series
but with adjustable relative phase. 1k Devices) 10
Sw 100
(b) When the converter is powered from a DC source, Fr itch
eq in 10 0
internal time constants or an internal reference u g
in enc 20 200 2k 20k 200k
Hz y
oscillator determine the periodicity of switching. Voltage
Figure 1.5
Power Frequency Domains of Power Electronics
1-6
Power devices can be cascaded in series to increase requirements being “nominal”. Power electronics
the voltage limit. When this is necessary, the equipment for a particular application incorporates
associated technology falls within the “High Voltage technology from the Core Discipline plus technology
Domain”. Similarly power devices can be paralleled from one or more of the specialized categories.
to increase the current limit, thereby defining a
“High Current Domain”. For some applications, The High Voltage, High Current, High Power, and
series/parallel arrays are required, leading to a High Frequency Domains just discussed constitute
“High Power Domain”. some of these specialized technologies. Forced
Commutation is another category of increasing
Conventional solid-state power devices are capable of importance. Numerous other categories of
much faster switching action that a mechanical specialized technology could be noted. For example,
switch, but the switching time is not zero. in some applications the power devices must be
Consequently there is an upper limit on the switching specified on the basis of their transient surge ratings
frequency of conventional power devices, which for rather than on their steady-state ratings. In some
present purposes will be arbitrarily assumed to be 1 applications, such as those for the consumer
kHz. However, power devices especially designed for market,cost reduction is a critical consideration. In
fast switching action are available. The technology other applications, such as those for the consumer
associated with the use of these fast devices defines a market, cost reduction is a critical consideration. In
“High Frequency Domain”. other applications, such as aerospace, size and weight
are critical considerations. And so on and on.
1-7
CONVERTER – A general term which can be used Positive Average DC Voltage
to describe any one of the following circuit types, a
combination of several types, or all types as a group.
Synchronous Positive
SWITCH – A device or circuit which has two extreme Inversion Rectification
states - full off or full on. Negative Average II I Positive Average
DC Current DC Current
REGULATOR – A circuit which permits III IV
1-8
Type 1 1-Quadrant 2- & 4-Quadrant Force-Commutated
(Natural Commutation)
Switches Rectifiers AC/DC Converters Inverters
AC DC AC DC DC AC
Type 3 Switches
(Forced Commutation)
Figure 1.8
Types of Power converters
% of Annual Market
The potential advantages of solid-state power electronics departments accustomed to well established design
over electromechanical equipment are well known: procedures involving Ward-Leonard drives, or relay
increased reliability and service life, and reduced size logic, or selenium rectifiers are faced with extinction
and maintenance. In some cases, there is a sizable cost overnight if they cannot adapt to the higher levels of
advantage, while in other cases the performance complexity and analytical sophistication both made
capabilities can be achieved in no other way. possible and made necessary by solid-state electronics.
For these reasons, power electronics is penetrating In assessing business risks, a company must try to
many new application areas and outmoding many guard against squandering development funds on a
traditional design approaches. Product engineering premature attempt to market a laboratory curiosity.
1-9
It must also guard against being caught without 13. Power Electronics Books
adequate competence in a rapidly evolving
A. Power Device Manufacturer’s Handbooks
technology when that technology becomes a
competitive necessity. Many technologies evolve over 1. SCR Designers Handbook (Second Edition, 1970)
a period of decades, leaving adequate reaction time Westinghouse Semiconductor Div., Youngwood, PA.
for business planning.
2. SCR Manual (Fifth Edition, 1972) General Electric Co.,
Syracuse, NY.
One aspect of power electronics which is not widely
appreciated is that when it captures a market, it 3. Solid-State Power Circuits (1971) RCA Technical Series SP-
frequently does so with a bang. Solid-state typically 52. RCA Solid-State Division, Somerville, NJ.
moves from an insignificant share of the market to a
4. SCR Applications Handbook (First Printing) International
dominate share in a period of only 2 to 4 years. Thus Rectifier Corporation;
a company which does not maintain a nucleus of September 1974.
competence in this new technology can easily lose a
secure market position because of inadequate 5. Semiconductor Power Circuits Handbook (1968) Motorola
Semiconductor Products Div.,
reaction time.
Phoenix, Ariz.
Power electronics has already become a competitive 6. Power Semiconductor DATAbook D.A.T.A., Inc., Orange,
necessity in many applications, and will soon emerge NJ (A worldwide tabulation of the ratings of commercial
from its laboratory curiosity status in many others. power diodes, transistors, and thyristors, revised twice a
Therefore this text will not dwell on the details of year.)
existing applications, but will seek to convey an B. Textbooks and Special Issues on Power Devices
understanding of basic principals and techniques which
are equally applicable to countless new applications. 1. Semiconductor Controlled Rectifiers: Principals and Applications of
PNPN Devices (1964) by F.E. Gentry, et. al. (General Electric)
To supplement this brief introduction to power electronics, the following Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
review articles are recommended:
2. Special Issue on High-Power Semiconductor Devices IEEE
A. Kusko, “Solid-State Motor-Speed Controls,” IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices, vol. ED-17, no. 9;
Spectrum, pp. 50-55; October 1972. September 1970.
H.F. Storm, “Solid-State Power Electronics in the U.S.A.,” 3. Special Issue on High-Power Semiconductor Devices Proceedings of
IEEE Spectrum, pp. 49-59; October 1969. the IEEE, vol. 55, no. 8; August 1967.
F.W. Gutzwiller, “Thyristors and Rectifier Diodes — The C. Textbooks on Power Circuit Analysis
Semiconductor Workhorses,” IEEE Spectrum, pp. 102-111;
August 1967. 1. The Fundamental Theory of Arc Convertors (1939) by H. Rissik.
Chapman & Hall, London. Facsimile reprint available from
R.G. Hoft, “Static Power Converters in the U.S.A.,” IEEE University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, Mich. (A classic book,
Intnl. Semiconductor Power Converter Conference Record, equally applicable today if “thyristor converter” is substituted
pp. 2-8-1 to 8; May 1972. for “arc convertor”.)
J.J. Bates and R.E. Colyer, “The Impact of Semiconductor 2. Power Diode and Thyristor Circuits (1971) by R.M. Davis.
Devices on Electrical Power Engineering,” Radio & Cambridge University Press, London.
Electronic Engineer, vol. 43, pp. 115-124; Jan./Feb. 1973.
3. Rectifier Circuits: Theory and Design (1965) by J. Schaefer. John
W.E. Newell, “Power Electronics - Emerging from Limbo,” Wiley, New York.
IEEE Trans., vol. IA-10, pp. 7-11; Jan./Feb. 1974.
4. Principles of Inverter Circuits (1964) by B.D. Bedford and
A.M. Curry and R.V. Wachter, “A User Looks at the R.G. Hoft (General Electric) John Wiley, New York.
Semiconductor Converter,” IEEE Trans., vol. IGA-4, pp. 41-
46; Jan./Feb. 1968. 5. Thyristor Phase-Controlled Converters and Cycloconverters (1971)
by B.R. Pelly (Westinghouse) Wiley-Interscience, New York.
A. Ludbrook, “Basic Economics of Thyristor Adjustable
Speed Drive Systems,” IEEE Industry and General 6. The Theory and Design of Cycloconverters (1972) by W.
Applications 4th Annual Meeting Record, pp. 591-596; Oct. McMurray (General Electric) MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass.
1969.
7. Line-Commutated Thyristor Converters (Second Edition, 1972)
D.W. Borst, et. al., “Voltage Control by Means of Power by G. Molgen (Siemens) Pitman Publishing, London.
Thyristors,” IEEE Trans., vol. IGA-2, pp. 102-124; Mar./Apr.
1966.
1-10
8. Semiconductor Devices in Power Engineering (1968) Edited by J. E. Elementary Books and Experimenters’ Guides
Seymour. Sir Isaac Pitman, London.
1. Understanding Silicon Controlled Rectifiers (1968) by S. Heller
9. Power Engineering Using Thyristors: Vol. 1 - Techniques of (Voorhees Technical Institute) Hayden, New York.
Thyristor Power Control (1970) Edited by M.J. Rose (Mullard)
Mullard Ltd., London. 2. RCA SCR Experimenter’s Manual (1967) RCA Technical Series
KM-71 (Experimenters Kit KD2105 also available.) RCA
10. Thyristor Control (1973) by F.F. Mazda (ITT). John Wiley, New Distributor Products, Harrison, NJ.
York.
3. 110 Thyristor Projects Using SCR’s and Triacs (1972) by R.M.
11. Power Electronics: Thyristor Controlled Power for Electric Motors Marston, lliffe, London.
(1973) by R. Ramshaw (Univ. Waterloo, Ontario) Chapman
and Hall, London. (Distributed in USA by John Wiley, NY.) 4. Thyristors (1971) by L.W. Owens (Mullard) Mullard,
Mitcham, Surrey, U.K.
12. Power Semiconductor Circuits (1975) by S.B. Dewan and A.
Straughen Wiley-Interscience, New York. 5. Thyristors and Their Applications (1972) by P. Atkinson
(University of Reading) Mills &
13. Theory of SCR Circuit and Application of Motor Control (1968) by Boon, London.
T.J. Takeuchi (Tokyo EE College) Tokyo Electrical
Engineering College Press, Tokyo. (This book is unique in
its application of Laplace transforms to the analysis of power
control circuits.)
D. Textbooks on Applications
1. Solid-State DC Motor Drives (1969) by A. Kusko, MIT Press,
Cambridge, Mass.
1-11
14. Problems
Problem 1.1 Power Efficiency of a Series Rheostat as a Problem 1.2 Switching Power Efficiency
Power Control
After working Problem 1.1 and being impressed by the
Assume that a series rheostat is used to control the flow poor efficiency of a rheostat as a power control, an
of power to a 100-kW oven as shown by the circuit engineer invents a way to improve the efficiency. He
below. When RR = 0, full power is delivered to the oven. notes that the rheostat dissipates no power when it is in
As RR is increased, power to the oven decreases and either of its limiting positions, zero or infinite resistance.
ultimately approaches zero as RR becomes infinite. Therefore he devises a mechanism which causes the
rheostat to spend nearly all of the time in one or the
(a) On the axes provided, plot the source power, the other of these limiting positions, with negligible time at
oven power, and the power dissipated in the intermediate positions. Average power to the oven is
rheostat as functions of the oven voltage. controlled by varying the relative time (duty cycle) spent
(b) Plot the power efficiency, defined as the ratio of in the two positions. For instance, if half of the time is
oven power to source power. spent in each position, the average oven voltage is 500 V
and the average oven power is 50 kW. Repeat (a), (b),
(c) How much power must the heat sink attached to and (c) of Problem 1.1 for this modified control, and
the rheostat be capable of dissipating? plot results on the axes below. (d) Is oven power
____ watts. proportional to the square of average oven voltage?
Explain.
(d) Making whatever assumptions seem reasonable to
you, estimate the value of the power wasted by this You have probably observed that the “rheostat” is no longer a
control over its useful life, neglecting the rheostat but a switch, and you have just established for yourself
additional cost of dissipating the heat. If a simple why high-power controls use a switching mode of operation.
but more efficient control can be purchased for
$15 per kW of controlled power, how long will it
take for the better control to completely pay for
itself by reducing wasted power? (Assume this
control has a power efficiency of 95%.)
75 75
50 50
Power in KW
Power in KW
25 25
0 0
0 25 50 75 100 0 25 50 75 100
Current % Duty Cycle
1-12
Chapter 2
DIODES AND
UNCONTROLLED
RECTIFIERS
Introduction
Section
1. Type 1 Switch or Diode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-2 The objectives of this chapter are:
2. Steady-State V-I Characteristic of a Diode . . . . . . . . . . .2-2
3. Transient V-I Characteristic of a Diode . . . . . . . . . . . .2-2 a. To name and describe the important steady-state
4. Pulse Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-3 and transient terminal characteristics of
5. Simplifying Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-3 solid-state diodes.
6. Single-Phase Half-Wave Diode Rectifier . . . . . . . . . . . .2-4 b. To list the simplifying assumptions usually made
7. Single-Phase Half-Wave Diode Rectifier – R/L Load . . .2-5 in rectifier analysis.
8. Single-Phase Half-Wave Diode Rectifier – Other Loads . .2-6
9. Single-Phase Full-Wave Diode Rectifiers and c. To explain the operation of a one-pulse rectifier
Continuous Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-7 and sketch the voltage and current waveforms for
10. Average Voltage Across an Inductance . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-8 various types of loads.
11. Two-Pulse Rectifier with Inductance Filter . . . . . . . . . .2-8
12. Power Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-9 d. To work simple problems related to voltage-
13. Three-Phase Diode Rectifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-10 averaging by an inductor in the DC circuit.
14. Generalized Center-Tap Rectifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-12
e. To explain the real, reactive, and distortion
15. Generalized Bridge Rectifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-12
components of total apparent power for the
16. Applications of Diode Rectifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-13
non-sinusoidal AC line current drawn by a rectifier.
17. Transformers and Nonsinusoidal Waveforms . . . . . . .2-13
18. Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-15 f. To describe the operation of single-phase and
three-phase center-tap and bridge rectifiers.
2-1
Anode
I
Terminal
P
PN Junction
Forward Voltage Drop
N
Cathode Rated Forward Current Depends
Terminal on Heat Sink and Waveform
Figure 2.1
Type 1 Switch or Diode Reverse Breakdown Voltage
V
1. Type 1 Switch or Diode (Figure 2.1)
When the polarity is reversed, a large reverse voltage The reverse leakage current of a diode depends on its
can be applied but only a small reverse leakage size and internal design, and also depends on
current will flow. leakage at the junction surfaces. Reverse leakage
current increases rapidly with junction temperature.
2-2
Of greater practical importance is the transient which 4. Pulse Number
occurs when reverse voltage is applied to turn off a
diode which has been conducting forward current. Among the important factors which influence the
The charges which had been carrying this current choice and design of rectifiers are the magnitude
must be “swept out” from the junction region before and frequency of the ripple voltage at the DC
the reverse non-conducting state can be established. terminals. The smaller the magnitude and the higher
These charges are called “stored charge”, and depend the frequency, the cheaper it is to filter the ripple to
on the internal design of the diode and on the specific tolerances.
forward current which has been flowing. The The ratio of the fundamental frequency of the DC
instantaneous reverse current which flows is usually ripple to the AC supply frequency is commonly
limited by the circuit external to the diode, but the called the pulse number. Most single-phase rectifiers
amp-seconds of the reverse current transient depend are 2-pulse, and most three-phase rectifiers are
on the stored charge. The duration of this transient is 6-pulse.
called the reverse recovery time or turn-off time. This
time is also nanoseconds for fast low voltage computer
diodes, but is measured in tenths of microseconds and Fundamental Ripple Frequency
Pulse Number =
microseconds for high power diodes. AC Supply Frequency
Elementary descriptions of the physics of solid-state
diodes are contained in many textbooks on
electronics. More advanced information on power 5. Simplifying Assumptions
diodes is contained in:
The analysis of a rectifier circuit usually begins with
F. E. Gentry, et al, Semiconductor Controlled Rectifiers: the study of the idealized version of the circuit. In
Principles and Applications of PNPN Devices, Chapter 1;
most cases the characteristics of the idealized circuit
Prentice-Hall; 1964.
can be read directly from design tables as contained
Y. C. Kao, “The Design of High-Voltage, High-Power in Appendix III. Practical deviations from the
Silicon Junction Rectifiers,” IEEE Trans., vol. ED-17, idealized circuit can then be added as needed.
pp. 657-660; September 1970.
The simplifying assumptions involved in the
idealized circuits are as follows:
Reverse Voltage (b) The turn-on and turn-off times of the switching
devices are negligible.
Figure 2.3
Transient V-I Characteristic of a Diode
2-3
In review the assumptions are: Vout
I Vp
Vp
Simplifying Assumptions Vave = π
(a) Switches have no voltage drop or leakage current.
R
(b) Instantaneous switching. Vout
Vp I
(c) Sinusoidal voltage source. R Vp
Iave = π R
(d) Constant DC current over each cycle.
∫
Oct. 1969.
ω ω
Vp
Vave = Vp sin ωt dt =
2π 0 π
2-4
The current waveform is identical in shape to the
voltage waveform, and the average current is: Vp
Vout
Vp I
Iave =
πR
R
On the other hand, if the load is purely inductive, the Vout
L 2Vp
waveforms change considerably. During the first half
ωL
cycle, the current builds up from zero to a peak value,
I
Ip = 2Vp/ωL. During the half cycle, energy has been
transferred from the AC source to the inductor, and
(1/2) LI2p watt-seconds are stored in the magnetic
field. However, the diode cannot interrupt the non-
zero current which exists when the source voltage
reverses polarity. The diode must wait for the current
to go to zero by itself before conduction ceases. In Vp Vout
fact, the diode will continue to conduct throughout
I
the second half-cycle, during which the output
voltage is negative and the total energy stored in the R
inductor is returned to the AC line. If the inductor is Vout
lossless, the diode will conduct continuously, and at L
the end of each full cycle the total net energy transfer I
will be zero. Note that although the instantaneous
output voltage goes negative, the current never does.
If the current did go negative, it would violate the
assumed behavior of the ideal diode.
2-5
from the AC line to the load, and the circuit acts as a However, if the equivalent circuit is a parallel
rectifier. During the time when the instantaneous combination of R and C, the capacitor tends to
voltage and current are not of the same polarity, smooth the ripple in output voltage, but the current
power flow is from the load to the AC line, and the (in the diode) occurs in brief spikes. Note that in
circuit acts as a synchronous inverter. Since the load contrast to an inductive load which tends to
is passive, the net power flow over a full cycle must postpone commutation after the voltage zero
be from the AC line to the load. Since the diode crossing, a capacitive load causes commutation to
must conduct for the full half cycle of rectification, occur before the voltage zero crossing.
but ceases conduction part way through the
inversion half-cycle, the circuit has positive average Similarly, a back-emf load of the polarity shown, such
voltage and cannot invert net power from its DC as a battery or a DC motor, also causes current spikes
terminals to its AC terminals. and early commutation. No current flows until the
AC line voltage exceeds the back-emf. If the polarity
If the L/R time constant of the load is small of this load emf is reversed, conduction begins
compared to a half-period of the AC source, before the first zero crossing of the AC source
commutation is delayed very little, and the operation voltage and commutation is delayed until after the
of the circuit approaches that of a circuit with a second zero crossing. As in the case of the inductive
resistive load. As L/R increases, the delay in load, the AC source receives power during part of
commutation increases and the current waveform each cycle. But the net power flow over a full cycle in
approaches a sine wave (plus a DC component). this and all other diode rectifier circuits is always
However, since the peak current cannot exceed from the AC to the DC terminals. Hence they are
2Vp/ωL, the inductance cannot be increased 1-Quadrant rectifiers.
sufficiently to hold the current constant as required
by simplifying assumption (d).
I
VBatt
8. Single-Phase Half-Wave Diode Rectifier –
Other Loads (Figure 2.6)
2-6
Iout terminal connect it to the AC terminal which is
+ instantaneously more positive. Similarly, the two
Iin
diodes that are tied to the negative DC terminal
Vp sin vt
Vout (in the bridge circuit) connect it to the more
Vin R
negative AC terminal.
R π
∫
ω ω
2
RIave = Vave = Vp sin ωt dt = V
Vin π 0 π p
–
2-7
independent of the inductance. Vout VR = RIout
Vp
It should also be noted that rectifier analysis normally
assumes steady-state conditions. Obviously there is a
transient with an L/R time constant which can alter
the waveforms when a rectifier is first started. Waveforms for Vin
L ' R/ω
Iin
*The DC current is said to be discontinuous if it contains finite intervals
of zero current. With a capacitive or back-emf load, the current will be
discontinuous unless the series inductance exceeds some minimum critical
value. (See R.J. Distler and S.G. Munshi, “Critical Inductance and
Controlled Rectifiers,” IEEE Trans., vol. IECI-12, pp. 34-37; March
1965.) With discontinuous current, the commutation points and the DC
voltage waveform from the diodes are load-dependent.
VR = Vd = RId = 2Vp/p
Vout
Vp
10. Average Voltage Across an Inductance
Waveforms for
2π
∫ ∫
i2 π
ω ω
ωL L >> R/ω
VL ave = VL (t )dt = di = 0
2π 0 2π i0
∫
ω ω
Two-Pulse Diode Rectifier
VL ave = VL (t )dt
2π 0
(Voltage Across Inductance Shown Shaded)
∫ ∫
i2 π
1 ω
2π
∆i = di = VL(t )dt = V the ripple is still significant. An approximate value
i L 0 ωL Lave for this inductance is R/ω.
0
But, again by definition, the change in current over a The load current waveform no longer consists of half
full cycle in steady-state is zero. Hence VLave must sine waves,* but the average current is still the same
also be zero. as before, 2Vp/πR. The AC line current is no longer
sinusoidal, but approximates a poor square wave with
superimposed ripple. The inductance has reduced
the harmonic content of the load current by
increasing the harmonic content of the AC
source current.
2-8
The voltage which appears across the inductance is 12. Power Relationships (Figure 2.9)
shown shaded. In order for the average voltage
across the inductance to be zero, the positive shaded The purpose of a rectifier is to convert AC power
areas must be equal to the negative shaded areas. into DC power. The fundamental nature of power
transfer in power electronics makes it essential for us
In the second case, the series inductance is increased to understand the relationships between the various
until it is much larger than R/ω. The ripple across components of power. Although these relationships
the load is now insignificant, and simplifying are probably quite familiar when the waveforms are
assumption (d) is valid. The load current is constant purely sinusoidal, they must be modified to include
at its average value. These constant values of load the nonsinusoidal waveforms encountered in
voltage and current are designated Vd and Id: rectifiers and other types of converters.
2-9
To reconcile this situation, expand the current angle, δ, which has little significance. However, cos δ
waveform into a Fourier series where the RMS value is known as the “distortion factor”, and is equal to
of harmonic “h” is Ih. The RMS value of the the ratio of the apparent fundamental power to the
waveform is then: total apparent power. The two triangles may be
cascaded as shown in the figure, and it is apparent
that the power factor is now equal to the product of
I = I12 + I22 + I32 + .... the displacement factor and the distortion factor.
or For the two-pulse diode rectifier, the fundamental
component of current is in phase with the voltage.
∞ Therefore, φ = 0, and the displacement factor is
I 2 = I12 + ∑ Ih2 unity. However, the RMS value of the fundamental
h=2
component of a square wave is equal to 4/π=2 times
the RMS value of the square wave. Therefore the
In general, the fundamental current, I1, will consist distortion factor is 4/π=2.
of an in-phase component, I1p, and a quadrature
component, I1Q (if the fundamental current is not in The real AC power is then the product of the
phase with the voltage). Then: displacement factor, the distortion factor, and the
total apparent power:
∞
I =
2
I12p + I12Q +
∑ h= 2
Ih2
VI1 p + (1)
4 Vp Id 2
= VI
π 2 2 π p d
Multiplying both sides of this equation by the square
of the RMS voltage gives: The real AC power is seen to be equal to the real DC
power calculated previously, and the desired power
∞
∑
balance has been verified.
(VI ) = (VI1 p ) + (VI1Q ) +
2 2 2
(VIh )2
h= 2
The left side of the equation is the square of the total 13. Three-Phase Diode Rectifiers (Figure 2.10)
apparent power, but of the three terms on the right The pulse number of a single-phase rectifier cannot
side, only the in-phase component of the same be increased beyond two unless some artificial means
frequency as the voltage represents real power is available for generating out-of-phase voltages. On
(watts). The second term represents the square of the other hand, the pulse number of a polyphase
the reactive power (VAR’s) which results if the rectifier may be made arbitrarily high by various
fundamental current is out of phase with the voltage, interconnections of transformer windings. The most
and the third term is a “wattless” power caused by the common high-power rectifiers are supplied from a
harmonic components (i.e., distortion) of the three-phase source and use a three-pulse or
nonsinusoidal waveform. six-pulse circuit.
For sinusoidal waves, a right triangle displays The easiest way to derive the waveforms of a
geometrically the mathematical relationship between three-phase bridge rectifier is to consider each half
real power, reactive power, and apparent power. The separately with respect to the neutral. The upper
phase angle, ∅, is one of the angles of this triangle, three diodes constitute a three-pulse center-tap
and the power factor (ratio of real power to apparent circuit, and each diode conducts for 120°. The
power) is equal to cos ∅. voltage from the positive DC terminal to the neutral,
Similarly two right triangles can be used to give a V+N, has a positive average value of (3=3/2π) VpN,
geometric representation of the equation above. The where VpN is the peak phase voltage to the neutral.
phase angle between the voltage and the The waveform is as shown. If a load is connected
fundamental component of current is known as the between the positive DC terminal and the neutral
“displacement angle,” φ, and cos φ is called the (including enough inductance to maintain the
“displacement factor”. The harmonic term is current constant), a current Id+ will flow.
associated with a second right triangle and an
2-10
Id+ 3=3
(V+Nave = VPN)
+ V+N 2p
VPN
V-N
V+N
3= 3
– (Voutave = Vd = VPN)
Vout p
Id- =
3 VPN
Wye-Connected Primaries
Id Delta-Connected
Primaries
t
Current in
Line A
Figure 2.10
Waveforms for a Three-Phase Bridge Rectifer
Similarly the lower group of three diodes generates a The current in each wye-connected secondary
negative three-pulse waveform between the negative winding supply AC to the bridge is a square wave of
DC terminal and the neutral, and a load will cause a amplitude Id, consisting of a 120° positive pulse, a
current Id- to flow. As long as the neutral is 60° period to zero current, a 120° negative pulse,
connected, the two groups of diodes operate and another 60° period of zero current. If the
independently as three-pulse rectifiers, and the primaries of the transformer are also wye-connected,
currents Id+ and Id- need not be equal. However the AC line currents will have the same waveform.
there will be a net DC component of current in each On the other hand, if the primaries are delta-
winding, tending to cause DC magnetization of the connected, the AC line current becomes different in
cores, if these currents are unequal. waveform although the harmonic content remains
the same.
If the load is connected directly between the positive
and negative DC terminals without a neutral Circuits having higher pulse numbers further
connection, the average DC voltage doubles and Id+ increase the ripple frequency, making filtering easier
and Id- must be equal because there is no return path and reducing the harmonic content of the AC
for a difference current. Therefore core current. However, these circuits may also reduce the
magnetization is no longer a problem. However, conduction angle of each diode, thereby reducing
another significant advantage also occurs. Note that the utilization of its capacity. Therefore, circuits
commutation occurs alternately, not simultaneously, having pulse numbers higher than six are usually
in the two groups of diodes. When the two used only for special purposes.
three-pulse groups operate together, a six-pulse
output waveform results. We will now state, without proof, several general laws
2-11
concerning the harmonics generated by ideal Pulse
diode rectifiers: Number
360o =q
q
(1) The ripple voltage at the output has a
fundamental of pfs, where p is the pulse number
and fs is the source frequency. Because of the q
lack of symmetry of the positive and negative Common Diodes
parts of the ripple waveform, all harmonics of Neutral
this fundamental ripple frequency will be
present: npfs, n = 1, 2, 3, ... The peak amplitude DC
of any harmonic of the source frequency which q Windings Terminals
is present, relative to the uncontrolled DC
voltage, is 2/(n2p2 - 1). That is, the pulse
number determines which harmonics offs are
present in the output, but does not change the
relative amplitude of a given harmonic if it is
present. Figure 2.11
Generalized Center-Tap Rectifier
(2) The only harmonics present in the input
current (in addition to the fundamental current
at fs) occur at (np ± 1) fs, n = 1, 2, 3, ... The For q = 1, the circuit is a single-phase half-wave
amplitude of each harmonic current, relative to rectifier. Although widely used for low-current power
the fundamental current, is inversely supplies, this circuit is not useful at high power levels
proportional to its order (i.e., to np ± 1). because of its large ripple voltage and because of the
DC current which it draws from the AC line. Circuits
References: for which q = 2, 3, or 6 are of greater
J. Schaefer, Rectifier Circuits: Theory and Design, p. 257 and p. practical importance.
298, John Wiley, New York; 1965.
Center-tap rectifiers are also known as “single-way”
B. R. Pelly, Thyristor Phase-Controlled Converters and circuits because the current in each transformer
Cycloconverters, pp. 94-107, John Wiley, New York; 1971. winding is unidirectional. If q is even, currents in
C. J. Amato, “A Simple and Speedy Method for Determining each pair of windings flow in opposite directions so
the Fourier Coefficients of Power Converter Waveforms,” that the net DC magnetization of transformer cores
IEEE Industry & General Applications 4th Annual Meeting is zero. However, if q is odd, there is no cancellation
Record, pp. 477-483; Oct. 1969. and DC magnetization of transformer cores is a
I. K. Dortort, “Phase Shifting of Harmonics in AC Circuits of
problem. In this case, magnetization is usually
Rectifiers,” IEEE Trans., vol. IGA-4, pp. 655-658; Nov./Dec. avoided by a “zig-zag” series connection of pairs of
1968. transformer secondaries, arranged so that the effect
of each winding carrying unidirectional current is
cancelled by another winding which carries current
in the opposite direction.
2-12
diodes permitted the elimination of the commutator,
2q Diodes
and the lack of rectifier control is no problem
because regulation is achieved in the field circuit.
2-13
Lm L-k R2
i1 ni2
R1 n k
n2
i1 φm i2
Lm/n = kL11
V1 Vm V2
N1
kL11 φm
V1 V2 im = n
N1 Turns N2 Turns
N Equivalent Circuit Referred to Primary
n= 2
N1
i1 L-k
φm n 2
nLm i2
n R1 k R2
nLm = kL22
N1 im nV1 nVm V2
im
In Linear Region: n
kL11
φm = i
N1 m Equivalent Circuit Referred to Secondary
=
1
N1 ∫ Vm dt
Figure 2.13
Basic Transformer Relationships
the inductance of the secondary. Then: Integration gives the inverse relationship:
Vm kL
N L22 Φm = ∫ dt = 11 im
n= 2 ≈ N1 N1
N1 L11
V2 = nVm = nV1
di L di dΦ m
Vm = kL11 m = m • m = N1
dt n dt dt independent of waveforms. If the transformer is
2-14
driven from a voltage source, the flux and the 18. Problems
magnetizing current are proportional to ∫ V1 dt, or
“volt-second area”. When a load is connected across Problem 2.1 Comparison of Diode Rectifier Circuits
the secondary, the secondary AC ampere-turns N2i2 Diodes are available which have a reverse breakdown
must be compensated by an equal number of voltage rating of VRRM = 1000V and an average
primary ampere-turns to maintain the flux change forward current rating of IT = 100A. Therefore they
and the induced voltage constant. (DC ampere-turns each have the capacity to supply a nominal DC load
induce no voltage and therefore cannot be of VRRMIT = 100kW. Their actual load capacity
compensated by primary current. Instead they offset depends on the rectifier circuit which is used,
the flux swing.) Hence: derating factors for overload capacity requirements,
ect. The purpose of this problem is to compare the
N1i1 = N1im + N2i2 various rectifier circuits with respect to their
utilization of diode capacity and transformer
or capacity.
∫
T2
handle the peak flux without excessive saturation. fRMS = f 2 (t )dt
The flux depends on the volt-second area of the (T2 – T1 ) T1
voltage waveform which is influenced by voltage
amplitude, waveform, and frequency.
2-15
Problem 2.1
Comparison of Diode Utilization and Transformer Utilization for Various Rectifier Circuit Configurations.
Vd, Id = Smooth DC Load Voltage, Current Vs, Is = RMS Winding Voltage, Current
2 2 2
Center-
Tap 3 3 3
6 6 6
2
2 4 (Floating
Neutral)
Bridge
6 6 3
Comparison of Diode Utilization and Transformer Utilization for Varoius Rectifier Circuit Configurations.
Problem 2.2 Average vs. RMS Current Ratings for Diodes First, calculate the average diode current, IAVE and
the RMS diode current, IRMS, as functions of the load
In the previous problem, the diodes were rated in current, Id, and the duty cycle, η.
terms of average current while transformer windings
were rated in terms of RMS current. The data sheets Second, assume that Id varies with duty cycle in such
on solid-state power devices frequently contain both a way that Iave is held constant at 100A. Use the V-I
average and RMS current ratings. The purpose of characteristic to calculate and plot the actual average
this problem is to explore how the two ratings differ diode dissipation vs. duty cycle. Is the average
and why both are used. current rating valid for low duty cycles?
The steady-state current rating of a diode depends on Third, assume that Id varies with duty cycle in such a
the average amount of heat which the diode can way that IRMS is held constant at 140A, and repeat
dissipate. For the purposes of this problem, assume the calculation and plot of dissipation vs. duty cycle.
that dissipation occurs only when the diode is Is the RMS current rating valid for low duty cycles?
conducting forward current. Also assume that the
load current, Id, is smooth, and that each diode And last, attempt to interpret the two plots so as to
carries this current for a time ηT during each cycle, reach a general conclusion concerning the
where h is the duty cycle and T is the period of the usefulness and limitations of average and RMS
AC source. For a specified circuit configuration, the current ratings for the more complicated current
duty cycle decreases as the pulse number is increased. waveforms found in other types of converter circuits.
Can you give a simple physical explanation of why
The diode to be considered has an average current solid-state devices are more difficult to rate than such
rating of 100A at a 50% duty cycle, an RMS current components as transformers?
rating of 140A, and its V-I characteristic is as shown
in the graph.
2-16
(A rating which attempts to avoid the shortcomings Problem 2.3 Commutation Overlap
of both average and RMS current ratings for diodes
and thyristors is proposed in: Inductance in the DC circuit of a rectifier is an asset
in reducing the ripple in the DC load current. The
W.E. Newell, “Dissipation in Solid-State Devices — The purpose of this problem is to investigate the very
Magic of I1+N, IEEE Power Electronics Specialists different effect of inductance in the AC circuit.
Conference Record, pp. 162-173; June 1974.)
Although the AC inductance is frequently ignored in
rectifier analysis, in practice it is always present in the
form of AC-line impedance, transformer leakage
Problem 2.2 reactance, ect., and as will be seen, it causes
significant changes in the idealized waveforms.
Average vs. RMS Current Ratings for Diodes
Consider a two-pulse center-tap diode rectifier
having an inductor Ls in series with each of the two
1000 diodes and constant current Id in the load. Each time
the load current commutates from one diode to the
other, the current in one of these inductors must
decrease from Id to zero while the current in the
500 other increases from zero to Id. Since the current in
an inductor cannot change instantaneously, there is a
Amperes
200
(a) Show that the output voltage during
commutation overlap is equal to the average of
the two phase voltages to which the diodes are
connected. Sketch the actual waveforms of
100 output voltage and diode currents, and
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 compare them with the ideal waveforms
Volts obtained for Ls = 0.
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Duty Cycle
2-17
Problem 2.4
Critical Inductance
Vout
Vd
Vd
(iL)AVE = Id =
iL R
Lc
+ + –
2 - Pulse VL
Diode C R
Vout Vd
Rectifier –
∆I
Id
iL
2-18
Chapter 3
THYRISTORS
AC/DC CONVERTERS
AND OTHER
NATURALLY
COMMUTATED
CIRCUITS
Section
1. Type 2 Switch Thyristor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3-2
Introduction
2. Steady-State V-I Characteristic of a Thyristor . . . . . . . . .3-2 The objectives of this chapter are:
3. Two-Transistor Analog for Explaining
Thyristor Turn On . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3-3 a. To name and describe the important steady-state
4. Gate Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3-4 and transient terminal characteristics of thyristors
5. Transient V-I Characteristic of a Thyristor . . . . . . . . . .3-5 and triacs.
6. Thyristor Ratings – Design Tradeoffs and
Commercial Availability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3-6 b. To analyze the effect of phase delay on average DC
7. Circuit Functions Performed by Type 2 Switches . . . . . .3-7 current for an AC/DC converter in both the
8. Two-Pulse AC/DC Converter Operating as a rectifier and synchronous inverter modes of
Controlled Rectifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3-7 operation.
9. Two-Pulse AC/DC Converter Operating as a
Synchronous Inverter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3-9 c. To explain and distinguish between 1-, 2-, and
10. AC/DC Converter as a Linear Amplifier . . . . . . . . . .3-10 4-quadrant converters.
11. AC/DC Converter as a DC Motor Drive . . . . . . . . . . .3-11
12. Two-Pulse Semiconverter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3-13 d. To compare two-step (rectifier/inverter) and
13. Two-Pulse Dual Converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3-14 one-step (cycloconverter) AC frequency changers.
14. Waveform Derivation for a Three-Phase Bridge
AC/DC Converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3-14 e. To show several ways of implementing a bilateral
15. Naturally Commutated Cycloconverter . . . . . . . . . . . .3-18 AC switch.
16. Bilateral Solid-State Switches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3-19
17. Triac . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3-19 f. To describe and compare the four modes of
18. AC Switches and Regulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3-21 operation of an AC regulator.
19. Varegulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3-22
20. Brushless Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3-23
21. Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3-25
22. Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3-25
3-1
However, the third terminal of a thyristor is
Anode connected to the P layer adjoining the cathode N
Terminal layer. If this terminal is made positive with respect to
the cathode, forward current flows across the
P
cathode PN junction. If the anode terminal is also
N Gate
Terminal
positive, this forward current across the cathode
P junction initiates a regenerative internal action
N which then permits current flow across the reverse
Cathode biased center junction. In other words, this third
Terminal terminal allows the thyristor to be turned on.
Because of the control which this terminal exercises
Figure 3.1 over current flow, it is known as the “gate”. Once
Type 2 Switch or Thyristor forward current flow is initiated, the thyristor latches
in its on state, the gate loses its control, and current
continues until it is commutated by some external
means.
1. Type 2 Switch or Thyristor (Figure 3.1)
Forward Breakover
Voltage with
Reverse Breakdown Voltage No Gate Current
Holding Current
Forward Leakage
Reverse Forward Breakover
Current (Forward
Leakage Voltage with Small
Blocking or
Current Gate Current
Off-State)
Figure 3.2
Steady-State V-I Characteristic of a Thyristor
3-2
typically about 1.4 volts. The forward current rating of a PNP transistor and the cathode acts as the
of a thyristor in its on-state is determined primarily emitter of an NPN transistor. The collector of each
by the internal dissipation and the thermal efficiency transistor feeds current to the base of the other
involved in getting the heat out. transistor.
Internal junction temperature is even more critical The analysis of turn-on follows from the gain
in a thyristor than it is in a diode. Leakage current equation for each transistor, which states that:
increases rapidly with temperature. Since leakage
across the center junction into the gate layer is IC = αIE + ICBO
indistinguishable from external gate current, the
forward blocking state will disappear if the junction where IC and IE are the collector and emitter
becomes overheated, and irreversible damage may currents, ICBO is the collector-to-base leakage
occur. Most thyristors cannot be relied upon to block current, and α is common-base current gain.
their rated maximum forward blocking voltage if the Applying this relationship to each transistor in terms
junction temperature exceeds 125o C. of the currents labeled in the Figure:
Once the thyristor is in its on-state, it will remain there PNP : I A – I1 = α p I A + ICOBP
until the current is reduced (by external means) to a
NPN : I1 = α N ( I A + IG ) + ICBON
value which is less than a minimum value known as the
holding current. It then reverts to the blocking state.
Substituting the second equation into the first to
Since the forward voltage drop of a thyristor is eliminate I1, and then solving for anode current IA gives:
higher and the maximum allowable junction
temperature is lower than for a diode, a thyristor has α N IG + ICBON + ICBOP
IA =
a lower current rating than a diode of the same 1 – (α N + α P )
physical size.
To interpret this equation, it should first be
Anode
remembered that α is much less than one for very
small collector currents, but increases as the current
increases. In forward blocking state with zero gate
IA
current IG, the leakage currents are so small that αN
P and αP are both small. Therefore their sum is less than
I1 one, the denominator in the above equation is positive,
N PNP and the anode current is stable at a small value.
IA - I1
P Gate NPN The stable forward blocking state can be destroyed in
IG a number of ways. The normal way is to apply gate
N current, which increases the base current to the NPN
IA + I G
transistor and thereby increases αN. The increased
NPN collector current increases the PNP base
current, thereby also increasing αP. As αN + αP
Cathode approaches one, the denominator of the anode
current equation approaches zero. The transistors
Figure 3.3
are regeneratively driven into saturation, and the
Two-Transistor Analog of a Thyristor anode current rises to a value determined by the
external load circuit. The load current maintains
3. Two-Transistor Analog for Explaining αN + αP > 1, and the thyristor is latched into its on
Thyristor Turn-On (Figure 3.3) state even if the gate current is removed.
The regenerative turn-on behavior of a thyristor may Turn-on can also be initiated by other effects which
be explained qualitatively by splitting the four increase the off-state current to the point where
internal layers into two equivalent transistors as αN + αP > 1. If the forward voltage is increased above its
shown above. With positive bias between the anode maximum rating, avalanche multiplication increases
and cathode, the anode junction acts as the emitter the leakage current. This mode of turn-on will destroy
some devices. Increasing the temperature increases the
3-3
leakage current, and above 125o C turn-on can occur at Another result is that the gate of an ordinary
less than the rated blocking voltage. If the anode thyristor cannot cause it to turn-off. In the
voltage is positive and increases rapidly, the C dv/dt two-transistor analog, shorting the gate to the
current through the capacitance of the center PN cathode or reverse biasing it would decrease the
junction can cause unexpected turn-on. In place of current, thereby decreasing αN and αP and causing
gate turn-on, some thyristors are designed to be fired turn-off to occur. In an actual thyristor, the lateral
by a pulse of light which generates electrons and gate resistance prevents an appreciable part of the
holes in the depletion region of the blocking load current from being withdrawn through the gate
junction, thereby increasing the leakage current. lead, and the α’s are not significantly affected.
Vg
Maximum
Gate Voltage
Maximum
Low-Current Limit Instantaneous
of Vg – Ig Characteristic Gate Power
6V
Minimum Gate Voltage
Required to Trigger all
Units at Minimum
Rated Temperature
High-Current
Limit of Vg – Ig
Minimum Gate Voltage Characteristic
that will not Trigger Minimum Gate
any Unit at Maximum Current Required to Trigger all
Rated Temperature Units at Minimum Rated Temperature
0
0 0.5A Ig
Figure 3.4
Design Chart for the Gate Triggering Circuit of a Thyristor
3-4
All possible safe operating points for the gate are A typical firing circuit for a 100A thyristor should
bounded by the low and high current limits for the deliver about 6V (no load) with a source impedance
V-I characteristic, the maximum gate voltage, and the of 12 ohms.
hyperbola representing maximum gate power. Within
these boundaries there are three regions of
importance. 5. Transient V-I Characteristic of a Thyristor
The first region lies near the origin (shown shaded) (Figure 3.5)
and is defined by the maximum gate voltage which The transient characteristics of a thyristor are similar
will not trigger any device. This value is obtained at to those of a diode in that turn-on and turn-off are
the maximum rated junction temperature (usually not instantaneous, and a pulse of reverse current
125o C). The gate must be operated in this region flows when the device is reverse biased immediately
whenever forward bias is applied across the thyristor after conducting forward current. However, the fact
and triggering is not wanted. In other words, this that a thyristor has a forward blocking state not
region sets a limit on the maximum spurious signals possessed by a diode causes several additional
that can be tolerated in the gate firing circuit. parameters to be significant.
The second region is further defined by the First consider the turn-on transient. Since a diode
minimum values of gate voltage and current required turns on automatically as soon as it becomes forward
to trigger all devices at the minimum rated junction biased, its entire area turns on simultaneously. On
temperature. This region contains the actual the other hand, the turn-on of a thyristor begins at a
minimum firing points of all devices. In a sense, it is a very small area adjacent to the gate electrode, and
forbidden region for the firing circuit because a conduction must then propagate laterally from this
signal in this region cannot be depended upon either initial area. The propagation velocity is
to always fire all devices or to never fire any devices. approximately 0.1mm/µ sec. Therefore a device
The third region is the largest and shows the limits 2 cm. in diameter with the gate electrode in the
on the gate signal for reliable firing. Ordinarily a center will require some 100µ sec. before the full
firing signal in the lower-left part of this region is area is conducting, although the forward voltage will
adequate. For applications where fast turn-on is approach its steady-state value much sooner than
required, a “hard” firing signal in the upper right this. Because the area which is conducting is so small
part of the region may be needed. during the early part of this transient, the current
Forward Blocking
Voltage
dv/dt
Forward Current
/dt
dv
Figure 3.5
Transient V-I Characteristics of a Thyristor
3-5
density can become extremely high if the rate of 4000
increase of current is not limited. Excessive current 3000 5m
1m 2m VA
density causes a hot spot which can destroy the 2000 VA VA
device. Consequently, high power thyristors have a >300µS
3-6
500 turn-off or commutation. Consequently, almost all
circuits using Type 2 switches must be connected to
an AC source which periodically reverses polarity and
200 causes commutation to occur “naturally”.
Technology
include:
– Synchronous Inversion } AC/DC Conversion firing pulse at the instant when its anode becomes
positive with respect to its cathode, no change occurs
and the circuit operates exactly as it did as a diode
– Frequency Changing rectifier. But if these firing pulses are uniformly
delayed by an angle α, somewhat different results
– AC Switching and Regulation
occur. This change is easily implemented by building
a controllable phase delay into the switching control
signal generator.
7. Circuit Functions Performed by Type 2 Switches
Remember that all four simplifying assumptions are
Type 2 switches allow forward current to be turned imposed on the analysis of this circuit. In particular,
on at arbitrary times but do not permit arbitrary the DC current is assumed to be constant over each
3-7
2Vp
Vd = Cos a
π
L Id Vout
Vp
Iin
Vpsin ωt
Vin Vout Vd R
Vin -Vin
a
Fundamental
Component of Iin
Iin
Id
Figure 3.9
Two-Pulse AC/DC Converter
(Waveforms shown for α=45°)
cycle.* Therefore a continuous current path must Note also that the AC source current waveform
exist at all times between AC and the DC terminals. remains a square wave of amplitude Id, but it is now
If firing of one set of thyristors is delayed, displaced from the voltage sine wave by an angle
commutation is also delayed and the other set must φ = α. Therefore the converter has an increasingly
continue conduction in the meantime. If the AC lagging power factor at the AC terminals as the
source reverses polarity, the forward bias on the output DC voltage is reduced.
thyristors to maintain this conduction will be
supplied by the kickback voltage of the filter Since the DC current is constant, the instantaneous
inductance. power dissipated in the load resistor is the same
throughout each half cycle. However, the power
As a typical example, let α = 45o. The voltage and interchange between the other parts of the circuit
current waveforms are shown in the figure for this changes continually. When Vout exceeds Vd, the
case. The ripple voltage appearing across the filter voltage across the inductance is positive, and both the
inductance is shaded, and as before its average value inductance and the load resistor are absorbing power
over a full cycle must be zero. Therefore the average from the AC source. When Vout drops below Vd, the
load voltage is: inductance starts to supply part of the power to the
resistor. Then when the source voltage reverses
ω 45ωπ Vp 5π 2Vp polarity, the inductance supplies instantaneous power
Vd ( 45°) = ∫ V sinωtdt = [ − cos ωt ] π =
4ω
π 4ωπ
π π to the load resistor and to the AC source. As with the
p
4ω
one-pulse diode rectifier having an inductive load,
the AC source receives instantaneous power during
It is seen that the phase delay has reduced the part of each cycle even through the net power flow
average load voltage from the corresponding value over a cycle is from the AC source to the load
for a diode rectifier. In general, Vd may be set to any resistance.
intermediate value by proper choice of α, according
to the relationship: *Note that this assumption does not prevent Id from changing as a
function of α.
2Vp
Vd (α ) = cosα
π
3-8
9. Two-Pulse AC/DC Converter Operating as a example, α = 135o, the waveform are as shown. The
Synchronous Inverter (Figure 3.10) average DC is negative:
The previous discussion is valid as long as the phase 2Vp 2Vp
delay is less than 90o. When α = 90o, the average DC Vd (135°) = cos135° = −
π π
voltage as given by the previous equation drops to zero.
Therefore the current in the load resistor also drops to and net power flow is from the DC current source
a very low value, ideally zero. The circuit is “coasting” into the AC voltage source. The AC/DC converter is
with the entire output voltage appearing across the performing synchronous inversion. In other words,
filter inductance and with no net power flow. since the average DC voltage has reserved polarity
but the average DC current has not, operation has
Actually this case is only of hypothetical interest with entered Quadrant IV. The net power flow in this
a passive load because as soon as the current drops direction may be controlled by changing α just as it
below the holding current, the thyristors refuse to was in the other direction when α was less than 90o.
fire. But now assume that the passive load is replaced One difference, however, is that there is a practical
by an active load which is independently capable of upper limit on α at about 165o. If this limit is
maintaining a constant flow of current greater than exceeded, the thyristor which is commutating off
the holding current. This current must be in the does not have sufficient time to regain its blocking
positive direction or the thyristors will not be able to ability before it is subjected to forward voltage.
carry it. For the sake of discussion, assume that the Therefore it continues to conduct and a
load is a DC current source of value Id. “commutation failure” occurs.
The AC source current is still a square wave of The operation of the AC/DC converter which we
amplitude Id, but now it is displaced 90o from the AC have been discussing depends on the ability of a
voltage. Therefore, both the average DC voltage and Type 2 switch to block forward voltage. As a result,
the net power are zero. The instantaneous power the converter permits the average DC voltage to be
flow from the AC voltage source to the DC current controlled and the net power flow to be reversed,
source during one part of the cycle is just balanced neither of which is possible in a rectifier using only
by the instantaneous power flow in the opposite Type 1 switches. These converters, in which all of the
direction during another part of the cycle. Type 1 switches have been replaced by Type 2
However, we have now established a set of conditions switches, are known as 2-quadrant or fully-controlled
under which α can be allowed to exceed 90o. If, for AC/DC converters.
Vout Vout
Vp Vp
Vd
a = 90o Vd = 0 a = 135o
Iin Iin
Id Id
Figure 3.10
Waveforms for a Two-Pulse AC/DC Converter for α = 90° and 135°
3-9
Vp “End Stops”
k1
Vi
Zero
ωt Crossing
Detector
Vp
cos ωt
k1
Output of
Zero-Crossing Detector
-1 k1VI
α = cos Vp
2Vp 2k1
Vp Vd = π cos α = π Vi
Vi A= Vd = AVi
2k1
π
Figure 3.11
Two-Pulse AC/DC Converter Using Cosine-Crossing Method to Achieve Linear Amplification
An application for this type of converter which is 10. AC/DC Converter as a Linear Amplifier
destined to become very important in the future is (Figure 3.11)
high-voltage DC (HVDC) transmission. A converter
at each end of a DC transmission line links it to two We have seen that the output voltage of an AC/DC
AC systems. The AC systems need not be converter varies according to the phase delay angle.
synchronized (in fact, they can operate at different The general form of this relationship for a fully
frequencies), and power can be caused to flow in controlled AC/DC converter is:
either direction.
P π
Vd (α ) = sin Vp cos α
Much literature exists on HVDC converters and π p
system considerations. Introductory articles include:
where P is the pulse number and Vp is the peak of the
F. D. Kaiser, “Solid-State HVDC Transmission Technology,” unfiltered output voltage. Obviously Vd is a nonlinear
IEEE Spectrum, vol. 3, no. 11, function of α. However, in many applications it is
pp. 48-51; 1966.
desirable for the output to be a linear function of an
J. Kauferle, “Using DC Links to Enhance AC System input control signal. One way of implementing this
Performance,” IEEE Spectrum, vol. 9, no. 6, pp. 31-37; 1972. linear relationship in the firing control circuit is
known as the “cosine crossing” method.
Textbooks devoted to the subject include:
At the heart of this method is a circuit known as a
E. W. Kimbark, Direct Current Transmission, vol. I, Wiley-
Interscience; 1971. zero crossing detector. This circuit compares two
input signals and emits a pulse when they cross each
B. J. Cory (Editor), High Voltage Direct Current Convertors and other (that is, when they are instantaneously equal).
Systems, MacDonald (London); 1965. One input to the zero crossing detector is the input
control signal, Vi. The other input is an internally
generated sinusoidal signal having the same
frequency as the power frequency but displaced in
phase so that it peaks at the α = 0 commutation
3-10
point. Assume that the peak value of this signal is 11. AC/DC Converter as a DC Motor Drive
Vp/k1, where k1 is a constant. Then pulses will (Figure 3.12)
appear at the output of the zero crossing detector at:
AC/DC converters are widely used in closed-loop DC
Vi motor drives, supplying controllable power either to
α = cos −1 the armature or to the field. Usually the other time
Vp k1
constants in the loop are much greater than the time
The pulses which occur when the sinusoidal signal constant of the AC/DC converter. Hence the linear
crosses Vi in a negative-going direction can then be analysis given in Section 10 is frequently valid.
used to initiate one set of firing pulses.* The output
voltage from the AC/DC converter is then: The basic elements of a closed-loop speed control
supplying the armature of a DC motor are shown
π π above. The AC/DC converter is represented by a
Vd = sin Vp cosα = sin Vp i = AVi
P P V
linear voltage amplifier with a gain A. The inside
π P π P Vp k1 current-limiting loop serves to override the outside
where: speed-control loop if necessary to prevent the
current from exceeding a safe value. Otherwise this
k1 P π
A= sin inside loop may be ignored.
π P
The analysis of the dynamics of the speed-control
Thus the AC/DC converter operates as a linear loop can be performed with standard linear
voltage amplifier with a gain of A. techniques, such as the Laplace transform. The
electrical equation of the armature is:
In this analysis we have assumed that the input
voltage, Vi, is a constant. The analysis remains valid AV1 = Vd = ( La S + Ra ) Id = Ea
for a time-varying input, Vi (t), as long as its
frequency spectrum lies well below the fundamental where s = d/dt is the complex frequency operator, Lα
output ripple frequency, Pω. Because of the and Rα are the armature circuit inductance and
nonlinearities inherent in the switching action, a resistance, and Eα is the back emf generated in the
more exact analysis which is valid for rapidly varying armature. Assuming a constant field flux, Eα is
inputs requires advanced techniques such as proportional to the angular speed of the armature, ωα:
describing functions or z-transforms. These
1
techniques are described in the following references: Ea = kaω a or ω a = Ea
ka
G. De and A. K. Mandal, ”Incremental Describing
Function Analysis of Subharmonic Oscillations in where kα is the same constant which enters the
Control Systems with Thyristor Converters,” IEEE
Trans., vol. IECI-20, pp. 229-235; Nov. 1973.
torque equation:
*When the sinusoidal signal crosses Vi in a positive-going direction, the where Cm is an electrical capacitance analogous to
output pulses have the opposite polarity and should be ignored. This
moment of inertia, and Rm is a parallel resistance
scheme is repeated P times with the sinusoidal signal shifted by 2π/P to
generate the firing pulses required by other thyristors. analogous to the dissipative load.
3-11
Current Transducer DC Motor Armature and Load
Vω + Vi Vd La Ra Ea ωa
AC/DC Converter 1
Gain = A ka
–
Id J
Et ka2
Current-Limit ka2
Loop T = ka2 Id B
Vω + Vi Aka ωa
H = kt
Figure 3.12
AC/DC Converter in a DC Motor Drive Using Type O or Proportional Speed Control in the Armature Circuit
These equations can now be used to eliminate Id and that this limitation can be removed through the use of
Eα, yielding the overall forward transfer function: a four-quadrant AC/DC converter.
ωa Aka References:
G= =
Vi ( La s + Ra )( Js + B) + Ka2 1. Solid-State DC Motor Drives (Chapter 2), A. Kusko;
MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass.; 1969.
The back emf of the armature, Eα, could be used as
an accurate indicator of armature speed except that 2. Feedback Control System Analysis and Synthesis, J. J.
D’Azzo and C. H. Houpis; McGraw-Hill, New York.
it is physically inaccessible. The applied armature
voltage, Vd, is sometimes used as an approximate 3. R. Cushman, “Powerful SCR’s, Connected in Parallel,
indicator of speed where precise speed control is Control Industry’s Biggest Machinery,” Electronics, pp.
unnecessary. Better regulation is achieved by means 110-120;
Oct. 4, 1965.
of a tachometer which generates a feedback voltage
proportional to armature speed. In this case, the 4. R. H. Neer and R. M. Brenza, “SCR’s in Large Motor
transfer function of the feedback path is a constant: Drives,” Control Engineering, vol. 20, pp. 42-45; Feb.
1973.
Et
H= = kt 5. A.S.A. Farag, et al, “Studies on an SCR Controlled
ωa Variable Speed DC Shunt Motor,” IEEE Trans., vol. PAS-
93, pp. 785-792; May/June 1974.
Examination of the loop gain, GH, reveals that this is
a second-order Type 0 or proportional control 6. K. H. Bezoid, et al., “Thyristor Converters for
system. Such systems are analyzed in any textbook on Traction DC Motor Drives,” IEEE Trans., vol. IA-9, pp.
612-617; Sept./Oct. 1973.
feedback control. The steady-state armature speed is
directly proportional to the input variable, Vω, and 7. C. E. Robinson, “Redesigning of DC Motors for
the speed of response is related to the loop gain and Applications with Thyristor Power Supplies,” IEEE
the armature time constants, Lα/Rα and J/B. Trans., vol. IGA-4, pp. 508-514; Sept./Oct. 1968.
Since the motor torque is proportional to Id, and since 8. N.A.O. Demerdash, “Effect of Complex Forms on
Copper Losses in Large DC Motors,” IEEE Industry &
Id cannot be reversed in a two-quadrant AC/DC General Applications 5th Annual Meeting Record, pp.
converter, this type of motor drive cannot 77-81; Oct. 1970.
regeneratively brake or reverse the direction of rotation
unless a polarity reversing switch is incorporated into 9. W. C. Carter, “Mechanical Factors Affecting Electrical
Drive Performance,” IEEE Trans., vol. IGA-5, pp.282-
either the armature of the field circuit. We will soon see
290; May/June 1969.
3-12
Id Vp
Vd = p (1 + Cos a)
Iin Vp
Vp sin ωt Vd
a = 90o
Iin Fundamental Component of Iin
Id
a
φ=
2
Figure 3.13
Two-Pulse Semiconverter Circuits and Waveforms for α = 90°
12. Two-Pulse Semiconverters (Figure 3.13) Voltage and current waveforms are shown for
α = 90o. Note that Vd is controllable from 2VP/π to
In the previous two-pulse 2-quadrant converter, all of the zero, but the corresponding range of α is from zero
diodes in the diode bridge were replaced by thyristors. to 180o rather than zero to 90o as in the fully
controlled converter. In general, the relationship for
Vp
Vd = (1 + cosα ) a two-pulse semiconverter is:
π
Note also that the displacement angle of the AC source
There are a number of similar two-pulse converters current is now α/2, giving an improved power factor.
which have controllable DC output voltages, but are
confined to 1-quadrant operation. That is, they can Semiconverters are widely used for DC motor drives
operate as controlled rectifiers, but since the output where reversing is not necessary or can be provided by a
voltage cannot reverse polarity, they cannot operate reversing contactor. For these applications,
as inverters. These circuits are known as semiconverters are preferred to fully controlled
semiconductors or half-controlled converters. converters because:
The most obvious way to change a full converter into (a) they require fewer thyristors which are more
a semiconverter is to connect a freewheeling diode expensive than diodes and
across the DC output terminals of the bridge. During
the interval from 180o to (180 + α)o, load current (b) the input displacement factor is increased.
circulates through the freewheeling diode rather Depending on other factors, the harmonic content of
than through the bridge. But the same effect may be the input current and output voltage may be reduced or
achieved more inexpensively by replacing only two of increased.
the four diodes in the original diode bridge by
thyristors. Two possible configurations are shown. In Reference:
each case, there is always a freewheeling path which
D. L. Duff and A. Ludbrook, “Semiconverter Rectifiers
prevents the output voltage from going negative. Go High Power,” IEEE Trans., vol. IGA-4, pp. 185-192;
Mar./Apr. 1968.
3-13
Positive Negative must be a compromise between the large value
Converter Converter required for smoothing and a small value for
minimum response time.
3-14
References Axis for Id = Constant
Projecting Phasors
X D
IA
A
IB
N B (Vxy)ave = Vd
IC
C
Y
Id
Three-Phase
Sinusiodal Voltage Three-Phase Constant-Current
Source Bridge DC Load or Source
Vp
AC Phase Voltages
AN BN CN AN
(Line to Neutral)
+
=
3
Vp
–
=
3
Lines
Conduction X
DC
Logic Y
+ Vp AB AC BC BA CA CB AB AC
AC Line-to-Line Voltages
u=
– Vp o ωt
180
0o 120o 240o 360o 480o π
Figure 3.15
Guide for Drawing 3-Phase AC/DC Bridge Waveforms
voltages. A reference axis is indicated which is reference axis. Alternately, the windings can be held
consistent with the electrical angle θ = (180o/π)ωτ fixed if the reference axis is rotated clockwise with
defined at the bottom of the figure. As time passes angular velocity ω.
from t = 0, the phase windings may be pictured as
rotating counterclockwise with angular velocity ω. The two three-pulse halves of the bridge should
The instantaneous phase voltage is proportional to always be analyzed separately before combining them
the projection of the length of the winding onto the to determine the overall six-pulse waveforms. It is
3-15
References Axis for Id = Constant
Projecting Phasors
X D
IA
A
IB
N B (Vxy)ave = Vd
IC
C
Y
Id
Three-Phase
Sinusiodal Voltage Three-Phase Constant-Current
Source Bridge DC Load or Source
a=0
Vp
AC Phase Voltages
AN BN CN AN
(Line to Neutral)
+ VXN
=
3
Fund. of IA
+ Id –
IAX (u = 0)
0
IAY
+ Id –
Vp
– VYN
=
3
Lines
Conduction A B C A X
DC
Logic B C A B C Y
+ Vp AB AC BC BA CA CB AB AC
VXY
AC Line-to-Line Voltages
VAX
u=
– Vp
180o ωt
0o 120o 240o 360o 480o π
Figure 3.16
Three-Phase AC/DC Bridge Waveform Example
obvious that each thyristor in each three-pulse group waveform sketching guide if the waveforms are
must conduct for 120o of each cycle under normal actually drawn on tracing paper.
operating conditions. As the conduction state of
each phase is determined as a function of time, this The process is most easily described in terms of an
is recorded on the “conduction logic” diagram. The example (Figure 3.16). The firing delay angle of α of
three-pulse voltage waveforms are then easily derived each thyristor is measured from the point where a
from the AC phase (or line-to-neutral) voltages, and diode (substituted for the thyristor) would begin to
finally the six-pulse waveforms from the AC line-to- conduct. Let us begin by determining the waveforms
line voltages. The figure can be used repeatedly as a for α = 0.
3-16
In the three-pulse group of thyristors connected to X, voltage across thyristor AX, for instance, is
thyristor AX is connected to the most positive phase simply VAX. Thus:
voltage over the interval 0o < θ < 120o. A diode in this
position would conduct over this interval, and with 0° < θ < 120° VAX = 0 (Since this thyristor is
α = 0 a thyristor will do the same. This fact is recorded conducting and the
on the conduction logic diagram by showing that X is conduction logic
tied to A over 0o < θ < 120o. Similarly it can be argued diagram shows that X
that X is tied to B by the conduction of thyristor BX is tied to A)
over the interval 120o < θ < 240o, and X is tied to C
over the interval 240o < θ < 360o. Thereafter the cycle 120° < θ < 240° VAX = VAB (Since X is tied to B)
repeats. The VXN waveform should now be obvious. 240° < θ < 360° VAX = VAc (Since X is tied to C)
In the three-pulse group connected to Y, phase A is Having completed the analysis of the voltage
most negative and Y is tied to A over the interval waveforms, we can turn our attention to the current
180o < θ < 300o. Similarly Y is tied to B over waveforms. Under the assumptions of continuous,
300o < θ < 420o (or -60o < θ < 60o), and to C over constant DC current Id and no commutation overlap,
60o < θ < 180o. In this way, the conduction logic at any instant the current in any part of the converter
diagram is completed and the VYN waveform is must be either +Id or zero. The conduction logic
derived. diagram tells the interval during which each thyristor
conducts Id. The AC line currents are then obtained
The unfiltered VXY waveform can now be derived by adding the two thyristor currents in each phase:
from the relationship:
I A = I AB + I AY = I AX − IYA
VXY = VXN − VYN
From symmetry, the angular position of the
since the VXN and VYN waveforms are both known. fundamental component of AC line current can
Alternately, VXY can be derived from the conduction usually be determined and compared with the
logic diagram by taking one interval of θ at a time. corresponding AC phase voltage to establish the
Thus for 0 < θ < 60o, X is tied to A, Y is tied to B, and displacement angle φ.
VXY = VAB. For 60o < θ < 120o, VXY = VAC; ect. In each
case, VXY is equal to one of the AC line-to-line voltages, This complete analysis of the converter for α = 0
and the corresponding segment may be sketched. probably did not reveal any unexpected waveforms
because of the relative ease with which a six-pulse
The average of the VXY waveform is equal to the diode rectifier bridge can be analyzed. However, the
filtered DC voltage VDY = Vd. The instantaneous beauty of the analytical process that has been
voltage across the filter inductor is the difference described is that it gives the waveforms for other
between these two voltages: values of α with equal ease. The entire conduction
dld logic is simply shifted to the right by angle α. The
VXD = VXY − Vd = L corresponding changes in the voltage waveforms may
dt surprise you, but these are left as an exercise.
The peak-to-peak ripple current in the DC circuit The graphical approach to converter analysis has two
can be evaluated from the volt-second area imposed major advantages:
on the inductor:
1 (1) it is easy to perform, and
L∫
∆ld = VXD dt
(2) it leads to a good physical understanding of what
is happening at any time at any point in the
where the limits on the integral are the points where circuit.
VXY crosses Vd (i.e. where VXD = 0).
Once the graphical analysis has been completed,
The only remaining voltage waveforms are those appropriate mathematical expressions can be
which appear across the various thyristors. These, derived, if necessary, for each segment of each
too, may be derived directly from the conduction waveform. However, an attempt to derive these
logic diagram and the AC line-to-line voltages. The expressions without first thinking through the details
3-17
Fundamental component of Vout
V Vout
Figure 3.17
Voltage and Current Waveforms for a Three-Pulse Cycloconverter with a 5:1 Frequency Reduction Ratio
of the physical behavior of the converter is For historical research on the early development of
guaranteed to produce false results. the power electronics field, an invaluable aid is the
Various aspects of this method of analysis have been “Bibliography on Electric Power Converters,” AIEE
adapted from a number of sources. The following Publication No. S-35, February 1950. Nearly 1300
publications between 1903 and 1947 are listed.
references are recommended for further study:
“A Simplified Technique for Analyzing the three-Phase
Bridge Rectifier Circuit,” 15. Naturally Commutated Cycloconverter
A. Ludbrook and R. M. Murray, IEEE Trans. on Industry (Figure 3.17)
& General Applications, vol. IGA-1, pp. 182-187;
May/June 1965. We have examined the two-pulse dual converter and
Solid-State DC Motor Drives (Chapters 3 and 5), A. Kusko; shown that it is capable of supplying a DC output
MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass.; 1969. voltage of either polarity, and can also support
current of either polarity in the DC circuit. If the
Rectifier Circuits: Theory and Design, timing of the firing control signals is modified, this
J. Schaefer, John Wiley, New York; 1965.
same circuit can operate as a one-step frequency
Principles of Inverter Circuits (Section 3.4), changer. In this mode of operation it is known as a
B. D. Bedford and R. G. Hoft, John Wiley, New York; naturally commutated cycloconverter, and does not
1964. require an intermediate DC link such as that
Thyristor Phase-Controlled Converters and Cycloconverters, B. involved when a controlled rectifier and a
R. Pelly, John Wiley, New York; 1971. synchronous inverter are used together as a
frequency changer.
The Fundamental Theory of Arc Converters,
H. Rissik, Chapman & Hall, London; 1939. Facsimile In essence, a cycloconverter synthesizes the desired
reprints available from University Microfilms, Ann low-frequency AC waveform as a succession of
Arbor, Michigan.
periodically varying “DC” values. Since these “DC”
“The Rectifier Calculus,” W. M. Goodhue, AIEE Trans., values are functions of the corresponding firing
vol. 59, pp. 687-691; 1940. (Discussion on pp. 1073- delays, this synthesis is achieved by periodically
1076.)
3-18
modulating α for each thyristor. But the derivation of The most comprehensive reference on cycloconverters
the firing control signals is not as straightforward as is:
it might sound from this elementary description.
B.R. Pelly, Thyristor Phase-Controlled Converters and
Two facts should be emphasized: Cycloconverters, Wiley-Interscience; 1971.
(1) It is the desired output voltage waveform which Other interesting references include:
determines the proper value of α each time a L. J. Lawson, “The Practical Cycloconverter,” IEEE
thyristor is fired, but Trans. on Industry & General Applications, vol. IGA-4,
pp. 141-144; 1968.
(2) it is the current waveform which determines
whether the positive or negative converter should T. M. Hamblin and T. H. Barton, “Cycloconverter
Control Circuits,: IEEE Trans. on Industry Applications.
be activated.
vol. IA-8, pp. 443-453; 1972.
Of course the phase and amplitude relationships *A novel cycloconverter which operates at 3 times the source frequency is
between the voltage and current waveforms are load- described by J. E. Jenkins in “A Frequency Tripling Cycloconverter,” IEEE
dependent. Therefore the firing control logic usually Industry Applications 7th Annual Meeting Record, pp. 81-83; Oct.
includes a feedback loop which maintains proper 1972.
synchronization in spite of varying load conditions.
3-19
Single-Phase AC Switches
Three-Phase AC Switches
Figure 3.18
Bilateral Solid-State Switch Configurations
N On-State #1
Off-State V
N
Gate
P
N On-State #2
Figure 3.19
Triac Junction Geometry, Symbol, and V-I Characteristic
not been possible to build triacs with voltage, References on triacs include:
current, or frequency ratings as high as those readily
General Electric SCR Manual (Fifth Edition), Section 7,
obtainable in thyristors. Therefore, high power AC General Electric Semiconductor Products Dept.,
switches must be implemented with thyristors. Syracuse, N. Y.: 1972.
3-20
Total
Phase-Delay Integral-Cycle
Differential
Figure 3.20
Four Modes of Operation for an AC Regulator
18. AC Switches and Regulators (Figure 3.20) because of their speed and their capability for a
nearly infinite number of switching operations, they
The deceptive simplicity of AC switching and have much greater flexibility to achieve control on a
regulation makes it easy to underestimate its cycle-by-cycle basis that is impossible with an
usefulness and overlook potentially valuable electromechanical switch. This control permits
applications. In fact, solid-state AC switches offer efficient regulation of the effective AC power to
many advantages over electromechanical switches. intermediate values as well as full off or full on.
For example:
Solid-state AC regulators can be designed to operate
a. The elimination of moving parts and arcing leads in various modes. If the initiation of conduction is
to quiet operation, longer life without wear, phase delayed each half cycle, the regulation is
greater reliability, and safety in hazardous equivalent to the phase-delay control of a rectifier.
environments (such as explosive atmospheres). This mode is easy to implement and is widely used in
b. A solid-state switch is easy to actuate remotely by lamp dimmers and speed controls for small tools and
a logic-level signal, or it can be interfaced with appliances. The fundamental power frequency
other electronic circuits and transducers for remains 60 Hz so that flicker or pulsations are not a
sensing and control. Photo-isolation of the input, problem. However, the fact that turn-on does not
by means of a light-emitting diode and a occur at zero voltage causes significant high-
photodetector, eliminates the possibility of surges frequency interference to be generated. Appropriate
in the power circuit finding their way back into filters are therefore needed.
sensitive control circuits. If the load time constant is somewhat longer than a
c. The speed of a solid-state switch is nearly cycle of the power frequency, an alternate mode of
instantaneous compared to the period of 60 Hz regulation which eliminates high-frequency
power. interference can be used. In this mode, turn-on
always occurs at zero voltage. Of course, with line
A number of manufacturers offer general-purpose commutation, turn-off always occurs at zero current.
“solid-state relay” modules which are rated for standard Regulation is achieved by simply omitting one or
AC line voltages to 480V and currents to 200A. more complete cycles of conduction as appropriate,
and is therefore known as integral-cycle control. (If
Obviously these solid-state switches can be used for the existence of an unbalanced DC component is not
occasionally turning an AC load off or on. But a problem, half-cycle control can be used.) This
3-21
AC
Line
Wound-Rotor
AC Line Induction Motor
60 Hz Cyclo-
Converter
0 to ±6.5 Hz Flywheel
(d)
Figure 3.21
Types of Varegulators
mode of control is feasible, for example, with water 19. Varegulators (Figure 3.21)
heaters, room heaters, ovens, and the like.
The preceding power circuits have been “two-port”
Phase control and integral-cycle control as described circuits which accept real power from a source and
above permit “total” control of the effective output convert or control it as they transmit it to a load.
voltage from full line voltage to zero. Both generate Recently another “one-port” class of power circuits is
transients which can be troublesome in some beginning to appear. These circuits incorporate an
applications. These transients can be minimized by internal “load” which acts as a reservoir to
“differential” control if a reduced range of control is controllably store and return energy. If the input
adequate. The minimum required voltage is power is averaged over an appropriate interval, there
obtained from a tapped transformer winding, and is ideally no net flow of real power or watts but only
switching occurs from this minimum value to full an interchange of reactive power or vars. Hence we
value rather than from zero. Intermediate values may will call these circuits “varegulators”.
be obtained either by phase delay or by integral-cycle
switching. An obvious type of varegulator is shown in Figure
3.21 (a). An AC switch controls the portion of each
The voltage waveforms resulting from these four modes voltage half-cycle which is applied to an inductor. If
of AC regulation are compared above for a resistive the firing of the AC switch is phase delayed until
load. Inductive loads cause commutation to be delayed after the peak of the source voltage, the conduction
after the zero crossing of voltage, and the design of the interval will be less than 180o, and the effective
control circuits must take this fact into account. current will be a function of the delay angle. Hence,
the reactive power drawn from the source can be
References:
continuously controlled by varying the delay angle.
W. Shepherd, “Steady-State Analysis of the Series Unfortunately, this circuit can supply only inductive
Resistance-Inductance Circuit Controlled by Silicon or “lagging” vars, while most practical applications
Controlled Rectifiers,” IEEE Trans., vol. IGA-1, pp.259- require capacitive or “leading” vars to compensate
265; July/Aug. 1965.
for a lagging power factor elsewhere in the system.
R. Thompson, “A Thyristor Alternating Voltage
Regulator,” IEEE Trans., vol. IGA-4, pp. 162-166; Circuit (b) illustrates the use of a capacitive load to
Mar./Apr. 1968. generate leading vars. However, if the firing angle is
arbitrarily delayed to control the vars, the current
through the AC switch occurs in huge pulses as the
3-22
capacitor voltage equalizes with the source voltage. to the flywheel. The power system must supply only
These pulses destroy the switching devices. Hence nominal variations about the average power level.
firing must be synchronized to occur when the
References:
instantaneous source voltage is equal to the capacitor
voltage. Var control is achieved by splitting the J. A. Mulcahy and A. Ludbrook, “A New Flicker
capacitor into sections and controlling each section Correcting System for Arc Furnaces,” Jour. of Metals,
by an independent AC switch. Only enough sections pp. 63-66; April 1967.
are fired to obtain the desired vars. This circuit has H. Frank and B. Landstrom, “Power-Factor Correction with
the disadvantages of requiring numerous AC switches Thyristor-Controlled Capacitors,” ASEA Jour., vol. 44 pp.
and their associated firing circuits while achieving 180-184; 1971.
only stepwise rather than continuous var control.
K. Thorborg, “A Three-Phase Inverter with Reactive
Circuit (c) combines circuits (a) and (b). An Power Control,” IEEE Trans., vol. IA-9, pp. 473-481;
July/Aug. 1973.
unswitched capacitor provides the maximum leading
vars that will be required, while phase delay of the L. A. Kilgore and D. C. Washburn, “Energy Storage at
AC switch in series with the inductor subtracts a Site Permits Use of Large Excavators on Small Power
continuously controllable number of lagging vars. Systems,” Westinghouse Engineer, vol. 30, pp. 162-167;
Nov. 1970.
These static varegulators are beginning to replace
P. T. Finlayson and D. C. Washburn, “Cycloconverter-
rotary synchronous condensers for preventing Controlled Synchronous Machines for Load
lighting flicker on power systems which supply highly Compensation on AC Power Systems,” IEEE Intnl.
pulsating loads, such as industrial arc furnaces. Semiconductor Power Converter Conference Record,
pp. 2-12-1 to 8; May 8-10, 1972.
To appreciate the versatility of the varegulator
concept, consider circuit (d) which was developed to M. S. Erlicki and A. Emanuel-Eigeles, “New Aspects of
Power Factor Improvement: Part I - Theoretical Basis;
meet the needs of a rather unique application. Huge Part II - Practical Circuits,” IEEE Trans., vol. IGA-4, pp.
electrically powered draglines were to be operated at 441-455; July/Aug. 1968.
a remote mining site supplied only by a relatively
small-capacity transmission line. Normal operation of W. Shepherd and P. Zakikhani, “Power Factor
Correction in Nonsinusoidal Systems by the Use of
the draglines involves large cyclic pulsations during
Capacitance,” Jour. Physics D; Applied Physics, vol. 6,
which the peak power can reach several times the pp. 1850-1861; 1973.
average power level for up to 30 sec. During the
remainder of the cycle, comparable peaks of power J.W. Motto, D. P. Orange and R. A. Otto, “The Static
can be regenerated back into the power system. Var Generator and Alternative Approaches To Power
System Var Compensation,” Proceedings: American
Obviously the system voltage will swing widely and Power Conference, 1975.
cannot be stabilized from the generating station
because of the impedance of the transmission line.
Not only the draglines but all other loads on the
power system would be severely affected. 20. Brushless Machines (Figure 3.22)
The problem has been solved by installing a Increasing attention is being given to the use of
varegulator near the draglines. Because of the large solid-state switches, not only as drives and exciters for
amount of energy storage needed to smooth the conventional DC and AC machines, but also as
power pulsations (some 600 MW-seconds), mechanical integral parts of these machines to improve their
storage in a large flywheel was chosen over electrical overall performance in various ways. In particular,
storage. Rapid control of the coupling between the solid-state devices make it possible to eliminate
flywheel and the power system was achieved by means mechanical commutators and/or slip rings together
of a wound-rotor induction machine. The rotor is fed with their well-known limitations and maintenance
from a cycloconverter whose frequency and phasing problems. Brushless excitation of large alternators
relative to the system voltage determine the and brushless motors are two typical examples of
magnitude and direction of power flow. brushless machines.
Much of the peak power to the draglines is drawn The DC field excitation of today’s largest power
from the flywheel, and regenerated power is returned station alternators may require 600V at 10,000A or
more. Traditionally this excitation power was
3-23
Pilot Diode
Exciter Exciter Rectifier
Alternator Main Alternator Prime Mover
Alternator
Rotors
Stator
Windings DC Field To DC Field
Controlled AC
Gate Output
Rectifier
Control
Regulator
Synchronous Motor
Load
AC or DC Solid-State
AC Variable Freq. AC
Supply
Converter To Stator Windings
Figure 3.22
Brushless Machines
supplied through slip rings to the rotor field Various modifications of this basic approach utilize
windings from a DC generator with a commutator. thyristor control on the shaft (2,3,4), or rectification
Solid-state has now done away with both the slip of the voltages induced in the field windings
rings and the commutator. The principles of a themselves (5).
brushless excitation system are shown above. The
rotors of all machines are mounted on a single shaft The development of brushless motors is making it
driven by a turbine or other prime mover. Rotating possible to achieve the many advantages of DC
windings are interconnected along the shaft, but motors without the disadvantages of a commutator.
require no electrical connections to the stator. Such motors are being used in applications ranging
from miniature instrument drives to hundreds of
The smallest machine is a pilot alternator which horsepower. Most motors of this type resemble a
generates the excitation for the exciter alternator. The synchronous motor in that the main polyphase AC
pilot alternator has a permanent magnet rotor. The windings are on the stator and the DC field windings
AC output from its stator windings is coupled to the or permanent magnets for small sizes are on the
stator field windings of the exciter alternator through rotor, as shown above. To avoid the loss of torque at
a controlled rectifier. Gate control of this rectifier is speeds well below synchronous speed (which is
used to provide regulation of the main AC output. characteristic of AC motors), the stator windings are
supplied by a solid-state AC converter which switches
The rotor of the exciter alternator generate AC in synchronism with the actual rotor position. That
which is rectified by diodes mounted on the shaft. is, the AC frequency is determined by rotor-position
The components of this rotating rectifier must be sensors (photoelectric, magnetic, etc.), while the
designed to withstand high centrifugal forces (up to phasing, is determined by the torque required.
8000g). The DC output supplies the rotor field
windings of the main alternator. The main AC
output is obtained from the stator windings. (See If the power source is DC, the AC converter is an
Reference 1 for further information.) inverter. For an AC power source, the AC converter
3-24
may be a cycloconverter, a self-commutated SUMMARY
frequency changer, or a rectifier/inverter.
• Most established applications utilize Type 2 Switches
The DC rotor field is usually supplied through slip and Natural Commutation: AC/DC Converters,
rings. However, the use of a solid “claw-pole” rotor Cycloconverters, and AC Switches and Regulators.
allows the field windings (as well as the AC windings)
to be placed on the stator. Further information is • Many newer applications utilize Type 3 Switches with
contained in References 6, 7, and 8. Turn-Off Capability or Forced Commutation: DC
Switches and Regulators, Inverters, and Generalized
References: Frequency Changers.
1. T. L. Dillman, et al., “Brushless Excitation,” IEEE Spectrum, 21. Summary
pp. 58-66; March 1972.
3-25
(c) Describe what would happen if a two-pulse rectifier (b) If the battery is inadvertently connected into the
were loaded by a pure inductance. First consider circuit with the opposite polarity to that shown,
the case when α < 90o and then the case for α > 90o. calculate and plot Id as a function of α.
(c) Discuss what would happen in the circuit if R
were negligibly small.
Problem 3.2 Capacitor Switching
3-26
and Lα = 5mH. Assume that the load can be Problem 3.6 Operation of a Three-Pulse Cycloconverter
represented by constant B, and that the friction and
windage losses are 10 hp at 1750 rpm. The peak Load Current Waveforms
value of the cosinusoidal reference signal into the
zero-crossing detector is 5V. The current-limiting Load Current
Phase A
loop is set to operate at ± 400A. (The footnote*
contains reference information that may be useful.)
*1 hp = 745.7W
Sinusoidal coefficients of a Fourier series
expansion are given by:
3-27
Problem 3.7 Qualitative Analysis of an AC Regulator
Parasitic
Capacitance
Load Voltage & Current
Triac
Load
Waveforms
for Resistive
Load
Triac Voltage
The circuit above shows a triac used in a simple (b) Assume that the triac turns off when the current
phase-delay AC regulator intended for resistive loads. becomes less than a small (but non-zero) holding
The purpose of this program is to qualitatively current, and that there is a small (but non-zero)
explore some of the effects of inductive loads and capacitance across the triac. How would these
parasitic parameters. Seek to understand in detail parasitic parameters further modify the waveforms
what happens in the circuit with the goal of setting during the turn-off and turn-on transients? Would
up a solution procedure, but an actual analytical the previous commutation problem be more or
solution is not required. less severe?
(a) Idealized waveforms of triac voltage and load (c) What corrective measures might be designed into
voltage and current are shown for a resistive load the circuit to assure proper commutation?
and α = 90o. How would these waveforms change if
the load had a lagging power factor of 70%? Would
load power vary as (cos α)2? What aspect of the
modified waveform might cause the triac to fail to
commutate at all?
3-28
Chapter 4
TURN-OFF DEVICES AND
SELF-COMMUTATED
CIRCUITS
Section
1. Power Transistor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-2
Introduction
2. Gate Controlled Switch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-3 The objectives of this chapter are:
3. DC Switching and Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-3
4. Chopper Using Thyristors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-4 a. To describe and compare the three ways of
5. Fundamentals of Inverters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-5 implementing turn-off switches: transistors, gate
6. Full-Bridge Inverter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-7 controlled switches, and force-commutated thyristors.
7. Half-Bridge Inverter with an Inductive Load . . . . . . . .4-7
b. To explain the basic ways in which a charged
8. Thyristor Inverters with Forced Commutation . . . . . . . .4-8
capacitor can be used to turn a thyristor off and
9. Types of Forced Commutation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-9
the factors which determine the size of capacitor
10. Series Inverter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-10
required in each case.
11. Parallel Inverter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-11
12. Complementary Impulse – Commutated Inverter . . . . .4-12 c. To analyze the operation of a chopper in
13. Inverter Output Voltage Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-12 decreasing or increasing a DC voltage.
14. Inverter Output Waveform Improvement . . . . . . . . . .4-14
15. Frequency and Power Factor Changers . . . . . . . . . . . .4-15 d. To describe and compare the basic circuit
16. Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-16 configurations for transistor and thyristor
inverters, and discuss ways of controlling output
voltage and waveform.
4-1
IC
IB3 > IB2 > IB1
Collector
N IB = 0
VCE
Figure 4.1
NPN Transistor Junction Geometry, Symbol, and V-I Characteristic (A Non-Latching Type 3 Switch)
1. Power Transistor (Figure 4.1) increases above βIB or if the base current decreases
below IC/β, where β is the common-emitter current
In contrast to a thyristor or Type 2 switch which can gain. Therefore, the current overload capacity of a
be turned on by a short gate pulse and “latches” into transistor is very limited.
conduction until current is commutated externally, a
power transistor is a non-latching Type 3 switch. Also contrary to a thyristor, a power transistor is not
Operated as a switch, a transistor must be held in its designed to operate in the third quadrant of its V-I
on-state by a continuous control signal in the base characteristics. Normally, if the transistor is exposed
circuit. When this signal is removed, the switch to reverse currents, a shunting diode between
automatically reverts to its off-state. collector and emitter is used to bypass these currents.
The junction structure, circuit symbol, and V-I At present, transistors are usually the most
characteristic of an NPN transistor are shown above. economical Type 3 switches for relatively low power
In the forward direction (collector positive with levels, and because of the slower response of
respect to the emitter for an NPN transistor), the thyristors, transistors must be used for operating
limiting values of the V-I characteristic are similar to frequencies above about 10kHz. However, transistors
those of a thyristor, with the cut-off and saturation are not available with power capacities greater than
regions corresponding to the off and on states about 10kVA.
respectively. Two important differences should be
noted, however. The following references may be consulted for
further information on power transistor design,
First, since the transistor is not ratings, and circuit applications:
self-latching, the transition between the two limiting
Solid-State Power Circuits, (Designer’s Handbook SP-52),
states can be stopped at any intermediate value of RCA Solid State Div., Somerville, N.J.; 1971.
collector current. If the base current is inadequate to
carry the collector into saturation for a specified load Westinghouse Silicon Power Transistor Handbook,
line, the operating point remains in a region of high Westinghouse Semiconductor Div., Youngwood, Pa.;
1967.
dissipation, and the temperature increase may
damage the device. Power Transistors, (Technical Series PM-81), RCA Solid
State Div., Somerville, N.J.; 1971.
Second, after the transistor reaches its saturation
state, it can easily drop out of saturation (with the
same destructive effects) if the collector current
4-2
3. DC Switching and Regulation (Figure 4.3)
The Gate-Controlled Switch–
Since a Type 3 switch can both initiate and interrupt
A Thyristor with Turn-Off conduction, it can act as a DC switch if connected in
Capability. series with a DC source and load.
A conventional thyristor switches from its forward Step-down choppers, in which the average output
conducting state to its forward blocking state only voltage is less than the input voltage, are most
when its anode current is reduced by external means commonly used. A circuit of this type is shown in the
to a value less than its required holding current. example, including an inductance to smooth the
Since the holding current is normally a very weak output waveform and a freewheeling diode to
function of gate current, the gate cannot interrupt provide a path for the load current while the Type 3
appreciable anode current. However, thyristors can switch is off. Although the average voltage is
be specially designed to increase the dependence of decreased by this circuit, the peak source current is
the holding current on gate current. If the gate equal to the load current, so the average source
current can cause the holding current to exceed the current is less than the load current. Therefore this
load current which is flowing, then the device is chopper steps up the average current.
capable of gate controlled turn-off. This type of With some rearrangement, the circuit can increase
device is known as a turn-off thyristor or a gate the average voltage and decrease the average
controlled switch. The ratio of load current which current. As shown in the second circuit, L is placed
can be interrupted to the gate current needed is in series with the source and the Type 3 is moved to a
typically 3 to 10. shunt position. When the switch is closed, L stores
Although the gate controlled switch offers attractive volt-seconds. When the switch opens, the inductive
possibilities for the future, it is presently commercially kickback voltage adds to the source voltage, causing
available only in current ratings up to about 10A. the diode to conduct, and raising the load voltage
above the source voltage. L performs voltage
References: averaging, while C performs current averaging. Both
J. M. Goldey, et al., “Turn-Off Gain in PNPN Triodes,”
L and C are assumed large, yielding waveforms with
Solid-State Electronics, vol. 3, pp. 119-122; 1961. perfect smoothing. (In fact, except for the lack of an
AC source, all the assumptions made in rectifier
T. C. New, et al., “High-Power Gate Controlled Switch,” analysis have also been made here.)
IEEE Trans., vol. ED-17, pp. 706-710; Sept. 1970.
From this description, it is seen that choppers are
E. D. Wolley, “Gate Turn-Off in PNPN Devices,” IEEE
Trans., vol. ED-13, pp. 590-597; July 1966. the functional equivalent of a step-down or a step-up
DC transformer, with the additional advantage that
H. F. Storm, “Introduction to Turn-Off Silicon- the effective turns ratio can easily be changed
Controlled Rectifiers,” IEEE Trans. Comm. & Elect., pp. electronically by changing the duty cycle of the
375-383; July 1963.
switching control signals. Choppers are widely used
E. D. Wolley, et al., “Characteristics of a 200-Amp Gate as speed controls in DC-powered vehicles such as
Turn-Off Thyristor,” IEEE Industry Applications Soc. industrial fork lifts, golf carts, electric cars, etc. The
8th Annual Meeting Record, pp. 251-257; Oct. 1973. size of the smoothing inductors and capacitors is
P. S. Raderecht, “The Development of a Gate Assisted reduced if the frequency of operation of the chopper
Turn-Off Thyristor for Use in High Frequency is increased. But then switching losses increase, so
Applications,” Intnl. Jour. Electronics, vol. 36, pp. 399- the frequency chosen is a compromise.
416; 1974.
4-3
ton
Vout Vd = V
ton + toff B
Step-Down Chopper
VB
Iin Id
L
ton
Iinave = I
ton + toff d
Step-Up Chopper ton
Vout Vd = (1+ )V
toff B
Iin Iout Id
L VB
+
C Off On Off On Off On
VB Vout Vd R
– Iout Iin
VB Id
Figure 4.3
DC Regulators or Choppers
R. V. Langmuir, “Repetitively Switched Circuits,” IEEE Now insert the circuit shown in the dashed box.
Trans., vol. AES-9, pp. 59-64; Jan. 1973. Capacitor C will charge through RC to voltage VB
with the polarity indicated. When it is desired to turn
P. W. Franklin, “Theory of the DC Motor Controlled by
T1 off, say at time t3, a firing pulse is applied to the
Power Pulses: Part I-Motor Operation; Part II-Braking
Methods, Commutation, and Additional Losses,” IEEE gate of auxiliary thyristor T2, thereby connecting C
Trans., vol. PAS-91, pp. 249-262; 1972. across T1. The capacitor voltage adds to the battery
voltage, increasing Vout to 2VB. But more importantly,
it reverse biases T1 and diverts the load current. As C
recharges, the polarity on T1 again becomes positive
4. Chopper Using Thyristors (Figure 4.4)
at t4. If the interval from t3 to t4 equals or exceeds
The choppers which were just considered used the turn-off time of T1 and if dv/dt is not excessive,
power transistors as Type 3 switches. For larger power then T1 will be able to block forward voltage and
ratings, a transistor can be replaced by a thyristor gate control is reestablished. By t5, C has charged to
4-4
2VB
Vout
VT1
Id
L VB
T1
+
+ C Vout
– dv Id
VB R =
T2 dt C
– VB
RC VT1
4-5
DPDT
SPST SPST
Figure 4.5
Basic Inverter Circuit Configurations
output polarity. Three basic single-phase circuit rapidly, thereby interrupting the load current before
configurations are used to achieve reversal.: it can reverse and be picked up by the
complementary switches which are turning on, a
(a) A full bridge is equivalent to a DPDT reversing huge reverse inductive voltage is induced across
switch which allows the full source to be these switches and may destroy them. In a rectifier or
connected to the full load with either polarity. a chopper, which have a DC output, this reverse
Four Type 3 switches are needed to implement voltage could be avoided by shunting the output by a
the DPDT switch. freewheeling diode. But with an AC output from an
(b) A center tap on the source allows the load inverter, the “reverse” voltage is of opposite polarity
polarity to be reversed when the load is switched on alternate half cycles. Two freewheeling diodes of
from one half of the source to the other. Only opposite polarity would simply short the output.
half of the source is used at a time, but a half The solution is to transfer the freewheeling diodes
bridge (or SPDT switch) containing only two from the AC output circuit to the DC circuit where
Type 3 switches is adequate. the reverse transients are always of the same polarity.
(c) A center tap on the load (which is usually These diodes are in fact connected either directly or
achieved by a center tapped transformer effectively in parallel with the Type 3 switches. The
winding) requires only two Type 3 switches and parallel combination of a Type 3 switch and a diode
also allows the full source voltage to be used. can support (conduct) current in both directions but
can support (block) voltage in only one direction.
If the load on any of these inverter circuits is Note that the switch required by an inverter is the
resistive, the output voltage and current waveforms dual switch required by an AC/DC converter which
are square waves. Under these idealized conditions, can support (block) voltage in both directions but
the Type 3 switches must each block forward voltage can support (conduct) current in only one direction.
during the half cycle when they are turned off, but
they are never exposed to reverse voltage or current. Other important aspects of transistor inverters are
analyzed in the following references:
However, an inductive load is more typical. In this
F. C. Y. Lee, et al., “Analysis of Limit Cycles in a Two-
case, the inductance stores appreciable energy Transistor Saturable-Core Parallel Inverter,” IEEE
during each half cycle. If the Type 3 switches turn off Trans., vol. AES-9, pp. 571-584; July 1973.
4-6
F. C. Y. Lee and T. G. Wilson, “Analysis and Modeling of
a Family of Two-Transistor Parallel Inverters,” IEEE
Trans., vol. MAG, pp. 414-418; Sept. 1973.
An interesting theoretical technique using Immediately prior to time t1, Type 3 switch T1
“Park vectors” for the analysis of three-phase (shown as a transistor) has been conducting and the
inverters is discussed in: load current Iout has reached a value +IP. At t1, base
current is removed from T1 to turn it off, and base
R. K. Jardan, et al., “General Analysis of Three-Phase current is supplied to T2 to turn it on. However,
Inverters,” IEEE Trans., vol. IGA-5, pp. 672-679;
Nov./Dec. 1969.
current in the inductance cannot change instantly; it
must be a continuous function of time. Since Iout at
R. K. Jardan, “Modes of Operation of Three-Phase t1 is positive, it cannot flow through T2 but transfers
Inverters,” IEEE Trans., vol. IGA-5, pp. 680-685; from T1 to the parallel diode D2 instead. But since
Nov./Dec. 1969.
D2 is connected to the other half of the DC source,
Vout reverses polarity immediately.
4-7
partly into the load resistance and partly back into half cycle, and the next half cycle is the same except
the DC source. This flow of power back to the DC that T1 and T2 interchange roles.
source represents the return of the reactive
component of power. The waveform of current in the DC source is the
same as that in the load, except that the relative
At t2, Iout becomes negative and transfers from D2 to polarity reverses each half cycle, as shown. When the
T2. Iout increases in the negative direction source current waveform is multiplied by the
(asymptotically approaching VB/R) until t3 when T2 constant source voltage, the result is the source
is turned off and T1 is turned on. This completes the power waveform. Positive power represents the flow
of real and reactive power from the source to the
load, and negative power represents the return of
D1
the reactive component of power.
– VB
VR = RIout 8. Thyristor Inverters with Forced Commutation
IB2
In principle, a thyristor and its associated circuit for
forced commutation can be substituted directly into
the previous inverter circuits in place of each
Vout transistor. In practice, a number of difficulties arise
+VB
when this is done, including the following:
VL
(a) The shunting diodes prevent the application of
VR
an appreciable reverse voltage to achieve
minimum turn-off time.
T1 On T1 On
-VB T2 Off T2 Off (b) Application of a brief firing pulse at t1 is
Iout T2 On ineffective because the thyristor is not forward
+IP T1 Off biased until after t2, and the delay between t1
D2 and t2 is load dependent.
T1 T1
(c) Inefficient charging of the commutating
T2 capacitor can significantly reduce the overall
D1 D1
t2 efficiency of the inverter.
-IP
IB1 t1 IB2 t3 IB1
+IP Therefore, in most practical inverters, the means for
forced commutation become an integral part of the
circuit rather than a subcircuit which can be isolated
and studied separately. Because of this intimate
involvement between the commutation circuit and
the operation of the inverter, we will next distinguish
-IP
Real Power Plus Reactive Power between various types of forced commutation.
Return of Reactive Power References:
4-8
S. P. Jackson, “Three-Phase Static Inverters – A Survey,” The size of the commutating capacity is determined
IEEE Industry & General Applications 3rd Annual by:
Meeting Record, pp. 797-810; Oct. 1968.
(a) the current which flows through it during the
A. Verhoef, “Basic Forced-Commutated Inverters and
Their Characteristics,” IEEE Trans., vol. IA-9, pp. 601- commutation interval,
606; Sept./Oct. 1973.
(b) the duration of that interval, and
S. B. Dewan and D. L. Duff, “Practical Considerations in
the Design of Commutation Circuits for Choppers and (c) the change in voltage which occurs.
Inverters,” IEEE Industry & General Applications 4th
Annual Meeting Record, pp. 469-475; Oct. 1969. If the duration of the commutation interval is held
to the minimum which will assure turn-off of the
N. W. Mapham, “The Classification of SCR Inverter thyristor, the size of the required capacitor is also
Circuits,” IEEE Intnl. Convention Record, pt. 4, pp. 99-
105; 1964.
minimized, and “Impulse commutation” occurs. If there
is inductive energy stored in the load, the inductive
current must be routed elsewhere by bypass diodes.
In this type of commutation, the capacitor size
9. Types of Forced Commutation (Table 4.1) depends on the turn-off time of the thyristor but
tends to be independent of the load phase angle.
Circuits using a capacitor to force-commutate a
thyristor may be classified on the basis of Otherwise, the commutating capacitor must be
capable of absorbing the inductive energy, and
(a) the energy storage requirement on the
commutation is said to be “load dependent”. In most
commutating capacitor, and
cases, the mode of commutation requires a much
(b) the way in which turn-off occurs. larger capacitor and is more difficult to design to
accommodate wide load variations. However, if the
Because of the variety of intermediate and special output waveform is important, the commutating
cases, the boundaries of the classes are not distinct capacitor may replace an equivalent amount of
and clear-cut. Compounding the difficulty is the lack capacitance in the output filter.
of standard terminology: the literature freely uses
different names to mean the same thing and the Some circuits for forced commutation, such as the
same names to mean different things. Nevertheless, example discussed in connection with the chopper,
an attempt at classification is believed to be utilize an “auxiliary” thyristor to turn off the main
worthwhile because of the emphasis which it places thyristor which carries load current. This auxiliary
on those aspects which are of fundamental thyristor is not located in the main load circuit, and is
importance. But you should be cautioned that the provided with some means of self-extinction.
literature is not universally consistent with the
terminology adopted here.
Means
Load Dependent
Parallel Series
(Commutating Capacitor Absorbs
Inverter Inverter
Energy from Load Inductance)
Type
Table 4-1
Classes of Forced Commutation
4-9
In another class of forced commutation, the thyristors series, parallel, and McMurray-Bedford inverter
which carry load current occur in “complementary” configurations as typical examples of the countless
groups, and the circuit is so arranged that the presently possible inverter circuits using the other types of forced
conducting thyristor is automatically commutated off commutation.
when (but not until) the next load carrying thyristor is
References:
fired. This class is also known as auto or self
commutation. Although this type of circuit avoids the *W. McMurray, “SCR Inverter Commutated by an Auxiliary
need for auxiliary commutating thyristors, it has the Impulse,” IEEE Trans. Comm. & Elect., vol. 83, pt. I, pp.
disadvantage that external means must be provided to 824-829; Nov. 1964.
turn the equipment off. If control signals are simply J. B. Klaassens, “Analysis of a Forced Commutation Circuit
removed from the thyristor gates, thyristors which were for Design of a Class of Thyristor Inverters,” IEEE Trans.,
then conducting will continue to conduct. vol. IECI-20, pp. 125-129; Aug. 1973.
With both auxiliary and complementary commutation, S. B. Dewan and D. L. Duff, “Optimum Design of an Input-
turn-off of a conducting thyristor is initiated by firing Commutated Inverter for AC Motor Control,” IEEE Trans.,
vol. IGA-5, pp. 699-705; Nov./Dec. 1969.
another thyristor. We will lump the remaining circuits
into the category of “inherent” commutation, although
this is not a term which is used in the literature. Load
current in these circuits is made self-extinguishing, as for 10. Series Inverter (Figure 4.8)
instance by means of a series capacitor.
The first inverter circuit shown illustrates one form of
Each feasible combination of these types of forced load-dependent, inherent commutation used in a half-
commutation leads to a corresponding family of bridge (i.e., center tapped source) configuration. The
thyristor inverters. We have discussed impulse capacitor in series with the load causes inherent
commutation using an auxiliary thyristor in connection commutation to occur, and also forces the average (not
with the thyristor chopper, and the same technique can the effective or RMS) load current to be zero. Because
also be used in an inverter. *We will now examine the of this fact, the load current Iout and voltage Vout are
T1 +VB
VC Vout
Iout
VR
+
1
V C VC
2 B –
T2 L L=0
+ Vout –VB
1 T1 On T2 On
V
2 B – R +VB T1 & T2 Off
VL VC Vout
VR
VC
T1 Iout
2
VC L<R C
4
C –VB
VL Vout
+ L
T2 Vout
VB +VB
– VL VC
R
VR VR
2
VC L>R C
4
–VB
Figure 4.8
Series Inverter and Waveforms for the Lower Circuit for Various Values of L
4-10
independent of the location of the return lead from the (bypass diodes are not needed), and that the
load. It can be returned to either end of the DC source operation of the circuit is highly load dependent.
instead of to the center tap. Therefore the second
configuration is more commonly used, and is known To summarize the characteristics of series inverters,
simply as a series inverter. they have a fixed pulse width which is determined by
the time constant of the load and the commutating
First consider the operation of this inverter with a capacitor, and are limited to operation at relatively
resistive load (i.e., L = O). When T1 is fired, Vout jumps low frequencies. However, they have the advantages
discontinuously to +VB and an initial current VB/R of being self-starting when firing pulses are applied
begins to flow in the load. As the capacitor charges, the and self-stopping when they are removed.
current decreases exponentially. Eventually the capacitor
voltage will approach VB with the polarity indicated, the For an analysis of the series inverter, see chapter 5 of
current will decrease to the holding current, and T1 will B. D. Bedford and R. G. Hoft, Principles of Inverter
turn off. Note that turn-off is “inherent” in the behavior Circuits, John Wiley, New York; 1964.
of this circuit; a turn-off signal is not required as it is
with an auxiliary or complementary type of turn-off
circuit. 11. Parallel Inverter (Figure 4.9)
The circuit will now remain inactive, with a voltage of The inverter shown here uses a center-tapped load,
nearly +VB appearing across the capacitor, until T2 is and the commutation capacitor is effectively in
fired. This connects C across R, causing VR to jump parallel with the load. Hence, this circuit is
discontinuously to -VB, and causing C to discharge commonly called a parallel inverter. The inductor,
into R. Again, when the current decreases to the LD, in the DC circuits is required to prevent excessive
holding current, T2 turns off, and C is left with spikes of current from being drawn by C when
nearly zero voltage across its terminals. The entire switching occurs.
cycle is ready to repeat when T1 is fired again.
The commutating capacitor effectively resonates with
Note that the frequency of the circuit is limited by the load, thereby absorbing the energy stored by LL
the RC time constant which determines how rapidly each half cycle. As in the series inverter, operation of
the current decreases. If, in attempt to increase the the circuit is highly load dependent, although this
frequency, one thyristor is fired before the previous circuit uses complementary commutation rather than
one turns off, both thyristors will conduct and form a inherent commutation. Current does not automatically
short circuit across the DC source. decrease below the holding current to achieve turn-off.
However, when the next load-carrying thyristor is fired,
Consider next the case where the load circuit the commutation capacitor is connected so that its
contains inductance, but it is small enough that the voltage reverse biases the thyristor which had been
circuit is overdamped (i.e., L < R2 C/4). The current conducting, causing it to turn-off.
Iout, and therefore voltage VR can no longer change
discontinuously, but the voltage waveform Vout is
changed relatively little, although it now has Ld
zero initial slope.
4-11
Complementary commutation permits the parallel 12. Complementary Impulse-Commutated Inverter
inverter to be operated with variable pulse widths (Figure 4.10)
and at somewhat higher frequencies than the
corresponding series inverter. However, the circuit is Impulse-commutated inverters require the
not self-starting. Special arrangements must be made commutating capacitor to reverse bias the thyristor
to establish an appropriate initial charge on C so that which is being turned off only for a minimum time.
the first thyristor can be turned off after the first half Therefore the capacitor can be of minimum size. It
cycle. The circuit also cannot be turned off by simply does not have to absorb the energy stored in the load
removing the firing pulses. inductance, and therefore circuit operation is also
more nearly independent of load variations.
Detailed steady-state analysis of the parallel inverter
and the load dependence of its waveforms involves Since the commutating capacitor does not absorb
solving a third-order differential equation and the inductive load energy, provision must be made to
matching initial and final conditions on a half cycle. route this energy elsewhere. Bypass diodes directly
Therefore general analytical solutions are not across the thyristors form a freewheeling path which
feasible, but the waveforms can be generated by serves this purpose, but because of the long time
analog or digital simulation. These are presented in: constant of the low impedance path, the energy does
not usually have a chance to diminish very far in the
B. D. Bedford and R. G. Hoft, Principles of Inverter available time of a half cycle. The energy becomes
Circuits (Chapter 4), John Wiley, New York; 1964. “trapped” in a circulating current which hinders
and in: subsequent commutations. The circuits shown above,
using tapped windings and slightly modified diode
C. F. Wagner, “Parallel Inverter with Resistive Load,” connections, couple this energy more quickly and
AIEE Trans., vol. 54, pp. 1227-1235; Nov. 1935. efficiently back to the DC source, thereby avoiding
C. F. Wagner, “Parallel Inverter with Inductive Load,” unnecessary dissipation. The first circuit above was
AIEE Trans., vol. 55, pp. 970-980; derived from the parallel inverter which has a center
Sept. 1936. tapped load winding. The second circuit is
equivalent, but was derived from the half bridge or
Another inverter, known as a current-source inverter, is center-tapped source configuration. These circuits,
related to the parallel inverter in that there is together with similar complementary impulse-
inductance in series with the DC source and the commutated circuits having other minor
commutating capacitor parallels the load. The current- modifications, and known as “McMurray-Bedford
source inverter is described in the following references: inverters” after their inverters.
B. R. Pelly, “Latest Developments in Static High- References:
Frequency Power Sources for Induction Heating,” IEEE
Trans., vol. IECI-17, pp. 297-312; June 1970. B. D. Bedford and R. G. Hoft, Principles of Inverter
Circuits (Chapter 7 by W. McMurray), John Wiley, New
K. P. Phillips, “Current-Source Converter for AC Motor York; 1964.
Drives,” IEEE Trans., vol. IA-8, pp. 679-683; Nov./Dec.
1972. W. McMurray and D. P. Shattuck, “A Silicon Controlled
Rectifier Inverter with Improved Commutation,” AIEE
W. Farrer and J. D. Miskin, “Quasi-Sine-Wave Fully Trans., vol. 80, pt. 1, pp. 531-542; Nov. 1961.
Regenerative Inverter,” Proc. IEE, vol. 120, pp. 969-976;
Sept. 1973.
4-12
Ld
Ld
+
+ LL 1
V
2 B –
VB LL
C
– +
RL 1
V
2 B –
C RL
Center Tap
Half Bridge
Figure 4.10
McMurray-Bedford Inverters
Fundamental
Component Fundamental
Component
Figure 4.11
Ways of Controlling the Effective Output Voltage of an Inverter
Two practical problem areas which have not been rectifier will serve this purpose. If the DC source is
discussed in connection with inverters are: fixed, such as a battery, a chopper can be used ahead
of the inverter. Although control of the DC input
(a) control of the output, and voltage is a useful technique where only a limited
(b) achieving a sinusoidal output voltage waveform. control range of the AC output is desired, wide
variations lead to problems in achieving satisfactory
Simple “phase control” of the firing signals changes commutation. An alternate approach is to use a full
the frequency but does not appreciably affect the bridge configuration and insert controllable
output voltage of an inverter as it did in an AC/DC segments of zero voltage into the output waveform.
converter. One way of controlling the AC output The effective value of the waveform will depend on
voltage is to control the DC input voltage. If the DC the relative length of these zero segments.
originates from rectified AC, phase control of the
4-13
Fundamental
Fundamental Component
Component
Figure 4.12
Ways of Eliminating Low-Order Spurious Frequencies to Improve the Output Voltage Waveform of an Inverter
14. Inverter Output Waveform Improvement source but in series across the AC output terminals.
(Figure 4.12) The amplitude of each stage is adjusted so as to
cancel all harmonics less than (2N-1) in the 2N-
Improvement of the basic square-wave voltage output stepped approximation to a sine wave. For the
of an inverter may be sought in three different ways. waveform shown, N=6 and the inverter stages are
The first, brute-force way is to filter the output so as staggered by 180o/6=30o. The 90o stage is degenerate
to adequately attenuate the harmonic frequencies, (i.e., has zero amplitude) so that only five stages are
leaving only the sinusoidal fundamental frequency. required. The lowest order harmonic appearing in
This approach is used where the requirements on the output is the eleventh.
harmonic output are not too severe, but the filter
soon becomes both large and expensive for tighter References:
requirements. B. D. Bedford and R. G. Hoft, Principles of Inverter
Circuits, (Chapters 8 and 9), John Wiley, New York;
The other two ways seek to minimize the size of the 1964.
filter by modifying the output waveform so as to
cancel the lower order harmonics which otherwise R. R. Ott, “A Filter for Silicon-Controlled Rectifier
are both largest in amplitude and most difficult to Commutation and Harmonic Attenuation in High-
Power Inverters,” IEEE Trans. Comm. & Elect., vol. 82,
attenuate. One approach, known as pulse width
pp. 259-262; May 1963.
modulation (PWM), involves repetitive switching of a
single inverter during each half cycle. The other, B. Mokrytzki, “Pulse Width Modulated Inverters for AC
known as harmonic neutralization, involves a Motor Drives,” IEEE Trans., vol. IGA-3, pp.493-503;
number of series inverters staggered in phase but Nov./Dec. 1967.
each switching at the fundamental rate. P. D. Corey, “Methods for Optimizing the Waveform of
Stepped-Wave Static Inverters,” AIEE Paper 62-1147;
One form of PWM inverter derives its firing control 1962. Reprinted in Power Semiconductor Applications, vol.
signals by comparing a sinusoidal reference signal at I, pp. 321-328; IEEE Press, New York; 1972.
the desired frequency with a sawtooth carrier signal
A. Kernick, et al., “Static Inverter with Neutralization of
of a considerably higher frequency. The firing signals
Harmonics,” AIEE Trans., vol. 81, pt. II, pp. 59-68; May
are generated at the instants when the other two 1962.
signals are equal. With this type of inverter, spurious
frequencies in the output waveform cluster around T. M. Heinrich and A. Kernick, “Controlled Current
the carrier frequency and its harmonics rather than Feedback in a Static Inverter with Neutralization of
Harmonics,” IEEE Trans. Aerospace, vol. 2, pp. 985-992;
at harmonics of the desired power frequency. April 1964.
In a harmonic neutralized inverter, N conventional J. W. Bates, “Sequence Amplitude Modulated Inverters,”
inverter stages which are staggered in phase by IEEE Power Electronics Spec. Conf. Rec., pp. 222-229;
180o/N are connected in parallel across the DC June 1973.
4-14
Natural Commutation Forced Commutation
(Lagging Displacement Factor) (Leading Displacement Factor)
Figure 4.13
The Two Complementary Waveforms of a Two-Pulse Frequency Changer Without Phase Modulation
T. M. Corry, “A New Concept for Generating Three- If the switches can interrupt current, it is obvious
Phase Sine Wave Voltages with Semiconductor Power that the source waveform(s) can be chopped into
Switches,” IEEE Power Electronics Spec. Conf. Rec., pp.
brief segments to synthesize output frequencies
230-236; June 1973.
which are higher than the source frequency. The fact
S. B. Dewan and J. B. Forsythe, “Harmonic Analysis of a that independent control can be exercised over the
Synchronized Pulse-Width-Modulated Three-Pulse displacement factor (and thereby the power factor)
Inverter,” IEEE Trans., vol. IA-10, pp. 117-122; Jan./Feb. is not as obvious. The control logic which determines
1974.
when each input is connected to the output and for
H. S. Patel and R. G. Hoft, “Generalized Techniques of how long is not uniquely specified by the output
Harmonic Elimination and Voltage Control in Thyristor frequency. In the cycloconverter, the control logic is
Inverters: Part I - Harmonic Elimination,” IEEE Trans., constrained by the requirements of natural
vol. IA-9, pp. 310-317; May/June 1973.
commutation. With self commutation it can be
L. J. Penkowski and K. E. Pruzinsky, “Fundamentals of a chosen to implement other features. For example, it
Pulsewidth Modulated Power Circuit,” IEEE Trans., vol. can be chosen to minimize the ripple or deviation
IA-8, pp. 584-592; Sept./Oct. 1972. from the desired output waveform. Or by tolerating
J. J. Pollack, “Advanced Pulsewidth Modulated Inverter
more ripple, the converter can control the
Techniques,” IEEE Trans., vol. IA-8, pp. 145-154; displacement angle seen by the source.
Mar./Apr. 1972.
The mathematical theory of these generalized
R. D. Adams and R. S. Fox, “Several Modulation converters has only recently been explored and is
Techniques for a Pulsewidth Modulated Inverter,” IEEE beyond the scope of this text. However, their
Trans., vol. IA-8, pp. 636-643; Sept./Oct. 1972.
operation can be explained qualitatively in terms of a
single-phase two-pulse example. Imagine a dual
converter operating as a naturally commutated
15. Frequency and Power Factor Changers cycloconverter. The output waveforms shown above
(Figure 4.13) occur when α = 90o and the average output is zero.
The waveform on the left occurs if the output current
Frequency changers are basically dual converters is positive, and the one on the right if the output
which allow periodic modulation of the switching current is negative. Natural commutation must occur
control signals rather than simple phase delay. to a phase which is more positive when the current is
Because of its dependence on natural commutation, positive, and to a phase which is more negative when
the cycloconverter is a special case which is limited to the current is negative. The desired output frequency
output frequencies which are less than about 1/3 of is generated by periodically modulating α about 90°
the source frequency and to a lagging input at this frequency, thereby modulating the average
displacement factor. Converters with self value of each switching cycle about zero. Inherent in
commutation have neither of these restrictions.
4-15
this naturally commutated mode of operation is a 16. Problems
lagging displacement factor at the AC input.
Problem 4.1 Operation of a Thyristor Chopper
If the dual converter is self commutated, it can be
made to commutate at any time. It can, for instance, T1 D1
generate the “naturally commutated” waveforms just
described. It can also generate waveforms which are
exactly complementary to these. That is, it can + L – R = 3V
C
commutate to a phase which is more negative when VB = 90V VL VR =
the current is positive, and to a phase which is more – ic Constant
IL = +
positive when the current is negative. In this
Constant
complementary mode, it would generate an
equivalent output except that the displacement
factor at the input would change sign and be
leading. The circuit shown above is used as a DC regulator or
chopper. Assume that the reactive components, L
Since the converter can generate equivalent outputs and C, are so large that IL and VC (= VR) are
with either a lagging or leading input displacement constant over a cycle.
factor depending on which mode is selected, it can
also generate controllable intermediate displacement (a) If transistor T1 is on for 25% of each cycle,
factors by interleaving the two modes. The details of calculate and plot the waveforms for VL and iC.
the interleaving process are determined by the Also calculate the load voltage, current, and
control logic which characterizes the various types of power. Show that the average power drawn from
frequency changers. It can, for instance, maintain the battery is equal to the load power.
the displacement factor constant at unity for varying (b) Repeat (a) for 75% duty cycle on T1.
load power factors. With different control logic, the
converter can be made to change the sign of the (c) What can this chopper circuit do which the two
load displacement factor. This converter is called an step-down and step-up chopper circuits shown in
Unrestricted Frequency Changer (UFC), and causes the course notes cannot do?
an inductive load to appear capacitive to the source,
or a capacitive load to appear inductive.
Admittedly this explanation of frequency and power Problem 4.2 Impulse Commutation of a Thyristor
factor changers is brief. Hopefully it has been Chopper
suggestive of the very general functional capabilities
The purpose of this problem is to investigate some of
of self-commutated power converters which
the basic relationships and constraints involved in
incorporate the tremendous computational versatility
the design of a thyristor chopper using auxiliary
of today’s small-signal electronic circuits. The full
impulse commutation, the circuit for which is shown
implications of being able to reliably and repeatedly
in the course notes. Assume that the chopper is to
switch megawatts in microseconds are not widely
operate at a fixed frequency of 400 Hz and that the
appreciated, even among electrical engineers. Yet the
nominal duty cycle is to be variable from 20% to
theoretical and practical possibilities offer a wealth of
100%. For proper turn-off, the main thyristor T1
challenge to the imaginative designer.
must be reverse biased for at least 50 µsec. The filter
inductor is 0.2 H, and it may be assumed initially that
Id is constant over each cycle. The DC source voltage
is 1000V, and the load resistor is 10 ohms.
4-16
(b) Calculate the maximum energy stored in L and C energy in L. How do these two values compare? Is
and compare the two values. Note that impulse the comparison consistent with the discussion of
commutation allows the ratio of these two “load-dependent” commutation?
energies to be quite high.
(d) Compare the KVA ratings required for L and C
(c) Check the assumption that Id is constant over a with the KW rating of the load. What KVA rating
cycle by calculating the worst-case peak-to-peak (peak blocking voltage x average current) is
ripple as a percentage of Id. required for thyristors T1 and T2? Are the
components utilized efficiently?
(d) Investigate the influence of the value of the
charging resistor RC on circuit operation and (e) Would you expect this circuit to have good voltage
attempt to specify a suitable value. regulation for changing load resistance? Explain.
T1 C = 40mF
Problem 4.4 Resonant Impulse Commutation
I
Shown below is a half-bridge auxiliary impulse
+ L = 0.1H
T2 commutated inverter. Commutation of main
VB = 628V thyristors T1 and T2 is achieved by the resonant
– R = 4V charge reversal on C via L and auxiliary thyristors A1
and A2. The initial voltage on C depends on Q and
on the load, but for the purposes of this problem
assume that VC (0) = 250V with the polarity shown,
In order to produce a reasonably sinusoidal output, this and that T1 is initially conducting. Assume that the
type of inverter is frequently designed to be load current has reached equilibrium at
considerably underdamped, and is driven with a very ILOAD = VB / RL = 100A and that the load inductance
small conduction gap (assumed negligible) between is large enough to hold ILOAD constant during the
the extinction of one thyristor and the firing of the commutation interval.
other one. Assuming sinusoidal waveforms and that the
circuit operates at its resonant frequency (f= 1/2 π
=LC): + T1 D1
VB = A1
100V C= L=
(a) Sketch the waveforms of voltage and current for – 20mF 50mH
Load
each component in the circuit. Show by
appropriate shading those areas which must be RL = 1V ILOAD ILC
+
equal in order that the average capacitor current VB =
A2
and inductor voltage are zero. 100V T2 D2
–
4-17
ceases conduction, and is therefore ready to 2. The phases always conduct in the same sequence
commutate T2 off one-half cycle later. and for the same length of time.
Determine the maximum rated turn-off time (tq) (a) Using these properties of the UFC, construct
for T1 and T2. the output waveform for a three-pulse UFC
having fout/fin = 1/5.
Problem 4.5 Harmonic Neutralization
(b) If the load draws a 30o lagging current,
The amplitudes of the square-wave components of a indicate which of the commutations occur
harmonic neutralized inverter are given by: “naturally”, and which must be “forced”.
1
TC =
P( Fin + Fout )
4-18
Chapter 5
POWER SEMICONDUCTOR
DEVICE PROTECTION
Section
1. The Power Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-2
Introduction
2. Importance of Junction Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-2 The objectives of this chapter are to provide
3. Components of Dissipation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-3 information which will enable the reader:
4. Average Dissipation at 60 Hz Switching Rate . . . . . . . .5-4
5. Average Dissipation at 40 KHz Switching Rate . . . . . . .5-4 a. To evaluate and compare the various
6. Simplified Geometry Assumed for the “Typical” Device . .5-4 components of dissipation within a solid-state
7. Junction-to-Case Thermal Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-5 device in a variety of applications.
8. Heat Sink Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-5
b. To calculate the requirements and select a heat
9. Selection of Device Package and Type of Heat Sink . . . .5-5
sink for a specified device dissipation.
10. Natural Convection Air Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-6
11. Forced Air Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-6 c. To estimate the steady-state and transient thermal
12. Water Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-7 impedance and the thermal time constant of a
13. Using the Data Sheet for Heat Sink Calculations . . . . . .5-7 simple device geometry.
14. Thermal Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-14
15. Transmission Line for Transient Thermal Analysis . . .5-14 d. To calculate the rise in junction temperature
16. Initial Temperature Rise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-15 caused by a current pulse or surge.
17. Transient Thermal Impedance of Each Section . . . . . .5-15
e. To explain the physical basis for voltage, current,
18. Calculation of Thermal Time Constant . . . . . . . . . . .5-16
dv/dt and di/dt ratings on devices and the
19. Junction-to-Case Transient Thermal Impedance . . . . . .5-16
approaches that are used to protect solid-state
20. Using Transient Thermal Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-17
devices from stresses in excess of these ratings.
21. Calculation of Pulse and Surge Current Capabilities . .5-17
22. Turn-On di/dt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-19 f. To discuss the maximum voltage and current
23. Transient Overvoltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-20 capabilities of presently available power devices
24. Off-State dv/dt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-21 and the precautions that are required in the
25. Series/Parallel Arrays for High-Power Applications . . .5-22 design of series/parallel arrays of devices to
26. Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-23 extend the maximum power capabilities of
27. Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-23 solid-state equipment.
5-1
1. Power Module capacity on most of it’s ratings. There are no
infallible rules, but skepticism is advisable. The
The Power Module Protects the Power Device from: neophyte designer is cautioned that the reliability of
• Junction Temperature solid-state power devices tends to be a precipice
• Voltage function. Within their capabilities, they can last
• Current much longer than the equipment they are
• dv/dt controlling. But if their capabilities are exceeded,
• di/dt their lifetime may literally be measured in
in Excess of its Ratings. microseconds! All other avenues should be
exhausted before trying to squeeze the last cent out
The economic feasibility of a power converter may be of the cost of the solid-state power devices which
determined either by the transformers, inductors are selected.
and capacitors or by the solid-state components. On
the other hand, technical feasibility is nearly always With these forewarnings, we will proceed to explore
limited by the current state of the art of available the fundamentals of device protection, beginning
solid-state devices. The function of the power with thermal considerations. Device protection
module is to interface the solid-state power device principles will be described primarily using thyristors
and its limitations with the requirements and characteristics and ratings; however, most of these
peculiarities of the power circuit so as to achieve principles apply equally well to all power
technical feasibility, reliability, and overall minimum semiconductor devices.
cost. In particular, the purpose of the power module
is to protect the power device from junction Additional information on device rating and
temperature, voltage, current, dv/dt, and di/dt procurement can be found in:
in excess of its ratings. Each of these factors is J. S. Read and R. F. Dyer, “Power Thyristor Rating
associated with a corresponding potential Practices,” Proc. IEEE, vol. 55, pp. 1288-1301; 1967.
failure mechanism.
M. C. Sardi, “Semiconductor Yield and Life Cycles,”
Unfortunately, many factors interact in determining Electro Procurement, November 1973.
whether or not a solid-state power device will fail to
operate properly or be damaged under a particular
set of conditions. In arriving at the ratings shown on
2. Importance of Junction Temperature (Table 5.1)
the specification sheet, a device manufacturer tests
his devices under set of conditions which may or may Nearly all of the characteristics of solid-state devices
not be representative of a particular application. are sensitive to the internal junction temperature.
(And since the test conditions are not uniform Since ratings are merely design limits on
between manufacturers, comparisons are not always characteristics, they too are temperature
easy to make.) One manufacturer may be dependent. Therefore thermal protection will
conservative and rate his devices under worst-case be considered first.
conditions, but this puts him in an apparent price
disadvantage compared to another manufacturer Although the dissipation in switching devices can
who may for example specify typical values. Typical often be ignored in the analysis of the power circuit
values can not be used for design purposes because (as we have done), it is a vital factor in the choice of
processes do change and the typical values may be the device itself and its heat sink. Since the
altered significantly. It is not enough to simply dissipation is highly concentrated at the junction of a
compare device data sheets the actual capability of device where temperature is critical, and since we do
the device should be carefully evaluated. The power not have access to the junction to measure its
semiconductor device selected should consider the temperature directly, thermal design must be
trade-offs of price, performance, and availability of a performed analytically. Both the average junction
continuing supply of reliable devices. Frequently one temperature when the device is nearly in thermal
rating is of crucial concern to a designer and he equilibrium and the instantaneous peak junction
would like to know whether he can safely exceed that temperature resulting from a transient are
rating if he stays well below other ratings, or whether important, but each involves a different
he must buy a premium device with apparent excess analytical approach.
5-2
In order to illustrate what is involved in thermal dissipated by gating signals will be neglected here,
calculations, we will analyze a “typical” thyristor but may be significant in some applications.) For
which, although grossly oversimplified, nevertheless present purposes, the two blocking states are
yields values which are representative of actual assumed to have equal dissipations, and it is assumed
devices. The assumed characteristics of this thyristor that the device is loaded to its full ratings, 600V and
are listed at the beginning of this section. The 100A, thereby controlling a 60 KW load.
important characteristics include the forward voltage
drop, the leakage current, and the switching times, In either blocking state, the device dissipates
all of which have previously been neglected. 6000V x 10 mA = 6W, while in the conducting state it
dissipates 1.4V x 100A = 140W. For simplicity we will
assume that these values are constant rather than
Table 5.1 variable with time, as they are with sinusiodal
Assumed Characteristics of a “Typical” Thyristor waveforms.
IT(RMS) Current Rating 100A During the switching transitions we cannot avoid the
VRRM, VDRM Blocking Voltage Rating 600V fact that the dissipation changes rapidly. During the
VT Forward Voltage Drop at 100A 1.4V 3µs turn-on interval, the voltage across the device
IDRM, IRRM Leakage Current at 600V 10mA must decrease from 600V to 1.4V, while the current is
tON Turn-On Time 3ms increasing from 10 mA to 100A. The instantaneous
tOFF Turn-Off Time 20ms power is the instantaneous product of voltage and
current, and hence it depends on the dynamic
curves followed by the voltage and current. Again for
simplicity we will assume that these transistors are
3. Components of Dissipation (Figure 5.1) linear, as shown in figure 5-1. The power waveform
during turn-on is then an inverter parabola having a
Junction temperature depends both on the peak value of 15 kW! Obviously, when subjected to
dissipation or heat input to the device and on the this rate of dissipation, the junction temperature
thermal resistance encountered by the heat in rises very rapidly. The energy dissipated in the switch
flowing to a cooling medium. In normal cyclic during the turn-on transient is the area under the
operation, the dissipation is not constant but varies power parabola, (2/3) x 15 kW x 3µs = 30 mJ.
as a function of time, depending on the state of the
switch. There are five distinct components of Assuming the same linear transitions during the
dissipation corresponding to the forward blocking turn-off interval, the dissipation again peaks at 15
state, the reverse blocking state, the conducting state, kW, although the energy increases to 200 mJ because
the turn-on interval, and the turn-off interval. (Power of the longer turn-off time.
100A
Voltage = 600V Turn-Off
Time Reverse
= 20ms Blocking
Current = 10mA 1.4V
State
Forward Conducting 10mA
Blocking State
State 15 kW Peak
600V
Turn-On Time
= 3ms
Power
Dissipation 140W
= 6W 6W
5-3
Table 5-2 Table 5-3
Comparison of the Components of Dissipation for a Comparison of the Components of Dissipation for a
60Hz Switching Rate with a 50% Duty Cycle 40Hz Switching Rate with a 50% Duty Cycle
Conducting Dissipation 140W x 8.3ms = 1.17J Conducting Dissipation 140.W x 1µs = 0.140mJ
Blocking Dissipation 6W x 8.3ms = 0.05J Blocking Dissipation 6.W x 1µs = 0.006mJ
Turn-On Dissipation 0.03J Turn-On Dissipation 30. mJ
Turn-Off Dissipation 0.20J Turn-Off Dissipation 200. mJ
Total Dissipation per Cycle 1.45J
Total Dissipation per Cycle 230. mJ
1.45J 230mJ
Average Power Dissipation = 87W Average Power Dissipation = 9.2kW
16.7ms 25µs
4. Average Dissipation at 60 Hz Switching Rate amount of energy per cycle while the conducting
(Table 5.2) and blocking components tend to be constant power,
the “corner frequency” above which switching
To calculate the average junction temperature, we dissipation is a dominant factor can be estimated
must first calculate the average dissipation under from:
specified conditions. For example, with equal
on-and-off-times at 60 Hz, the various components of Conducting & Blocking Power
dissipation per cycle are calculated above, and the Averaged Over a Cycle
average dissipation is 87W. For low switching rates, fC ≈
Switching Energy Per Cycle
the switching times are very short compared to the
total period, and the average dissipation is
determined primarily by the dissipation in the For our “typical” thyristor operating at 100A with a
conducting state. 50% duty cycle, the conducting and blocking power
averaged over a cycle is (140 + 6)/2 = 73W, and the
switching energy per cycle is 0.23 J. Thus
5. Average Dissipation at 40 KHz Switching Rate fC ' 73/0.23 or about 300 Hz.
(Table 5.3) Note: Although this simplified analysis seems to indicate
To emphasize what happens at high switching rates, that the dissipation during turn-off is somewhat more
let us consider an extreme case. Judging by the important than during turn-on, the opposite is usually true
switching times alone, it should be possible to in practice. The turn-on dissipation is concentrated near
complete a full cycle in 25µs, corresponding to a the periphery of the gate electrode of a thyristor, causing a
switching rate of 40 kHz. Again the individual hot spot whose average and peak temperatures can greatly
components of dissipation and the average exceed those elsewhere. In addition, the turn-off waveforms
dissipation are calculated above. The switching are highly oversimplified.
components of dissipation are now dominant, and it
is seen that the average dissipation has risen to a
phenomenal 9.2 kW! When the small physical size of 6. Simplified Geometry Assumed for the “Typical” Device
a solid-state device with a 100A rating is considered, (Figure 5.2)
it is obviously impossible to dissipate this much heat
at a tolerable temperature. In addition to average dissipation, the other factor
which determines average junction temperature is
Therefore the maximum frequency at which the thermal resistance between the junction and the
switching is feasible depends on switching dissipation cooling medium. Part of this resistance is internal to
as well as on switching speed, and the current rating the packaged device as purchased, and part is
of a device must be decreased at high frequencies. determined by the heat sink and the flow rate of the
Since the switching dissipation tends to be a constant coolant. To facilitate calculations, we will assume the
5-4
thermal resistances gives the “junction-to-case”
thermal resistance. This value is listed by the device
Heat manufacturer on the data sheet, so that it need not be
Input calculated. We have gone through the calculation
Heat
Sink
simply to show what is involved.
Silicon Water 1.5 cm
Dia., 0.02 cm Thick
Copper Slug, 8. Heat Sink Calculation
1.5 cm dia., 1 cm Thick
Heat Sink Calculation Assuming Switch Must Be Capable
of Carrying 100A Continuously (140W) in a 35°C
Figure 5.2 Ambient with a 120°C Junction Temperature
Simplified geometry assumed for a silicon switching
device mounted on a heat sink TJ − TA (120 − 35)°C
Rθ (Total ) = = = 0.607C° / W
Ave. Dissipation 140W
simplified device geometry shown above. The
dissipation is assumed to occur at one surface of the
Rθ ( Heat Sink ) = Rθ (Total ) − Rθ ( Silicon) − Rθ (Copper )
silicon wafer than at the junction within the silicon,
and the device package is assumed to be equivalent = 0.607 − 0.014 − 0.146 = 0.447°C / W
to a cylindrical copper slug. We would like to
calculate the heat sink which is required for a Assume that the switch must be capable of carrying
specified average junction temperature and a 100A continuously, that the maximum temperature
specified average dissipation. First we must calculate of the cooling ambient is 35oC, and that the average
the “junction-to-case” thermal resistance. junction temperature is to be 120oC. The total
“junction-to-ambient” thermal resistance cannot
exceed 0.607oC/W, as calculated above. Subtracting
the junction-to-case thermal resistance gives the
7. Junction-to-Case Thermal Resistance maximum thermal resistance of the heat sink (and
Calculation of Steady-State Thermal Resistance for the the interface between the device and the heat sink)
Silicon Wafer and Copper Slug as 0.447oC/W.
5-5
This effectively cuts junction-to-case thermal impedance sinks. Figure 5.5 illustrates the low heat sink thermal
in half. Thus, a disc rectifier or SCR with double-sided resistance that can be realized for disc type devices
cooling offers higher output current ratings than and forced air cooling. Note that two of the specified
conventional stud-mount rectifiers or SCR’s of heat sinks are used for double size cooling (solid line).
equivalent element sizes. For example a disc unit can
offer up to 80% more current capability and cost less
than the same size silicon element in a stud package.
Aluminum Plate
The graph in Figure 5.3 shows the thermal resistance
of one manufacturer’s optimized line of natural
2 7" x 7" x 1/8"
convection cooled, finned heat sinks plotted against Aluminum Plate
volume. For a specified thermal resistance, the
closest larger standard heat sink should be selected.
The thermal resistance of 0.447oC /W resulting from 1 4" x 4" x 5"
the previous example requires a heat sink having a Finned Extrusion
volume of about 150 in.3. 6" x 6" x 9" Finned Extrusion
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
11. Forced Air Cooling (Figures 5.4 & 5.5) Air Velocity in ft./min.
The thermal resistance of a heat sink may be
decreased below its ratings with natural convection by
using forced air cooling. Figure 5.4 illustrates the
decrease that can be expected for several typical heat Figure 5-4
Forced Air Cooling of Stud Type Devices
5-6
voltage drop at 120A is 1.5 volts. The dissipation
0.5
Single side cooling during conduction is 120A x 1.5V = 180W, but since
Thermal Resistance in oC/W
Double side cooling there is little dissipation during the other half cycle,
0.4 the average dissipation is approximately 180/2 = 90W.
Figure 5.6-I shows the average dissipation for this
0.3 2.7" x 5" x 6" square wave as 94W. Under “Thermal and Mechanical
Finned AL Extrusion
Characteristics,” we find the junction-to-case thermal
2.7" x 10" x 8"
0.2 resistance listed as 0.28oC/W. Therefore, the average
Finned AL Extrusion
junction temperature is 94W x 0.28oC/W = 26°C above
the case temperature. For an average junction
0.1
temperature of 125oC, the corresponding case
temperature would be 99oC. Figure 5.6-J shows the
0
maximum allowable case temperature for 60A average
0 100 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500
and 180o conduction as 92oC. This curve has a 7oC
Air Velocity in ft/min margin to allow for the fact that the peak junction
temperature will exceed the average temperature.
Figure 5-5
Figures 5.6-E and 5.6-F give dissipation and
Forced Air Cooling of Stud Type Devices
maximum case temperature for phase-delayed
half-wave sinusoidal waveforms.
12. Water Cooling Note that although this thyristor is rated 125A RMS
Water cooling is the most efficient type of cooling in or 80A half-wave average, its average current capacity
general use today. While it may not be a practical must be derated if the conduction angle is less than
solution to every design problem, more and more 180o or if the heat sink is inadequate to maintain the
systems are being converted to water cooling each case temperature at or below 76oC.
year. Inherent advantages in size, weight and cost
simply cannot be overlooked.
Figure 5.6 the data sheet for the Powerex Type T500
thyristor will be used to illustrate how the device
manufacturer attempts to ease standard thermal
calculations. For low frequencies (400 Hz or less)
where switching losses are small, and for standard
current waveforms such as square waves and phase-
delayed sine waves, curves are given which show the
maximum average power which will be dissipated
and the maximum allowable case temperature (for
125oC junction temperature) versus the average
current and the conduction angle. Another curve
gives the forward voltage drop as a function of
current.
5-7
Figure 5-6
T500 Data Sheet
5-8
Figure 5-6 (Continued)
T500 Data Sheet
5-9
Figure 5-6 (Continued)
T500 Data Sheet
5-10
Figure 5-6 (Continued)
T500 Data Sheet
5-11
Figure 5-6 (Continued)
T500 Data Sheet
5-12
Figure 5-6 (Continued)
T500 Data Sheet
5-13
14. Thermal Capacity per watt of heat flow. Thermal capacity is the heat
energy which can be stored per degree of
Calculation of Thermal Capacity for the Silicon Wafer temperature rise. Consequently thermal capacity is
and Copper Slug equal to the product of the specific heat of the
material (c) and its mass (density (ρ) times volume
Cθ (Silicon) = pc Ad (Ad)). The thermal capacities of the silicon wafer
= (2.34 × 103 kg / m3 )(735 J / kgC°)(1.77 × 10 −4 m 2 )(2 × 10 −4 m) and the copper slug are calculated above. Note that
together they can absorb only a little more than 6
= 6.1 × 10 −2 J / C° watt-seconds (i.e., joules) per oC of temperature rise.
Remember that the peak dissipation during
Cθ (Copper ) = pc Ad switching was 15kW. Obviously the junction
temperature will change very rapidly under these
= (8.9 × 103 kg / m3 )(393 J / kgC°)(1.77 × 10 −4 m 2 )(10 −2 m)
circumstances.
= 6.2 J / C°
To this point, the discussion on thermal 15. Transmission Line for Transient Thermal
considerations has dealt only with average junction Analysis (Figure 5-7)
temperature and steady-state thermal resistance. For
normal, low frequency waveforms, this type of Thermal resistance and thermal capacity are now
analysis is adequate. But for calculating peak “lumped” elements but are both distributed
junction temperatures resulting from low duty cycle throughout the device being considered. The device
(pulsed) waveforms or from transient overloads, is, in fact, a thermal transmission line in which heat
steady-state analysis is not adequate. flow is governed by the diffusion equation. For the
cylindrical geometry we have assumed, the one-
We are all familiar with the fact that electrical dimensional diffusion equation applies, and there is
equipment can be temporarily overloaded without an exact analogy with a corresponding RC electrical
permanent damage, sometimes to hundreds of times transmission line. Heat power is then analogous to
its steady-state ratings. The reason is that in a piece current, and temperature difference is analogous to
of equipment such as a motor or a transformer, there voltage. The complete transmission line between the
is a considerable mass of copper and iron which junction and the cooling ambient is shown above. All
must rise in temperature before damage from temperatures (voltages) are measured relative to the
overheating occurs. The energy of the transient ambient. Since the heat is ultimately dissipated at
overload is absorbed by the large thermal capacity of ambient temperature, the output of the transmission
the equipment without excessive temperature rise. line is “short circuited”. Each of the three sections of
(Of course different considerations prevail if the the line, representing the silicon wafer, the copper
heating is localized, as when an arc develops.) slug, and the heat sink, respectively, may be assumed
to be uniform transmission lines.
The same generalization holds true for a solid-state
power device except that the maximum temperature The analytical solution for the junction temperature
(at which control can be maintained) is more critical for a specified power input (as a function of time) is
and the thermal capacity is orders of magnitude extremely tedious, even for this simplified geometry,
smaller (than for a motor or transformer of and involves solving the diffusion equation for each
comparable power rating). Therefore an engineer of the three sections and matching the boundary
who is accustomed to traditional electrical conditions between sections. Fortunately the “time
equipment must be very cautious until he retrains his constants” of the three sections differ widely so that
intuition on solid-state devices. Although the excess they can be analyzed separately. Both the individual
thermal capacity of these devices is small, it must be analysis and the combination of the separate results
fully utilized if reliability is to be achieved without lend themselves to a very simple graphical approach.
the prohibitive cost of an overly conservative design.
5-14
Next, note that temperature rises in proportion to
Heat Power Rθ Rθ Rθ =t, not t itself. As the heat propagates down the
Input (Silicon) (Copper) (Heat Sink) transmission line, more and more material must be
heated for each degree of temperature rise at the
Junction Cθ Cθ Cθ
junction. Since the power input is constant, the rate
Temperature (Silicon) (Copper) (Heat
Sink)
of temperature rise decreases. If this relationship is
(Above plotted on log-log graph paper, the graph will be a
Ambient) straight line with a slope of one half.
Ambient Temperature = Reference This solution for an infinite transmission line
accurately represents the initial temperature rise of a
Figure 5-7 finite line (that is, a finite thickness of material). But
Thermal Transmission Line for Analyzing when the heat penetrates to the other face of the
Temperature Rise of Junction material and the temperature at the face begins to
increase, the solution rapidly becomes inaccurate.
Stated concisely, this is the asymptotic solution for
16. Initial Temperature Rise very small values of time.
5-15
The thermal time constants of the silicon wafer and
the copper slug are calculated above from the
previously calculated values of Rθ and Cθ. It is seen
Rθ that the time constant of the package is more than
∆TJ
∆TJ
Slope = 1/2 = Rθ
P silicon wafer.
log
π
t= R C
4 θ θ
19. Junction-to-Case Transient Thermal Impedance
log t (Figure 5-9)
101
Rθ (Copper) =
0.146 Co/W
10-1
Rθ (Silicon) =
0.0135 Co/W
π
10-2 R C (Copper) =
4 θ θ
0.71 sec
π
R C (Silicon) =
4 θ θ
6.4 x 10-4 sec
10-3
10-5 10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 100 101
Time in Seconds
Figure 5-9
Log-log Plot of the Transient Thermal Impedance of the “Packaged” Silicon Wafer (Not Including the Heat Sink)
5-16
transient thermal impedance is determined solely by Table 5.4
the characteristics of the silicon, independent of Fluctuation of Junction Temperature
whether the silicon is mounted on anything. For
longer transients which are still shorter than the
Junction Temperature Fluctuatuion at 60 Hz
package time constant, the transient thermal (Square Wave with 50% Duty Cycle Assumed)
impedance is independent of the heat sink. But for
transients having a duration greater than the Dissipation During
package time constant, the heat sink does play a role. Half-Cycle of Conduction P = 180W
This analysis has assumed uniform distribution of the Duration of Half-Cycle at 60 Hz 8.3 ms
heat over the cross-sectional area of the device. This
assumption is not valid during the turn-on transient Transient Thermal Impedance
when the conducting area is less than the total area. at 8.3 ms Zu = 0.04oC/W
Therefore transient thermal impedance, as presented
DTj = P Zu = 180W x 0.04oC/W = 7oC
here, cannot be used for transients which are
shorter than 10 to 100µs, depending on the size of
the device. 21. Calculation of Pulse and Surge Current
In spite of the fact that the curve of transient Capabilities (Figure 5-10)
thermal impedance is easier to plot and interpret on As another example, let us determine the rise in
log-log scales, it is the universal practice of device junction temperature when the Type T500 is
manufacturers to give this curve on log-linear scales subjected to a 1000A pulse lasting 1.5 ms. From
(see Figure 5.6-B of the Type T500 data sheet). Figure 5.6-A on the data sheet, the forward voltage
drop is 3.0V, and from Figure 5.6-B the transient
thermal impedance is about 0.016oC/W. Therefore:
20. Using Transient Thermal Impedance (Table 5.4)
5-17
times without shortening its life expectancy. Current open, or a special fast-acting fuse must be placed in
ratings such as the surge current are “non-repetitive” series with the device. The “I2t” rating of a thyristor is
in the sense that a thyristor should not be exposed to provided as a guideline in selecting an appropriate
more than 100 of these overloads during its entire fuse which will prevent permanent damage but will
useful life. Under these overloads, the junction not blow unnecessarily. This is a non-repetitive
temperature will exceed 125oC and the thyristor may rating, and is equal to the square of the RMS current
not immediately block its rated peak forward voltage. capacity times the duration of the surge. The I2
rating may be used to calculate the maximum non-
The surge current rating gives the peak half-wave repetitive surge current for less than one-half cycle
sinusoidal current 60 Hz which the thyristor can (i.e., 8.3 ms). The corresponding curve is shown
withstand for the specified number of cycles. If gating above for the Type T500 which has an I2t rating of
pulses are removed immediately when a fault occurs, the 13,495 A2s.
Type T500 can withstand 1800A peak for one-half cycle
(8.3 ms) until the current passes through zero. If the In most applications, the power device is selected on
fault is cleared by a circuit breaker which acts more the basis of its steady-state current ratings and
slowly, the allowable peak fault current drops to 1300A protected so that its surge ratings are not exceeded.
for 3 cycles (i.e., 3 half-cycles of conduction separated by However, in other applications where shutdown of
3 half-cycles of non-conduction) or 1170A for 10 cycles. the equipment cannot be tolerated, oversize devices
These peak values have been converted to RMS values with spare steady-state capacity must be used to
and are shown for comparison on the following graph. achieve the required surge capacity.
In many cases, the circuit in which a thyristor is used
is so “stiff” that a short-circuit fault can cause
References on Pulse and Surge Current Capacity include:
currents much higher than these values. If the
thyristor is to be protected, either additional William E. Newell, “Dissipation In Solid
impedance must be designed into the circuit to limit State Devices - The Magic of I1 + N,” IEEE Transactions on
the current to a safe value until a circuit breaker can Industry Application,
July/Aug. 1976.
100
(Converted to RMS)
10
Pulsed Current
Capability for TJ = 50oC 3 Cycles
10 Cycles
1
0.1 1 10 100 1000
Duration in Milliseconds
Figure 5-10
Current Carrying Capability (Repetitive and Non-Repetitive) for a Westinghouse Type T500 Thyristor
(Rated IRMS = 125A; Rated I2t = 13,495 A2s)
5-18
John W. Motto, “A New Quality to Describe Power 22. Turn-On di/dt (Figures 5-11 & 12)
Semiconductor Subcycle Current Ratings,” IEEE Transaction on
Industry Applications, July/Aug. 1971. Turn-On di/dt
• Is Determined by the Lateral Rate of Spreading
William E. Newell, “Transient Thermal Analysis of Solid-State
Power Devices-Making a Dreaded Process Easy,” IEEE of the Turned-On Area,
Transactions on Industry Applications, July/Aug. 1976. • Can be limited by increasing Circuit Inductance,
• Capability is Increased by Special Device
John W. Motto, “Computer Aided Thyristor Overload Current Geometries and by “Hard” Gate Drive.
Ratings for Motor Drive and Other Applications Requiring
Repetitive Overloads,” IEEE Industry and General Applications, The preceding discussion has emphasized the
Sept./Oct. 1969.
intimate relationship between the thermal
Additional information on thermal analysis, heat sink characteristics of a thyristor and its steady-state and
selection, and current ratings may be found in: transient current-carrying ability. The corresponding
data sheet ratings are a concise statement of the
Westinghouse SCR Designers Handbook (Second Edition), basic information needed to choose a heat sink and
Sections 4.3 to 4.6 and 10, Westinghouse Semiconductor
to coordinate fuses and circuit breakers with thyristor
Division, Youngwood, PA; 1970.
capabilities. We will now examine some of the other
General Electric SCR Manual (Fifth Edition), Section 3.1 to 3.6, factors which influence the design of the power
15, and 18, General Electric Semiconductor Products Dept., module to protect the power device.
Syracuse, New York; 1972.
When the transient characteristics of thyristors were
Wakefield Heat Sink Product Bulletin; Wakefield Eng. Inc.,
Wakefield, Mass; 1966.
discussed earlier in the text, it was stated that the
gate turns on only a small part of the total thyristor
E. T. Schonhoizer, “Fuse Protection for Power Thyristors,” IEEE area. The time required for the conducting area to
Trans. on Industry Applications, vol. IA-8, pp. 301-309; 1972. propagate laterally, typically 0.1mm per microsecond,
W. E. Newell, “Dissipation in Solid-State Devices - The Magic of across the full device necessitates a corresponding
I1+N,” IEEE Power Electronics Specialists Conference Record, limitation on the rate of increase of load current at
pp. 162-173; June 1974. turn on. This limitation is expressed as a maximum
di/dt rating. Exceeding this rating causes excessive
Westinghouse Thyristors Surge Suppression Ratings AD 54-550;
Oct. 1976.
current density at turn-on, and the resulting hot spot
will degrade or destroy the thyristor.
W. Savage, “How to Get the Most Out of High-Power Rectifiers
and SCR’s,” EDN; August 1974. In some applications, high di/dt occurs at turn-on but
is not essential. For this case, the solution is usually to
The effects of maximum temperature and temperature cycling
design additional inductance (either linear or
on the life expectancy of power devices are discussed in:
saturating) into the circuit to limit di/dt to a
D. E. Piccone and I. Somos, “Are You Confused by High di/dt safe value.
SCR Ratings?,” Electronic Engineer, pp. 89-92; Jan. 1969.
The di/dt capability of any thyristor is decreased if
D. E. Piccone and I. Somos, “Accelerated minimum gate drive is used and increased if the gate
Life Tests for Determining the Life Expectancy
of a Thyristor Due to di/dt Failure Modes,”
is driven “hard”, thereby increasing the initially
IEEE Industry Applications 7th Annual conducting area. Most thyristors today incorporate
Meeting Record, pp. 469-476; Oct. 1972. an integrated amplifier termed an amplifying or
di/namic gate design which includes a small pilot
R. E. Locher, “Large Diameter Rectifier
thyristor in the gate circuit which generates a very
Diode and Thyristor In-Service Reliability,”
IEEE Industry Applications 9th Annual Meeting Record, pp.463- strong pulse to turn on the main thyristor rapidly.
465; Oct. 1974. This is illustrated in Figure 5.11.
M. Morozowich, “Are Semiconductors Reliable?,” Electronic In other applications, high di/dt is essential and must
Products Magazine; be accommodated by the power devices. For this
July 1976. reason, fast turn-on devices with increased di/dt
ratings are available and development is continuing.
Originally, the gate contact on thyristors was located at
one edge, and conduction had to propagate across
the entire diameter. Later turn-on time was reduced
5-19
by moving the gate contact to the center, cutting the 23. Transient Overvoltage
maximum distance for propagation in half. Still newer
thyristor geometries use interdigitated gate electrodes Transient Overvoltage
to initiate conduction over a large percentage of the • Is Usually Caused by Inductive Kickback.
total area. This is illustrated in Figure 5.12.
Damage Can Be Prevented By
References on di/dt and gating considerations for • Circuit Redesign,
fast turn-on include: • Devices Having Adequate Voltage Ratings,
• RC Suppressor Circuits,
Westinghouse SCR Gate Turn-on Characteristics, A.D. 54-540, pp. 1-4;
December 1976.
• Nonlinear Suppressor Devices,
• Solid-State “Crowbar” Which Rapidly Shorts
General Electric SCR Manual (Fifth Edition), Section 3.7 and 5.5, the Voltage Transient.
General Electric Semiconductor Products Dept., Syracuse, N.Y.; 1972.
Unanticipated voltage transients which exceed the
H. F. Storm and J. G. St. Clair, “An Involute Gate-Emitter
rated blocking voltages of solid-state power devices
Configuration for Thyristors,” IEEE Trans., vol. ED-21, pp. 520-
522; Aug. 1974. are probably the most frequent single cause of
unreliability in these devices. Depending on the
N. Mapham, “The Rating of Silicon Controlled Rectifiers when severity of the overvoltage, the energy which it
Switching into High Currents,” IEEE Trans. on Communications represents, and its frequency of repetition, the device
and Electronics, vol. 83, pp. 515-519; September 1964.
may fail immediately or its characteristics may
D. A. Paice and P. Wood, “Nonlinear Reactors as Protective progressively deteriorate. Because voltage breakdown
Elements for Thyristor Circuits,” IEEE Trans. on Magnetics, vol. tends to occur at the surface of the device rather
MAG-3, pp. 228-232; September 1967. than within the silicon, the energy required to cause
S. Ikeda, et al., “The Current Pulse Ratings of Thyristors,” IEEE permanent damage may be relatively small.
Trans. on Electron Devices, vol. ED-17, pp. 690-693; September
1970. Except for random disturbances such as lightning,
most voltage transients can be traced to an inductor,
Anode either within or external to the equipment, in which
current has been initiated or interrupted abruptly.
Obvious cases include removing the load on a
rectifier having a large smoothing inductor in the
DC circuit, for example, by blowing a fuse. Cases
Gate which are much more subtle involve hidden
inductance such as the leakage reactance of a
transformer, or unintentional current such as the
rapid cessation of reverse sweepout current in a
Cathode diode or thyristor (which occurs each cycle). Other
Figure 5-11 causes of transient overvoltage are the capacitive
Equivalent Circuit of an Integrated Gate Amplifier coupling from a high voltage circuit to a low voltage
circuit and the energizing of a RLC circuit where the
capacitor will charge to two times the peak line
voltage.
5-21
J. B. Rice and L. E. Nickles, “Commutation dv/dt Effects in Because of the rapid change in on-state current with
Thyristor Three-Phase Bridge Converters,” IEEE Trans. on forward voltage, parallel devices tend to share
Industry and General Applications, vol. IGA-4, pp. 665-672;
current unequally. The best device with the lowest
Nov./Dec. 1968.
forward voltage monopolizes the load current,
J. B. Rice, “Design of Snubber Circuits for Thyristor Converters,” becomes overheated, and is destroyed. Similarly,
Conference Record of the 4th Annual Meeting of the IEEE Industry when parallel thyristors are first turned on, the
and General Applications Group, pp. 485-489; Oct. 1969. device with the shortest turn-on time is subjected to a
W. McMurray, “Optimum Snubbers for Power Semiconductors,” very high di/dt which may destroy it.
IEEE Trans., vol. IA-8, pp. 593-600; Sept./Oct. 1972.
Analogous problems occur in series strings of
C. K. Chu, “Geometry of Thyristor Cathode Shunts,” IEEE Trans. devices. Because of the wide variation in off-state
on Electron Devices, vol. ED-17, pp. 687-690; Sept. 1970. leakage currents between production devices of a
P. S. Raderacht, “A Review of the ‘Shorted-Emitter’ Principle as type, those devices having the lowest leakage currents
Applied to PNPN Silicon Controlled Rectifiers,” Intnl. Jour. of are subjected to excessive blocking voltages when the
Electronics, vol. 31, pp. 541-564; 1971. devices are in equalibrium. Also, mismatches in
junction capacitances and stored charge cause
unequal distribution of transient voltage stresses.
25. Series/Parallel Arrays for High-Power The design of series/parallel equalization networks
Applications (Figures 5-13) to achieve maximum overall power rating, reliability,
The maximum power which can be controlled by a minimum dissipation, and minimum cost is beyond
single solid-state power device is determined by its this text. Suffice it to say that parallel devices can be
rated blocking voltage and by its rated forward forced to share current by a resistor in series with
current. To maximize either of these ratings requires each device or by equalizing reactors (which are
some compromise of the other rating. Also laboratory more costly but also dissipate less power). Series
devices can always be cited with capabilities devices can be forced to share static blocking
considerably beyond those of devices which are voltages by means of a resistor in parallel with each
commercially available at any particular time. device. Transient blocking voltages are wqualized by
a series RC circuit in parallel with each device. Series
Present limits on diode ratings are about 5 kV and and parallel assemblies are available from some
3000A individually, with a maximum product of manufacturers.
about 5 MW. Similar limiting ratings for thyristors
are about 4 kV, 2500A, and 4 MW. The problem of equalizing network design can often
be avoided by purchasing standard multiple-device
Applications requiring voltages which are higher assemblies complete with heat sinks. In this case, the
than the capabilities of individual devices can be device manufacturer assumes responsibility for the
served by series strings of devices, and higher selection of properly matched devices or for the
currents can be achieved by devices connected in adequacy of the equalization network.
parallel. For example, electrochemical process lines
may require 100,000A or more, necessitating many
parallel devices. High-voltage DC converters require Further information on series/parallel arrays of devices and on
high voltage and high current, leading to the design of equalization networks can be found in:
series/parallel arrays of devices.
Westinghouse SCR Designers Handbook (Second Edition),
If all of the characteristics of solid-state devices of a Section 9, Westinghouse Semiconductor Div., Youngwood, Pa.;
1970.
given type were closely matched, series/parallel
arrays of devices could be routinely assembled. In General Electric SCR Manual (Fifth Edition), Section 6, General
some cases, screening of devices to select matched Electric Semiconductor Products Dept., Syracuse, N.Y.; 1972.
sets is an economical alternative. However, in most
High Voltage Rectifier Stacks TD 54-200 12-76, Powerex, Inc.,
cases the spread of characteristics of production Youngwood, Pa.
devices necessitates an equalizing network to assure
that no individual device in the array is overstressed. Air & Water Cooled Pow-R-Disc Assemblies Data Book, Powerex,
Inc., Youngwood, Pa.
5-22
A, R. Mulica, “How to Use Silicon Controlled Rectifiers in Series 26. Summary
or Parallel,” Control Engineering, vol. 11, pp. 95-99; May 1964.
The technical feasibility of a new application of
G. Karady and T. Gilsig, “The Calculation of Transient Voltage
power electronics technology is nearly always
Distribution in a High Voltage DC Thyristor Valve,” IEEE Trans.,
vol. PAS-92, pp. 893-899; May/June 1973. determined by the state of the art in solid-state power
devices. Many potential applications are well within
G. Karady and T. Gilsig, “The Calculation of the Turn-Off the direct capabilities of existing devices without
Overvoltages in a High Voltage DC Thyristor Valve,” IEEE Trans., extensive interfacing, and the design of the
vol. PAS-91, pp. 565-574; Mar./Apr. 1972.
associated circuitry is simple and routine. In other
G. Karady and T. Gilsig, “The Calculation of Turn-On cases, peculiar requirements or economic trade-offs
Overvoltages in a High Voltage DC Thyristor Valve,” IEEE Trans., may dictate that very careful attention be given to
vol. PAS-90, pp. 2802-2811; Nov./Dec. 1971. the design of the power module to protect the power
J. Reeve and R. Marttila, “Calculation of Turn-On Stresses in a device from excessive stresses and to squeeze out the
HVDC Valve Having Parallel Thyristor Strings,” IEEE Trans., vol. full performance of which it is capable.
PAS-92, pp. 864-870; May/June 1973.
Each aspect of the design of the power module to
G. Sherbondy A., Graphical Approach to Paralleling Power interface device limitations with system requirements
Semiconductors Tech-Tip 5-6, Westinghouse Semiconductor is the subject of considerable specialized technology.
Division, Youngwood, Pa.; Dec. 1976.
Hopefully this text has helped you to appreciate both
the immense capabilities of the devices that are
available and the general approaches that are
available when needed to overcome particular device
Equalizing
limitations.
Resistor
Equalizing
Reactor
Equalization of
Parallel Devices
27. Problems
5-23
these conditions, the turn-on energy for 100A of Verify your result by showing that it is consistent with
forward current was calculated to be 30 mJ. the analytical expression for the time constant.
Assume that the voltage across the thyristor drops The plot of junction-to-case thermal impedance shows the rise in junction
linearly in 3µs as before, but that inductance is temperature which would occur (as a function of time) if the device were
mounted on an infinite heat sink. Use physical reasoning to predict how
added to the circuit so that the current requires the plot would change for a device which is insulated from thermal
twice as long (i.e., 6µs) to build up to 100A. How contact with any other body.
does this change the energy dissipated in the switch
during the turn-on interval? Problem 5.5 Using Superposition with Transient
Thermal Impedance
The peak dissipation in the “typical” thyristor during the switching
interval was found to be 15 KW. Because this dissipation is concentrated Idealized heat conduction is a linear process.
in a very small volume surrounding the junction, the corresponding
Therefore the rise in junction temperature for an
power density is of the order of 1 MW/cm3, and the energy flux is about
the same as that at the surface of the sun, 6 KW/cm2! Why doesn’t the arbitrary dissipation waveform can be obtained by
thyristor light up like the sun (or does it)? the superposition of step-function responses.
Determine the peak junction temperature rise of a
Problem 5.2 Steady-State Thermal Resistance and Type T500 thyristor caused by a 700A, 20 ms pulse
Average Current Rating followed after an interval of 40 ms by a 500A, 40 ms
pulse.
Six Type T500 thyristors are used in a 6-pulse bridge
AC/DC converter. If they are to operate with a case Problem 5.6 Current Sharing of Parallel Thyristors
temperature of 90oC and an average junction
temperature of 120oC, how much DC load current Type T500 thyristors have an RMS current rating of
can the converter tolerate? If they are cooled by 125A. Assume that 2 of these thyristors are to be
ambient air at 40oC, what is the maximum thermal paralleled in order to control a 250A load current.
resistance of each heat sink? The forward V-I characteristic may be approximately
by a linear relationship of the form:
Problem 5.3 Transient Thermal Impedance
where the nominal values are Eo = 1.2v and R = 0.003
The I2t rating of a thyristor is a non-repetitive rating. ohms. Assume that production devices have a ± 10%
Therefore it can be expected that a thyristor which is
stressed to the limit allowed by this rating will have a
peak junction temperature considerably higher than V = E0 + R0 I
125oC and that an appreciable delay is required
before forward blocking ability is regained.
spread in both Eo and Ro.
Use the plot of transient thermal impedance for the
Type T500 to estimate the increase in junction (a) Calculate the worst case distribution of currents if
temperature which occurs when a matched fuse two production devices are paralleled to carry
(I2t = 13,495 A2s) blows. Assume that the clearing 250A. Compared to the ± 10% tolerance on Eo
time for the fuse is 2 ms and that the current is and Ro, what is the corresponding percentage
constant over this interval. tolerance on current?
Problem 5.4 Transient Thermal Impedance (b) Calculate the value of the equalizing resistor
which must be connected in series with each
A graphical process is determined in the text for
thyristor to hold the current tolerance
combining the transient thermal impedances of two
within ± 10%. Calculate the power dissipated in
dissimilar cylinders, namely silicon and copper. Test
the equalizing resistors and compare it with the
your understanding of this process by using it to
power dissipated in the thyristors.
determine the increase in thermal time constant which
takes place when the length of a cylinder is doubled.
In other words, use the process to combine the
thermal impedance graphs of two identical cylinders.
5-24
APPENDICES 7.
[ f (t )]AVE =
1
∫
T2
f (t )dt
T2 − T1 T1
1
1 2
APPENDIX I
[ f (t )]RMS
T2
= ∫
2
8. f ( t ) dt
Ten Cornerstones of Power Electronics
T2 − T1 T1
The fundamental principles needed to understand
the repetitively switched power circuits used in power
electronics are not new to electrical engineers. Once By definition, there is no net change in a periodically
you gain self confidence in applying these old varying function in steady-state over a full cycle. From
principles, mixed with patience and preserverance, (4) and (7):
diL (t ) 1
L∫
4. eL (t ) = L or ∆i L = eL (t )dt
dt
deC (t ) 1
C∫
5. iC (t ) = C or ∆e C = iC (t )dt
dt
A-1
APPENDIX II Standard Device Rating Symbols
Selected Symbol List
VRRM, VDRM = Thyristor reverse and forward off-
Standard Circuit Symbols state blocking voltages (repetitive).
Vdo = DC or average voltage with no VT = On-state voltage.
phase control and no load.
IT = On-state current.
Vd = DC or average voltage with phase
control and/or load. ITSM = Maximum on-state thyristor surge
current (non-repetitive).
Id = DC or average current.
IRRM, IDRM = Reverse and forward off-state thyristor
Pd = VdId = Real Power (W). blocking (leakage) currents.
Pa = VdoId = Apparent fundamental power (VA) tq = Circuit-commutated turn-off time.
neglecting harmonics.
trr = Junction reverse recovery time.
fs = Source frequency.
TJ = Junction temperature.
α= Phase control angle. (Subscripts c = Case A = Ambient).
φ, cos φ = Displacement angle, displacement RθJC = Junction-to-case thermal resistance.
factor.
ΖθJC (t) = “Transient thermal impedance”
µ= Commutation overlap angle. Unit step function thermal
response with device mounted on
fixed-temperature heat sink.
P= Pulse number.
A-2
APPENDIX III
Power Electronic Circuit Configurations — Voltage
and Current Relationships
A-3
Maximum Load Maximum Average Maximum Average
Voltage Thyristor Current Diode Current
Load Voltage with Delayed Firing
Ed = Average Cond. Average Cond.
Ea = RMS Average Amps. Period Amps. Period
2E p E p (1 + cosα) Ep 2E p
Ed = Ed = .26
π π πR πR
2E p 2E p (cosα) Ep
Ed = Ed =
π π πR
(I dc = K)
360o Ep 180o
E p (1 + cosα ) 2E p πR
2E p
.5( Ep )
Ed = Ed =
π π πR <180o
FWD
πR
180o Ep 180o
Ep πR
2E p Ep
(1 + cosα )
.26(2Ep )
Ed = Ed =
π π πR <180o
FWD
πR
180o ... ...
2E p 2E p Ep
Ed = Ed = (cosα )
π π πR
(I dc = K)
A-4
Circuit Max. PRV
Name Waveforms Thyristor
Notation Schematic Voltage SCR Diode
L R ID
L R ID
A-5
Maximum Load Maximum Average Maximum Average
Voltage Thyristor Current Diode Current
Load Voltage with Delayed Firing
Ed = Average Cond. Average Cond.
Ea = RMS Average Amps. Period Amps. Period
360o Ep 180o
πR
2E p Ep 2E p
Ed = Ed = (1 + cosα ) 5. Ep <180o
π π πR
πR
3 3E p Ed = 3 3E p (cosα)
Ed = 2π
2π
(I dc = K)
3 3E p Ed = 3 3E p
Ed = (cosα)
π π
3 3E p 3 3E p
Ed = Ed = ( i + cosα)
π 2π Size to .33 ID <120o
FWD
Ep Ep Ep
Ea = Ea = (π - α + 12 sin 2α )
1.4 2π πR
A-6