Chapter III

References and Connectives

One of the most useful strategies in tacking with reading is by using reference
word and connectives.
Reference word strategy and connective knowledge strategy are different from
other strategies we have learned. Reference word is not finding new words by using a
dictionary, word formation or context clues but it is a strategy that we have to find the
relationship of phrases in sentences or in the contexts while connectives knowledge
strategy helps us to connect ideas together to indicate result, contrast, time sequence or
addition. This makes us comprehend the text easier and clearer.

Reference Words
Reference words are words or phrases, which are used by the writer to avoid
using the same word over and over. Using the same word in a sentence or paragraph
makes the writing boring. Therefore, the writers usually use other words or phases to
avoid repetition and boredom. Reference word is a strategy that we need to learn
because it is an essential strategy. But reference words, sometimes, make us confused
when reading. Thus, learning about reference words and how to use them is an
advantage to us.
Most of us may be familiar to reference words, so we can understand the
meanings of unknown words in contexts. But the problem is whether or not we can
identify what the writer refers to. From studying documents it concludes that reference
words can be divided into 11 types as follows:
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1. Specific Words
2. Pronouns
3. Relative Pronouns
4. Synonyms or similar meanings
5. Broader meaning words
6. Summary words
7. Comparison
8. Numerical Order
9. Noun Omission
10. Repeated Action Reference Words
11. Sequence words
1. Specific Words. In sentences there are specific words that gives specific
meanings according to the function in the sentences. These words can be grouped into
the following categories:
1.1 Demonstrative adjectives: this, that, these and those which function as
modification or giving extra information, for example:

My hometown is in the North of Canada. That place is very cold in winter.

“that” modifies place and “that place” refers to “the North of Canada”

1.2 Demonstrative pronouns: this, that, these and those which function as
pronouns. For example:

Somsak passed the entrance examination. This made him happy.

“This” refers to Somsak passed the entrance examination.
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1.3 Demonstrative adverbs: here, and there. For example;

Surin is near Cambodia but I haven’t been there.
“there” refers to Surin.

2. Pronouns. Pronoun is another word that is used to replace the noun that
has already been mentioned. There are a lot of pronouns used in daily lives. They are:
I, me, mine, you, yours, he, him, his, she, her, hers, they, them, their, theirs, it, its,
myself, himself, yourself, themselves, and itself. Now let’s take a look at these pronouns
in the sentences in the following examples:

My nephew stays with my mother. He always helps her with chores.

They built Bhumibhon Dam for 8 years. Thousand men worked days
and nights on the dam.

3. Relative Pronouns: Relative pronouns are words which are used to give
extra information. These words are which, who, whose, where, when, why, and that.
These words are placed in front of adjective and adverb clause, for example:
Adjective Clause:
I lost the watch which my brother bought me.
“which” refers to watch.

Adverb Clause:
Suthin is always lonely when it rains.
(Suthin is always lonely. He feels lonely when it rains.)
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4. Synonyms or similar meanings: In passages the writer usually uses words

that have similar meanings to make the text colorful and lively. Let’s take a look at the
following examples:

Reading is a primary avenue to knowledge. For some the path is wide,

paved straight with all road signs where they should be.

My four - year - old daughter is playing and jumping around the house. She
enjoys skipping rope and hopping like a rabbit.

5. Broader meaning words: Sometimes, we find general words used in the

sentences. Let’s have a look at the examples:

a) Whales and porpoises are sea mammals. These animals can make
many hundred different sounds.
From the example above, animals refer to whales and porpoises.
Whales and porpoises are subsets of animals.

b) Nancy, who is on the fourth grade, does not feel good today. The
poor girl has a sore throat. Since it is a rainy day, the child probably
caught cold on her way to school.
From the example, the poor girl and the child, both refer to Nancy.
From example a and b. we will see that the reference words will consist
of article “the” in front. This implies that the speaker is referring to the thing or
someone he/she is talking to.
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6. Summary words: Summary words are the words which summarize the
meanings of unknown words. They are process, procedure, measure, problem, idea,
definition, quality, etc.
a) She is clever, gentle and kind-hearted. These are the qualities,
which attracted everyone around her.

b) I rented a room in a hotel a few days ago. It was terrible, there was
no water, the air condition was not working and above all the
service was not good. These are the problems that I had during my
stay in one city.

7. Comparison: Comparison is a technique which shows the relations of

quality, quantity, and similarity of the things or people the speaker did mention. If we
can tell the relations of these words, we will understand the text more. These words
are: same, similar, different, equal, more, less, similarity, as, etc. For example:

Tom weighed 60 kilos. His brother weighed one kilo less, but his sister
weighed more.
8. Numerical Order: Numerical means numbers. They are: one, two, three,
etc. and first, second, third, etc.

I can’t differentiate this girl from that one. Do you think they are Siamese twins?
“That one” refers to a girl whom the speaker has not mentioned.
9. Noun Omission: By the word noun omission we mean to leave out the
noun. This technique is used by the writer to leave out the nouns, which have already
been mentioned. The writer will use the following words to refer to the noun that has
been left out. They are: one, another, the other / others, some, those, all, etc.
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a) Octopuses are easily tamed and can be trained to take food from
your hand. Some will even pull your hand open to get at a tightly
held.
The word “ some “ refers to an amount of octopuses which is
mentioned in the passage already. The full sentence would be “Octopuses are easily
tamed and can be trained to take food from your hand. Some Octopuses will even pull
your hand open to get at a tightly held”.

b) Two ladies are talking in the canteen. One is my advisor and the
other is her colleague.
The word “one” and “the other” refers to the noun “lady”. The full
sentence would be “The ladies are talking in the canteen. One lady is my advisor and
the other lady is her colleague”.

10. Repeated Action Reference Words: These are the reference words, which
represent the events, or situations that had happened already. These words are: so, that,
it, too, do, does, did, the same, likewise, not, either, etc.
a) Mary gave some of her pocket money to Red Cross, and you should
likewise.
b) Somsak did not go back to his hometown and Walai did not either.
c) Suda always treats people kindly and she still does.

11. Sequence words: There are a number of words that shows the order of
situations and events, in other words, sequences of situations. The most common
reference words used are “the former” and “the latter”. Both of them imply the
relations of situation, event or person.
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a) John and Mary arrived, the latter wearing a green dress.

“The latter” refers to Mary because it is placed in the second sequence.
If instead of the word “the latter” becomes the word “the former”.
b) Some students read slowly and know it, others read slowly and
don’t know it.
The former can be helped more easily than the latter.

In this sentence “the former “ refers to “ some students read slowly and
know it” while “the latter” refers to “ others read slowly and don’t know it”
In short, all 11 types of techniques can be used to find out the meanings
of words. It depends on the situations of the text that the writer differentiates them.
These techniques may be useful for us to understand the text, but we should learn other
techniques in order to help us achieve our goal in tackling with English texts.
In general, a reference is something that refers or points to something
else, or acts as a connection or a link between two things. The objects it links may be
concrete, such as books or locations, or abstract, such as data, thoughts, or memories.

Connectives
Connectives are words such as but, if and therefore that join words or clauses
in a sentence or across sentences to indicate logical relations between two clauses or
sentences (Hamrick, 1989). They are often conjunctions, but adverbs and adverbial
phrases and clauses can also work as connectives such as however, finally, in other
words. Connectives are used to: make comparisons or contrasts, add to an idea,
express a result, summarize, explain or illustrate, arrange ideas in order, time or space.
When writing topics for paragraphs, reports and essays the writer may develop
them in different ways according to their content and needs. A list of linking words, or
connectives, is provided to help us link the ideas, sentences and paragraphs. Connective
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words are used either in or between paragraphs to help and show us the connection
or relationship between one sentence and another. They are also used to make
comparisons or contrasts, add to an idea, express a result, summarize, explain or
illustrate, arrange ideas in order, time or space. Now study them carefully, they can
assist us in moving from one point to the next.
Connectives belong to three different word classes; 1) Coordinating conjunctions,
2) Subordinate Conjunction and 3) Connective Adverbs ( Williams, 1986).

1. Coordinating conjunctions
Coordinating conjunctions connect words, phrases, and clauses. Thy are
for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so. (We can remember the acronym FANBOYS: For-And-
Nor-But-Or-Yet-So.)
Among the coordinating conjunctions, the most common, of course, are
and, but, and or. It might be helpful to explore the uses of these three little words. The
examples below by no means exhaust the possible meanings of these conjunctions.
1.1 AND is used;
1) To suggest that one idea is chronologically sequential to another:
"Tashonda sent in her applications and waited by the phone for a response."
2) To suggest that one idea is the result of another: "Willie heard the
weather report and promptly boarded up his house."
3) To suggest that one idea is in contrast to another (frequently replaced
by but in this usage): "Juanita is brilliant and Shalimar has a pleasant personality.
4) To suggest an element of surprise (sometimes replaced by yet in this
usage): "Hartford is a rich city and suffers from many symptoms of urban blight."
5) To suggest that one clause is dependent upon another, conditionally
(usually the first clause is an imperative): "Use your credit cards frequently and you'll
soon find yourself deep in debt."
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6) To suggest a kind of "comment" on the first clause: "Charlie became

addicted to gambling - and that surprised no one who knew him."

1.2 BUT is used;

1) To suggest a contrast that is unexpected in light of the first clause:
"Joey lost a fortune in the stock market, but he still seems able to live quite
comfortably."
2) To suggest in an affirmative sense what the first part of the sentence
implied in a negative way (sometimes replaced by on the contrary): "The club never
invested foolishly, but used the services of a sage investment counselor."
3) To connect two ideas with the meaning of "with the exception of"
(and then the second word takes over as subject): "Everybody but Goldenbreath is
trying out for the team."

1.3 OR is used;
1) To suggest that only one possibility can be realized, excluding one or
the other: "You can study hard for this exam or you can fail."
2) To suggest the inclusive combination of alternatives: "We can broil
chicken on the grill tonight, or we can just eat leftovers. To suggest a refinement of the
first clause: "Smith College is the premier all-women's college in the country, or so it
seems to most Smith College alumnae."
3) To suggest a restatement or "correction" of the first part of the
sentence: "There are no rattlesnakes in this canyon, or so our guide tells us."
4) To suggest a negative condition: "The New Hampshire state motto is
the rather grim "Live free or die."
5) To suggest a negative alternative without the use of an imperative:
"They must approve his political style or they wouldn't keep electing him mayor."
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1.4 NOR; The conjunction NOR is not extinct, but it is not used nearly as
often as the other conjunctions, so it might feel a bit odd when nor does come up in
conversation or writing. Its most common use is as the little brother in the correlative
pair, neither-nor:
a) He is neither sane nor brilliant.
b) That is neither what I said nor what I meant.

It can be used with other negative expressions:

a) That is not what I meant to say, nor should you interpret my
statement as an admission of guilt.
b) It is possible to use nor without a preceding negative element, but it
is unusual and, to an extent, rather stuffy:
c) George's handshake is as good as any written contract, nor has he
ever proven untrustworthy.

1.5 YET; The word YET functions sometimes as an adverb and has several
meanings: in addition ("yet another cause of trouble" or "a simple yet noble woman"),
even ("yet more expensive"), still ("he is yet a novice"), eventually ("they may yet
win"), and so soon as now ("he's not here yet"). It also functions as a coordinating
conjunction meaning something like "nevertheless" or "but." The word yet seems to
carry an element of distinctiveness that but can seldom register.
a) John plays basketball well, yet his favorite sport is badminton.
b) The visitors complained loudly about the heat, yet they continued to
play golf every day.
c) Rocky terrorizes the poodles next door yet adores the German
shepherd across the street.
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In sentences such as the second one, above, the pronoun subject of the
second clause ("they," in this case) is often left out. When that happens, the comma
preceding the conjunction might also disappear: "The visitors complained loudly yet
continued to play golf every day."
Yet is sometimes combined with other conjunctions, but or and. It
would not be unusual to see and yet in sentences like the ones above. This usage is
acceptable.

1.6 FOR; The word FOR is most often used as a preposition, of course, but it
does serve, on rare occasions, as a coordinating conjunction. Some people regard the
conjunction for as rather highfalutin and literary, and it does tend to add a bit of
weightiness to the text. Beginning a sentence with the conjunction "for" is probably
not a good idea, except when you're singing "For he's a jolly good fellow. "For" has
serious sequential implications and in its use the order of thoughts is more important
than it is, say, with because or since. Its function is to introduce the reason for the
preceding clause:
a) John thought he had a good chance to get the job, for his father was
on the company's board of trustees.
b) Most of the visitors were happy just sitting around in the shade, for
it had been a long, dusty journey on the train.
c) I hate to waste a single drop of squid eyeball stew, for it is
expensive and time-consuming to make.

1.7 SO; Be careful of the conjunction SO. Sometimes it can connect two
independent clauses along with a comma, but sometimes it can't. For instance, in this
sentence,
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a) Soto is not the only Olympic athlete in his family, so are his
brother, sister, and his Uncle Chet.
Here the word so means "as well" or "in addition," most careful writers
would use a semicolon between the two independent clauses. In the following
sentence, where so is acting like a minor-league "therefore," the conjunction and the
comma are adequate to the task:
b) Soto has always been nervous in large gatherings, so it is no
surprise that he avoids crowds of his adoring fans.
c) Joe spent seven hours studying calculus at Taco Bell, so now he can
set his math book on fire with his salsa breath.

Sometimes, at the beginning of a sentence, so will act as a kind of summing

up device or transition, and when it does, it is often set off from the rest of the sentence
with a comma: “ So, the sheriff peremptorily removed the child from the custody of his
parents”.

2. Subordinating Conjunction
Subordinating Conjunction (sometimes called a dependent word or
subordinator) comes at the beginning of a Subordinate (or Dependent) Clause and
establishes the relationship between the dependent clause and the rest of the sentence.
It also turns the clause into something that depends on the rest of the sentence for its
meaning.
a) After she had learned to drive, Alice felt more independent.
The subordinating conjunction "after" introduces the dependent clause
"After she had learned to drive."
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b) If the paperwork arrives on time, your cheque will be mailed on

Tuesday.
Similarly, the subordinating conjunction "if" introduces the dependent
clause "If the paperwork arrives on time."

c) Gerald had to begun his thesis over again when his computer crashed.
The subordinating conjunction "when" introduces the dependent
clause "when his computer crashed."

d) Midwifery advocates argue that home births are safer because the
mother and baby are exposed to fewer people and fewer germs.
In this sentence, the dependent clause "because the mother and baby are
exposed to fewer people and fewer germs" is introduced by the subordinating
conjunction "because."

Notice that some of the subordinating conjunctions in the table below - after,
before, since - are also prepositions, but as subordinators they are being used to
introduce a clause and to subordinate the following clause to the independent element
in the sentence.
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These words are commonly used as subordinating conjunctions.

Table 3.1 Common subordinating conjunctions

Common Subordinating Conjunctions

After if only than
although inasmuch as that
as in case (that) though
as far as in order (that) till
as soon as insofar as unless
as if in that until
as long as lest when
as though no matter how whenever
because now that where
before once whereas
even if provided (that) wherever
even though since whether
how so that while
if supposing (that) why

3. Connective Adverbs
Connective Adverbs or conjunctive adverbs such as however, moreover,
nevertheless, consequently, as a result are used to create complex relationships
between ideas. The conjunctive adverbs were categorized according to their various
uses and their application within sentences. The following are frequently used
conjunctive adverbs:
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Table 3.2 Connective Adverbs

Connective Adverbs
after all in addition next
also incidentally nonetheless
as a result indeed on the contrary
besides in fact on the other hand
consequently in other words otherwise
finally instead still
for example likewise then
furthermore meanwhile therefore
hence moreover thus
however nevertheless

Examples:
The tire was flat; therefore, we called a service station.
It was a hot day; nevertheless, the roofers worked on the project all day.

See that the writer uses connectives to show how ideas are connected logically
that can help us in comprehending the text easier. Connective will show us what the
logical relation that needs to be made explicit is. For example, because, so and
therefore express different logical relations from although, but and nevertheless:
a) He was angry because the food was cold.
b) The food was cold, so he was angry.
c) The food was cold. Therefore he was angry.
d) He was angry although the food was cold.
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e) The food was cold, but he was angry.

f) The food was cold. Nevertheless, he was angry.

However as these examples also show, we also have to pay attention to syntax -
what is the grammatical relation between the ideas that have this logical relation? The
connectives because, so and therefore express the same logic, but they are very
different grammatically:
because is a subordinating conjunction introducing the subordinate clause
because the food was cold;
so is a co-ordinating conjunction which simply links the clauses on either
side of it on equal footing;
therefore is an adverb which refers back to an idea expressed earlier, so it
means 'because of that'.
The table below presents some of the main connectives classified according to
their meaning and their grammar. They are helpful to us as an instrument for reading
effectively.
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Table 3.3 Connectives; meaning and grammar

Connectives for listings first, furthermore, finally, first and foremost, first and most
or sequences: importantly, firs t/ ly, second / ly, third / ly, to begin with/to
start with, in the second place, moreover, lastly, and to
conclude, next, then, afterward, finally
Connectives used to also, again, furthermore, moreover, which is more, then, in
add or reinforce or to addition, above all, besides, as well as, too
confirm:
Connectives used to correspondingly, equally, similarly, likewise, as well as, in the
show similarity or same way
equality:
Connectives used to either/or, either/neither, not only, but also, nor/neither
indicate positives,
negatives or
comparisons:
Connectives for indeed, actually, in (actual) fact, really, in reality, in truth
contradiction:
Connectives that show now, with reference to, with regard to, regarding, let us turn
or indicate transitions: to/look at and in spoken language: incidentally, by the way,
come to think of it, talking/speaking of, apropos, that reminds
me (these indicate a digression or afterthought)
Connectives used in in conclusion, to conclude, to sum up, briefly, in brief, then, to
summation: summarize, altogether, overall, therefore, thus
Connectives referring that is, that is to say, in other words, for example, or, or rather,
back to previous or better still, as follows, such as, as, including, mainly,
sentences or parallel included in, particularly, notably
ideas:
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Table 3.3 (Continue)

Connectives to show therefore, as a result, a consequence of, consequently, so,

result or consequence: accordingly, because of
this/that, thus, for this/that reason, hence
Connectives which then, in other words, in that case, else, otherwise, if so/not, that
infer: implies, which suggests
Connectives which better, rather, in other words, in that case, to put it (more)
reformulate to express simply
something in another
way:
Connectives which alternatively, better/worse (still), rather, the alternative is, on
express a replacement the other hand, another possibility is/was/might be
or alternative to what
has preceded:
Connectives to show instead, conversely, on the contrary, by (way of) contrast,
contrast with what has then, in comparison (with), by comparison
preceded:
Connectives which besides, (or) else, however, nonetheless, nevertheless, only,
show concession: still, notwithstanding, while, (al)though, yet, in any case, at
any rate, for all that, in spite of that, after all, at the same time,
on the other hand, having said that, all the same, even
if / though

Now let’s study about references and connective with the following examples.
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Example 1
Sir John said that in the future, computers would be developed which would
be small enough to carry in the pocket. Ordinary people would then be able to use
them to obtain valuable information. Computers could be plugged into a national
network and be used like radios. For instance, people going on holiday could be
informed about weather condition; car drivers could be given alternative routs when
there are traffic jams. It will also be possible to make a tiny translating machine.
This will enable people who do not share a common language to talk to each other
without any difficulty or to read foreign publications. It is possible to assess the
importance of a machine of this sort, for many international misunderstandings are
caused simply through our failure to understand each other. Computers will also be
used in hospitals. By providing a machine with a patient’s symptoms, a doctor will be
able to diagnose the nature of his illness. Similarly, machines could be used to keep a
check on a patient’s record and bring it up to date. Doctors will therefore have
immediate access to a great many facts which will help them in their work. Book-
keepers and accountants, too could be relieved of dull clerical work, for the tedious
task of compiling and checking lists of figures could be done entirely by machines.
Computers are the most efficient servants man has ever had and there is no limit to
the way they can be used to improve our lives.
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Example 2
Transplant surgery, once only a futuristic notion, is fast becoming a daily
event. For many, however, the bitter reality is a waiting list, and in the case of heart-
lung candidates, most die before the donor appears.
In some countries, the donor shortage problem may be alleviated now that
people can pledge their organs after death by signing their consent on their driver’s
license. Although the signed consent gives legal permission for the use of organs, the
transplant team speaks to the relatives whenever possible before going ahead, partly
because the relatives themselves need to understand the situation. However, the
pledge does mean that if relatives cannot be found or do not exist, a person wishing to
donate organs can do so legally without depending on other’s permission. Once a
possible donor has been found, blood samples are sent to the blood bank to be tissue-
typed, the recipient with the closest tissue match is chosen and preparations for the
operation are begun.

Example 3
In dealing with problem in your day-to-day life, there are at least three types
of situations in which you may need some help. One of these is when you can’t
identify what is troubling you. You may be suffering from a symptom that bothers
you a great deal—anxiety, insomnia, or depression, for example ---- but you find
yourself unable to determine what causes it. Another situation is when you have the
idea of what your problem is, but you can’t figure out how to solve it. For instance,
you know that you are having trouble with your parents because you fight with them
almost every time you see them, but you can’t find a way to stop this misery. In the
third type of situation you may have identified your problem and you may have even
an idea of how to solve it, but you find yourself unable to do so. Let’s say that you’re
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working and going to school at the same time, and many nights you’re so tired, you
can’t sleep. You take a sleeping pill but then have trouble getting started in the
morning. So you resort to more pills, different pills. These enable you to get through
the day, but you’re still “hype up” at night ---and so on. Here you know that you
should break this cycle, but you can’t seem to do it.

Self Practice 3.1

Read the following passage and than
a) relate the italic references to the words or ideas they refer to,
b) tell what the underlined connectives signal.

(1) When the Chinese began to develop their public health services in 1949,
they decided that their main aim would be to prevent disease occurring . One part of
their public health program was to teach the people simple health rules (2) such as the
importance of drinking pure water and of getting rid of household rubbish. Chairman
Mao’s war on flies, mosquitoes and rats may have been regarded by the rest of the
world as a joke, (3) but the fact is that it is difficult to find a housefly in China these
days. (4) As a result, it is now possible to control the spread of some diseases which
twenty-five years ago, they carried from house to house and from village to village.
(5) Unlike the rest of the world, China now seems to have enough doctors. Neither the
city nor the village hospitals seem to be overcrowded. The explanation is that most
medical care in China is provided by the “barefoot doctor.” (6) Consequently, only the
difficult cases find their way to the local hospitals, and (7) even fewer are passed on to
the specialist hospitals for treatment.
The barefoot doctors seem to have caught the imagination of people in the
West. (8) But they are not doctors, (9) nor do they generally go barefoot; they are
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simply health workers at the lowest level of the medical organization. Most of them
are young country girls who have been given short course of basic medical training.
Each is responsible for about fifty families, their main work being to prevent disease
rather than to cure it. (10) For example, they make sure that children are protected
against killer disease such as diphtheria by giving them injections.

(1) When :……………………………………………

(2) such as :……………………………………………
(3) but :……………………………………………
(4) As a result :……………………………………………
(5) Unlike :……………………………………………
(6) Consequently :……………………………………………
(7) even :……………………………………………
(8) But :……………………………………………
(9) nor :……………………………………………
(10) For example :……………………………………………