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Table of Contents

I. Introduction………………………………………………………………..2

II. Cathode-ray tube…………………………………………………………..2

III. Liquid Crystal Display…………………………………………………….8

IV. Plasma Display Panel……………………………………………………...11

V. Conclusion…………………………………………………………………12

VI. Work Cited………………………………………………………………....14

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I. Introduction

A computer display, monitor, or screen is a computer peripheral device

capable of showing still or moving images generated by a computer and

processed by a video card. Display technology has grown significantly since its

induction. In the beginning, computer displays were only capable of displaying

text in a single color. Since then, however, technology has increased by leaps

and bounds, and modern displays are capable of displaying millions of colors, as

well as video, images, and text. Three of the main display technologies used

today are Cathode Ray Tubes, Liquid Crystal Displays, and Plasma Displays.

II. Cathode Ray Tubes

Cathode Ray Tubes, commonly referred to as CRTs, are the oldest and

probably the most common display technology in the world today. The first

cathode ray tube that contained all of the components associated with modern

day CRTs was developed in 1897 by Karl Ferdinand Braun (Keller 45).

Thousands of CRT designs exist today, but all of them are fall into one of two

major categories. Electromagnetically deflected CRTs are the type most common

today. This type of CRT is used in televisions, computer displays, and radar

applications. Electromagnetically deflected CRTs are characterized by a fixed

scan format, short tube length, and low cost (Keller 1). The second type, called

electrostatically deflected CRTs, are less common and used mostly in

applications where extreme speed is necessary such as in oscilloscopes

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(Keller 2). The cathode ray tube is comprised of six major components: the

electron beam source, acceleration electrodes, the focusing section, the

deflection system, the phosphor screen, and the envelope (Keller 3).

The electron beam source is the heart of the cathode ray tube. The

electrodes that produce the beam of electrons are often referred to as the

“electron gun” (Keller 3). The cathode is the source of the electrons for the

electron beam; it has a negative charge. The hot-cathode used in modern tubes

has anode voltages anywhere from 1000 volts to 30,000 volts. The hot-cathode

was originally developed in 1904 and was a key element in the advancement of

the modern cathode ray tube. The cold-cathode requires extremely large anode

voltages (50,000 to 100,000 volts) that would not be practical for use in most

applications. The heater is a component that runs at about 1000 degrees

Celsius. Its sole purpose is to heat the cathode warm enough so that it can emit

electrons at the given voltage (Keller 4). Electron emission is a result of the

oxides on the surface of the cathode (metal itself will not emit electrons without

substantial temperature or voltage). The cathode cup is made from nickel and is

coated in barium, strontium, and sometimes calcium carbonate. The electrons

form a beam to the screen because they are attracted to the positively charged

screen. The beam operates at 1 microampere to 1 milliampere (Keller 5).

The second major component of the cathode ray tube is the acceleration

system. One or more acceleration electrodes are used to increase the electron

beam’s velocity (Keller 6). This is accomplished my forming a positive field to pull
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the electrons away from the cathode. This acceleration of the electrons adds

energy to the beam which in turn produces more light from the screen (Keller 7).

The focusing

system and

deflection system

both manipulate the

electron beam. The

focusing system, as

one might guess, is

used to focus the

electron beam on

the screen. Electromagnetic and electrostatic methods are used, but the

electrostatic method is almost universally used for modern CRTs. The

electrostatic lens is formed by adding electrodes to the electron gun. The lens is

actually a voltage gradient field between the previously mentioned electrodes.

The voltage gradients can be adjusted to “converge the electron beam to a focus

at the screen” (Keller 10). Deflection takes the focused electron beam and

deflects it to any desired location on the screen. The same two methods for

focusing (electromagnetic and electrostatic) exist for deflection, but

electromagnetic deflection is most prevalent. Deflection is accomplished by using

an alternating current electromagnet field to sweep the beam across the screen.

The electromagnetic field is created using two pairs of series-connected coils

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mounted around the neck of the tube. They are mounted ninety degrees apart.

One is used for the horizontal axis, the other for the vertical (Keller 11).

The phosphor screen converts the invisible electron beam into light visible

to the human eye. Phosphors are fluorescent, meaning that they are able to

produce light when exposed to radiation (the electron beam). Energy is added to

the electrons in the phosphor’s atom when it is exposed to the electron beam. A

portion of this added energy is released in the form of one or more photons of

light (Keller 13). Color CRTs use three distinct phosphors (usually red, green, and

blue emitting phosphors) arranged in a fine dot, stripe, or line pattern to produce

colors. By exciting the different phosphors, either individually or in varying

combinations, with three electron beams, it is possible to produce most visible

colors (Keller 14).

The last component of the cathode ray tube is the envelope. Essentially,

the envelope is simply the container for the rest of the parts. It has five main

functions: permits light from the phosphor screen to be seen, provides enclosure

capable of the high vacuum necessary for the electron beam, provides

mechanical support for the electron gun, allows electrical connection between the

electrodes and the outside world, and insulates the electrodes and various

coatings from each other. The envelope is divided into four main sections

including the base which contains the electrical connections, the neck which

houses the electron gun, the funnel, and the faceplate (Keller 22).

Scanning refers to the movement of the electron beam both horizontally

and vertically to form a useful image (Keller 33). Raster scanning is used in
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modern television sets and computer displays. “Raster scanning consists of two

sawtooth current waveforms, one at a relatively low frequency and the other at

much higher frequency, applied to both the vertical and horizontal deflection coils

of the tube.” The higher frequency is applied to the horizontal axis and the result

is a fast left to right motion of the electron beam. The vertical scan is much

slower and is applied top to bottom. The electron beam is actually turned off

during the retrace times, although the human eye cannot distinguish the break

(Keller 37).

The development of

the cathode ray tube began

in the early 1900’s. Most

development through 1930

was through academic

research by individuals. By

this time, however,

applications for CRT use

drove development. In

1939, only 50,000 CRTs

were produced

commercially. By 1944, that

number skyrocketed to over

two million (Keller 63). Among the first applications for the cathode ray tube were

for radar and oscilloscopes. CRTs were not used for computer displays until after
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World War II. Before this time, early computers used mechanical devices, such

as typewriters and page printers, for their I/O. In fact, these early computers often

used CRTs for storage (memory). One early computer used thirty-seven CRT

tubes to store 256 words of 37 bits each for a total of 1 kilobyte of memory (Keller

193). CRTs started to be used for computer displays in the early 1950’s. The

Charactron CRT was released in 1952 and was used for character displays only.

The Charactron used a shaped electron beam to achieve the character displays.

It wasn’t until 1971 that the Charactron was enhanced to display both

alphanumerics and graphics (Keller 196). In these early displays, the constant

refresh required by CRT displays was a huge concern due to limited memory in

the computer. The Typotron used similar techniques for display as the

Charactron, but it also served as a storage device so no refresh was necessary

until the display was changed. Another advance in computer display technology

was the development of electronic character generation circuits. This new

technology eliminated the need to generate characters by shaping the electron

beam (Keller 197).

In the 1980’s semiconductor memory rapidly increased in data storage

capacity, which made display refreshing essentially a non-issue. Additionally,

raster scanning eased the requirements on the CRT. As a result, monochrome

and color television CRTs were readily adapted to computer displays during this

period. Also during this period, the personal computer was developed and

consumer demand allowed technology companies to invest in research and

development for computer display technologies (Keller 200). Monochrome

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displays were initially adapted because of their high resolution (Keller 201), but

by the late 1980’s color displays caught up in resolution and brightness and were

quickly adapted for graphic display applications such as CAD tools (Keller 205).

III. Liquid Crystal Display

Liquid Crystal Displays are widely used technology found in computer

monitors and televisions. The first liquid crystal displays were in simple colors

such as green or orange. The liquid crystal material found in LCDs was first

discovered in 1888 by F. Renitzer (Tannas 33). This discovery eventually led to

ideas of using the liquid crystal in displays. “Increasing interest in the display

application of LCDs is probably due to the activity of the Heilmeir group, who

proposed ‘dynamic scattering effect’ in liquid crystals with a negative dielectric

anisotropy” (Chigrinov 226). The dynamic scattering effect involves the

scattering of light until the electric field reaches a certain threshold value. The

first liquid crystal mixture took place at room temperature in 1969 by American

researchers Kelker, Scheuerle, and Minihg (Chigrinov 227). At the time, a room

temperature nomadic liquid crystal did not exist. The experimental mixture was

unstable. This led to the breakthrough by Professor George W. Gray of the

University of England. He discovered cyanobiphenyl materials which was stable

at room temperature (Tannas 33). This led to the further development of LCDs.

To create an LCD, the liquid crystals used must be in the nematic phase.

The molecules are twisted. Two pieces of polarized glass are used as filters.

Microscopic grooves are created on the side of the glass without the polarizing

film on it (Tyson). The nematic liquid crystals are added by being coated on to
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one glass filter. The grooves created line up with the glass filter’s orientation.

The second piece of glass is then added on top of the first trapping the liquid

crystals between them. When light is passed through the first filter, it’s polarized

(Tyson). The molecules in the liquid crystals guide light through all the layers. “If

the final layer is matched up with the second polarized glass filter, the light will

pass through” (Tyson). If an electric charge is applied to the newly created LCD,

the liquid crystal molecules untwist which causes the area to be darker than its

surroundings. Below is an illustration of light successfully passing through both

filters in the LCD.

One type of LCD is the TN-LCD. It’s based on a twisted effect rather than

the scattering effect. It was developed in the 1970s (Chigrinov 227). It was an

improved version of LCDs with certain advantages. It had low power

consumption and faster response times because its black and white switching

was under low controlling voltages. An absence of electrochemical degradation

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in the liquid crystal material led to a longer lifetime as well. Its disadvantage was

that it had poor contrast and narrow viewing angles (Chigrinov 227).

Another LCD type is the STN-LCD. This was based on the super twist

mode or effect. The STN-LCD’s passive addressing was increased and it had

wider viewing angles. It also had improved upon response times. Its slow

monochromatic switching led to FSTN and double STN LCDs. These two LCDs

appeared with black and white switching with color STN modules. New methods

of row and column addressing were also developed (Chigrinov 227). This

development led to the next type of LCD which gave way to computer monitors

and video displays.

Active-matrix displays or AM-LCDs were created in 1972 by T. Peter Brody

(Chigrinov 216). This is the most advanced type of liquid crystal display. This

type of LCD has very low power consumption and the widest viewing angles.

Within the display, “each pixel connected is connected to a nonlinear element so

the voltage level is contained providing a necessary level of contrast” (Chigrinov

229). Metal-insulator metal is used as the nonlinear elements. The color is

provided by RGB filters. AM-LCDs started becoming dominant in the market

since the beginning of 1995 (Chigrinov 229).

Today LCDs are overtaking CRT computer monitors in the market. They

were first used in calculators, wrist watches, electronic gaming, and cellular

phones. Today they continue to be used in computer monitors, PDAs,

televisions, and car navigation systems (Chigrinov 232). Their main competitors
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include field-emission displays (FEDs) which are smaller in thickness and have

very low power consumption

IV. Plasma Display Panel

Plasma Display Panels (PDPs) were first invented in 1964 at the

University of Illinois by professors Donald Bitzer and Gene Slottow, and then

graduate student Robert Willson.

Plasma display

panels are a type of

technology that uses

Xeon and Neon gasses

that are contained in

thousands of tiny cells

positioned between two

plates of glass. The

plates of glass are very close together with a separation gap of about 100-200µm

(Chigrinov 218). Two sets of electrodes are also sandwiched between the glass

plates with the Address electrodes vertically behind the cells and the transparent

display electrodes located above the cells horizontally, forming a basic grid of

electrodes, or matrix.

The plasma display’s microcontroller charges the electrodes that intersect

the cell and can do so thousands of times in a fraction of a second, when the

intersecting electrodes are charged, electric current flows through the gas in the
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cell. The current flowing in the cells stimulates the gas atoms which, in turn,

release ultraviolet photons.

These released UV photons interact with the phosphor material, which are

substances that give off light when exposed to other light. Phosphors in a plasma

display give off colored light when they are excited. Every pixel in a PDP is made

up of three subpixel cells with red blue and green light phosphors. By varying

these combinations of red green and blue, the plasma screen is able to produce

a wide variety of colors along the entire spectrum. The process in which this

occurs is called Plasma Enhanced Chemical Deposition (PECVD).

Plasma screen displays are certainly a major breakthrough in display

technology and very large screen sizes can be achieved using thin materials.

Also, because each of the pixels in a plasma display is individually lit, the image

is very bright and can be seen at almost every viewing angle.

Plasma screens do also have some set backs. The “burn in” effect can

occur when viewing a static display for a long period of time causing that image

to be permanently burnt into the screen. Also with this technology being so new,

plasma screens are still relatively expensive in the display market. Plasma

displays also have a much lower contrast ration than LCDs or CRTs. The PDPs

also require a higher controlling voltage thus consuming more power.

V. Conclusion

Computer display technology varies a great deal in execution, but in the

end result in each technology is the same: an image displayed on the screen.

CRTs accomplish this by accelerating negatively charged electrons towards a

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positively charged screen. The screen is coated with three different phosphors;

by exciting the different phosphors, either individually or in varying combinations,

with three electron beams, it is possible to produce most visible colors. LCDs

accomplish this by passing polarized light through a sheet of liquid crystals and

by altering the structure of the crystals by passing an electrical current through

them. Plasma displays achieve this by sandwiching Xeon and Neon gas between

two plates of glass as well as setting up an electrode matrix to excite the gases

as needed to produce an image.

Computer display technology continues to advance. CRT technology is

continuing to get less bulky and less expensive. LCD technology has started to

address some of its cons. The viewing angle has increased recently and color

rendition has been improved greatly. Plasmas are starting to come down in price.

Research is also being done to reduce burn in and to increase life span. New

technologies are starting to emerge including flexible LCDs, 3D LCDs, organic

LEDs (OLED), and SEDs (surface-conductor electron-emitter display). As you

can clearly see, images can be produced in a wide variety of ways, and with

technology continually improving, the sky is the limit for computer displays.
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Work Cited

Chigrinov, V.G.. Liquid Crystal Devices Physics and Applications. Boston,

London: British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data, 1999

HowStuffWorks.com. “How Plasma Displays Work”. November 2, 2005.

<http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/plasma-display1.htm>.

Keller, Peter A. (1991). The cathode-ray tube: technology, history,

and applications. New York: Palisades Institute for Research Services,

Inc.

Lu, Hsiao-Chi. “Photoluminiscence of Phosphors For PDP with VUV

excitation”. Journal of Electron Spectroscopy and Related Phenomena.

144-147 (2005) 983-985.

Parsons, Grogory N. Flat-Panel Display Materials – 1998. Warrensdale, PA:

Materials Research Society, 1998.

Tannas, Lawrence E. Jr. Flat-Panel Display Technologies: Japan, Russia,

Ukraine and Belarus. Parkridge, NJ: Noyes Publications, 1995.

Tyson, Jeff. HowStuffWorks.com. “How LCDs Work”. November 16, 2005.

<http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/lcd3.htm>.