Gardening) Idaho Master Gardener Handbook (2005)

The Idaho
Master Gardener Program

Handbook
7th Edition
The University of Idaho Extension’s Idaho Master Gardener Program Handbook
was prepared by a committee of University of Idaho educators:
Robert R. Tripepi, Chair, Extension Horticulture Susan M. Bell, District II Representative,

Specialist, UI Department of Plant, Soil and Extension Educator, Ada County, Boise
Entomological Sciences, Moscow JoAnn Robbins, District III Representative,
Robert C. Wilson, District I Representative, Extension Educator, Jerome County, Jerome
Extension Educator, Bonner County, Sandpoint Wayne B. Jones, District IV Representative, Exten-
sion Educator, Bonneville County, Idaho Falls
The committee wishes to thank the contributing
authors and the many people who have assisted
in the production of this handbook.
©2005 University of Idaho Extension
The concept of the Master Gardener Program originated in Washington state in the early 1970s. Many of the
materials in this handbook have been taken by permission from the Master Gardener Handbook produced by
Washington State University. The authors appreciate WSU’s leadership and willingness to share resources. They
also appreciate being able to use materials from the Master Gardener Handbook produced by Oregon State
University.
Publisher: Educational Communications, University of Idaho
For information about the Idaho Master Gardener Program, see the following web site:
http://www.ag.uidaho.edu/mg/
To order the Idaho Master Gardener Program Handbook contact your county’s University of Idaho Extension
office, or call or write Publications, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID 83844-2240, 208/885-7982, or fax 208/
885-4648, or email to calspubs@uidaho.edu
For other gardening publications relevant to Idaho, ask for a free Resources for Idaho catalog or check the
Resources for Idaho web site at http://info.ag.uidaho.edu. Idaho residents please add 6 percent sales tax.
Issued in furtherance of cooperative extension work in agriculture and home economics, Acts of May 8 and
June 30, 1914, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Charlotte Eberlein, Director of Univer-
sity of Idaho Extension, Moscow, Idaho 83844. The University of Idaho provides equal opportunity in educa-
tion and employment on the basis of race, color, religion, national origin, age, gender, disability, or status as a
Vietnam-era veteran, as required by state and federal laws.
January 2005 Published by Educational Communications $50.00
The Idaho Master Gardener Program Handbook

ii
2005 Idaho Master Gardener Handbook
Gardening Publications and Videos
You may obtain publications from your local University of Idaho Extension office or order directly from
Publications, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID 83844-2240 or call 208/885-7982 or fax 208/885-4648
or email to calspubs@uidaho.edu. For other gardening publications and videos relevant to Idaho, ask for a free
CALS Publishing catalog or check the Resources for Idaho web site at http://info.ag.uidaho.edu.
Idaho residents please add 6% sales tax.
Basics Vegetable Gardening (cont’d)

Fertilizers Grow Your Own: Beans and Peas
(PNW 495) .......................................................... $1.00
Composting at Home (CIS 1066) .................... $3.00
Harvesting and Storing Fresh Garden
Fertilizing Gardens (CIS 922) ............................. 35¢
Vegetables (BUL 617) ........................................ $3.00
Fertilizing Landscape Trees (CIS 1068) .......... $1.00
Planning an Idaho Vegetable Garden
Fertilizing with Manure (PNW 533) ............... $2.00 (BUL 775) ............................................................ $4.00
Homeowner’s Guide to Fruit Tree Potato Production in the Home Garden
Fertilization (CIS 866) .......................................... 35¢ (CIS 1000) ............................................................ $1.00
Northern Idaho Fertilizer Guide: Short-Season Vegetable Gardening
Blueberries, Raspberries, Strawberries (PNW 497) .......................................................... $2.00
(CIS 815) ...................................................... Web only
Small Farm Herb Production—
Northern Idaho Fertilizer Guide: Is It for You? (CIS 1079) .................................... $1.50
Northern Idaho Lawns (CIS 911) .................... $1.00
Sweet Corn Production for the Small-Market
Southern Idaho Fertilizer Guide: Grower and Home Gardener (CIS 910) ............ 50¢
Southern Idaho Lawns (CIS 846) .................... $1.00
Tomatoes for the Home Garden
Using Bark and Sawdust for Mulches, (CIS 667) .............................................................. $1.00
Soil Amendments, and Potting Mixes
(CIS 858) ................................................................. 35¢ Berries
Berry Varieties for Idaho (EXT 739) ................ $2.00
Food Growing Blueberries in the Inland
Vegetable Gardening Northwest & Intermountain West
Conduct Your Own Garden Research (BUL 815) ............................................................ $3.00
(CIS 1041) ............................................................ $2.00 Growing Raspberries and Blackberries
Growing Asparagus (CIS 803) ............................ 35¢ in the Inland Northwest &
Intermountain West (BUL 812) ........................ $2.50
Growing Beets, Carrots, Radishes and
Other Root Crops (CIS 660) ................................ 50¢ Growing Strawberries in the Inland
Northwest & Intermountain West
Growing Cole Crops (CIS 661) ........................... 25¢
(BUL 810) ............................................................ $2.50
Growing Cucumbers (CIS 756) .......................... 35¢
Growing Western Huckleberries
Growing Garlic (CIS 686) .................................... 25¢ (BUL 821) ............................................................ $2.50
Growing Lettuce, Spinach, and Highbush Blueberry Production
Swiss Chard (CIS 691) ......................................... 35¢ (PNW 215) ........................................................ $16.50
Growing Mushrooms Commercially—
Risks and Opportunities (CIS 1077) ............... $1.50 Fruits and Nuts
Growing Squash and Pumpkin (CIS 723) ........ 35¢ Backyard Grapes (CIS 790) .............................. $1.00
Growing Vegetable Seedlings for Transplanting (cont’d on back)
(CIS 800) ................................................................. 35¢

iii
Fruits and Nuts (cont’d) Diseases (cont’d)
Cherry Training Systems: Selection Crumbly Fruit in Raspberries (CIS 341) ........... 25¢
and Development (PNW 543) ......................... $3.00 Diseases of Raspberries in Idaho
Growing Apples for Local Markets (CIS 789) ................................................................. 35¢
in Cold Climates (BUL 820) ............................. $2.50 Fairy Rings in Turf (EXP 676) ............................. 50¢
Growing Kiwifruit (PNW 507) ........................ $3.50 Management of Vegetable Diseases
Growing Melons (CIS 799) .................................. 35¢ in Home Gardens (CIS 993) ................................ 50¢
Growing Walnuts in the Pacific Northwest Nutrient Disorders in Tree Fruits
(PNW 235) .......................................................... $1.00 (PNW 121) ................................................ (web only)
Idaho Crop Profiles: Apples (CIS 1090) ......... $4.00 Peach Leaf Curl (CIS 229) ................................... 25¢
Pears in the Home Garden (CIS 898) ................ 35¢
Pests
Selecting Grape Cultivars and Planting
Idaho Homeowner’s Commonsense Guide to
Sites in Idaho (CIS 1043) .................................. $1.00
Pesticides: Storage and Disposing of Home and
Training and Pruning Your Home Orchard Garden Pesticides (CIS 1030) ........................... $1.00
(PNW 400) .......................................................... $1.00 Insects and Mites Destructive to Berries
Ornamentals (CIS 628) ................................................................. 50¢
Flowers Lawn Pest Control (CIS 340) .............................. 50¢
Gladiolus for the Home Garden (CIS 909) ....... 35¢ Pesticides for the Home Garden and
How to Use Them (CIS 1019) .......................... $1.00
Roses: Buying and Planting (CIS 795) ............... 35¢
Weeds
Roses: Care After Planting (CIS 796) .............. $1.00
Herbicides for Lawn Weed Control
Roses: Types, Selection, and
(EXT 723) ................................................................ 50¢
Environmental Requirements (CIS 794) ........... 35¢
Herbicides for the Home Garden
Lawns (CIS 897) ................................................................. 35¢
Don’t Bag It! Recycle Your Grass Clippings Idaho’s Noxious Weeds (BUL 816)
(CIS 1016) ............................................................... 50¢ (color identification and control guide) ......... $5.00
Selecting Turfgrasses for Idaho Lawns Weed Control in Lawns (CIS 888) ...................... 50¢
(CIS 583) ................................................................. 35¢
Weed Control in the Home Garden
Starting a Home Lawn (CIS 1062) .................. $1.50 (EXT 726) ................................................................ 50¢
Thatch Prevention and Control in Home Lawns Weed Control in Tree Fruits (CIS 692) ............... 25¢
(CIS 1063) ............................................................ $1.00
Landscape
Other
Beneficial Organisms Associated with
Grafting and Budding Plants to Propagate,
Topwork, Repair (PNW 496) ........................... $2.50 Pacific Northwest Crops (PNW 343) .............. $3.00
How to Prune Coniferous Evergreen Collecting and Storing Seeds
Trees (BUL 644) .................................................. $1.50 from Your Garden (CIS 813) ............................... 35¢
How to Prune Deciduous Landscape Encouraging Beneficial Insects in Your
Trees (BUL 819) .................................................. $2.00 Garden (PNW 550) ............................................ $1.00
Low Input Landscaping (CIS 1054) ................ $1.00 Frost Protection for the Home
Gardener (CIS 844) ............................................... 35¢
Plant Materials for Landscaping
(PNW 500) .......................................................... $2.50 Nothing But Herbs
(video tape: 46:02 length) ............................... $25.00
Transplanting Native Seedlings
(CIS 735) ................................................................. 25¢ Pruning Your Own Shrubs and
Small Trees (video tape: 51:00 length) .......... $35.00
Problems Riley Creek Blueberry Farm
Diseases (video tape: 44:58 length) ............................... $25.00
Blossom-End Rot of Tomatoes (CIS 292) .......... 25¢ Seed Germination Test Methods
for Home Use (CIS 841) ....................................... 25¢

iv
The Idaho
Table of Contents
Master Gardener Program
Introduction and Policies 1 Basic Botany 2
I.University of Idaho Extension 2 I. Divisions of Plant Sciences 2
II.Purpose 3 II. Divisions of Botany 2
III.Volunteer Commitment 3 III. Plant Classification 2
IV. Trade-Related Professionals 3 A. Plant Groups and Sub-Groups 2
V. Certification and Recertification 3 B. Family 2
VI. Use of Title 3 C. Genus 3
VII. Position Description/Application 4 D. Species 3
VIII. Fees 4 E. Variety, Cultivar, and Hybrid 3
IX. Training Dates and Locations 4 F. Nomenclature 3
X. College Credit 4 IV. Plant Classification According
XI. Impact and Accountability 4 to Life Cycle 3
XII. Liability Insurance 4 A. Annuals 4
XIII. Workers’ Compensation Insurance 4 B. Biennials 4
XIV. Information Is Important 5 C. Perennials 4
XV. Recommendations 5 V. Plant Parts and Their Functions 4
XVI. Volunteer Service Opportunities 5 A. Vegetative Parts 4
XVII. Volunteer Guidelines 6 B. Sexual Reproductive Parts 10
XVIII. Termination of Volunteer Services 6 C. How Plants Grow 14
XIX. Master Gardeners in Other Further Reading 16
Counties, States, and Countries 6
XX. Volunteer Benefits 6
XXI. You Are Important 7
References 7
Position Description 8
Application 9
Opportunity Contract 11
Volunteer Activity Record 13
Tax Records for Volunteer Services 14

1
Plant Propagation 3 VIII. Soil/Water Relationships
A. Water Infiltration Rate
7
7
I. Sexual Propagation 2 B. Permeability Rate 7
A. Seed 2 C. Soil Compactions 7
B. Germination 2 D. Water 7
C. Methods of Breaking Dormancy 4 E. Air 7
D. Starting Seeds 5 F. Root Damage 7
E. Transplanting and Handling 8 G. Water Flow in Soils 8
II. Asexual Propagation 9 H. Leaching in Soils 8
A. Cuttings 9 IX. Soluble Salts 8
B. Layering 12 X. Plant Nutrients 8
C. Division 14 A. Source 8
D. Grafting 14 B. Element Classification 9
E. Budding 16 C. Functions of Macronutrients and
F. Plant Tissue Culture 17 Deficiency Signs 9
Further Reading 17 D. Functions of Micronutrients and
Deficiency Symptoms 11
Soils and Fertilizers 4 XI. Fertilizers
XII. Fertilizer Terminology
12
12
I. Four Basic Soil Components 2
A. Fertilizer 12
II. Three Principal Mineral
B. Mixed Fertilizer 13
Constituents in Soils 2
A. Sand 2 C. Complete Fertilizer 13
D. Fertilizer Grade 13
B. Silt 2
E. Fertilizer Ratio 13
C. Clay 2
XIII. Fertilizer Calculations 13
III. Soil Texture 2
XIV. Fertilizer Types 13
IV. Soil Structure 2
A. Nitrogen 13
V. Organic Matter—The Supplier
of Plant Foods 2 B. Phosphorus 13
C. Potassium 14
A. Adequate Organic Matter 3
D. Sulfur 14
B. Carbon/Nitrogen (C:N) Ratio 3
VI. pH—An Important Factor 4 XV. Mulches 14
A. Organic Mulches 14
A. Adaptive to Soil Conditions 4
B. Inorganic Mulches 14
B. pH and Nutrient Availability 4
C. Correcting Soil pH 4 C. Effectiveness 14
D. Problems 14
VII. Ion Exchange 5
A. Definitions 5 XVI. Green Manure and Cover Crops 14
B. Nutrient Mobility 6 A. Effectiveness 14
B. Green Manure 15
C. Cover Crops 15
Further Reading 15

2
Horticultural Equipment VI. Irrigation Method 6
Management 5 VII. Landscape Water Requirements
A. Plant Water Needs
6
6
I. Equipment Selection 2 B. Deep Watering 7
A. Hand Tools for Cultivating 2 C. Lawns 7
B. Power Tools for Cultivation 3 D. Shrubs and Trees 7
C. Wheelbarrow or Cart 5 E. Vegetables 7
D. Watering Equipment 5 F. Containers 7
E. Seeding and Planting Tools 5
Further Reading 7
F. Environmental Monitoring
Equipment 6
G. Trellises and Cages
H. Harvesting Equipment
6
6
Backyard Composting 7
I. Introduction 2
II. Equipment Purchases and II. The Composting Process 2
Maintenance 6
A. Process Basics 2
A. Equipment Purchases 6
B. Decomposers 2
B. Equipment Maintenance 6
C. Factors Affecting the
III. Cultivation Practices 7
Composting Process 4
A. Types of Soil Cultivation 7
III. Composting Methods 7
B. Cultivation Time 7
A. Piles 7
C. Cultivation Requirements 7
B. Bins and Ventilated Containers 7
Further Reading 8
C. Barrels and Tumblers 7
IV. Making and Managing a
Plant Management 6 Compost Pile 8
I. Plant Selection 2 A. Materials 8
II. Plant and Garden Location 2 B. Additives 9
A. Plant Location 2 C. Inoculants 10
B. Garden Location 2 D. Location 10
III. Plant Site Preparation 2 E. Volume 10
IV. Planting Procedures for Seeds F. Building Composting Piles 10
and Transplants 2 G. Turning 11
A. Seeds 2 H. Moisture Management 12
B. Bareroot Plants 4 I. Odor Management 12
C. Balled and Burlapped Plants 4 J. Troubleshooting 12
D. Container Grown Plants 4
K. Judging When Composting
V. Watering Considerations 4 Is Finished 12
A. Variables That Affect Plant V. Using Compost 14
Water Requirements 4
A. Benefits of Compost 14
B. Water Penetration 5
B. Application 14
C. Soil Type 5
D. Water Interval 5 C. Compost Quality 15
E. Water Retention 5 (cont’d on next page)
F. Compaction and Thatch 5
G. Interfaces 6
3
Backyard Composting (cont’d) 7 Basic Entomology 9
VI. Alternatives to Composting 15 I. Introduction 2
A. Grass Recycling 16 II. Insect Anatomy 2
B. Mulching 16 III. Insect Development 3
C. Worm Composting 16 IV. Insect Classification 3
D. Soil Incorporation 16 V. Major Orders of Insects 4
VII. Plans for Constructing A. Beetles and Weevils—Coleoptera 4
Composting Bins 16 B. Moths and Butterflies—
A. Wooden-Pallet Holding Unit 17 Lepidoptera 5
B. Wire-Mesh Holding Unit 17 C. Flies, Mosquitoes, Gnats,
C. Snow-Fence Holding Unit 17 Midges—Diptera 5
D. Wood-and-Wire, Three-Bin D. Bees, Wasps, Ants, Sawflies,
Turning Unit 17 etc.—Hymenoptera 6
E. Wooden Three-Bin Turning Unit 17 E. True Bugs—Hemiptera 6
F. Worm Composting Bin 17 F. Aphids, Scales, Leafhoppers,
G. Concrete-Block Holding Unit 17 Cicadas—Homoptera 7
H. Concrete-Block, Three-Bin G. Grasshoppers, Crickets,
Turning Unit 18 Cockroaches, Camel
Further Reading 18 Crickets—Orthoptera 7
H. Termites—Isoptera 8
Pesticide Management and Safety 8 I. Earwigs—Dermaptera
J. Thrips—Thysanoptera
8
8
I. Three Main Objectives of Pest
K. Silverfish and Firebats—
Control 2
Thysanura 9
II. Home, Yard, and Garden Pesticides 2
L. Springtails—Collembolla 9
III. Pest Control Methods 2
M. Other Orders 9
IV. Herbicides 2
VI. Other Insect-Like Creatures 9
V. Insecticides 3
A. Spider Mites, Spiders, Ticks, and
VI. Fungicides 4 Scorpions—Arachnida 9
VII. Pesticide Labels 4 B. Millipedes—Diploda 10
VIII. Pesticide Categories 4 C. Centipedes—Chilopoda 10
IX. Pesticide Formulations 4 D. Sowbugs and Pillbugs—
X. Pesticide Hazards 5 Crustacea 10
A. Pesticide Toxicity 5 E. Garden Centipede or
B. Pesticide Formulations 5 Symphylan—Symphla 10
C. Exposure to Pesticides 6 Further Reading 10
D. Pesticides Poisoning 6
E. Pesticide Spills 7
F. Pesticide Storage 7
G. Pesticide Disposal Options 7
XI. Pesticide Law 7
X. Pesticide Recommendations 8
Further Reading 8
4
Insect Management 10 VI. Vertebrate Pests—Birds
A. General Bird Information
7
7
I. Terms and Definitions 2 B. Yellow-Bellied Sap Sucker 8
II. Why Worry About Insect Control? 2 C. Starlings 8
III. Methods of Insect Control VII. Invertebrates and Arthropods
Available to Homeowners 2 of the Home Yard and Garden 8
A. Mechanical Insect Control 2 A. Nematodes 8
B. Chemical Insect Control 2 B. Slugs and Snails 9
C. Biological Insect Control 3 C. Earthworms and Nightcrawlers 10
D. Cultural Insect Control 3 Further Reading 10
E. Regulatory Insect Control
(Quarantines) 4
Plant Disease Diagnosis
F. Integrated Insect Control
IV. Specific Pests
4
4
and Management 12
A. Ornamental Pests 4 I. Introduction to Plant Diseases 2
B. Lawn Pests 6 A. History of Plant Diseases 2
C. Houseplant Pests 7 B. Significance of Plant Diseases
D. Tree Fruit Pests 7 in the United States 2
E. Garden Pests 8 II. Disease Concepts 3
F. Household Pests 10 A. What Is a Disease? 3
G. Spiders 12 B. Symptoms of Diseases 3
Further Reading 12 C. Signs of Diseases 3
D. Causal Agents of Disease 3
Rodents, Birds, and Other Pests 11 E. Inoculum and Pathogen
Dissemination 4
I.Introduction 2 F. Pathogen Survival 4
II.Safety in Handling 2 G. Factors Effecting Disease
III.Identification 2 Occurrence 4
IV. Vertebrate Pests—Rodents 3 III. Diseases Caused by Living (Biotic,
A. General Rodent Information 3 Parasitic, or Infectious) Agents 5
B. Ground Squirrels, Chipmunks, A. Fungi 5
and Chucks 3 B. Bacteria and Phytoplasmas 5
C. Pocket Gophers and Voles 4 C. Viruses 5
D. Mice and Rats 4 D. Nematodes 5
E. Rabbits 4 E. Parasitic Higher (Flowering)
F. Bats 5 Plants 6
V. Vertebrates—Other Mammals 5
(cont’d on next page)
A. Raccoon 5
B. Deer 6
C. Skunk 6
D. Dogs and Cats 7

5
and Management (cont’d) 12 Weeds 13
I. Introduction 2
IV. Diseases Caused by Abiotic II. Weed Biology and Classification 2
(Nonliving, Nonparasitic, or A. Annual Weeds 3
Noninfectious) Agents 6 B. Biennial Weeds 3
A. High or Low Temperatures 6 C. Perennial Weeds 3
B. High or Low Soil Moisture 6 III. Identification 4
C. High or Low Light Intensity 6 A. Flower 4
D. Lack Aeration or Low Oxygen B. Leaves and Stem 4
Supply 6 C. Weed Structure 4
E. Air Pollution 6 D. Roots 4
F. Nutrient Deficiencies 7 IV. Weed Control Methods 4
G. Mineral Toxicity 7 A. Prevention 4
H. Unfavorable Soil pH 7 B. Biological Control 5
I. Pesticide Toxicity 7 C. Cultural Control 5
J. Improper Cultural Practices 7 D. Mulches 6
V. Diagnosing Plant Disease Problems 7 E. Mechanical Control 7
A. Why Is Diagnosis Important? 7 F. Chemical Control 8
B. Basic Steps in Reaching V. Herbicide Application Equipment 10
a Diagnosis 8 A. Hand Spray Bottles 10
VI. Principles of Plant Disease Control 9 B. Hose-End Sprayers 10
A. Exclusion of the Pathogen 9 C. Compressed Air Canister
B. Eradication or Reduction Sprayers 10
of the Pathogen Population 9 D. Backpack Sprayers 10
C. Use of Disease-Resistant E. Power Sprayers 10
Cultivars 10
F. Wick-Wipers 11
D. Chemical Protection of Plant 10
G. Granular Applicators 11
E. Biological Control 11
VI. Sprayer Calibration 11
F. Integrated Disease Management 11
A. Calculating Your Sprayer 11
VII. Plant Disease Terms 11
B. Granular Applicators 12
Further Reading 13
VII. Tree Stump Removal 12
A. Mechanical Removal 12
B. Chemical Removal 12
VIII. Noxious Weeds 13
Further Reading 13

6
Turfgrass Establishment
and Management 14 Landscaping 15
I. Introduction 2
I. Introduction to Turfgrass Culture 2 II. Definitions 2
II. Soil Considerations 2 III. Creating a Plan 2
A. Texture 2 A. Define Your Goals and Objectives 2
B. Soil Structure 2 B. Do a Thorough Site Analysis 3
C. Soil Depth 3 C. Define Use Areas 4
D. Preplant Fertility 3 D. Define Planting Areas 5
E. pH 3 E. Principles of Design 5
III. Site Preparation 4 F. Elements of Design 6
A. Preplant Weed Control 4 G. Plant Selection 6
B. Grading and Surface Preparation 4 H. Other Considerations When
C. Drainage 4 Buying Plants 7
D. Installing the Sprinkler System 4 IV. Installation and Renovation 7
IV. Choosing a Turfgrass 4 A. Primary Hardscape 7
A. Cool Season Grasses 4 B. Install Planting Beds 7
B. Warm Season Grasses 6 C. Plant or Move Trees and Shrubs 7
V. Establishing the Lawn 7 D. Install Automatic Irrigation
System 7
A. Seeding Lawns 7
E. Plant Lawn or Ground Covers 7
B. Sodding 9
V. Maintenance and Irrigation 7
C. Vegetative Planting 11
A. Maintenance 7
VI. Maintenance of Established Turf 12
B. Water Management 8
A. Genetic Potential 12
Further Reading 8
B. Mowing 12
C. Removing Clippings 13
D. Irrigation 13 Landscape Plants 16
E. Fertilization 14 I. Why Ornamental Plants? 2
F. Aeration 16 II. Soils and Water Considerations 2
G. Thatch 16 A. Soil Composition 2
H. Top-dressing 17 B. Water Status Definitions 2
I. Weed Control on Established C. Water Movement 2
Turf 17 D. Soil Structure (Aggregate Size) 2
J. Turf Renovation 18 E. Drainage Problems 3
K. Turf Problems 18 F. Overcoming Drainage Problems 3
Further Reading 20 III. Planting and Site Preparation 3
A. Types of Plant Materials 3
B. Planting 3
C. Pruning After Planting 4
D. Staking 4
(cont’d on next page)

7
Landscape Plants (cont’d) 16 Woody Ornamentals 17
IV. Plant Problems 4 I. Introduction 2
A. Circling Roots/Potbound 4 II. The Art of Designing with Woody
B. Girdling Roots 4 Ornamentals 2
C. Kinked Roots/One-Sided III. Which Woody Ornamentals
Root System 4 to Plant and Where 3
D. Root Rots 5 IV. Getting Started with Woody
E. Changing Soil Grades 5 Ornamentals 6
F. Trenching/Cutting Roots 5 A. Purchasing Woody Ornamentals 6
G. Compaction 5 B. Genetic Adaptability 7
V. Stem Problems 5 C. Planting Woody Ornamentals 7
A. Heart Rot 5 V. Maintenance of Woody Ornamentals 7
B. Stem Wounds 5 A. The First Season 7
C. Sunscald or Southwest Disease 5 B. Irrigation of Woody Plants 8
D. Branch Rots and Infections 6 C. Mulching Woody Ornamentals 9
E. Damage to Crotch Areas 6 D. Symbiotic Relationships 9
F. Freeze Damage 6 E. Fertilizing Trees and Shrubs 9
G. Graft Incompatibility 6 VI. Pruning 9
VI. Leaf Problems 6 A. The Basics 9
A. Drought 6 B. Early Training of Deciduous
and Broadleaf Evergreens 12
B. Frost Damage 6
C. Early Training of Coniferous
C. Root Injury 6
Trees and Shrubs 14
D. Vascular System Injury 7
D. Pruning Mature Trees and
E. Salt Damage 7 Shrubs 16
F. Leaf Chlorosis and Nutrient E. Renovation and Rejuvenation
Deficiencies 7 Pruning 19
G. Herbicide Damage 7 VII. Protecting Trees and Shrubs
H. Insecticide Injury 8 During Construction 21
Further Reading 8 A. Construction Damage 21
VIII. Woody Ornamentals for Idaho 22
A. Choices 22
B. Idaho Conditions 22
C. Woody Ornamentals for Idaho 22
Further Reading 30

8
Herbaceous Ornamentals 18 Vegetable Culture 19
I. Introduction 2 I. The Vegetable Garden 2
II. The Art of Design 2 II. Planning Hints 2
A. Color 2 III. Locating the Garden 2
B. Texture 3 IV. Preparing the Soil 3
C. Shape and Size 3 A. Soil Testing 3
III. What to Plant 3 B. Soil Moisture 3
A. Exposure 3 C. Fertilizing 4
B. Season of Flowering 3 V. Seed for the garden 4
C. Cut and Dried Flowers 3 A. Choosing Vegetable Seed 4
D. Herbaceous Ornamentals B. Saving Your Own Vegetable Seed 4
That Naturalize 4 C. Special Case Seeds 5
E. Special-Use Gardens 4
D. Planting Vegetable Seeds 6
IV. How to Plant (Design) 4
VI. Starting Seed Indoors 6
A. Formal and Informal 4
A. Light 6
B. Beds and Borders 4
B. Media 6
C. Plant Choice 4
C. Containers 6
V. Gardening in Containers 4
D. Starting the Seeds 6
A. Containers 5
VII. Starting Seed Outdoors 7
B. Soil 5
VIII. Planting the Fall Garden 7
C. Planting 5
IX. Planting Methods 8
D. Watering 5
E. Maintenance 5 A. Row Planting 8
VI. Getting Started with Annuals 5 B. Broadcast Planting 8
A. Propagation 5 C. Hill Planting 8
B. Growing, Culture, and X. Intensive Gardening Methods 8
Maintenance 6 A. Raised Bed 8
C. Description of Selected Annuals 9 B. Vertical Gardening 9
VII. Getting Started with Biennials 10 C. Interplanting 9
VIII. Getting Started with Perennials 10 D. Spacing 9
A. The Purpose of a E. Succession or Relay Planting 10
Perennial Garden 11 XI. Transplants for the Garden 10
B. Sexual Propagation by Seed 11 A. Annual Plants 11
C. Vegetative Propagation by B. Perennial Plants 11
Division, Stem Cuttings, Root XII. Irrigating the Home Garden 12
Cuttings, Layering, Grafting, or
A. Plant Water Requirements 12
Tissue Culture 12
D. Vegetative Propagation by B. Irrigating Equipment 12
Specialized Stems and Roots 13 C. Irrigating Techniques 12
E. Growing, Culture, and D. Irrigating with Grey Water 13
Maintenance 14 (cont’d on next page)
IX. A Selection of Perennials for Idaho 17
Further Reading 28
9
Vegetable Culture (cont’d) 19 XVI. Pumpkin
XVII. Radish
20
21
XIII. Controlling Weeds in the Garden 13 XVIII. Summer Squash 22
A. Cultivation 13 XIX. Sweet Corn 24
B. Mulching 14 XX. Swiss Chard 25
C. Close Spacing 14 XXI. Tomatoes 26
D. Other Practices 14 XXII. Turnips 27
E. Herbicides 14 XXIII. Watermelon 29
XIV. Container Gardening 15 XXIV. Winter Squash 30
A. Containers 16 Further Reading 31
B. Media 16
C. Planting
D. Watering
16
16
Fruit Trees 21
E. Fertilizing 17 I. Introduction 2
F. General Care 17 II. Site Selection 2
G. Indoor Container Gardening 17 III. Fruit and Nut Cultivars for Idaho 3
XV. Preparing Perennial Vegetables IV. Types of Tree Fruits 3
for the Winter 17 A. Pome Fruits (Apples and Pears) 3
A. Basic Preparations 17 B. Stone Fruits 4
B. Stakes and Trellises 18 C. Nuts 4
C. Preparing Soil for Winter 18 V. Rootstock 5
D. Preparing the Cold Frame 18 A. Apples 5
Further Reading 18 B. Pears 5
C. Stone Fruits 5
VI. Cultural Practices and Problems 5
Vegetables 20 A. Planting
B. Training and Pruning
5
6
I. Beans, Snap 2
C. Water Management (Irrigation) 7
II. Beets 3
D. Fertilization 7
III. Broccoli 4 E. Insect and Disease Control 8
IV. Brussels Sprouts 5
F. Rodent and Deer Damage 9
V. Cabbage 7
G. Vegetative Management Due to
VI. Cantaloupes 8 Weed and Herbicide Injury 9
VII. Carrots 9 H. Preventing Winter Injury 9
VIII. Cauliflower 10 I. Cropping Problems 10
IX. Cucumber 12 Further Reading 11
X. Eggplant 13
XI. Kohlrabi 14
XII. Lettuce 15
XIII. Onions 16
XIV. Peas 18
XV. Peppers 19

10
Small Fruits 22 VI. Plant Diseases
A. Common Diseases
9
9
I. Strawberries 2 B. Disease Control 9
II. Red Raspberries 5 VII. Propagation 10
III. Black and Purple Raspberries 9 A. Clone 10
IV. Trailing Berries (Blackberries) 9 B. Uniqueness 10
V. Blueberries 10 VIII. Greenhouses 10
VI. Hardy Kiwi 12 A. Types of Greenhouses 11
VII. Black Currants 13 B. Location and Orientation 11
VIII. Red and White Currants 13 C. Design and Construction 11
IX. Gooseberries 14 IX. Small Beds for Growing Plants 15
X. Elderberries 16 A. Cold Frames 15
XI. Grapes 16 B. Hotbeds 15
Further Reading 19 C. Cloches 15
Further Reading 15
Houseplants and
Home Greenhouses 23 Index
I. Environmental Conditions and Index 1
Requirements 2
A. Plant Needs 2
B. Light 2
C. Temperature 3
D. Humidity 3
E. Irrigation 4
F. Fertilization 5
G. Salt Damage 6
H. Overall Environmental Factors
Affecting Plant Growth 6
II. Media, Containers, and Potting 6
A. Root Media 6
B. Container Choice 6
C. Repotting Houseplants 7
III. Controlling Size and Shape 7
A. Phototropism 7
B. Pinch 7
IV. Diagnosis of Problems 7
A. Be Observant 7
V. Insect Pests 8
A. Major Insect Pests 8
B. Insect Control 8

11
Chapter
Introduction and Policies
1
I. University of Idaho Extension 2

II. Purpose 3
III. Volunteer Commitment 3
IV. Trade-Related Professionals 3
V. Certification and Recertification 3
VI. Use of Title 3
VII. Position Description/Application 4
VIII. Fees 4
IX. Training Dates and Locations 4
X. College Credit 4
XI. Impact and Accountability 4
XII. Liability Insurance 4
XIII. Workers’ Compensation Insurance 4
XIV. Information Is Important 5
XV. Recommendations 5
XVI. Volunteer Service Opportunities 5
XVII. Volunteer Guidelines 6
XVIII. Termination of Volunteer Services 6
XIX. Master Gardeners in Other Counties,
States, and Countries 6
XX. Volunteer Benefits 6
XXI. You Are Important 7
References 7
Position Description 8
Application 9
Opportunity Contract 11
Volunteer Activity Record 13
Tax Records for Volunteer Service 14
Chapter 1, The Idaho Master Gardener Program Handbook

1-1
Chapter 1
Introduction and Policies

Idaho Master Gardener Program Guidelines
University of Idaho Extension’s Idaho Master Gardener Training Program
Susan M. Bell, Extension Educator, Ada County, Boise
The University of Idaho (UI) Extension’s Idaho • The Smith-Lever Act of 1914 established Co-
Master Gardener Program gives gardeners an oppor- operative Extension to provide educational ser-
tunity not only to improve their horticultural knowl- vices in all states.
edge and skills but also to serve their communities. Cooperative Extension is a national educational
“Helping people grow” is the motto of the program. network designed to extend technical expertise and
University of Idaho Extension (UI Extension) con- university research findings to people, which per-
ducts the Idaho Master Gardener Program through mits them to improve their homes, families, farms,
participating county offices in Idaho under the di- businesses, and communities. Cooperative Exten-
rection of UI Extension educators. sion is the largest and considered the most success-
ful educational organization in the world, and deliv-
I. University of Idaho Extension ers programs that are modeled and duplicated
UI Extension is an educational resource partner- worldwide.
ship that extends research and technology to the Funding: The word “Cooperative” in the title re-
people of Idaho. UI Extension helps people help sults from the three-way funding partnership among
themselves by bridging gaps between research and local, state, and federal governments. In addition,
everyday problems. contributions of time, talent, and supplies from vol-
Mission: The mission of UI Extension is to pro- unteers, businesses, and private organizations enable
vide informal educational programs to help Idaho programs such as Idaho Master Gardener to operate.
residents improve their economic status and quality Personnel: Over 60 county extension faculty,
of their lives. The UI College of Agricultural and based in 42 county extension offices and the Fort
Life Science’s mission is to support economic Hall and Coeur d’Alene Indian Reservations, pres-
growth and enhance the quality of life for the people ently serve Idaho. Backed up by subject matter spe-
of Idaho by: (1) preparing students to be innovative cialists, researchers, and support personnel at 10 re-
leaders in a global society, (2) helping people im- search and extension centers and on the UI campus,
prove their lives through research-based education UI Extension educators deliver programs throughout
and leadership development focused on issues and the state. These professionals work with the people
needs, and (3) providing new knowledge to support of Idaho to address agricultural, natural resource,
agriculture and enhance the understanding of natural youth, family, and environmental issues. Collabora-
and human resources. tive relationships with countless agencies, groups,
Background: Land-grant universities and UI and individuals make possible a vast array of inno-
Extension were developed through three congres- vative educational programs. Idaho Master Garden-
sional acts: ers are the second largest volunteer group (4-H is
• The Morrill Act of 1862 created colleges and the largest) with which Cooperative Extension
universities to provide classical, scientific, works in Idaho.
agricultural, and engineering education. Idaho Master Gardener Volunteers: In Idaho
• The Hatch Act of 1887 expanded the educational more than 1,000 experienced Master Gardeners vol-
mandate of the colleges to include research. unteer their time each year, with about 300 new gar-
1-2
deners trained annually to be Idaho Master Garden- spent at or arranged through the county extension
ers. In partnership with the University of Idaho’s office. Certified Idaho Master Gardeners share their
College of Agricultural and Life Sciences, credit knowledge free with individuals, groups, at schools,
and certificate courses are available to Idaho Master or in community service roles but may accept reim-
Gardeners across the state. bursement for mileage and materials.
Administration: Idaho Master Gardener educa-
tional programs in Idaho are guided by UI Extension
IV. Trade-Related Professionals
educators from the University of Idaho as part of its Industry professionals are welcome to extend or
land-grant mission in cooperation with the Depart- supplement their knowledge and credentials through
ment of Plant, Soil and Entomological Sciences at UI training programs. However, professionals must
the UI’s College of Agricultural and Life Sciences. consider carefully the volunteer commitment to the
All extension programs are administered through program. If volunteering is not feasible, reimburse-
four extension districts in Idaho: Northern (I), ment for training and materials, or in-kind support
Southwestern (II), Southcentral (III), and Eastern of the program may be negotiated. Since these are
(IV). Many programs are planned at the district volunteer programs, only a limited number of trade
level in collaboration with volunteers. applicants are accepted in any one training session.
It is inappropriate to solicit by any means for per-
II. Purpose sonal business or gain at or during University of
The UI’s Idaho Master Gardener Program is an Idaho Extension volunteer meetings, training ses-
educational opportunity designed to meet the gar- sions, or other functions.
dening information needs of the community. The
program’s purpose is to provide technical assistance
V. Certification and Recertification
and information in the area of home horticulture to The applicant will receive certification upon suc-
people in the community through qualified volun- cessful completion of the Idaho Master Gardener
teers: Idaho Master Gardeners. classroom instruction, examinations, and hands-on
Applicants receive basic horticultural training on training. Certificates and identification badges that
a variety of topics. To become an Idaho Master Gar- verify program status and satisfactory program
dener, the applicant must complete a minimum of completion are provided at the discretion of each
30 hours of classes and an additional minimum of county Master Gardener Program. Certification as
30 hours of practicum/hands-on training. Individuals an Idaho Master Gardener is valid for only one year.
must receive a satisfactory grade on exams or must When appropriate, recertification for additional
demonstrate competency for the course content to years is encouraged through the Advanced Idaho
the satisfaction of the program coordinator. Return- Master Gardener course.
ing Idaho Master Gardeners may continue their Individuals who completed Master Gardener
training annually after certification. Many counties training in other states and choose to become an
offer Advanced Idaho Master Gardener training. Idaho Master Gardener must provide a letter of rec-
The UI’s Idaho Master Gardener Program is ommendation from their previous county or state
based on a philosophy of shared ownership. UI Ex- Master Gardener Program coordinator. In addition,
tension educators, staff, and volunteers share vision, they must schedule an entrance interview with the
ideas, and responsibilities for the program. How- UI Extension educator or program coordinator re-
ever, the ultimate responsibility for the Idaho Master sponsible for the Idaho Master Gardener Program in
Gardener Program is with UI Extension educators as their county. In the interview they will mutually
they are held legally accountable for operation of agree to the necessary training to be certified in an
the program. Idaho Master Gardener Program.
III. Volunteer Commitment VI. Use of Title

The type of hands-on training chosen is based on The title “Master Gardener” is to be used only
a mutual decision of the supervising UI Extension and exclusively with University of Idaho Exten-
educator and the Idaho Master Gardener trainee. At sion’s Idaho Master Gardener Program and not for
least part of the volunteer hours of service must be commercial purposes. Persons are expected to iden-

1-3
tify themselves as participants in the Idaho Master XII. Liability Insurance
Gardener Program only when performing volunteer
Only authorized volunteers are entitled to the pro-
work affiliated with the program. The training, ex-
tection of the University of Idaho’s liability insur-
perience, and certification gained in the Idaho Mas-
ance program. Authorized volunteers are persons
ter Gardener Program may be used and listed as
who have been asked to perform a specific function
qualifications when seeking employment.
by a UI employee with the authority to recruit assis-
VII. Position Description/Application tance. The volunteer is then protected only while
acting within the scope and course of this authorized
Each Idaho Master Gardener must complete and volunteer service.
sign an Idaho Master Gardener application and op-
To ensure that the liability insurance program
portunity contract (see pages 1-9 and 1-11) before
will respond to a claim against an alleged volunteer,
any volunteer work is begun. Read the position de-
it is absolutely essential that the university be able
scription as it outlines the requirements of the posi-
to document that the person was, in fact, appropri-
tion and the methods of supervision.
ately authorized and acting within the scope and
VIII. Fees course of the requested service. To ensure documen-
tation of all bonafide authorized volunteers, please
A nominal fee is charged to cover the cost of re-
follow these procedures:
source materials and other literature received during
Idaho Master Gardener training. Fees may vary 1. Make sure a job description is on file for each
from one county to another. Idaho Master Gardener volunteer; the job de-
scription should include whether the volunteer
IX. Training Dates and Locations will be driving UI vehicles while performing
job duties. Identify the person to which each
Contact your local University of Idaho Extension
volunteer position reports, and identify
office for specific time, dates, and location for Idaho
whether the individual in that position is a UI
Master Gardener training.
employee or another volunteer.
X. College Credit 2. Volunteers, other than Idaho Master Garden-
This is a certificate program of the University of ers, recruited individually by a UI volunteer or
Idaho. Applicants accepted into the Idaho Master employee for specific individual tasks must
Gardener Program may, for an additional fee, obtain have an individual agreement or letter of au-
Continuing Education Units (undergraduate or thorization from the UI employee to be cov-
graduate credit) from the University of Idaho Col- ered by liability protection.
lege of Agricultural and Life Sciences. Contact the 3. Keep a list of names and positions for autho-
Department of Plant, Soil and Entomological Sci- rized volunteers recruited, individually or in a
ences academic unit through your UI Extension of- group, by another volunteer authorized to re-
fice for more information about this opportunity. cruit. Have both the volunteers who recruited
Extra classwork and/or practicum work may be them, as well as the UI employee in charge of
required for a satisfactory grade. Ask your county’s the project, sign the list. Be sure that the job
Idaho Master Gardener Program coordinator. descriptions for any volunteers authorized to
recruit others indicate that authority.
XI. Impact and Accountability The purpose of all this is to have a clearly docu-
UI Extension needs to know what you have done mentable chain identifying who was recruited, by
as an Idaho Master Gardener in order to give you whom they were recruited, and what they were re-
credit for your volunteer service and measure the cruited to do.
effectiveness of the program. Use the Volunteer Ac-
tivity Record (see page 1-13) to keep track on an
XIII. Workers’ Compensation Insurance
ongoing basis of your volunteer contribution of Workers’ compensation insurance is provided by
hours, activities, and contacts. “Hours” is the total the Idaho State Insurance Fund for authorized vol-
number of volunteer hours you have spent on Idaho unteers in public employment.
Master Gardener activities. “Contacts” refers to the The definition of a volunteer for purposes of
number of people you assist as a volunteer. workers’ compensation insurance is an authorized
1-4
person approved by a UI department head who is which they are not qualified. Questions concerning
under the direction and control of that UI person in the commercial green industry or commercial farm
the performance of volunteer duties. A roster of vol- crops should be referred to the county’s UI Exten-
unteer person’s names, including dates and hours of sion educator.
volunteer work, must be maintained by the UI de- When it is necessary to make recommendations
partment in order for workers’ compensation insur- that include the use of chemicals (insecticides, her-
ance to be in effect. bicides, and fungicides), Idaho Master Gardeners
should follow published product labels and/or UI
XIV. Information Is Important recommendations. Cultural problems not specifi-
Whether through phone calls, home visits, plant cally covered by UI recommendations may be
clinics, presentations, newsletters, emails, websites, handled by suggesting treatments that an experi-
or other efforts, the information given out by Idaho enced Idaho Master Gardener considers appropriate.
Master Gardener volunteers must be unbiased and Refer questions about commercial pest control to
research-based; it must be accurate, current, and the county’s UI Extension educator.
when possible taken from University of Idaho Col-
lege of Agricultural and Life Sciences publications XVI. Volunteer Service Opportunities
and research. Our mandated focus and emphasis is Idaho Master Gardeners assist in many areas of
to extend the information being developed at the the community through demonstration gardens, hor-
University of Idaho or other land-grant universities ticulture classes, landscape design, information
to the people of Idaho. booths, and at the UI Extension office. Below is a
Use the UI horticultural publications listed in this sample list of some practicum opportunities in
manual. They are available from your county’s UI which Idaho Master Gardeners are involved.
Extension office, or write Publications, University Presenting educational programs/demonstra-
of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho 83844-2240, call (208) tions on gardening to adults.
885-7982, fax (208) 885-4648, or email Helping at gardening education events: work-
calspubs@uidaho.edu. You can also check, and in shops, clinics, trade shows.
some cases download, the online publication and Presenting gardening classes to school youth.
video catalog on the UI Educational Communica-
Working at 4-H plant science events or train-
tions website (http://info.ag.uidaho.edu).
ing sessions.
XV. Recommendations Staffing information booths at fairs, field days,
and horticultural education events.
Idaho Master Gardeners are asked to use tact and Helping teach Idaho Master Gardener classes.
give constructive advice when advising home gar-
Reading gardening articles and summarizing
deners. Best results come from guiding people in
them for Idaho Master Gardeners and faculty.
their decisions. In each case please give biological,
Writing newsletters and information sheets on
cultural, and chemical options for pest management.
gardening.
Then encourage the clientele to choose the best op-
tion for themselves. Often there is more than one Maintaining a website for the county’s Idaho
solution to a pest problem. Master Gardener Program.
Organizing Idaho Master Gardener plant clinics.
Because we are the research-based division of the
university, it is sometimes necessary for Idaho Mas- Making garden or landscape site visits.
ter Gardeners to do the research on specific pest Organizing community service projects related
concerns. Always check a minimum of three sources to gardening, including landscape design and
that agree before giving out advice. Be sure of your maintenance.
recommendation before you give it! Organizing an Idaho Master Gardener
UI Extension’s Idaho Master Gardeners make mentoring program for your county.
recommendations only in the areas of home horti- Filing, helping with bulk mailings, and work-
culture, home vegetable and fruit culture, ornamen- ing at the UI Extension office.
tals, turf, and tree and landscape care. They are not Answering garden calls at your home or at
expected to make recommendations in areas for your county’s UI Extension office.

1-5
XVII. Volunteer Guidelines • Illegal or inappropriate use of mind-altering
substances (alcohol or drugs)
Idaho Master Gardeners represent the University
of Idaho. Accurate and quality work is expected. • Harassment
These guidelines are basic for any professional, • Discrimination
whether volunteer or paid. • Abuse of any kind toward a fellow human
1. Be punctual, trustworthy, and reliable! Follow The above actions may constitute cause for disci-
through with your commitments and responsi- plinary action or immediate dismissal.
bilities. Call if you will be delayed or cannot
be there. XIX. Master Gardeners in Other
2. Maintain a friendly, warm, courteous attitude Counties, States, and Countries
toward the public. The Idaho Master Gardener Program is now oper-
3. Communicate effectively with clients, staff, ating in over 20 Idaho counties. Some counties ac-
fellow volunteers, and faculty. Be a capable cept and train Master Gardeners from other coun-
and positive team member. ties. Those Master Gardeners who are trained in
4. Be cooperative with the volunteers of other Idaho return their time in the counties where they
Extension volunteer programs. We are all on are trained or by arrangement with the UI Extension
the same team. educator in the county where they reside. Before
5. If you have not received enough information out-of-county applicants are accepted into an Idaho
about your volunteer assignment, take the time Master Gardener Program, the UI Extension office
to ask more questions before beginning a task. in your resident county is contacted and arrange-
6. Accuracy is important and greatly appreciated. ments are made concerning the administration of
your volunteer activities. It is important to recognize
7. Dress appropriately for the volunteer activity
that each county program is different and has differ-
in which you are involved.
ent resources available to implement the program.
8. Be sure to make your child care arrangements
As an Idaho Master Gardener you will be on the
for the time you have committed to work as a
county’s Idaho Master Gardener mailing list and
volunteer. In some cases, it is not appropriate
will receive all the mailings for one year after
for safety or security reasons to bring children
completion of your training. You will continue to
to certain events or activities.
receive these mailings as long as you recertify and
9. Follow UI Extension affirmative action poli- remain active. You are invited to all functions, ac-
cies, which forbid discrimination against any- tivities, and educational programs as well.
one because of their race, color, gender, na-
Every two years there is an International Master
tional origin, religion, age, or disability.
Gardener Conference. You are eligible to join the
10. Enjoy your volunteer time. Volunteering is national and international Master Gardener organi-
rewarding and satisfying. zations as a certified Idaho Master Gardener. Usu-
ally in even years a Western Regional Master Gar-
XVIII. Termination of Volunteer Services dener Conference is held, which is a source of great
You are a representative of University of Idaho ideas to bring back to your communities. Take ad-
Extension and as such have agreed to abide by its vantage of these opportunities and ask at your UI
policies and expectations. If your behavior is not Extension office for conference information.
acceptable or not in the best interests of UI Exten-
sion, the volunteer program, or our clientele you XX. Volunteer Benefits
may be reprimanded or asked to leave the program. As a UI Extension Idaho Master Gardener volun-
The following behaviors observed at or on the teer, you have many benefits. One major benefit is
premises of any program or function, or while you becoming part of a national volunteer network.
are acting as a UI Extension volunteer, will not be Whether you live in Idaho or in another part of the
tolerated: country, you are part of UI Extension as a volunteer.
• Criminal acts You have use of the resources of the system and can
• Profanity be a resource to others.

1-6
This networking benefit includes your fellow job. You bring skills that are unique and special,
Idaho Master Gardeners and the faculty and re- that really add to the educational effort in your area.
search facilities at the University of Idaho. You are You are a valuable part of our team.
welcome on campus. Tours of plant science facili- Each year counties try to recognize the special
ties and all the research and extension centers can be things you do. Your name badge is recognition of
arranged. your educational accomplishment. Wear it with
This networking benefit also includes other vol- pride. You are important to us!
unteers such as 4-H Leaders, Master Food Preserv-
ers, Master Clothing Teachers, and commodity References
groups. Another benefit is reduced prices or free ad- 1. Kropf, J. 1994. Building the Ideal Master
mittance to seminars, classes, and workshops that Gardener. Western Regional Master Gardener
need volunteer help. Conference, WSU Cooperative Extension,
Idaho Master Gardener volunteers benefit by in- Cowlitz County, Kelso, WA 98626.
creasing leadership, organizational, decision mak- 2. McNeilan J., R. McNeilan, and J. Orr. 1996.
ing, and problem solving skills. Experienced volun- Metro Area Master Gardener Program Infor-
teers report that they have made lasting friendships, mation Handbook. OSU Multnomah County
increased their public relation skills, become more Extension Office, 211 SE 80th Ave., Portland,
effective at work or home, and have been well pre- OR 97215-1597.
pared for new employment or other volunteer op- 3. McNeilan, R. 1995. The Oregon Master Gar-
portunities. dener Handbook, EM 8442. Extension Service,
UI Extension faculty and staff benefit by acquir- Oregon State University, Corvallis.
ing fresh, new ideas and gaining satisfaction from 4. Park, S., and M. Hackett. 1993. WSU Snoho-
reaching more people through volunteer efforts. mish County Livestock Master Program Packet.
They gain an increased understanding of the com- 600 128th St., SE, Everett, WA 98208.
munity and clientele, while achieving greater influ- 5. Patton, D. 1995. Policy and Procedure for
ence and increasing their own confidence in pro- Johnson County Extension Master Gardeners.
grams such as the Idaho Master Gardener training. KSU Johnson County Extension Office, 1205
And, last but not least, there are certain tax ben- Olathe, KS 66061.
efits to volunteers who itemize state and federal in- 6. Rausch, N., and J. Kropf. 1994. Master Gar-
come tax returns. Since these may change annually, dener Volunteer Handbook: A Guide to Being a
you will need to update what kinds of expenses are WSU Cooperative Extension Volunteer. WSU
deductible and what are not. Cooperative Extension System, Cowlitz County,
Kelso, WA 98626.
XXI. You Are Important
Each volunteer is vital to the success of our pro-
gram—no matter what kind of volunteer work you
do. There is no such thing as a small or unimportant

1-7
University of Idaho Extension
Idaho Master Gardener Program

Position Description
Purpose of the Idaho Master Gardener Program

To extend horticultural education through trained and certified volunteers.
Brief Description of Idaho Master Gardener Responsibilities

Volunteers answer questions in person and over the telephone about vegetable gardening, fruit trees, orna-
mentals, lawns, insects, and other related home horticultural topics. They also assist with public horticultural
projects in the community. Volunteers may assist in the preparation of home horticulture classes.
Requirements
Applicant should have an interest and some knowledge or skills in basic gardening, ornamental horticul-
ture, or general plant-related topics.
Applicant should be able to communicate effectively with the public.
Applicant must be available to participate in the Idaho Master Gardener classroom training (a minimum
of 30 hours).
Applicant must be available to complete an additional (minimum of 30 hours) of hands-on practicum
training during the spring and summer (April through September). At least part of this hands-on training
must be spent at the UI Extension office.
Applicant is responsible to the UI Extension educator-in-charge of the Idaho Master Gardener Program.
All outside project work must be approved first with the educator-in-charge to receive Idaho Master Gar-
dener credit.
Applicant must follow University of Idaho horticultural recommendations and cooperate with the
county’s UI Extension staff.
Applicant must meet all requirements for certification.
Supervision
The UI Extension educator-in-charge of the Idaho Master Gardener Program provides supervision and
educational support to the volunteer Idaho Master Gardener.
The UI Extension educator will assign, review, and assess hands-on practicum work for the Idaho Master
Gardener trainee, or advanced volunteer.
The UI Extension educator will provide in-service training, furnish space, and other needed support ma-
terials when the Idaho Master Gardener volunteer works in the UI Extension office.

1-8

Application
I would like to be considered for University of Idaho Extension’s Idaho Master Gardener Training Program.
I understand that if accepted into the Idaho Master Gardener Program, I am required to complete a minimum
of 60 hours of training (30 classroom and 30 hands-on). This training must be completed by October 1 of the
current year unless prearranged with the UI Extension educator in charge.
Participants not able to complete 30 hours of volunteer service

should not sign up for the Idaho Master Gardener Program.
Name (please print) _____________________________________ Date __________________
Address ______________________________________________ Zip ___________________
Phone (day) ____________________________ Phone (evening) ________________________
Signature _____________________________________________ Date __________________
How did you learn about the UI Extension Idaho Master Gardener Program?
Years of gardening experience? _____________ Where else have you gardened before moving here?
Have you ever been in a Master Gardener Program in Idaho or another state? Yes No
If yes, indicate where and year(s).
Please list all horticultural schooling you have received (school, topics, and dates, if possible).
Please list your areas of specialization or interest (vegetables, roses, greenhouse, herbs, etc.).
Are you affiliated with any gardening clubs or horticulture-related groups? If so, please list.
(continued)

1-9
Why do you wish to become an Idaho Master Gardener?
What do you expect from this class?
How might you use your volunteer time to help others in the community?
How would you rate your “people skills” (ability to work with others)?
Excellent Good Fair
How would you rate your gardening skills?
Expert Intermediate Beginner
Are you knowledgeable in growing any of the following? Please check.
House plants Herbs Turf
Vegetables Annual flowers Shrubs
Tree fruits Perennial flowers Ground covers
Berries Ornamental trees Other (specify) ____________________
How do you receive garden information? Please check.
Garden magazines Nursery/garden center personnel Family/friends/neighbors
Newspaper articles University/college professors Garden clubs
Extension bulletins Extension office staff Master Gardeners at extension office
TV/cable stations Radio stations Garden websites/computer programs
Are you employed now? Yes No Full-time? Part-time?
Are you retired? Yes No Semi-retired? Yes No
Check the skills you are good at:
Public speaking Artistic
Teaching Photography
Writing Manual labor
Computing/webmaster Marketing/media work
Typing, filing Other (specify)
I would like to take this class for Academic credit (+ fee)

Continuing Education Units (CEU + fee)
Return this form to the

University of Idaho Extension Office
in your county
1 - 10

Opportunity Contract
Return this form to the UI Extension Office in your county.
I wish to become a University of Idaho Extension Idaho Master Gardener. I understand I must complete the
classroom instruction, finish all quizzes and exams, complete all lab work, and complete volunteer hands-on
training to become certified. I realize that part of my hands-on training hours must be spent at the UI Exten-
sion office. I also understand that I can sign up for more than one hands-on project and volunteer more than
the required number of hours.
If I am accepted as an Idaho Master Gardener trainee, I will abide by all regulations and recommendations
of University of Idaho Extension. I agree to give University of Idaho pest control recommendations even if
they include synthetic chemical pesticides.
I understand that as an Idaho Master Gardener, I am considered a volunteer representative of the University
of Idaho. Therefore, the University of Idaho will assume liability for my pest control recommendations, but
only if my recommendations are limited to control measures that are approved by the University of Idaho for
home and garden use and listed in UI Extension publications.
Signature _____________________________________________ Date __________________
Name (please print) _______________________________________________________________
Address ______________________________________________ Zip ___________________
Phone (day) ______________________________ (evening) ___________________________
Hands-on Horticultural Service
All Idaho Master Gardeners are required to sign up for one or more days per week of volunteer service at
the UI Extension office in the spring and summer. Indicate the days and months that are convenient for you.
You will be contacted for specific dates. You can complete your volunteer service as quickly as you desire.
Month Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Sat/Sun
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
My schedule is flexible. I can be available almost anytime with advance notice.

(continued)
1 - 11
Select several project areas of interest to you.
Plant Clinic Speaker’s Bureau

Plant clinic (identifying plant problems) Speaker/presenter (topic): _______________
Garden Projects __________________________________

For youth groups only
City beautification
For adult groups only
4-H/youth garden projects
Audience make-up is not crucial
Weed/insect collection
Demonstration garden Special Events
Senior citizen garden project Information booths
Fund raising events
Support Activities
Garden tours
Artwork, calligraphy
Photo album, photography Office Assistance
Filing/organizing paperwork
Communications/Writing
Typing, mailing, stapling, collating
Garden newsletter articles
Telephone answering
Newspaper articles
Publicity for Master Gardener Program Other
Special project (topic): _________________
Landscape Design/Maintenance
__________________________________
Extension office landscape
__________________________________
Other landscapes (must be approved by the
Master Gardener coordinator)
Return this form to the

University of Idaho Extension Office
in your county

1 - 12
Volunteer Activity Record
Name _______________________________________ Date ________________________________
For program year _____________________________ Ending ______________________________
Check one: 4-H Leader Master Gardener Livestock Master Master Food Preserver
Codes: W= Caucasian N = Native American H = Hispanic B = Black HC = Handicapped A = Asian

If you need help filling out this form, please ask!
Please complete this Volunteer Activity Record each year of volunteer service and turn it into your University of Idaho Extension
Office as directed by your program coordinator or UI Extension educator. Please record specific accomplishments that you are most
proud of on the back of this sheet. Time to toot your own horn…let us know what you have done for your community!

1 - 13

Tax Records for Volunteer Service
This certifies recognition of the volunteer service performed within UI’s Idaho Master
Gardener program.
________________________________________
— UI Master Gardener —
Idaho Master Gardeners receive training from UI educators in solving and giving advice on
yard, garden, and houseplant problems. Volunteer service within the UI program is
performed by Idaho Master Gardeners in various ways (e.g., Master Gardener clinics,
assistance in a county extension office, speaking to groups, plant problem consultations by
telephone, and other methods arranged with UI Extension staff members).
Charlotte V. Eberlein, Director

Directions for claiming deductions: List the amount you claim as a deduction in Schedule A
under “Contributions” (other than cash). This statement certifies that you have performed
volunteer service. File this statement with your records. You should also keep a record of
when and where your service was performed. Keep a record of mileage (read tax
instructions to determine how many cents per mile is allowed). You may also list supplies
you purchased and used within the Idaho Master Gardener program. Keep this information
with your records to verify your deductions in case your tax return is audited.
University of Idaho Extension helps people develop their leadership skills and use research-
based knowledge to improve their economic status and quality of life.
Helping People Grow.

1 - 14
Chapter
Basic Botany
2
I. Divisions of Plant Sciences 2

II. Divisions of Botany 2
III. Plant Classification 2
A. Plant Groups and Sub-Groups 2
B. Family 2
C. Genus 3
D. Species 3
E. Variety, Cultivar, and Hybrid 3
F. Nomenclature 3
IV. Plant Classification According 3
to Life Cycle
A. Annuals 4
B. Biennials 4
C. Perennials 4
V. Plant Parts and Their Functions 4
A. Vegetable Parts 4
B. Sexual Reproductive Parts 10
C. How Plants Grow 14
Further Reading 16

2-1
Chapter 2
Basic Botany
J. A. Robbins and S. M. Bell
JoAnn Robbins, Extension Educator, Jerome County
Susan M. Bell, Extension Educator, Ada County
I. Divisions of Plant Sciences III. Plant Classification

Plant science embraces several plant-related sci- Plant classification and the scientific naming of
ences: plants help us identify plants exactly. The plant clas-
• Agriculture is the study of plants in relation to sification system groups plants with similar charac-
field crop production. teristics together and then creates sub-groups with
• Agronomy is the science of crop management more similar characteristics. Within those sub-
and includes the study of soils. groups more subdivisions or groupings are made by
getting even more specific. This process continues
• Horticulture is the science of growing fruits,
until a single plant with unique characteristics is
vegetables, flowers, and other ornamental
named.
plants.
A. Plant Groups and Sub-Groups:
• Botany is the science that studies all phases of
plant life and growth. 1. Kingdom (plants)
A thorough understanding of botany is necessary 2. Division (seed plants, non-seed plants)
to understand the other plant sciences. Master Gar- 3. Sub-divisions (angiosperms, gymnosperms)
deners need botanical knowledge in order to use 4. Class (monocot, dicot)
correct terminology when referring to plant parts 5. Order (a large group of like individuals)
and plant identification and to understand why and 6. Family
how plants live, grow, and respond to their environ-
7. Genus
ment.
8. Species
II. Divisions of Botany 9. Variety or cultivar
The science of botany has many subject areas: Master Gardeners usually work with the classifi-
cation of plants at the family level and below. The
• Plant physiology deals with the functioning,
common names of plants are often not precise
their mechanisms of response, and the physical
enough to identify them exactly. Sometimes a com-
and biochemical processes of plants.
mon name refers to two or more entirely different
• Morphology deals with the origin and function plants. Only scientific nomenclature allows an exact
of plant parts while anatomy considers plant understanding of which plant is being discussed.
structures.
B. Family
• Taxonomy deals with plant classification and
In a family of plants, similarities occur prima-
naming.
rily among its members’ flowers but also
• Plant ecology is the study of the complex rela- leaves and other plant parts. For example, the
tionships of plants in biological communities. rose family, Rosaceae, includes members of
• Plant geography studies the distribution of the genera Rosa (rose), Malus (apple), Prunus
plants throughout the world. (plum), Frageria (strawberry), and many oth-
• Plant pathology is the study of plant diseases. ers. They all have similar flowers with five

2-2
petals and many stamens. Some other large F. Nomenclature
families are Asteraceae (sunflowers), 1. As an example, the complete classification
Ranunculaceae (buttercup), Poaceae (grasses), of the Black Chokecherry is:
and Fabaceae (pea and bean family). Kingdom: Planta
C. Genus Division: Spermotophyta
Genus is a subdivision of family and the plants Sub-division: Angiospermae
of the same genus share similarities mostly in Class: Dicotoledonae
flower characteristics and genetics. Plants in Order: Rosales
one genus usually cannot breed with plants in Family: Rosaceae
another genus. Genus: Prunus
D. Species Species: virginiana
Species is a group of individual plants inter- Variety: melanocarpa
breeding freely and having many (or all) char- The genus, species, and variety names ap-
acteristics in common. pear either in italics or underlined. The first
E. Variety, Cultivar, and Hybrid letter of the genus name is capitalized; but
the species and variety are written in all
1. Variety
lower case letters.
A plant growing in the wild within a species
2. Cultivars are indicated by placing the culti-
that is different in some particular character-
var name in single quotation marks or by
istic from other members of that species. A
preceding the cultivar name with the abbre-
variety, when grown from seed, will main-
viation cv. (do not use both). The first letter
tain all of its particular characteristics.
of the cultivar name is capitalized, but the
2. Cultivar name is not italicized or underlined. An ex-
This word is a contraction of cultivated ample is the Colorado blue spruce, Picea
variety. Propagation of cultivars results in pungens ‘Glauca’ or Picea pungens cv.
little or no genetic change in the offspring, Glauca.
which preserves desirable characteristics. If 3. Hybrids created intentionally, or by crossing
propagated asexually or vegetatively, culti- in nature (natural interbreeding), are desig-
vars are termed clones, and if propagated by nated with an “x” between the genus and
seeds they are termed lines. Seeds of clones species. An example is Forsythia x
will not produce plants with the same desir- intermedia, which is a cross between F.
able characteristics as the cultivar. Cultivars suspensa and F. viridissima.
are generally selected by botanists and hor-
4. A binomial name is a plant’s genus and spe-
ticulturists and maintained under cultiva-
cies and may be followed by the initial of
tion.
the authority for describing and naming the
3. Hybrid plant. For example, Solanum tuberosum L.
A hybrid results from a cross between two indicates that Carl von Linne (Linnaeus), a
different species or well-marked varieties Swedish physician, described and named
within a species. Hybrids grown in a garden the white (Irish) potato. Linnaeus proposed
situation will not breed true-to-form from a system of nomenclature for plants in 1732
their own seed. For example, supersweet based primarily on flowers and/or reproduc-
hybrid corn cannot be reproduced by saving tive parts. This system has persisted to the
seed from this year’s crop. The seed will present day.
produce a different type or several different
types of corn, but none will have all the IV. Plant Classification According to Life
characteristics of the original hybrid plants. Cycle
Plants are also classified by life cycle (e.g., how
long it takes a plant to develop from a seed to a
flowering plant).

2-3
A. Annuals
Annuals are plants that grow, mature,
flower, produce seed, and die all in one sea-
son. Zinnias are annual plants. They com-
plete their life cycle in one year.
B. Biennials
Biennials take 2 years or a part of 2 years to
complete their life cycle. During the first
season, biennials grow as a vegetative plant
that overwinters as a hardy rosette of basal
leaves. During the second season, the plant
flowers, produces seeds, and then dies. Pars-
ley is an example of a biennial plant.
C. Perennials
Perennials live for more than 2 years. Her-
baceous perennials have soft, non-woody
stems while woody perennials have woody
stems. Woody perennials can either keep
their leaves through the winter (evergreen)
or lose them and grow new leaves in the
spring (deciduous). Tender perennials die
back each winter and a new plant grows
from the roots each spring.
V. Plant Parts and Their Functions

A. Vegetative Parts
1. Leaves—Leaves are the photosynthetic
(food manufacturing) organs that produce
carbohydrates to provide energy for the Fig. 1. Parts, types, and positions of leaves.
plant to live and grow. Leaves are also a
site of respiration, which is the process
by which carbohydrates are converted into b. Leaf structure: Several layers of cells
energy. Another function of leaves is tran- make up the leaf blade. The outer cell
spiration, or the loss of water as vapor. layers on top and bottom are the epider-
Transpiration helps to regulate leaf tempera- mis. They serve as protection for the in-
ture and helps to carry water up the plant ner leaf tissue. Some plants have hairs
from the roots. called trichomes that are extensions of
a. Parts of a leaf: Leaf parts include the the epidermal cells. A waxy layer on the
blade, the flat thin part, and the petiole, epidermis is called the cuticle. It protects
which attaches the blade to the stem. The the leaf from dehydration and prevents
pattern of attachment of leaves to the penetration of some disease-causing or-
stem is opposite, alternate, or whorled. ganisms (Fig. 3).
Leaf arrangement is an identifying fea- Specialized epidermal cells on the under-
ture of plants. There are two common sides (and sometimes upper sides) of
leaf classifications: simple, a single leaf, leaves form stomata, or openings into the
or compound, a leaf with two or more leaf (singular of stomata is stomate).
leaflets (Fig. 1). Leaf shapes, edges (mar- Cells on either side of each stomate are
gins), tips, bases, and vein patterns also called guard cells. They swell to open the
have specific terminology used to de- stomate or shrink to close it. Conditions
scribe these characteristics (Fig. 2). that promote large water losses from
2-4
Fig. 2. Terminology describing leaf characteristics.
Fig. 3. Leaf structure.

2-5
plants (high temperature, wind, and low Carbon dioxide enters the leaf through
humidity) cause the guard cells to close. the stomata. Photosynthesis requires
Open stomata also allow the exchange of natural or artificial light and water that
carbon dioxide and oxygen between the comes through the roots. The photosyn-
air inside and outside of the leaf. thetic process occurs in the chloroplasts
In between the epidermis layers is the that contain the chlorophyll cells. Oxygen
mesophyll where photosynthesis occurs. and water are released through the sto-
The palisade layer of cells is the upper mata, and the end products, carbohy-
layer of the mesophyll, and the lower drates, are converted to sugars and
layer is the spongy parenchyma. Inside starches for transport and storage
the mesophyll cells are the chloroplasts throughout the plant.
where actual photosynthesis occurs. Leaves are also one site of respiration in
Vascular bundles, that transport water, the plant. Respiration is the process by
nutrients, and sugars to and from the leaf, which carbohydrates are converted into
enter the leaf through the petiole and energy. This energy builds new tissues,
spread throughout the blade. Their distri- maintains the chemical processes, and
bution determines the venation or the pat- allows growth within the plant. With this
tern of veins in the leaves. The principle production of energy, sugars and oxygen
vein patterns are parallel veins found in are converted to carbon dioxide, water,
the monocotyledon group, and net veins and a small amount of heat. Respiration
found in the dicotyledon group (Fig. 2). occurs in all cells and at night as well as
c. Functions of the leaf: The leaf is the pri- during the day.
mary site of photosynthesis in most The loss of water through the leaf sto-
plants (Fig. 4). Plants are able to take so- mata is called transpiration. The tran-
lar energy and turn it into chemical en- spired water comes from the photosyn-
ergy. Without photosynthesis, life on thetic process and also from water in the
earth would not exist. It is the single most cells. Transpiration pulls water from the
important chemical process on earth be- roots with dissolved nutrients through the
cause all other life forms depend on this plant. It also provides evaporative cool-
process for survival. The photosynthesis ing for leaf tissue.
formula is: 2. Stems—The stem of a plant supports the
Carbon dioxide + water (in the presence of light)
above-ground plant parts and is a path-
produces carbohydrates (sugars) + oxygen way for water, nutrients, and carbohy-
drates.
a. Parts of the stem: All stems have
nodes. A node is an area of active
growth (Fig. 5). Leaves occur on the
stem at the node. Where the leaves
meet the stem is called an axil. Buds
Fig. 4. Functions of the leaf. Fig. 5. Parts of the stem.

2-6
develop into leaves or flowers at a the phloem near the outside, or bark,
node. The area between nodes is called and the xylem toward the inside (Figs.
an internode. Internodes can be lengthy 6 and 7). In monocots, paired xylem
or very small depending on the genet- and phloem form bundles that are scat-
ics of the plant and environmental con- tered throughout the stem (Fig. 6).
ditions. Between all functional phloem and
b. Types of stems: Crowns are com- xylem is a layer of cells called the
pressed above-ground stems. Ex- cambium. These cells divide and pro-
amples are dandelions and strawber- duce xylem toward the inside of the
ries. The leaves and flowers are on stem and phloem toward the outside of
very short internodes. the stem. Stem girth of woody peren-
Spurs are short, stubby stems common nial plants increases mainly by the ac-
on fruit trees such as apples and pears. tivity of these cambium cells.
These spurs produce the fruiting buds d. External structure of the stem: In non-
on these trees. woody plants the epidermis, or outer
A stolon is a horizontal stem, either single layer of surface cells, protects
fleshy or semi-woody, that runs along the stem. As in leaves, this layer is
the soil surface. An example is the usually cutinized, or waxy, and on
stem that attaches the strawberry plant young stems it has stomata. Below the
to its plantlets. It is also called a run- epidermis are layers of supporting and
ner. Some types of grass form stolons. strengthening cells that surround the
Below-ground stem variations include vascular tissue (Fig. 7). These cells
tubers (potatoes), rhizomes (bearded may contain chloroplasts so that they
iris), tuberous stems (tuberous bego- can photosynthesize. Some of these
nias), corms (crocus), and bulbs (tu- tissues can divide and form new tissue
lips) (see Chapter 18, “Herbaceous Or- when wounded, providing a protective
namentals”). mechanism for the stem.
c. Internal structure of the stem: The vas- Woody plants form bark, or cork, on
cular system inside the stem transports the outside of their stems. Cork cam-
water, minerals, and sugars (Fig. 6). bium produces this bark and is located
The xylem vessels conduct water and just below the bark layers (Fig. 8).
minerals, and the phloem tubes carry
sugars. Water moves primarily from
the roots to the top of the plant. Sugars
move from areas of manufacture or
storage to use or to other storage areas
in the plant. The arrangement of the
vascular system in a dicot is continu-
ous. It forms rings inside the stem with
Fig. 6. Vascular system arrangements. Fig. 7. Cross section of a herbaceous dicot stem.

2-7
This cambium forms cork, or bark
cells, that become coated with water
resistant materials, die, and build up
into a thickened, protective layer. The
bark cells resist desiccation, disease,
insects, and extreme temperatures.
Only dicots produce the type of
growth depicted in Fig. 8. On young
twigs and small trunks of many kinds
of trees and shrubs, lenticels, or pore
openings, allow the outward and in-
ward movement of gases.
3. Buds—A lateral or axillary bud is an un-
developed shoot or flower that is found at
Fig. 8. Cross section of a woody stem. the node. If the bud is at the tip of shoots,
it is called a terminal bud (Fig. 9). Buds
may continue to grow after they are
formed, or they may stop growing and
remain dormant until the following
spring. Buds on many plants require a
certain duration of cold temperature be-
low a certain degree before they will
grow in the spring. During dormancy,
buds can tolerate very low temperatures
without damage. However, once the plant
has had enough cold temperature to sat-
isfy that requirement for growth, a new
bud can be easily damaged by subsequent
cold temperatures. Non-growing buds of
tropical and subtropical plants do not
have a temperature requirement for
growth.
a. Types of buds: Vegetative buds de-
velop onto shoots, flower buds pro-
duce one or more flowers, and mixed
buds produce both shoots and flowers.
Buds that do not grow for long periods
of time can become embedded in the
enlarging stem tissue and are latent
buds. These buds grow only when con-
ditions necessary for their growth oc-
cur, such as drastic pruning. Not all
plants have latent buds.
b. Adventitious buds develop in locations
that buds usually don’t occur. An ex-
ample is the buds found on root pieces
used for propagation; roots do not
have buds. Underground parts that do
have buds are considered underground
Fig. 9. Types of buds.
stems, such as rhizomes or tubers.

2-8
4. Roots root penetrates the soil (Fig. 10). Most
Roots absorb nutrients and moisture, an- water absorption occurs in the area of
chor the plant in the soil, furnish physical the root hairs.
support for the stem, act as transport sys- The internal structure of roots is differ-
tems to move water and minerals to the ent from stems. A root cap protects the
stem, and serve as food storage organs. root as it pushes through the soil. The
Roots profoundly affect the size and cells of the cap slough off and are re-
vigor of the plant, method of propagation, placed by others as roots grow down-
adaptation to soil types, and responses to ward. The epidermis protects the root
cultural practices and irrigation. Roots surface, contains the root hairs, and is
make up a large proportion of the total responsible for the absorption of water
plant; about 20 to 30 percent of the total and minerals dissolved in water. Cor-
volume of the plant is roots, depending tex cells, beneath the epidermis, help
on the nature of the root and the growing move the water from the epidermis
conditions. Since individual roots may be and are active in food storage. The
so small, however, roots can account for vascular tissue (xylem and phloem) is
up to 90 percent of the surface area of a in the center of the root and conducts
plant! nutrients, sugars, and water.
a. Structure of roots: Roots have an ac- b. Kinds of root systems: After the pri-
tively growing area at the tip that pro- mary root emerges from the seed, it
duces new cells. Behind this active re- may continue to grow straight down
gion is the zone of elongation where and become a tap root, or it may
the cells expand. Behind this zone is branch, forming secondary roots, and
the region of maturation, where the become a fibrous root system with
enlarged cells turn into the various many side, or lateral, roots (Fig. 11).
root tissues. The epidermis of this The taproot can be encouraged to
young region forms root hairs that re- branch by removing or breaking the
place old root hairs destroyed as the apical root meristem, or growing point
of the root. This often happens when
seedlings, trees, and other plants are
transplanted. This process favors a fi-
brous root system. Many of the func-
tional feeder roots of woody plants ex-
tend only into the top 18 inches of soil.
The depth that tree roots penetrate de-
pends on the types of tree and soil, and
water status. A dense compacted layer
in the soil or a high water table will
restrict or terminate root growth.
Fig. 10. Root structure. Fig. 11. Types of roots.

2-9
c. Types of roots: Some unusual roots are • The petals are the floral structures
aerial roots, which develop on stems inside the sepals. Together, all the
above ground. If they reach soil they petals form the corolla. Petals are
will become ground roots. The aerial usually brightly colored and often
roots of some orchids contain chloro- contain nectaries that secrete nectar.
phyll for photosynthesis and absorb The color and nectar attract insects
moisture and nutrients from the air. to pollinate the flowers. Collec-
Adventitious roots are those that form tively, sepals and petals form the
at any place on the plant other than the perianth.
primary root system. They may arise • The stamen is the male part of the
from cells adjacent to vascular flower and is inside the petals. Each
bundles, cambium, or young phloem stamen consists of a filament tipped
cells. They also form on other plant with an anther. The anther produces
parts besides stems, such as leaf peti- the pollen.
oles or leaf blades or even on older • The pistil is the female component
root pieces. The ability of many plants of the flower. It is in the center of
to produce adventitious roots allows the flower and has three parts: the
the propagation of plants vegetatively. stigma, the receptive surface that
B. Sexual Reproductive Parts receives the pollen; the style, a tube
Plants reproduce in many ways, from a connected to the stigma; and the
simple cell splitting into two identical indi- ovary, attached to the lower end of
viduals (clones) to the complicated floral the style. The ovary contains ovules
structures found in higher plants. Gymno- that develop into seeds after pollina-
sperms (conifers) have a reproductive sys- tion and fertilization have occurred.
tem that differs from angiosperms (flower- b. Types of flowers: A complete flower
ing plants). We are concerned here with the has all four parts: sepals, petals, sta-
most highly evolved reproductive system, mens, and a pistil. Flowers with both
that of the angiosperms or flowering plants. stamens and pistils are called perfect
1. Flowers—Flowers are the specialized flowers.
plant structures adapted for sexual repro-
duction in plants. After fertilization by
pollen, parts of the flower develop into a
fruit that bears the seed(s). Formation of
flowers is still poorly understood. Flow-
ering may be caused by a stimulus such
as day length, plant age, temperatures,
stress, and other factors.
a. Parts of the flower: Complete flowers
have four parts: sepals, petals, sta-
mens, and pistils, which are all borne
on a receptacle (Fig. 12).
• Sepals are the outer covering of the
flower when it is in the bud stage.
They are leaf-like in structure and
are usually green, however, they
can be colored and look like petals,
as in tulips. They may fold back as
in roses or remain upright as with
carnations. Together, all the sepals
form the calyx. Fig. 12. Flower structure.

2 - 10
Incomplete flowers lack one or more different flowers on different plants of
of the four parts. Flowers with no pis- the same species, variety, or cultivar,
tils (stamens only) are staminate or this is all called self-pollination. Only
male flowers. Flowers with no stamens when the anther and the stigma are in
(pistils only) are pistillate or female different flowers on plants of different
flowers. These flowers are called im- species, varieties, or cultivars does
perfect because they lack either the cross-pollination occur. Pollination
pistils or the stamens. occurs by insects or, in plants with in-
If a plant has imperfect flowers and conspicuous flowers, by wind.
male (staminate) and female Once the pollen lands on the stigma,
(pistallate) flowers occur on the same the pollen grain germinates and begins
plant, the plant is termed monoecious. to grow a pollen tube that penetrates
Corn is an example of a monoecious through the style (Fig. 14). In the tube
plant. If the male and female flowers are the male sperm that will unite with
occur on separate plants the plants are the female egg in the ovule. Fertiliza-
called dioecious. Holly is an example
of a dioecious plant.
c. Arrangement of flowers: If a stalk
bears a single flower, such as a tulip, it
is a solitary flower. Multiples or clus-
ters of flowers are arranged in inflores-
cences. Some of these flower clusters
are shown in Fig. 13.
d. Fertilization of flowers: Once a flower
is formed, the first step in fertilization
is pollination, the transfer of pollen
from an anther to a stigma. If the an-
ther and stigma are in the same flower
or if the anther and stigma are in dif-
ferent flowers on the same plant or in Fig. 14. The process of fertilization.
Fig. 13. Types of inflorescences.

2 - 11
tion occurs when sperm unites with the move from other parts of the plant into
egg and an embryo begins to grow. these developing tissues. Hormonal
A plant is self-fertile if it produces chemicals are involved in fruit growth,
seed with its own pollen. It is self-ster- but their basic mechanisms are not
ile if it needs pollen from another spe- completely understood. Fruit growth
cies, variety, or cultivar (e.g., cross- includes both cell division and cell en-
pollination) for fertilization to occur. largement.
Often self-sterility is due to incompat- Botanical maturity of a fruit refers to a
ibility or a condition where the pollen final stage of development when the
will not grow through the style. fruit is still on the plant and cell en-
2. Fruits—Once pollination occurs and the largement and accumulation of carbo-
embryo begins to develop, the formation hydrates and other flavor constituents
of a fruit begins and seeds develop within is complete. Fruits are often harvested
the fruit. Fruits can develop from all the before true botanical maturity as in the
various parts of the flower, not just the case of cucumbers used for pickles.
ovary. Fig. 15 shows some fruit types. Fruits, such as lima beans used as dry
a. Fruit growth and development: Botani- beans, are harvested after true botani-
cally speaking, the true fruit is just the cal maturity. Optimum harvest time
enlarged ovary. However, once fertili- depends upon the intended use of the
zation is accomplished, the true fruit fruit.
and, sometimes, various associated tis- 3. Seeds—Seeds are matured ovules and
sues begin to grow into what we rec- occur as, or in, mature fruits. They come
ognize and call a fruit. Food materials in all shapes and sizes as well as methods
Fig. 15. Examples of fruit types.

2 - 12
of dispersal. Maple seeds (samaras) are ists, but not whether it is alive. Seeds
carried through the air on wings. Cockle- that float on water are usually not vi-
burs have barbs or hooks to catch in able; live seeds will sink. Germinating
clothing or animal fur. Small animals a sample of seeds can tell you what
gather, transport, and bury nuts, complet- percent are alive. Make sure seeds
ing the planting of these seeds. These tested in this way are not dormant. Us-
seeds pass through their digestive tracts ing a chemical such as tetrazolium that
of animals, such as coyotes, and are stains the live parts of the seed red is a
widely disseminated. good viability test. Removing the em-
a. Parts of a seed: Every seed has three bryo from the seed to observe growth
basic parts: an embryo, a food storage in artificial media such as agar is an-
tissue, and a seed coat (Fig. 16). The other way to test viability. For home
embryo is a tiny plant formed during gardeners these last two tests are usu-
fertilization. It has two growing points, ally not practical.
the radicle (a tiny root), and the plu- c. Seed dormancy: Some seeds, even
mule (a tiny shoot). The food storage though viable and planted under the
tissue is either one or two cotyledon, correct conditions, fail to grow. These
which are attached between the two seeds are exhibiting a feature called
growing points on the embryo. In dormancy. Seed dormancy can result
some seeds (as in corn) the single from limiting structural or physiologi-
cotyledon is imbedded in an en- cal conditions in the seed coverings
dosperm that is a food-storage area in (particularly the seed coats) or in the
the seed. The seed coat forms the outer embryo itself, or both. Dormancy is an
layer and provides protection for the adaptive feature of some plants to keep
enclosed embryo. the seeds from germinating until con-
b. Seed viability: In order for seeds to ditions exist that favor seedling sur-
grow, the embryo must be viable, or vival.
alive. Seeds can remain alive for days Seed coat dormancy is caused by seed
or years, depending on the species of coats being impermeable to water and
plant and the seed storage conditions. gases or by being too hard to let the
Best storage conditions for most seeds embryo emerge. In nature, weathering,
are cool and dry. However, seeds of the action of microorganisms, or the
tropical plants will dry out and die if passage through the digestive tract of
stored under dry conditions. an animal can soften the seed cover-
There are several ways to test if seeds ing. Artificial methods to soften the
are alive. Cutting open the seed to seed coat include scarification,
view the embryo can tell you if it ex- scratching or rupturing the seed coat
Fig. 16. Parts of a seed.

2 - 13
with sandpaper or nicking it with a leaching can remove chemicals in
knife. Heat treatments using boiling seeds or embryos. In nature, heavy
water can disrupt the seed coat enough soaking rains would accomplish this
to allow germination. Soaking seeds in task and provide an excellent growing
concentrated sulfuric acid, called acid condition for the resulting seedling.
scarification, softens the seed coat to Good reference materials are available
help overcome seed coat dormancy. to determine what conditions are nec-
Embryo dormancy is common in seeds essary to germinate a seed. Master
of woody perennial plants. A physi- Gardeners should use these references
ological condition in the embryo pre- to be successful in seed collection and
vents it from growing. This type of germination.
dormancy can be overcome by stratifi- C. How Plants Grow
cation, or chilling seeds under moist 1. Seed germination—After planting, cer-
conditions. This method mimics the tain processes begin in a seed leading to
conditions a seed might endure after it the growth of an entirely new plant.
fell to the ground in the fall and went These processes are called germination
through a cold winter on the ground. (Fig. 17). The first step necessary to be-
This type of dormancy keeps the seed gin the process involves the absorption of
from growing in the fall when the re- water or imbibition. The seed swells with
sulting tiny plant would be killed by the uptake of water, cell enzyme activity
the winter cold. increases, growth begins, and the seed
Some seeds have both a seed coat and coat bursts. The radicle, which will de-
embryo dormancy. Treatment to over- velop into the root, emerges and grows
come both types of dormancy is neces- downward into the soil. The portion of
sary to allow germination. the seedling between the radicle and the
Some seeds fail to germinate because first leaf-like structure is the hypocotyl.
of an immature embryo. Enough time The seed leaves or cotyledons are usually
after seed harvest must be allowed for the first leafy structure seen, and they en-
the embryo to develop. Embryo matu- close a growing point called the apical or
ration can occur while the seed is in shoot meristem (defined below). Plants
storage or after it is planted. with one seed leaf are monocotyledons
Chemical inhibitors can block germi- while dicotyledons have two seed leaves.
nation in seeds. These chemicals may The storage products within the cotyle-
be in the embryo, some other part of dons provide energy to support growth of
the seed, or even in part of the fruit. the seedling until photosynthesis begins.
Removing the seed from the fruit will New leaves and stem cells are produced
allow germination in the case of and the plant begins to grow taller, or
chemical inhibition from fruits. Water elongate.
Fig. 17. Seed germination.

2 - 14
Successful seed germination requires cer- the epidermis and the very first xylem
tain environmental conditions: adequate and phloem. In some plants, this mer-
moisture, proper temperature, good aera- istem will produce flower buds at a
tion, darkness, or, in some cases, light. certain point in the development of the
2. Differentiation and maturation—Plants plant. In other plants, this meristem
continue to grow and develop their struc- continues to produce only vegetative
tures from meristematic areas (Fig. 18). structures (leaves and stems). If this is
Various cells form the shape, size, and the case, flowers are produced on side
characteristics of each type of plant. The branches in the axils of leaves some
genetic information that dictates all cellu- distance below the apex. The shoot
lar processes is called DNA (deoxyribo- meristem allows the plant to grow and
nucleic acid). DNA is organized into increase in height.
chromosomes. The order and organiza- Another type of apical meristem is the
tion of the DNA in the chromosomes is root meristem, located at the tips of
responsible for all characteristics of the roots. The root meristems provide for
plant—such as whether it will be woody elongation of the roots and produce the
or herbaceous, annual or perennial, or tall cells that will become the epidermis,
or short. cortex, and the xylem, cambium, and
3. Meristematic areas and growth—Plants phloem of the mature root.
have specific meristematic areas where b. Lateral meristems: Lateral meristems
cells actively divide to provide more cells are cylinders of actively dividing cells
that will expand and develop into other that start just below the apical mer-
tissues and organs of the plant. istems and are located up and down
a. Apical meristems: Shoot meristems are the plant. One type of lateral meristem
at the very tips of the above-ground is the vascular cambium, which pro-
parts of the plant. They produce new duces new xylem and phloem. Another
buds and leaves in a particular pattern lateral meristem is the cork cambium,
at the tip of the stems. The shoot mer- which produces bark on older stems
istem produces cells that eventually and roots. The stem girth of woody
form the different tissues of the stem: perennial plants increases by the activ-
ity of these meristems.
c. Other types of meristems: Some plants
have a subapical meristem that pro-
duces new cells in the region just be-
hind a shoot meristem. Plants that
form rosettes when they first produce
leaves and then “bolt” when producing
a flowering stalk have subapical mer-
istems. An example is common mul-
lein. The subapical meristem aids in
formation of the flowering stalk.
Some other plants, mostly monocots,
have active meristematic cells in older
mature tissue, separated from the shoot
meristem. For example, grasses have
intercalary meristems just above the
nodes in the lower region of the leaf
sheaths. These cells divide and provide
the growth of the grass leaf from the
Fig. 18. Parts of a vascular plant.
base.

2 - 15
Booklets and Pamphlets
Further Reading
CIS 1041 Conducting Your Own Garden Research
Books ($2.00)
Capon, B. 1990. Botany for Gardeners. Timber To order University of Idaho publications, contact
your county’s UI Extension office, or write Publica-
Press, Portland, OR.
tions, University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho 83844-
Hartman, H. T., A. M. Kofranek, V. E. Rubatzky, 2240, call (208) 885-7982, fax (208) 885-4648, or
and W. J. Flocker. 1988. 2nd edition. Plant email calspubs@uidaho.edu. Idaho residents add 6
Science. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, percent sales tax. Also check, and in some cases
NJ. download, the online publication and video catalog
Jensen, W. A., and F. G. Salisbury. 1972. Botany: on the UI Educational Communications website
An Ecological Approach. Wadsworth (http://info.ag.uidaho.edu).
Publishing Co., Belmont, CA.
Raven, P. H., R. F. Evert, and S. E. Eichhorn. 1992.
5th edition. Biology of Plants. Wort/Worth
Publishers, New York, NY.
Wilkins, M. 1988. Plantwatching. Facts on File
Publications, New York, NY.

2 - 16
Chapter
Plant Propagation
3
I. Sexual Propagation 2
A. Seed 2
B. Germination 2
C. Methods of Breaking Dormancy 4
D. Starting Seeds 5
E. Transplanting and Handling 8
II. Asexual Propagation 9
A. Cuttings 9
B. Layering 12
C. Division 14
D. Grafting 14
E. Budding 16
F. Plant Tissue Culture 17
Further Reading 17

3-1
Chapter 3
Plant Propagation
S. M. Bell
I. Sexual Propagation Although some seeds will keep for several

years if stored properly, it is advisable to
Sexual propagation involves the union of the pol-
purchase only enough seed for the current
len (male) with the egg (female) to produce a
year’s use. Good seed will not contain seed
seed. The seed is made up of three parts: the outer
of any other crop, weed seeds, or other de-
seed coat, which protects the seed; the endosperm
bris. The seed packet usually indicates es-
(cotyledon), which is a food reserve; and the em-
sential information about the variety, the
bryo, which is the young plant itself. When a seed
year for which the seeds were packaged,
is mature and put in a favorable environment, it
germination percentage you may typically
will germinate, or begin active growth. In the fol-
expect, and notes of any chemical seed
lowing section, seed germination and transplant-
treatment. If seeds are obtained well in ad-
ing of seeds will be discussed.
vance of the actual sowing date or are stored
A. Seed surplus seeds, keep them in a cool, dry
To obtain quality plants, start with good place. Do not freeze seed. Laminated foil
quality seed from a reliable dealer. Select packets help ensure dry storage. Paper pack-
varieties to provide the size, color, and habit ets are best kept in tightly-closed containers
of growth desired. Choose varieties adapted and maintained near 40°F in low humidity.
to your area that will reach maturity before Some gardeners save seed from their own
an early frost. Many new vegetable and gardens, however, such seed is the result of
flower varieties are hybrids, which cost a random pollination by insects or other natu-
little more than open pollinated types. How- ral agents and may or may not produce
ever, hybrid plants usually have more vigor, plants typical of the parents. Open pollinated
more uniformity, and better production than varieties are best for seed saving. Vegetable
nonhybrids and sometimes have specific seeds are discussed in Chapter 19.
disease resistance or other unique cultural
B. Germination
characteristics. Disadvantages of hybrids:
seed cannot be saved as they do not breed Four environmental factors affect germina-
true, and they may have a higher fertility tion: water, light, oxygen, and heat.
requirement. 1. Water—The first step in the germination
process is absorption of water. Even
though seeds have great absorbing power
due to the nature of the seed coat, the
Embryo
amount of available water in the germina-
tion medium affects the uptake of water.
Seed coat An adequate, continuous supply of water
is important to ensure germination. Once
Cotyledon the germination process begins, a dry pe-
riod will cause the death of the embryo.
2. Light—Light is known to stimulate or to
Bean seed with interior parts indicated inhibit germination of some seed. The

3-2
light reaction involved here Table 1. Seed requirements.
is a complex process. Some Approximate Optimum
crops that have a requirement time to seed Approximate germination Germination
for light to assist seed germi- before last germination temperature in light (L)
nation are ageratum, begonia, Plant spring frost time (days) (°F) or dark (D)
browallia, impatiens, lettuce, Begonia 12 weeks 10 to 15 70 L
and petunia. Conversely, cen- Browallia or more 15 to 20 70 L
taurea, annual phlox, ver- Geranium 10 to 20 70 D
Larkspur 5 to 10 55 D
bena, and vinca will germi-
Pansy (Viola) 5 to 10 65 D
nate best in the dark (Table Vinca 10 to 15 70 D
1). Many other plant seeds Dianthus 10 weeks 5 to 10 70 —
are not specific in their light Impatiens 15 to 20 70 L
or dark requirements. Petunia 5 to 10 70 L
Seed catalogs and seed pack- Portulaca 5 to 10 70 D
Snapdragon 5 to 10 65 L
ets often list germination or
Stock 10 to 15 70 —
cultural tips for individual Verbena 15 to 20 65 D
varieties. When sowing light- Ageratum 8 weeks 5 to 10 70 L
requiring seed, do as nature Alyssum 5 to 10 70 —
does and leave them on the Broccoli 5 to 10 70 —
soil surface. If they are cov- Cabbage 5 to 10 70 —
ered at all, cover them lightly Cauliflower 5 to 10 70 —
Celosia 5 to 10 70 —
with fine peat moss or fine Coleus 5 to 10 65 L
vermiculite. These two mate- Dahlia 5 to 10 70 —
rials, if not applied too Eggplant 5 to 10 70 —
heavily, will permit some Head lettuce 5 to 10 70 L
light to reach the seed and Nicotiana 10 to 15 70 L
Pepper 5 to 10 80 —
will not limit germination.
Phlox 5 to 10 65 D
When starting seed in the
Aster 6 weeks 5 to 10 70 —
home, supplemental light can Balsam 5 to 10 70 —
be provided by fluorescent Centaurea 5 to 10 65 D
fixtures suspended 6 to 12 Marigold 5 to 10 70 —
inches above the seeds for 16 Tomato 5 to 10 80 —
hours a day. Zinnia 5 to 10 70 —
Cucumber 4 weeks 5 to 10 85 —
3. Oxygen—In all viable seed,
Cosmos or less 5 to 10 70 —
respiration takes place. The Muskmelon 5 to 10 85 —
respiration in dormant seed is Squash 5 to 10 85 —
low, but some oxygen is re- Watermelon 5 to 10 85 —
quired. The respiration rate ( — ) means no specific light or dark requirements.
increases during germination,
therefore, the medium in
which the seeds are placed should be whereas others require a narrow range.
loose and well aerated. If the oxygen sup- Many seed have minimum, maximum,
ply during germination is limited or re- and optimum temperatures at which they
duced, germination can be severely re- germinate. For example, tomato seed has
tarded or inhibited. a minimum germination temperature of
4. Heat—A favorable temperature is an- 50°F and a maximum temperature of
other important requirement of germina- 95°F, but an optimum germination tem-
tion (Table 1). It not only affects the ger- perature of about 80°F. Where germina-
mination percentage but also the rate of tion temperatures are listed, they are usu-
germination. Some seeds will germinate ally the optimum temperatures unless
over a wide range of temperature, otherwise specified. Generally, 65° to
3-3
75°F is best for most plants. This often nonsterile, warm, damp containers
means the germination flats may have to where the seed coat will be broken
be placed on radiators, heating cables, or down by decay over several months.
heating mats to maintain optimum tem- 2. Seed stratification—Seeds of some fall-
perature. The importance of maintaining ripening trees and shrubs of the temperate
proper soil temperature to achieve maxi- zone will not germinate unless chilled
mum germination percentages cannot be underground as they overwinter. This so-
over-emphasized. called “after-ripening” may be accom-
Germination will begin when certain in- plished artificially by a practice called
ternal requirements have been met. A stratification.
seed must have a mature embryo, contain a. The following procedure is usually
a large enough endosperm to sustain the successful. Put sand or vermiculite in a
embryo during germination, and contain clay pot to about 1 inch from the top.
sufficient hormones or auxins to initiate Place the seeds on top of the medium
the process. and cover with 1/2-inch of sand or ver-
C. Methods of Breaking Dormancy miculite. Wet the medium thoroughly
One of the functions of dormancy is to pre- and allow excess water to drain
vent a seed from germinating before it is through the hole in the pot. Place the
surrounded by a favorable environment. In pot containing the moist medium and
some trees and shrubs, seed dormancy is seeds in a plastic bag and seal. Place
difficult to break, even when the environ- the bag in a refrigerator (not freezer).
ment is ideal. Various treatments are per- Periodically check to see that the me-
formed on the seed to break dormancy and dium is moist, but not wet. Additional
begin germination. water will probably not be necessary.
1. Seed scarification—Seed scarification After 10 to 12 weeks, remove the bag
involves breaking, scratching, or soften- and pot from the refrigerator. Remove
ing the seed coat so that water can enter the bag and set the pot in a warm place
and begin the germination process. There in the house. Water often enough to
are several methods of scarifying seeds. keep the medium moist. Soon the
seedlings should emerge. When the
a. In acid scarification, seeds are put in a
young plants are about 2 inches tall,
glass container and covered with con-
transplant them into pots to grow until
centrated sulfuric acid. The seeds are
it is time to set them outside.
gently stirred and allowed to soak
from 10 minutes to several hours, de- b. Another procedure for starting seeds
pending on the hardness of the seed uses sphagnum moss or peat moss.
coat. When the seed coat has become Wet the moss thoroughly, then
thin, the seeds can be removed, squeeze out the excess water with your
washed, and planted. hands. Mix seed with the sphagnum or
peat and place in a plastic bag. Seal the
b. Another scarification method is me-
bag and put it in a refrigerator. Check
chanical. You may file seeds with a
periodically. If there is condensation
metal file, rub them with sandpaper, or
on the inside of the bag, the process
crack them with a hammer to weaken
will be successful. After 10 to 12
the seed coat.
weeks, remove the bag from the refrig-
c. Hot water scarification involves put- erator. Plant the seeds in pots to germi-
ting the seed into hot water (170° to nate and grow. Handle seeds carefully.
212°F). The seeds are allowed to soak Often the small roots and shoots are
in the water, as it cools, for 12 to 24 emerging at the end of the stratifica-
hours and then planted. tion period. Care must be taken not to
d. You also may try warm, moist scarifi- break these off.
cation. In this case, seeds are stored in

3-4
c. Temperatures in the range of 35° to of such a mix are sphagnum peat moss
45°F are effective for stratification. and vermiculite, both of which are
Most refrigerators operate in this generally free of diseases, weed seeds,
range. Seeds of most fruit and nut trees and insects. The ingredients are also
can be successfully germinated by readily available, easy to handle, light-
these procedures. Seeds of peaches weight, and produce uniform plant
should be removed from the hard pit. growth. “Peat-lite” mixes or similar
Care must be taken when cracking the products are commercially available or
pits. Any injury to the seed itself can can be made at home using this recipe:
be an entry path for disease organisms. 4 quarts of shredded sphagnum peat
D. Starting Seeds moss, 4 quarts of fine vermiculite, 1
1. Media—A wide range of materials can be tablespoon of superphosphate, and 2
used to start seeds, from plain vermiculite tablespoons of ground limestone. Mix
or mixtures of soilless media to the vari- thoroughly. These mixes have little
ous amended soil mixes. With experi- fertility, so seedlings must be watered
ence, you will learn to determine what with a diluted fertilizer solution soon
works best under your conditions. How- after they emerge.
ever, keep in mind what makes a good 2. Containers—Flats and trays can be pur-
germinating medium. It should be rather chased or you can make your own from
fine and uniform, yet well-aerated and scrap lumber. A convenient size to
loose. It should be free of insects, disease handle would be about 12 to 18 inches
organisms, and weed seeds. It should also long and 12 inches wide with a depth of
be of low fertility or total soluble salts about 2 inches. Leave cracks of about
and capable of holding and moving mois- 1/8-inch between the boards in the bot-
ture by capillary action. One mixture that tom or drill a series of holes to ensure
supplies these factors is a combination of good drainage.
1/3 sterilized soil, 1/3 sand or vermiculite a. You can also make your own contain-
or perlite, and 1/3 peat moss. Do not use ers for starting seeds by recycling such
garden soil by itself to start seedlings; it things as cottage cheese containers, the
is not sterile, it is often too heavy, and it bottoms of milk cartons, or bleach
will not drain well. containers and pie pans, as long as
a. The importance of using a sterile me- good drainage is provided. Wash
dium and container cannot be over- growing containers and implements to
emphasized. The home gardener can remove any debris, then rinse in a so-
treat a small quantity of soil in an lution of one part chlorine bleach to
oven. Place the slightly moist soil in a nine parts water. At least one company
heat-resistant container in an oven set has developed a form for shaping
at about 250°F. Use a candy or meat newspaper into pots, and another has
thermometer to ensure that the mix developed a method for the consumer
reaches a temperature of 180°F for 30 to make and use compressed blocks of
minutes. Avoid over-heating as this soil mix instead of pots.
can be extremely damaging to the soil. b. Clay or plastic pots can be used and
Be aware that the soil will release very numerous types of pots made of com-
unpleasant odors in the process of ster- pressed peat are also on the market.
ilization. This treatment should pre- Plant bands and plastic cell packs are
vent damping-off and other plant dis- also available. Each cell or minipot
eases, as well as eliminate potential holds a single plant that reduces the
plant pests. risk of root injury when transplanting.
b. An artificial, soilless mix also provides Peat pellets, peat or fiber-based blocks,
the desired qualities of a good germi- and expanded foam cubes can also be
nation medium. The basic ingredients used for sowing.
3-5
3. Seeding—The proper time for sowing one direction, then sowing the remain-
seeds for transplants depends upon when ing seed the other direction to form a
plants may safely be moved out-of-doors crossed pattern.
in your area. This period may range from d. Large seeds are frequently sown into a
4 to 12 weeks before transplanting, de- small container or cell pack that elimi-
pending upon the speed of germination, nates the need for early transplanting.
the rate of growth, and the cultural condi- Usually two or three seeds are sown
tions provided. A common mistake is to per unit and later thinned to allow the
sow the seeds too early and then attempt strongest seedling to grow.
to hold the seedlings back under poor 4. Seed tape—Most garden stores and seed
light or improper temperature ranges. catalogs offer indoor and outdoor seed
This usually results in tall, weak, spindly tapes. Seed tape has precisely spaced
plants that do not perform well in the gar- seeds enclosed in an organic, water-
den. soluble material. When planted, the tape
a. After selecting a container, fill it to dissolves and the seeds germinate nor-
within 3/4-inch of the top with moist- mally. Seed tapes are especially conve-
ened growing medium. For very small nient for tiny, hard-to-handle seeds.
seeds, at least the top 1/4-inch should However, tapes are much more expensive
be a fine, screened mix or a layer of per seed. Seed tapes allow uniform emer-
vermiculite. Firm the medium at the gence, eliminate overcrowding, and per-
corners and edges with your fingers or mit sowing in perfectly straight rows.
a block of wood to provide a uniform, The tapes can be cut at any point for mul-
flat surface. tiple-row plantings, and thinning is rarely
b. For medium and large seeds, make fur- necessary.
rows 1 to 2 inches apart and 1/8- to a. A homemade “seed tape” can be fash-
1/4-inch deep across the surface of the ioned from 2-ply toilet paper and paste
container using a narrow board or pot made with flour and water. Separate
label. By sowing in rows, good light the two paper layers, then use a tooth-
and air movement results, and if damp- pick with a dab of flour paste on it to
ing-off fungus does appear, there is pick up and place seeds on one of the
less chance of it spreading. Seedlings paper layers. Once all seeds are
in rows are easier to label and handle placed, put the two layers back to-
at transplanting time than those that gether while the paste is still wet and
have been sown in a broadcast manner. roll the “tape” up for later use. The toi-
Sow the seeds thinly and uniformly in let paper, once covered with soil, will
the rows by gently tapping the packet rapidly decay leaving no trace.
of seed as it is moved along the row. 5. Pregermination—Another method of
Lightly cover the seed with dry ver- starting seeds is pregermination. This
miculite or sifted medium if they re- method involves sprouting the seeds be-
quire darkness for germination. A suit- fore they are planted in pots or in the gar-
able planting depth is usually about den. This reduces the time to germina-
two to three times the diameter of the tion, as the temperature and moisture are
seed. easy to control. A high percentage of ger-
c. Do not plant seeds too deeply. Ex- mination is achieved since environmental
tremely fine seeds such as petunia, be- factors are optimum.
gonia, and snapdragon are not covered, a. Lay seeds between two paper towels
but lightly pressed into the medium or or on a layer of vermiculite in a shal-
watered in with a fine mist. If these low pan. Keep them moist and in a
seeds are broadcast, strive for a uni- warm place. When roots begin to
form stand by sowing half the seeds in show, place the seeds in containers or

3-6
plant them directly into the garden. The plastic should be at least 1 inch
While transplanting seedlings, be care- from the soil. Placing a popsicle stick
ful not to break off tender roots. Con- or pencil in the middle of the flat will
tinued attention to watering is critical. hold the plastic off the soil and plants.
b. When planting seeds in a container Keep the container out of direct sun-
that will be set out in the garden later, light, otherwise the temperature may
place one seed in a 2- to 3-inch con- rise to the point where the seeds will
tainer. Plant the seeds at only one-half be harmed. Many home gardeners
the recommended depth. Gently press cover their flats with panes of glass
a little soil over the sprouted seed and instead of using a plastic bag. Be sure
then add about 1/4-inch of milled to remove the plastic or glass cover as
sphagnum peat or sand to the soil sur- soon as the first seedlings appear. Sur-
face. These materials will keep the surface watering can then be practiced.
face uniformly moist and are easy for b. Lack of uniformity, overwatering, or
the shoot to push through. Keep the drying out are problems related to
seedlings in a warm place and care for manual watering. Excellent germina-
them as for any other newly trans- tion and moisture uniformity can be
planted seedlings. obtained with a low-pressure misting
c. A convenient way to plant small, deli- system or subirrigation (watering from
cate, pregerminated seeds is to sus- below). Flats or pots must not sit in
pend them in a gel. You can make a water constantly as the soil may ab-
gel by blending cornstarch with boil- sorb too much water, and the seeds
ing water to a consistency that is thick will rot due to lack of oxygen.
enough so the seeds will stay sus- 6. Temperature and light—Several factors
pended. Be sure to cool thoroughly be- for good germination have already been
fore adding seeds. Place the gel with mentioned. The last item, and by no
seedlings in a plastic bag with a hole means the least important, is temperature.
in it. Squeeze the gel through the hole Since most seeds will germinate best at
along a premarked garden row. Spac- an optimum temperature that is usually
ing of seeds is determined by the num- higher than most home night tempera-
ber of seeds in the gel. If the spacing is tures, special warm areas must be pro-
too dense, add more gel; if too wide, vided. The use of thermostatically con-
add more seeds. The gel will keep the trolled heating cables is an excellent
germinating seeds moist until they es- method of providing constant heat (see
tablish themselves in the garden soil. Germination section on page 3-2).
5. Watering—After the seed has been sown, a. After germination and seedling estab-
moisten the planting mix thoroughly. Use lishment, move the flats to a light,
a fine mist or place the containers in a airy, cooler location, at a 55° to 60°F
pan or tray that contains about 1 inch of night temperature and a 65° to 70°F
warm water. Avoid splashing or exces- day reading. This will prevent soft,
sive flooding, which might displace small leggy growth and minimize disease.
seeds. When the planting mix is satu- Some crops, of course, may germinate
rated, set the container aside to drain. The or grow best at a different constant
soil should be moist but not wet. temperature and must be handled sepa-
a. Ideally, seed flats should remain suffi- rately from the rest of the plants. Read
ciently moist during the germination as much as you can about the plants
period without having to add water. you are trying to grow.
One way to maintain moisture is to b. Seedlings must receive bright light af-
slip the whole flat or pot into a clear ter germination. Place them in a win-
plastic bag after the initial watering. dow facing south, if possible. If a

3-7
large, bright window is not available, After planting, firm the soil and water
place the seedlings under a fluorescent gently. Keep newly transplanted seed-
light. Use two 40-watt, cool-white lings in the shade for a few days, or place
fluorescent tubes or special plant them under fluorescent lights. Keep them
growth lamps. Position the plants 6 to away from direct heat sources. Continue
8 inches from the tubes and keep the watering and fertilizing as in the seed
lights on for 14 to 16 hours each day. flats.
As the seedlings grow, the lights 3. Most plants transplant well and can be
should be raised. started indoors, but a few plants are diffi-
E. Transplanting and Handling cult to transplant. These are generally di-
If the plants have not been seeded in indirectly seeded outdoors or sown directly
vidual containers, they must be transplated into individual containers indoors. Ex-
to give them proper growing space. One of amples include zinnias and cucurbits,
the most common mistakes made is leaving such as melons and squash.
the seedlings in the seed flat too long. The 4. Containers for transplanting—There is a
ideal time to transplant young seedlings is wide variety of containers from which to
when they are small as there is less danger choose for transplanting seedlings. These
from transplant shock. This is usually about containers should be economical, du-
the time the first true leaves appear above or rable, and make good use of space. The
between the cotyledons (the cotyledons type selected will depend on the type of
sometimes called “seed leaves” are not true plant to be transplanted and individual
leaves). Avoid letting plants get hard, growing conditions. Small plastic pots
stunted, or tall and leggy. may be used, but they waste a great deal
1. Seedling growing mixes and containers of space and may not dry out rapidly
can be purchased or prepared similar to enough for the seedling to have sufficient
those mentioned for germinating seed. oxygen for proper development.
The medium should contain more plant a. Many types of containers are available
nutrients than a germination mix. Some commercially. Those made out of
commercial soilless mixes have fertilizer pressed peat can be purchased in vary-
already added. When fertilizing, use a ing sizes. Individual pots are inexpen-
soluble houseplant fertilizer at the rate sive and can be planted directly into
recommended by the manufacturer, about the garden. When setting out plants
every 2 to 3 weeks after the seedlings are grown in peat pots, be sure to cover
established. Remember that young seed- the pot completely. If the top edge of
lings can easily be damaged by too much the peat pot extends above the soil
fertilizer, especially if they are under level, it may act as a wick and draw
moisture stress. water away from the soil and roots. To
2. To transplant, carefully dig up the small avoid this, tear off the top lip of the
plants with a knife or wooden plant label. pot and then plant.
Let the group of seedlings fall apart and b. Compressed peat pellets, when soaked
pick out individual plants. Gently ease in water, expand to form compact, in-
them apart in small groups that will make dividual pots. They waste no space,
it easier to separate individual plants. don’t fall apart as badly as peat pots,
Avoid tearing roots in the process. and can be set directly out in the gar-
Handle small seedlings by their leaves, den.
not by their delicate stems. Punch a hole c. In addition, many homeowners find a
in the medium into which the seedling variety of materials from around the
will be planted. Make it deep enough so house to use for containers. These
that the seedling can be put at the same homemade containers should be deep
depth it was growing at in the seed flat. enough to provide adequate soil and

3-8
have plenty of drainage holes in the cucumbers and melons will stop all
bottom. growth, while cauliflower will make
5. Hardening plants—Hardening off is the thumb-size heads and fail to develop
process of altering the quality of plant further if hardened too severely.
growth to withstand the change in envi-
ronmental conditions that occurs when II. Asexual Propagation
plants are transferred from a greenhouse Asexual propagation is the best way to maintain
to the garden. Severe sunscald or a stop- some species, particularly an individual that best
page in growth may occur if plants pro- represents that species. Clones are groups of
duced in the home are planted outdoors plants that are identical to their parent or mother
without a transition period. Hardening off plant. The Bartlett pear (1770) and the Delicious
is most critical with early crops, when apple (1870) are two examples of clones that
adverse climatic conditions can be ex- have been asexually propagated for many years.
pected. The major methods of asexual propagation are
a. Hardening off can be accomplished by cuttings, layering, division, and budding/grafting.
gradually lowering temperature and Cuttings involve rooting a severed piece of the
relative humidity and reducing water. parent plant; layering involves rooting a part of
This procedure results in an accumula- the parent plant and then severing it later; and
tion of carbohydrates and a thickening budding and grafting is joining two plant parts
of cell walls. A change from a soft, from different varieties.
succulent type of growth to a firmer, A. Cuttings
harder type occurs. Many types of plants, both woody and her-
b. This process should be started at least baceous, are frequently propagated by cut-
2 weeks before planting in the garden. tings. A cutting is a vegetative plant part
If possible, plants should be moved to that is severed from the parent plant in order
a 45° to 50°F temperature either in- to regenerate itself, thereby forming a whole
doors or outdoors in a shady location. new plant.
A coldframe is excellent for this pur- 1. Take cuttings with a sharp blade to re-
pose. When put outdoors, plants duce injury to the parent plant. Before
should be shaded, then gradually using the knife to cut, dip the cutting tool
moved into sunlight. Start with a 15- into rubbing alcohol and allow it to dry or
to 20-minute exposure. Each day use a mixture of one part bleach to nine
gradually increase the length of expo- parts water to disinfect the blade and to
sure time to outside temperatures. prevent transmitting diseases. Remove
Don’t put tender seedlings outdoors on flowers and flower buds from cuttings to
windy days or when temperatures are allow the cutting to use its energy and
below 45°F. stored carbohydrates for root and shoot
c. Reduce the frequency of watering to formation rather than fruit and seed pro-
slow their growth, but don’t allow duction.
plants to wilt. Even cold-hardy plants a. To hasten rooting, increase the number
will be hurt if exposed to freezing tem- of roots, or to obtain uniform rooting
peratures before they are hardened. (except on soft, fleshy stems), use a
After proper hardening, however, they rooting hormone, preferably one con-
can be planted outdoors and light taining a fungicide. Prevent possible
frosts will not damage them. contamination of the entire supply of
d. The hardening off process is intended rooting hormone by putting a small
to slow plant growth. If carried to the amount in a separate container for im-
extreme of actually stopping plant mediate use. Do not dip cuttings di-
growth, significant damage can be rectly into the original container.
done to certain crops. For example,

3-9
b. If hormone powder is used, only a
very light coating is necessary. Tap off
any excess onto a sheet of paper.
2. Insert cuttings into a rooting medium
Tip cutting Medial cuttings
such as coarse sand, vermiculite, steril-
ized soil, water, or a mixture of peat and minal bud. Make the bottom cut 1/4-
perlite. A pencil can be used to make a inch below a node. Remove lower
hole in the medium for easier insertion leaves from the cutting that would be
and to prevent the removal of hormone in contact with the medium. Dip the
powder from the cut surface. stem in rooting hormone if desired.
a. It is important to choose the correct Gently tap the end of the cutting to re-
rooting medium to get optimum root- move excess hormone. Insert the cut-
ing in the shortest time. In general, the ting deeply enough into the media to
rooting medium should be sterile, low support itself (about half way). At least
in fertility, drain well enough to pro- one node must be below the surface.
vide oxygen, and retain enough mois- b. Medial cuttings: Make the first cut just
ture to prevent water stress. Moisten above a node, and the second cut just
the medium before inserting cuttings, below another node 2 to 4 inches down
and keep it evenly
moist while cut- Table 2. Selected herbaceous plants that can be propagated from cuttings.
tings are rooting Approximate
Plant
and forming new Type of time to root
shoots. Place stem Common name Scientific name cutting (weeks)*
and leaf cuttings in African violet Saintpaulia spp. leaf 3 to 4
indirect light. Root Aluminum plant Pilea spp. stem 2 to 3
cuttings can be Aloe Aloe spp. leaf 4 to 6
kept in the dark Aphelandra Aphelandra sp. stem 2 to 3
until new shoots Arrowhead plant Syngonium podophyllum stem 2 to 3
appear. Begonia Begonia spp. stem 2
3. Stem cuttings—Nu- (fibrous rooted)
merous plant species whole leaf or 4 to 5
leaf section (Rex)
are propagated by
Cactus Cephalocereus senilis stem 3 to 4
stem cuttings (Table Opuntia microdasys stem 3 to 4
2). Some can be taken Chrysanthemum Chrysanthemum spp. stem 1 to 2
at any time of the Carnation Dianthus spp. stem 2 to 3
year, but stem cut- Coleus Coleus blumei stem 1 to 2
tings of many woody Crown of thorns Euphorbia splendens stem 4 to 5
plants must be taken Dahlia Dahlia spp. stem or 3 to 4
during the fall or in leaf-bud
the dormant season. Dieffenbachia Dieffenbachia spp. stem 4 to 6
Tip, medial, cane, (dumbcane)
single and double Dracaena Dracaena spp. stem 3 to 4
eye, and heel are all Echeveria Echeveria spp. stem or leaf 4 to 6
examples of stem cut- Euphorbia Euphorbia spp. stem 4 to 6
tings. Fittonia Fittonia spp. stem 2 to 3
a. Tip cuttings: De- Fuchsia Fuchsia spp. (also hybrids) stem 1 to 2
tach a 2- to 4-inch Geranium Pelargonium spp. stem 1 to 2
piece of stem with Hoya Hoya spp. stem 3 to 4
two or three nodes, Hydrangea Hydrangea spp. stem 2 to 3
including the ter- Impatiens Impatiens spp. stem 2 to 3

3 - 10
the stem. The terminal bud is not nec-
essary for this kind of stem cutting.
Prepare and insert the cutting as you
would a tip cutting. Be sure to position
right side up. Axial buds are always
above leaves.
Cane cuttings
c. Cane cuttings: Cut cane-like stems into
sections containing one or two “eyes”
or nodes. Dust ends with fungicide or
Heel cuttings
activated charcoal. Allow to dry sev-
eral hours. Lay horizontally with about
half of the cutting below the media
surface, eye facing upward. Cane cut-
tings are usually potted when roots and
new shoots appear. This method is
used with dumbcane (Dieffenbachia).
Single eye (left) and double eye (right) cuttings d. Single eye cuttings: The eye refers to
the node. This is used for plants with
alternate leaves when space or
Table 2. (cont’d) stock material are limited. Cut
Approximate the stem about 1/2 inch above
Plant Type of time to root and 1/2 inch below a node. Place
Common name Scientific name cutting (weeks)* cutting horizontally or vertically
Ivy several genera and species stem 2 to 3 in the medium.
Jade Crassula spp. stem or leaf 4 to 5 e. Double eye cuttings: This
Kalanchoe Kalanchoe spp. stem or leaf 4 to 5 is used for plants with op-
(bryophyllum) posite leaves when space
Lantana Lantana sp. stem 3 to 4 or stock material is lim-
Monstera Monstera deliciosa stem 4 to 5 ited. Cut the stem about
(Swiss cheese 1/2 inch above and 1/2
plant)
inch below the same node.
Mint Mentha spp. stem 2 to 3
Insert the cutting vertically
Peperomia Peperomia sp. leaf, leaf-bud 4 to 6
or stem
in the medium with the
P. obtusifolia leaf-bud or stem 4 to 6
node just touching the sur-
P. obtusifolia variegata leaf-bud or stem 4 to 6
face.
Periwinkle (myrtle) Vinca spp. stem 3 to 4 f. Heel cuttings: This method
Petunia Petunia hybrids stem 2 to 3 uses plant material with
Philodendron Philodendron spp. stem 2 to 4 woody stems. Make a
Piggyback plant Tolmiea menziesii leaf with 3 to 4 shield-shaped cut about
plantlet halfway through the wood
Pothos Scindapsus aureus stem 2 to 3 around a leaf and axial
Poinsettia Euphorbia pulcherrima stem 2 to 3 bud. Insert the shield hori-
Sansevieria Sansevieria spp. leaf, leaf 4 to 6 zontally into the medium.
(snake plant) section 4. Leaf cuttings—Leaf cuttings
Velvet plant Gynura spp. stem 1 to 2 are used almost exclusively
Wandering jew Tradescantia spp. stem 2 to 3 for a few indoor houseplants.
Zebrina spp.
Leaves of most other plants
*The indicated time for rooting is only approximate and may be longer under some will either produce a few
conditions. Where new shoots must develop in addition to roots, the time required roots but no plant, or they
for shoot development is often longer.
just decay. Covering leaf cut-
Source: Propagating Herbaceous Plants from Cuttings, PNW 151.

3 - 11
tings with a plastic bag will main vein. Lay leaves flat on the me-
maintain moisture in the medium. A new plant will arise at the
dium and humidity around vein.
the cutting. Cut snake plant leaves into 2-inch sec-
a. Whole leaf with petiole: Detach the tions. Consistently make the lower cut
leaf and up to 1 1/2 inches of petiole. slanted and the upper cut straight so
Insert the lower end of the petiole into you can tell which is the top. Insert the
the medium. One or more new plants cuttings vertically into the medium.
will form at the base of the petiole. Eventually a new plant will appear at
The leaf may be severed from the new the base of the cutting. These and
plants when they have their own roots, other succulent cuttings will rot if kept
and the petiole reused. This method is too moist. No plastic bag is needed
used for African violets. around succulents.
5. Root cuttings—Root cuttings are usually
taken from 2- to 3-year-old plants during
their dormant season when they have a
large carbohydrate supply. Root cuttings
Whole leaf with petiole Whole leaf without petiole
of some species produce new shoots,
which then form their own root systems,
b. Whole leaf without petiole: This is while root cuttings of other plants de-
used for plants with sessile leaves. In- velop root systems before producing new
sert the cutting vertically into the me- shoots.
dium. A new plant will form from the a. Plants with large roots: Make a
axillary buds. The leaf may be re- straight top cut and a slanted cut 2 to 6
moved when the new plant has its own inches below the first cut. This will
roots. This method is used with jade help you determine what portion is the
plants. top. Store about 3 weeks in moist saw-
c. Split vein: Detach a leaf from the stock dust, peat moss, or sand at 40°F. Re-
plant. Slit its veins on the lower leaf move from storage. Insert the cutting
surface. Lay and pin the cutting, lower vertically with the top approximately
side down, on the medium. New plants level with the surface of the rooting
will form at each cut. If the leaf tends medium. This method is often used
to curl up, hold it in place by covering outdoors.
the margins with the rooting medium.
This method is used with Rex bego-
nias. A plastic bag around the con-
tainer and leaf will help keep the leaf
from drying out.
Plants with small roots
Plants with large roots
b. Plants with small roots: Take a 2- to

3-inch section of root. Insert the cut-
ting horizontally about 1/2 inch below
Split vein Leaf section the medium surface. This method is
d. Leaf sections: This method is fre- usually used indoors or in a hotbed.
quently used with snake plant (Sanse- B. Layering
vieria) and Rex begonias. Cut begonia Stems still attached to their parent plants
leaves into wedges with at least one may form roots where they touch a rooting

3 - 12
medium. Severed from the parent plant
later, the rooted stem becomes a new plant.
This method of vegetative propagation,
called layering, promotes a high success rate Compound layering
because it prevents water stress and the loss
of carbohydrate shortage that plagues cut-
tings.
Some plants layer themselves naturally, but
sometimes plant propagators assist the pro-
cess. Layering is enhanced by wounding
one side of the stem or by bending it very
sharply.
Mound layering Air layering
1. Tip layering—Dig a hole 3 to 4 inches
deep. Insert the shoot tip and cover it 5. Air layering—Air layering is used to
with soil. The tip grows downward first, propagate some indoor plants with thick
then bends sharply and grows upward. stems, or to rejuvenate them when they
Roots form at the bend, and the recurved become leggy. Make an upward slanting
tip becomes a new plant. Remove the tip cut one half way through the stem just
layer from the mother plant and plant it in below a node. Hold the slit open with a
early spring or fall. Examples: purple and toothpick laid sideways or a bit of sphag-
black raspberries and trailing blackberries. num moss. Surround the wound with wet,
unmilled sphagnum moss. Wrap plastic
or foil around the sphagnum moss and tie
it in place above and below the wound.
When roots pervade the moss, cut the
plant off below the root ball. Examples:
dumbcane and rubber tree.
Tip layering Simple layering
Note: The following propagation methods can all
2. Simple layering—Bend the stem to the be considered types of layering, as the new
ground. Cover part of it with soil, leaving plants form before they are detached from
the last 6 to 12 inches exposed. Bend the their parent plants.
tip into a vertical position and stake it in
place. The sharp bend will often induce 6. Stolons and runners—A stolon is a hori-
rooting, but wounding the lower side of zontal, often fleshy stem that can root and
the branch may help. Examples: rhodo- produce new shoots where it touches the
dendron and honeysuckle. medium. A runner is a slender stem that
3. Compound layering—This method works originates in a leaf axil and grows along
for plants with flexible stems. Bend the the ground or downward from a hanging
stem to the rooting medium as for simple basket, producing a new plant at its tip.
layering, but alternately cover and expose Plants that produce stolons or runners are
stem sections. Wound the lower side of
stem sections to be covered. Examples:
heart-leaf philodendron and pothos.
4. Mound (stool) layering—Cut the plant
back to 1 inch above the ground during
the dormant season. Mound soil over the
emerging shoots in the spring to enhance
Stolons and runners
their rooting. Examples: gooseberries and
apple rootstocks. Offsets

3 - 13
propagated by severing the new plants with a fungicide and store in a cool
from their parent stems. Plantlets at the place until planting time. Examples:
tips of runners may be rooted while still crocus and gladiolus.
attached to the parent, or detached and
placed in a rooting medium. Examples:
strawberry and spider plant.
7. Offsets—Plants with a rosetted stem of-
ten reproduce by forming new shoots at
their base or in leaf axils. Sever the new
shoots from the parent plant after they
have developed their own root system.
Division
Unrooted offsets of some species may be
removed and placed in a rooting medium. C. Division
Some of these must be cut off, while oth- Plants with more than one rooted crown
ers may simply be lifted off of the parent may be divided and the crowns planted
stem. Examples: date palm, haworthia, separately. If the stems are not jointed, gen-
bromeliads, and many cacti. tly pull the plants apart. If the crowns are
8. Separation—Separation is a term applied united by horizontal stems, cut the stems
to a form of propagation by which plants and roots with a sharp knife to minimize in-
that produce bulbs or corms multiply. jury. Divisions of some outdoor plants
a. Bulbs: New bulbs form beside the should be dusted with a fungicide before
originally planted bulb. Separate these they are replanted. Examples: snake plant,
bulb clumps every 3 to 5 years for iris, prayer plant, and day lilies.
largest blooms and to increase bulb 1. Most perennials left in the same place for
number. Dig up the clump after the more than 3 years are likely to be over-
leaves have withered. Gently pull the grown, overcrowded, have dead or un-
bulbs apart and replace them immedi- sightly centers, and in need of basic feed-
ately so that their roots can begin to ing and soil amendment. The center of
develop. Small, new bulbs may not the clump will grow poorly, if at all, and
flower for 2 or 3 years, but large ones the flowers will be sparse. The clump
should bloom the first year. Examples: will deplete the fertility of the soil as the
tulip and narcissus. plant crowds itself.
a. To divide mature clumps of perenni-
als, select only vigorous side shoots
from the outer part of the clump. Dis-
card the center of the clump. Divide
the plant into sections of three to five
shoots each. Be careful not to over-
divide; too small a section will not
give much color the first year after re-
planting.
Separation corms
b. Divide perennials when the plants are
b. Corms: A large new corm forms on dormant, just before a new season of
top of the old corm, and tiny cormels growth, or in the fall so they can be-
form around the large corm. After the come established before the ground
leaves wither, dig up the corms and freezes.
allow them to dry in indirect light for D. Grafting
2 or 3 weeks. Remove the cormels, Grafting and budding are methods of
then gently separate the new corm asexual plant propagation that join plant
from the old corm. Dust all new corms parts so they will grow as one plant. These

3 - 14
techniques are used to propagate cultivars worked. Make a 2-inch vertical cut
that will not root well as cuttings or whose through the center of the limb or trunk.
own root systems are inadequate. One or Be careful not to tear the bark. Keep
more new cultivars can be added to existing this cut wedged apart. Cut the lower
fruit and nut trees by grafting or budding. end of each scion piece into a wedge.
1. The portion of the cultivar that is to be Prepare two scion pieces 3 to 4 inches
propagated is called the scion. It consists long. Insert the scions at the outer
of a piece of shoot with dormant buds edges of the cut in the stock. Tilt the
that will produce the stem and branches. top of the scion slightly outward and
The rootstock, or stock, provides the new the bottom slightly inward to be sure
plant’s root system and sometimes the the cambial layers of the scion and
lower part of the stem. The cambium is a stock touch. Remove the wedge prop-
layer of cells located between the wood ping the slit open and cover all cut sur-
and bark of a stem from which new bark faces with grafting wax.
and wood cells originate. b. Veneer or bark grafting. Unlike most
2. Four conditions must be met for grafting grafting methods, bark grafting can be
to be successful: (1) The scion and root-
stock must be compatible, (2) each must
be at the proper physiological stage, (3)
the cambial layers of the scion and stock
must meet, and (4) the graft union must
be kept moist until the wound has healed.
a. Cleft grafting: Cleft grafting is often
used to change the cultivar or top
Bark graft
growth of a shoot or a young tree (usu-
ally a seedling). It is especially suc-
cessful if done in the early spring.
Collect scion wood 3/8- to 5/8-inch in
diameter. Cut the limb or small tree used on large limbs, although these are
trunk off at the area that it is to be re- often infected before the wound can
completely heal. Collect scion wood
3/8- to 1/2-inch in diameter when the
Cleft graft (correct method on
top; incorrect method below) plant is dormant, and store the wood
wrapped in moist paper in a plastic bag
in the refrigerator. Saw off the limb or
trunk of the rootstock to be worked. In
the spring, when the bark easily sepa-
rates from the wood, make a 1- to 2-
inch diagonal cut on one side of the
scion, and a 1 1/2-inch diagonal cut on
the other side. Leave two buds above
the longer cut. Slice through the bark
of the stock cutting a little wider than
the scion. Insert the scion between the
bark and wood with the longer cut
against the wood. Nail the graft in
place with flat-headed wire nails.
Cleft graft with both scions
inserted at slight angles. All cut Cover all wounds with grafting wax.
surfaces should be waxed over. c. Whip or tongue grafting: This method
is often used for material 1/4- to 1/2-

3 - 15
duced as the new grafted variety in-
creases until at the end of 1 or 2 years,
the new variety has completely taken
over. Completely removing all the limbs
of the old variety at the time of grafting
will increase the shock to the tree and
cause excessive suckering. Also, the sci-
ons may grow too fast, making them sus-
ceptible to wind damage.
E. Budding
Whip or tongue graft
Budding, or bud grafting, is the union of
one bud (attached to a small piece of bark)
from the scion to the rootstock. It is espe-
cially useful when scion material is limited.
It is also faster and forms a stronger union
than grafting.
1. Patch budding—Plants with thick bark
inch in diameter. The scion and root- should be patch budded. This is done
stock are usually of the same diameter, while the plants are actively growing, so
but the scion may be narrower than the their bark slips easily. Remove a rectan-
stock. This strong graft heals quickly gular piece of bark from the rootstock.
and provides excellent cambial con- Cut a matching rectangular piece with a
tact. Make one 2 1/2-inch sloping cut bud and piece of bark from the scion to
at the top of the rootstock and a match- cover this wound. If the rootstock’s bark
ing cut on the bottom of the scion. On is thicker than that of the scion, pare it
the cut surface, slice downward into down to meet the thinner bark so that
the stock and up into the scion so the when the union is wrapped, the patch will
pieces will interlock. Fit the pieces to- be held firmly in place.
gether, then tie and wax the union. 2. Chip budding—This budding method can
3. Care of the graft—Very little success in be used when the bark is not slipping. A
grafting will be obtained unless proper
care is maintained for the following year
or two. If a binding material such as
strong cord or nursery tape is used on the
graft, this must be cut shortly after
growth starts to prevent girdling. Rubber
budding strips have some advantages
over other materials. They expand with
growth and usually do not need to be cut,
as they deteriorate and break after a short
time. It is also an excellent idea to inspect Scion
the grafts after 2 or 3 weeks to see if the
Rootstock
wax has cracked, and if necessary, rewax Chip bud
the exposed areas. After this, the union Patch bud
will probably be strong enough and no downward cut is made at a 45 degree
more waxing will be necessary. angle about one quarter through the root-
4. Limbs of the old variety that are not se- stock. About 1 inch above the first cut, a
lected for grafting should be cut back at second cut is made slicing downward and
the time of grafting. The total leaf surface inward until it connects with the first cut.
of the old variety should be gradually re- The cuts removing the bud from the bud

3 - 16
stick are made just as those in the root-
stock, except the lower cut is made about Further Reading
1/4-inch below a bud. Fit the bud chip to
the stock and wrap the union. Books
3. T-budding—This is the The Virginia Master Gardener Handbook, Virginia
most commonly used Cooperative Extension Service, Virginia
budding technique. Polytechnic Institute and State University,
When the bark is slip- Blacksburg, VA 24061.
ping, make a vertical The Nevada Master Gardener Handbook,
cut through the bark of University of Nevada Cooperative Extension,
the rootstock, avoiding phone 702/784-4848.
any buds on the stock. Wilkins, H. M. 1988. Plantwatching: How Plants
Make a horizontal cut Live, Feel, and Work. MacMillan Co., New York,
at the top of the vertical NY.
T-bud
cut (in a T shape) and Wilkins, H. M. 1988. Plantwatching: How Plants
loosen the bark by Remember, Tell Time, Form Partnerships, and
twisting the knife at the Move. Facts on File Publications, New York, NY.
intersection. Remove a shield-shaped
piece of the scion, including a bud, bark, Booklets and Pamphlets
and a thin section of wood. Push the CIS 869 Controlling Sunscald on Trees and Vines
shield under the loosened stock bark. (25¢)
Wrap the union, leaving the bud exposed. PNW 496 Grafting and Budding Plants to
Care of buds—Place the bud in the rootstock Propagate, Topwork, Repair ($2.50)
in August. Force the bud to develop the fol- CIS 866 Homeowner’s Guide to Fruit Tree
lowing spring by cutting the stock off 3 to 4 Fertilization (35¢)
inches above the bud. The new shoot may CIS 881 Success with Very Small Seeds (35¢)
be tied to the resulting stub to prevent dam-
PNW 121 Nutrient Disorders in Tree Fruits (web
age from the wind. After the shoot has made
only)
a strong union with the stock, cut the stub
off close to the budded area. PNW 164 Propagating from Bulbs, Corms, Tubers,
Rhizomes, and Tuberous Roots and
F. Plant Tissue Culture
Stems (50¢)
Tissue culture is a mass of undifferentiated
PNW 151 Propagating Herbaceous Plants from
callus tissue growing on an artificial me-
Cuttings (50¢)
dium, separately from the plant from which
it originated. Size increases by cell division. PNW 170 Propagating Plants from Seed ($2.50)
After about 4 to 6 weeks, the mass of cells CIS 841 Seed Germination Test Methods for
is large enough to divide into sections and Home Use (25¢)
reculture to produce additional tissue cul- CIS 1043 Selecting Grape Cultivars and Planting
tures. This procedure is usually done in a Sites in Idaho ($1.00)
laboratory or under laboratory conditions. PNW 400 Training and Pruning Your Home
A tissue culture can be started from a vari- Orchard ($1.00)
ety of plant parts that have cells capable of To order University of Idaho publications, contact
dividing. Usually tissues near the vascular your county’s UI Extension office, or write Publica-
area of stems and roots proliferate best, but tions, University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho 83844-
cultures have been started from fruits, en- 2240, call (208) 885-7982, fax (208) 885-4648, or
dosperm, pollen, and embryos. To read email: calspubs@uidaho.edu. Idaho residents add 6
more about this exciting method of propaga- percent sales tax. Also check, and in some cases
tion refer to books in your local library. download, the online publication and video catalog
on the UI Educational Communications
web site (http://info.ag.uidaho.edu).

3 - 17
3 - 18
Chapter
Soils and Fertilizers
4
I. Four Basic Soil Components 2 X. Plant Nutrients 8

II. Three Principal Mineral A. Source 8
Constituents in Soils 2 B. Element Classification 9
A. Sand 2 C. Functions of Macronutrients
B. Silt 2 and Deficiency Signs 9
C. Clay 2 D. Functions of Micronutrients
and Deficiency Symptoms 11
III. Soil Texture 2
XI. Fertilizers 12
IV. Soil Structure 2
XII. Fertilizer Terminology 12
V. Organic Matter—The Supplier
of Plant Foods 2 A. Fertilizer 12
A. Adequate Organic Matter 3 B. Mixed Fertilizer 13
B. Carbon/Nitrogen (C:N) Ratio 3 C. Complete Fertilizer 13
D. Fertilizer Grade 13
VI. pH—An Important Factor 4
C. Fertilizer Ratio 13
A. Adaptive to Soil Conditions 4
B. pH and Nutrient and Availability 4 XIII. Fertilizer Calculations 13
C. Correcting Soil pH 4 XIV. Fertilizer Types 13
VII. Ion Exchange 5 A. Nitrogen 13
A. Definitions 5 B. Phosphorus 13
B. Nutrient Mobility 6 C. Potassium 14
D. Sulfur 14
VIII. Soil/Water Relationships 7
A. Water Infiltration Rate 7 XV. Mulches 14
B. Permeability Rate 7 A. Organic Mulches 14
C. Soil Compactions 7 B. Inorganic Mulches 14
D. Water 7 C. Effectiveness 14
E. Air 7 D. Problems 14
F. Root Damage 7 XVI. Green Manure and Cover Crops 14
G. Water Flow in Soils 8 A. Effectiveness 14
H. Leaching in Soils 8 B. Green Manure 15
IX. Soluble Salts 8 C. Cover Crops 15
Further Reading 15

4-1
Chapter 4
Soils and Fertilizers

V. J. Parker-Clark and R. V. Vodraska
Vickie J. Parker-Clark, District I Extension Director, Coeur d’Alene, and
Robert V. Vodraska, Former Extension Educator, Twin Falls County, Twin Falls
I. Four Basic Soil Components holding capacity and can result in slow
1. Mineral matter—about 40 to 50 percent of movement of water. Although there may be
the soil. more total pore space in clay soils than in
2. Organic matter—about 0.5 to 5 percent of sands, most of the pore space in clay soils
the soil. hold water, whereas most of the pore space
in sand is large and holds mostly air. When
3/4. Air + Water = 50 percent of the soil volume.
clay soils are compacted, they frequently
Note: Under wet soil conditions there is will take on colors of blue or red and may
little air. Under dry conditions there even have a foul odor. They are then said to
is little water. be anaerobic (containing little or no oxy-
gen).
II. Three Principal Mineral Constituents III. Soil Texture
in Soils Soil textural classification refers to the per-
A. Sand centages of sedimentation in the water method for
Particles range in size from 1.0 to 0.02 mil- particles of sand, silt, and clay in the soil me-
limeters (mm). Sands are mainly structural dium. See Fig. 1 to determine the texture of a par-
components of soil. They have little or no ticular soil.
chemical activity; they do not hold plant nu-
trients, and they can hold only small IV. Soil Structure
amounts of water. Sands are highly perme- The arrangement of soil particles or their ag-
able to water movement and are considered gregates is referred to as soil structure. If soils are
very droughty. worked when too wet, the aggregates can break
B. Silt down, forming a higher percentage of small pores
that hold more water and less air. These soils can
Particles range in size from 0.02 to 0.002
be said to be structureless until reaggregation oc-
mm. Silt particles carry a weak negative
curs. Soil structure is the aggregation of sand, silt,
charge and are capable of holding small
and clay into shapes with distinct sizes and
amounts of plant nutrients. Due to fine par-
strengths (Fig. 2).
ticle size, silty soils hold large amounts of
water, and water movement through silty V. Organic Matter—The Supplier of Plant
soils is generally quite slow. Foods
C. Clay Soil organic matter (OM) represents an accu-
Particle sizes are smaller than 0.002 mm. mulation of partially decayed and partially resyn-
Clay particles carry strong negative charges thesized plant and animal residues. A multitude
capable of attracting all positively charged of adverse soil/plant relationships can be cor-
ions in the soil; as a consequence, clays are rected with good management of soil organic
called the storehouse for plant nutrients. matter.
Fine particle size also equates to high water

4-2
A. Adequate Organic Matter (3 to 5 percent) B. Carbon/Nitrogen (C:N) Ratio
1. Contributes to friable soil through a This is an important management tool.
granulation of soil particles. 1. Plant residues and manures are made up
2. Provides a major source of three nutri- largely of the following:
ents—nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur. a. Sugars, starches, and simple proteins
3. Increases water holding capacity. that decompose rapidly.
4 Increases soil air. b. Crude proteins.
5. Regulates nutrient releases. c. Hemicelluloses.
6. Assures that soils are neither too wet nor d. Celluloses.
too dry and is a buffer against extremes e. Lignin, fats, waxes, etc., that decom-
in toxic conditions. pose slowly.
7. Provides an energy source for soil micro- 2. The rate of decay and release of nutrients
organisms (plants and animals). to the soil varies greatly, as do the de-
Fig. 1. Guide for soil textural classification.

4-3
mands of the living soil microorganisms Table 1. Average carbon:nitrogen ratios of products
as they “break down” plant residue. Saw- used for mulches.
dust (made primarily of lignins and cellu-
Material C:N
lose) utilizes vast amounts of energy in
merely maintaining the life of the micro- Alfalfa hay 18:1
organisms that are digesting it. A major Pea vines, matured 29:1
product of plant decay is nitrogen (N), Wheat straw 373:1
while the undigested portion is primarily Oak leaves 26:1
carbon (C). We like to maintain a ratio in Douglas-fir bark 491:1
our soil organic matter of about 10 car- Sawdust, weathered 3 years 142:1
bons to 1 nitrogen (C:N ratio of 10:1). Sawdust, weathered 2 months 625:1
The C:N ratio for some common mulches Red alder sawdust 134:1
is shown in Table 1. Peat moss 58:1
Cannery wastes, solids
Beans 10:1
Pears 63:1
Humus 10:1
Fig. 2. Soil structure consists of various shapes. Soil bacteria 6:1
Farm manure 90:1
Grassland soils 12:1
Forest soils 11:1
Fine sandy loam 7:1
Coarse sandy loam 25:1
Granular (crumb)
Platy
VI. pH—An Important Factor
A. Adaptive to Soil Conditions
Each plant species is adapted to specific
acidic, neutral, or alkaline soil conditions.
When ailing plants fail to respond to fertil-
izer application, usually this important acid-
Subangular blocky alkaline relationship (soil pH) is out of bal-
Angular blocky ance. The pH scale runs from 0 to 14. Seven
is neutral, values below 7 are acid, and
those above 7 are alkaline. These numbers
represent a mathematical logarithmic term,
for example:
pH 8—10 times as alkaline as pH 7
pH 7—Neutral
pH 6—10 times as acidic as pH 7
pH 5—100 times as acidic as pH 7
pH 4—1,000 times as acidic as pH 7
B. pH and Nutrient Availability
The chart in Fig. 3 shows how pH affects
the availability of nutrients.
C. Correcting Soil pH
1. To make soils more acid—Use soil test
values; otherwise apply 10 to 15 pounds
Prismatic garden sulfur per 1,000 ft2 or 1 to 1.5
Columnar pounds garden sulfur per 100 ft2.
4-4
2. To make soils less acid—Use soil test solutions are very dilute, many of the
values; otherwise apply 100 to 200 salts exist as ions. For example, all or
pounds agricultural lime per 1,000 ft2. part of the potassium chloride (muriate of
potash) in most soils exists as potassium
Note: The effectiveness of the above rec- ions and chloride ions.
ommended soil amendments de- 2. Cation—Positively charged ion.
pends upon their fineness and con- Example: potassium.
tact with soil particles. Where pos- 3. Anion—Negatively charged ion.
sible, thoroughly mix amendments Example: chloride.
into the top 8 inches of soil. 4. Cation exchange—The interaction (ex-
change) between a cation in solution and
VII. Ion Exchange another cation on the surface of an active
A. Definitions material (clay or organic matter).
1. Ion—An electrically charged particle. In 5. Cation exchange capacity (CEC)—The
soils, an ion refers to an electrically sum total of exchangeable cations that a
charged element or combination of ele- soil can absorb. This term is expressed in
ments resulting from the breaking up of milliequivalents per 100 grams soil (meq/
an electrolyte in solution. Since most soil 100 g).
a. Idaho soils generally have CECs be-
Fig. 3. The affect of pH on soil microbial activity and the availability tween 4 and 20 meq/100 g soil.
of nutrients. b. The CEC can hold
pH NH4+
4 5 6 7 8 9 K+
Ca++
Fungi Mg++
Micronutrient cations—Any pes-
ticides that are positively
Bacteria and actinomycetes charged.
c. The CEC will often prevent positively
N charged nutrients and pesticides from
leaching into groundwater or being
carried off by surface waters through
Ca and Mg erosion and runoff.
6. Anion exchange—The interaction of an-
P ions on the surface of an active material
with those in solution.
7. Anion exchange capacity (AEC)—The
K
sum total of exchangeable anions that a
soil can absorb expressed in meq/100 g
S soil.
a. Idaho soils have a low AEC. In fact,
most soils have no AEC. AEC is found
Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, Co
only in acid soils; therefore, it is not
found in Idaho.
Mo b. The AEC can hold
NO3-
B SO42 -
H2PO4-

4-5
Micronutrient anions—Any trients and pesticides move with the
negatively charged pesti- soil water. Often they are lost by
cides. leaching into the groundwater or by
c. Often the AEC will prevent positively surface water runoff.
charged nutrients and pesticides from B. Nutrient Mobility
leaching into groundwater or surface 1. Nutrients get to plant roots by three ma-
waters carrying them off by erosion jor processes.
and runoff as in Fig. 4. a. Contact exchange.
d. Since soils do not have significant b. Mass flow.
AECs in Idaho, negatively charged nu- c. Diffusion.
Fig. 4. Pesticide—positive charge to negative charge.
Profitable Soil Management™ Soil Fertility Services, No. 3, University of Wisconsin.
Soil surface
0
Relative movement
0.5
1.0
CIPC Diuron Monuron Fenac Amiben Dicamba
(++) (-)

4-6
2. Most movement is caused by diffusion C. Soil Compactions
(or a concentration gradient). Compacted soils have low water infiltration
3. Relative movement of nutrients. rates. Because the soil’s air spaces are dis-
Nitrate (NO3-) X rupted, compacted soils hold smaller
Ammonium (NH4 ) + .1X amounts of air and water. Compacted soils
Potassium (K+) .1X resist root penetration and are poor media
Sulfate (SO42 -) .1X for growth.
Phosphate (H2PO4-) .01X D. Water
4. Why? Regulating the soil water is a major factor in
Idaho. Excessive amounts of soil water are
a. Nitrate and sulfate are anions. A soil
as harmful as not enough water. Soil air and
with a high CEC actually repels nitrate
soil temperature, two other important essen-
and sulfate. There is nothing in the
tials to normal plant growth, are directly re-
system to slow the movement of these
lated to soil water.
nutrients. Organic material slows NO3-.
E. Air
b. Potassium and ammonium are cations.
The CEC slows their movement. They Plant roots need oxygen from the air. When
take longer to reach a plant’s root and all of the air space in the soil is filled with
are less likely to leach than nitrate and water, roots die from lack of oxygen. The
sulfate. The effect makes them 10 small feeder roots are the first to be killed.
times slower in movement, and 10 If air is kept out of the soil long enough,
times less likely to leach. even the larger roots are killed.
c. Even though phosphate is an anion, it F. Root Damage
moves extremely slowly; in fact, phos- 1. Plants with dead roots may be able to sur-
phate moves 100 to 1000 times slower vive the early spring because the plant
than nitrate, because the phosphate an- gets some moisture even through the
ion is very reactive in soils. It reacts dead roots. As the days become longer,
with Ca, Ma, and Al and is easily pre- warmer, and drier, and as the leaves get
cipitated. Phosphate anions may move bigger, the plant runs short of water and
a distance of only 1 inch in soil during wilts. If root damage is severe, the plant
an entire growing season. dies.
d. Anionic pesticides will probably be- 2. Sometimes a few roots near the surface
have like nitrate in soils; cationic pes- will escape damage, and the plants will
ticides will probably behave like po- get by until the long, comparatively hot
tassium in soils (Fig. 4). days of July and August. Even though the
plants are watered, the remaining roots
VIII. Soil/Water Relationships can’t keep up with the needs.
A. Water Infiltration Rate
This is the speed that a soil accepts water
through the surface in inches per hour. The Table 2. Water holding capacity of soils.
finer the soil texture, the slower the infiltra-
Soil Water Readily available
tion rate and vice versa. Infiltration rates of texture infiltration water
your soil will determine the rate of water
(Inches per hour) (Inches per foot)
application and whether heavy rainfall will
Coarse sand 3.0 0.7
enter the soil or run off (Table 2).
Fine sand 2.0 0.9
B. Permeability Rate Fine sandy loam 1.0 1.5
This term refers to the rate of movement of Silt loam 0.5 2.0
water down through the soil profile. Soil Clay loam 0.3 2.3
compaction, plow layers, hard pans, clay Clay 0.2 or less 2.0
layers, or changes in soil texture all can in- Peat and muck >3.0 2.5
fluence the permeability rate of the soil.
4-7
3. Few trees and shrubs can tolerate wet 2. A comparison of nutrients distribution
soils without root damage. Table 3 lists with depth—If you broadcast 25 pounds
some that you can use in heavy, wet soils. of N, P, K, S, and Zn per acre, add 3
G. Water Flow in Soils inches of water as per Fig. 5.
1. Three factors affect water flow in soils. 3. Fig. 6 shows a comparison of nutrient
a. Soil texture: Has a major impact on distribution with depth in different soil
soil wetting rates and water flow. Fine- textures.
textured soils are slower to wet up, and 4. Fig. 7 is a comparison of nutrient concen-
water flow is slower; in coarse tex- trations in the same soil texture (e.g.,
tured soils, water flow is much faster, sandy loam) with the addition of different
and gravity has a greater effect on wa- amounts of water.
ter movement.
IX. Soluble Salts
b. Percent saturation of the soil: In satu-
Soluble salts (sometimes referred to as soil sa-
rated soil, water flow is greater; thus,
linity or ECe) is a measure of the accumulation of
there is a greater potential for leaching.
salts in the soil. Salts can come from natural sa-
c. Organic matter: As OM increases so linity of the soil, over applications of fertilizer
does the soil’s holding capacity. and manure, wood ashes, high salts in irrigation
H. Leaching in Soils water, or water evaporating seep areas. To see
1. Factors affecting leaching of nutrients/ how soil salinity effects plant growth, refer to
chemicals in soils include: Table 4 on page 10.
a. Amount of rainfall/irrigation.
b. Intensity of rainfall/irrigation. X. Plant Nutrients
c. Soil texture. A. Source
d. Cation/anion exchange capacity. From the soil, plants obtain 13 of the 16 ele-
e. The percentage of organic matter. ments essential to their growth. The other
Table 3. Trees and shrubs recommended Fig. 5. Nutrient distribution with depth—broadcast application of 25
for heavy, wet soils. lb of N, P, K, S, and Zn per acre plus 3 inches of water.
TREES
Nutrient distribution with depth
Paper Birch (Betula papyrifera)
Black River Birch (Betula nigra)
0 P
Sweet Gum or Black Gum (Nyssa sylvatica)
ZN
Swamp Maple or Red Maple (Acer rubrum)
Poplars—roots get into tile drains
Willows—roots get into tile drains K
1
NH4-
SHRUBS
Swamp Azalea or Swamp Honeysuckle
2
Depth (ft)
(Azalea viscosa)
Dwarf Bamboo (Sasa veitchi)
Low Grassy Bamboo (Pleioblastus pumilus) NO3-SO4--
Shrubby Cinquefoil (Potentilla fruticosa) 3
Red Osier Dogwood (Cornus stolonifera)
Elderberry (Sambucus, several species)
Dwarf Winged Euonymus (Euonymus
alatus) 4
English Laurel (Prunus laurocerasus)
Bush St. Johnswort (Hypericum
densiflorum) 5
Sweet Pepper Bush (Clethia alnifolia)
Relative nutrient concentration

4-8
Fig. 6. A comparison of nutrient concentration in different soil textures. three—carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen—come from the
Nutrient distribution with depth water and from carbon di-
Sand Sandy loam Silt loam oxide in the air.
B. Element Classification
0
K 1. Major macronutrients—
NH4+
K Large quantities are re-
NH4+ quired.
1
K a. Nitrogen (N):
NH4+ NO3-
Leaches readily.
b. Phosphorus (P, or in
2 fertilizers, designated
Depth (ft)
as phosphate, P2O5):
NO3- Does not leach, but
will move with soil
3 by such means as soil
erosion, etc.
NO3- c. Potassium (K, or in
4 fertilizers designated
as potash, K2O):
Will leach.
2. Secondary macronutri-
5 ents—Less quantities
Relative nutrient concentration required.
a. Calcium (Ca)
Fig. 7. A comparison of nutrient concentration in same soil texture (i.e., b. Magnesium (Mg)
sandy loam) with different amounts of water. c. Sulfur (S): Will leach.
3. Micronutrients—Small
Nutrient distribution with depth quantities required.
2 inches water 4 inches water 6 inches water These usually are at suf-
0 ficient levels.
K
NH4+
a. Boron (B)
K
NH4+ b. Copper (Cu)
1 NO3- K c. Iron (Fe)
NH4+ d. Manganese (Mn)
e. Molybdenum (Mo)
2
f. Zinc (Zn)
NO3-
Depth (ft)
g. Chlorine (Cl)
C. Functions of Macronutri-
ents and Deficiency Signs
3 NO3-
1. Nitrogen
a. Function: Nitrogen
gives dark green color
4 to plants; induces
rapid vegetative
growth; increases
yields of leaf, fruit, or
5 seed; improves qual-
Relative nutrient concentration
4-9
Table 4. Effects of salinity on plant growth. 2. Phosphorus
ECe (mmhos/cm) Effect on plants
a. Function: Phosphorus stimulates early
root functions and growth; gives a
Less than 2.0 Only very sensitive plants effected quick and vigorous start to plants;
2.0 - 4.0 Restricts growth of sensitive plants shortens the plant’s maturity period;
4.0 - 8.0 Growth restricted on many plants stimulates bloom and helps seed to
8.0 - 16.0 Only salt tolerant plants grow form; and strengthens winter hardi-
16.0 or greater A few tolerant plants will grow ness, especially for fall-seeded
grasses.
Plant ECe mmhos/cm b. Deficiency symptoms: Many Idaho
(10 % reduction in growth) soils are deficient in phosphorus, es-
Strawberries 1.3 pecially those soils influenced by vol-
Raspberries 1.4 canic ash. The plants come up and
Beans 1.5 start off slowly. Under conditions of
Carrots 1.7 severe deficiency, the leaves, stems,
Onions 1.8 and branches become stunted, particu-
Lettuce 2.1 larly in the seedling stage. The plant
Peppers 2.2 tends to have small, slender stalks and
Apple/pears 2.3 low yields of grain, fruit, and seed.
Potatoes 2.5 Phosphorus deficiency leads to a lack
Sweet corn 2.5 of abundant, healthy flower clusters in
Cabbage 2.8 most annuals, biennials, and perenni-
Cucumbers 3.3 als.
Spinach 3.3 3. Potassium
Tomatoes 3.5 a. Function: Potassium serves as a nutri-
Cantaloupes 3.6 ent regulator; increases vigor,
Broccoli 3.9 strength, and disease resistance;
makes stalks and stems stiffer; helps
early roots form and grow; improves
winter hardiness.
ity of leaf crops; increases protein con- b. Deficiency symptoms: Idaho soils are
tent of food and feed crops; and feeds not usually deficient in potassium. A
soil microorganisms during their de- deficiency in potassium may cause the
composition of low-nitrogen organic tissue to turn brown and dry up (“fire
materials. Nitrogen tends to extend the up”), particularly on the bottom leaves
length of the plant’s maturity period, of crops. This sign of potassium defi-
but too much will cause the plants to ciency differs from the firing caused
fall over (lodge). by a nitrogen deficiency in that potas-
b. Deficiency symptoms: Most Idaho sium deficiency caused firing around
soils are deficient in nitrogen. The the edge of the leaf. With nitrogen, the
plant turns a sickly, yellowish green; firing goes down the center of the leaf.
displays a distinctly slow and dwarfed Legumes show potassium deficiency
growth; and dries up or shows “firing” symptoms first in the tip, and then
of the leaves, a process that starts at around the leaf edges. Potassium defi-
the bottom of the plant. In plants such ciency results in a premature loss of
as corn and grasses the “firing” starts leaves and smaller than normal flow-
at the tips of the bottom leaves and ers. Plants such as corn fall down be-
proceeds down their centers. fore maturing because of poor stalk
development.

4 - 10
4. Sulfur b. Deficiency symptoms: Zinc deficien-
a. Function: Sulfur promotes thicker and cies are rare in northern Idaho, though
sturdier roots and leaf stems; and aids they occur in southern Idaho. Tree
in overall leaf color. Sulfur is essential crops, grapes, beans, onions, tomatoes,
for protein synthesis and nodule for- and corn can be deficient in zinc. The
mation in legumes. characteristics of this deficiency are de-
b. Deficiency symptoms: Most northern creased in stem length, rosetting of ter-
Idaho soils are deficient in sulfur. The minal leaves, and reduced fruit bud for-
deficiency leads to young leaves with mation. There also will be mottled
a light green to yellowish color; in leaves (interveinal chlorosis), a dieback
some plants, older tissue may be af- of twigs after the first year, and a strip-
fected also. The plants become small ing or banding on corn leaves.
and spindly; there is a retarded growth 2. Iron
rate and delayed maturity. a. Function: Iron is required for the for-
5. Calcium mation of chlorophyll in plant cells; it
a. Function: Calcium aids in the develop- serves as an activator for biochemical
ment of root structure and helps to cor- processes such as respiration, photosyn-
rect soil acidity. It is an essential part thesis, and symbiotic nitrogen fixation.
of the cell wall structure and must be b. Deficiency symptoms: Iron deficiencies
present for the formation of new plant are not a major problem in field crop
cells. production in Idaho. Deficiencies are
b. Deficiency symptoms: Idaho soils usu- usually found in southern Idaho on the
ally are nondeficient in calcium. Defi- occasions when they are a problem.
ciency results in the death of the grow- They occur most likely in soils with a
ing points on plants, and the root tips high pH and poor aeration. Plants most
are also affected. The deficiency can often affected are turf, certain tree
be recognized by the abnormal, dark crops, and ornamentals. They display
green appearance of the foliage, by interveinal chlorosis of young leaves.
premature shedding of blossoms and Veins remain green except in severe
buds, and by weakened stems. cases. Then there may be twig dieback
or the death of entire limbs or plants.
6. Magnesium
3. Manganese
a. Function: Magnesium is essential for
photosynthesis, and serves as an acti- a. Function: Manganese assists iron in
vator for many plant enzymes required chlorophyll formation and serves as an
in growth processes. activator for enzymes in growth pro-
cesses. Tree crops may have trouble
b. Deficiency symptoms: There are ad-
growing well when the soil has this de-
equate quantities of magnesium in the
ficiency.
majority of Idaho soils. Magnesium
deficiency is most likely to be found in b. Deficiency symptoms: Most areas in
sandy, acid soils; it results in a charac- Idaho are not deficient in manganese,
teristic interveinal chlorosis (yellow- with the exception of the Kootenai
ing) in older leaves and a curling of River Valley of Boundary County. You
leaves upward along margins. can spot manganese deficiency when
plants display interveinal chlorosis of
D. Functions of Micronutrients and Deficiency
young leaves, show a gradation of pale
Symptoms
green coloration with darker color next
1. Zinc to veins, and display no sharp distinc-
a. Function: Zinc aids in the synthesis of tion between veins and interveinal areas
indoleacetic acid (IAA), an important (as with iron deficiency).
plant growth regulator.

4 - 11
4. Copper Caution—Apply the amount that is recom-
a. Function: Copper is the activator of mended, or that you know is desirable from past
several enzymes in plants. experience.
b. Deficiency symptoms: Copper defi- Many brands of fertilizers and nearly as many
ciencies are generally only seen in formulas are on the market. Select a brand that
northern Idaho, and in plants growing supplies the nitrogen (N), phosphate (P2O5), and
on soils containing more than 8 per- potash (K2O) in approximately the ratio your soil
cent organic matter. A deficiency in test indicates. The exact ratio is not critical. For
copper results in stunted growth; die- example, if your test indicates you should use 1
back of terminal shoots in trees; poor pound of nitrogen (N), 2 pounds of phosphate
pigmentation; and wilting and eventual (P2O5) and 1 pound of potash (K2O), the ratio in-
death of leaf tips. Copper deficiencies dicated is 1-2-1; you could use a 10-20-10, a
are very difficult to diagnose by sight. 5-10-5, a 6-10-4, or an 8-17-7 analysis fertilizer.
5. Boron All of these are in approximate 1-2-1 ratios.
a. Function: Boron aids in differentiation XII. Fertilizer Terminology
of meristem cells; it regulates the me- A. Fertilizer
tabolism of carbohydrates in plants. Any substance added to the soil (or sprayed
b. Deficiency symptoms: Many Idaho on plants) to supply those elements required
soils are boron deficient. The results in plant nutrition.
are a death of terminal growth, which
causes lateral buds to develop and pro- Fig. 8. Information found on a bag of fertilizer. You will
find this type of information on all bags. The
duces a “witch’s broom” of thickened,
grade is the summary of the nitrogen, phos-
curled, wilted, and chlorotic leaves; phate, and potash (by weight) contained in the
soft or necrotic spots in fruit or tubers; bag. This sample contains 10% N, 10% P2O5, and
and reduced flowering or improper 10% K2O in addition to other elements.
pollination. Nitrogen Phosphate Potash
6. Molybdenum (N) (P2O5) (K2O)
a. Function: Molybdenum is required by
plants for utilization of nitrogen.
b. Deficiency symptoms: Northern Idaho
soils are widely deficient in molybde- JOHN DOE'S
num, but the problems only appear on GENERAL PURPOSE MIX
legumes. The symptoms are the same as
those in sulfur and nitrogen deficiencies.
10 10 10 MAKER'S BRAND NAME
7. Chlorine
a. Function: Chlorine is required in photo-
synthetic reactions in plants.
b. Deficiency symptoms: Not deficient in Total nitrogen 10%
Idaho.
Available phosphorus 10%
XI. Fertilizers
Every mixed fertilizer or individual material Available potash 10%
sold has a guaranteed analysis written on the bag
stating the amounts of available nitrogen (N),
available phosphate (P2O5), and soluble potash Other nutrients
(K2O), in that order (Fig. 8). The three numbers XXXX
always are in percentages by weight. XX
XXX
In addition, certain secondary and micronutri-
ents may also be included and will be so stated.

4 - 12
B. Mixed Fertilizer Note: 6.25 lb of a 16-20-0 fertilizer mate-
A fertilizer that contains two or more of the rial is needed to supply 1 lb of N.
three macronutrients (N, P, K). Also, 6.25 lb of 16-20-0 would sup-
C. Complete Fertilizer ply 1.25 lb of P2O5 (6.25 x .20).
A fertilizer that contains all three macronu-
trients (N, P, K). XIV. Fertilizer Types
D. Fertilizer Grade A. Nitrogen
The minimum guarantee of plant nutrient 1. Gas forms.
elements in fertilizers expressed in terms of a. Ammonia (82-0-0) gas: Transported in
total N, available P (expressed in terms of pressurized containers.
P2O5) and available potassium (expressed in
terms of K2O). Note: Special application equipment
Examples: 16-20-0 needed.
16-20-0-14 2. Solid forms.
E. Fertilizer Ratio a. Ammonium nitrate (34-0-0 or 33-0-0):
The smallest whole number relationship Half of N is in ammonium form and
among N, P2O5, and K2O. half is in nitrate form.
Example: A 5-10-10 grade is a 1-2-2 ratio. • 80 percent is used in agriculture.
• 20 percent is used in the manufac-
XIII. Fertilizer Calculations ture of explosives.
Example 1: b. Urea 45-0-0: Rapidly replacing ammo-
You wish to apply 3 pounds of P2O5 to a nium nitrate as the most widely used
1,000 square foot area. Your fertilizer has fertilizer because of:
a grade of 11-55-0 (55 percent P2O5). • Economy of production.
(lb nutrient desired/1,000 ft2) • Higher percentage N content.
X= x 100
analysis of desired nutrient • Fewer pollution problems during
3 x 100 300 manufacturing.
X= = = 5.45 lb 11-55-0 c. Ammonium sulfate (21-0-0-24) con-
55 55
In addition you are adding some nitrogen. tains 24 percent sulfur. This fertilizer
5.45 lb of 11-55-0 x .11 (this is the per- is popular in areas where sulfur is defi-
centage of N in this fertilizer) = .6 lb N cient because it contains sulfur.
3. Slow-release solid forms—Reduce nitro-
Example 2: gen leaching losses, reduce salt damage
After taking a soil test, you find that you to plants, and result in a release of nitro-
need to apply 1 pound of actual nitrogen gen at a rate that is optimal for plant
per 1,000 square feet. Your fertilizer has a growth. These materials are much more
grade of 16-20-0. How much fertilizer expensive, but the increase in nutrient
should you apply to put on the nitrogen efficiency may offset the increase in cost
recommended? if used properly.
(lb nutrient desired/1,000 ft2) a. Sulfur coated urea (36-0-0-6).
X= x 100
analysis of desired nutrient b. IBDU (Isobutylidene-Diuria).
(1 lb N/1,000 ft2) 4. Nitrogen solutions.
X= x 100 a. Solution 32 (32-0-0) contains urea and
16
ammonium nitrate.
1 x 100
X= B. Phosphorus
16
1. Rock phosphate (0-25-0)—The phospho-
X = 6.25 lb of 16-20-0 per 1,000 square rus is not readily available on calcarious
feet soils.
4 - 13
2. Triple superphosphate (TSP, 0-44-0 or them into the soil at the end of the growing
0-45-0)—Good, high-analysis phospho- season. You must remove them and store
rus source. them. Perforate plastic films to allow water
3. Monoammonium phosphate (MAP, 11- and air free passage.
55-0, 13-52-0)—An excellent phosphorus C. Effectiveness
source with low nitrogen/high phosphorus. The effectiveness of mulches depends upon
4. Diammonium phosphate (DAP, 16-48-0, the material you are using and the weed spe-
19-52-0)—Contains medium nitrogen/ cies involved. You only need a thin layer of
high phosphorus and is an excellent mulch to conserve soil moisture, and 2 or
mixed fertilizer. more inches to control weeds.
5. Urea-ammonium phosphates (UAP or 1. Summer mulches—Use summer mulches
UAPP, 10-34-0)—Becoming more com- to control weeds, reduce water evapora-
mon; high analysis. tion from the soil, stabilize water tem-
C. Potassium perature, and reduce fruit rot on bared
1. Potassium chloride (KCl, 0-0-60)—Most soil. Incorporated summer organic
common potassium source, 60 percent K2O. mulches into the soil in the fall to im-
prove soil structure.
2. Potassium sulfate (K2SO4, 0-0-50)—Sec-
ond most common source, 50 percent K2O. 2. Winter mulches—Use winter mulches to
reduce water loss from evergreen plant
3. Other sources—Potassium magnesium
tissue and to stabilize soil temperatures.
sulfate, potassium nitrate, and wood ash.
This will minimize perennial crop heav-
D. Sulfur ing caused by alternate freezing and
1. Elemental sulfur—98 percent sulfur, thawing. Applying winter mulches too
acidifies soils. early in the fall may result in more winter
2. Nitrogen/sulfur. injury than if you did not apply a mulch.
16-20-0-14 21-0-0-24 D. Problems
30-0-0-6 36-0-0-6 Organic mulches can introduce weed seeds
40-0-0-6 as a mulch contaminant, or in the case of
cereal straw, small grain seed. The mulch
XV. Mulches may attract rodents, insects, and other pests
Mulches fall into two categories: organic as an over-wintering site. Mulching too
and inorganic. soon in the spring can keep soils cool reduc-
A. Organic Mulches ing the growth of warm season crops. If you
Organic mulches includes grass clippings, use bark, wood shavings, sawdust, or straw,
hay, straw, bark, sawdust, wood shavings, it may be necessary to incorporate additional
leaves, and newspapers. You can use almost nitrogen fertilizer into the soil in the fall.
any plant material for mulching as long as it
XVI. Green Manure and Cover Crops
allows air and water to penetrate to the soil
below. Coarse-textured material, such as By definition you grow and incorporate
stemmy hay, straw, wood shavings, and green manure crops into the soil to improve
chips, are more desirable than fine-textured the soil while you grow cover crops primarily
materials such as leaves and sawdust. If you to reduce soil erosion and the leaching of nu-
use fine materials, loosen them occasionally trients. Usually, green manure crops are annu-
to keep from sealing the soil surface. als and cover crops are perennials, either le-
gumes or grasses. You can incorporate cover
B. Inorganic Mulches
crops into the soil and use them as green ma-
Inorganic mulches include plastic films, nure crops.
mat-type weed barriers, aluminum foil, and
A. Effectiveness
even old carpets. Although inorganic
mulches provide some of the same benefits When managed properly, green manure and
as organic mulches, you cannot incorporate cover crops both add nitrogen to the soil for

4 - 14
Table 5. Cover crops and approximate nitrogen re- C. Cover Crops
leased.
1. Use cover crops for alleyways in or-
Plant Percentage of nitrogen chards and vineyards to prevent weeds
growing and in gardens for pathways.
Alfalfa 3.0 - 4.0
Usually, they require mowing two or
Austrian winter peas 3.0 - 3.8
three times a year, fertilization, and suffi-
Oats 1.3 - 1.4
cient moisture. See Table 6 on the next
Rye grass 1.2 - 1.3
page for a recommended list of cover
Red clover 2.8 - 3.2
crops for Idaho.
2. Cover crops reduce losses from leaching
the plants that follow them. See Table 5 for of nitrogen, potassium, and some other
the approximate nitrogen percentages on a nutrients—especially when soils are light
dry matter basis of some cover crops used and sandy. Good ground cover reduces
as a green manure. They tend to increase the soil erosion by slowing down the beating
level of fertility and soil humus. They im- action of rain on soil particles reducing
prove the soil’s physical properties of ag- water runoff. Plant cover increases the
gregation, porosity, bulk density, and per- rate that water filters into the soil. Leaves
meability. Their effects are more pro- and stems catch the rain and roots open
nounced on fine-textured soil than on coarse channels for water.
ones. 3. Deep-rooted plants, such as some of the
B. Green Manure legumes, help open up soils with re-
1. The efficiency of using green manure stricted subsoils. Plants grown for short
crops depends on the soil, climate, and term usually have little effect on heavy
plant’s grown. The conditions favoring subsoils.
microbial growth determines the rate of 4. Perennial sod or cover crops increase soil
decay of the organic residues. Warm soil, organic matter and nitrogen. Legumes are
proper aeration, and ample soil moisture superior to nonlegumes.
increase microbial growth. The decompo- 5. Some negative aspects of cover crops are
sition releases carbon dioxide and weak that they compete with the main crop for
acids that act on insoluble soil minerals nutrients and moisture. They can invade
and release nutrients in addition to nutri- the main crop, so they require mainte-
ents from insoluble minerals. The chemi- nance. Also, cover crops can provide a
cal composition of the plants affects their safe haven for gophers, mice, insects, and
value for green manuring. diseases that can invade the main crop.
2. Green manure crops have little influence
on organic matter if cultivation is con-
tinuous. In cooler climate, green manure Further Reading
can increase organic matter and nitrogen.
In warmer regions, cultivation speeds up Books
the rate of decomposition, and little or no Horticulture Edition of Western Fertilizer Handbook,
increase of organic matter is observed. 1990. Soil Improvement Committee, California Fertil-
izer Association, Interstate Publishing.
3. Using green manure can lower bulk den-
sity of the soil and enhance porosity. Im- County Soil Surveys, Soil Conservation Service.
proved aggregation allows more space Minnich, J., and M. Hunt. 1979. Rodale Guide to
between soil particles, and therefore, less Composting. Rodale Press.
weight of soil by volume. Booklets and Pamphlets
4. As grasses and cereal grains reach matu- University of Idaho
rity they can tie up nitrogen, so you CIS 1066 Composting at Home ($3.00)
should incorporate them into the soil CIS 1041 Conduct Your Own Garden Research ($2.00)
early in the growing season.

4 - 15
CIS 863 Fertilizer Primer: Terminology, Calculations BUL 775 Planning an Idaho Vegetable Garden ($4.00)
and Application ($1.00) CIS 865 Quality Water for Idaho: Pesticides and Their
EXT 686 Fertilizer Questions ($1.50) Movement in Soil and Water (free)
CIS 922 Fertilizing Gardens (35¢) EXT 704 Soil Sampling ($2.00)
CIS 1068 Fertilizing Landscape Trees ($1.00) CIS 846 Southern Idaho Fertilizer Guide: Southern
PNW 533 Fertilizing with Manure ($2.00) Idaho Lawns ($1.00)
CIS 815 Northern Idaho Fertilizer Guide: Blueberries, CIS 1062 Starting a Home Lawn ($1.50)
Raspberries, Strawberries (Web only) CIS 858 Using Bark and Sawdust for Mulches, Soil
CIS 911 Northern Idaho Fertilizer Guide: Northern Amendments and Potting Mixes (35¢)
Idaho Lawns ($1.00) To order University of Idaho publications, contact your
county’s UI Extension office or write to Publications, Uni-
versity of Idaho, Moscow, ID 83844-2240 or call (208) 885-
7982 or email (calspubs@uidaho.edu). Idaho residents add
6 percent sales tax.
Table. 6. Recommended cover crops for Idaho.*
Seeding Establishment Nitrogen

Common name rate rate requirement Representative cultivars
(lb/acre) (lb/acre)
ANNUAL COVER CROPS
Barley (spring) 120 fast 30-50 Columbia, Steptoe
Barley (winter) 120 medium-fast 30-50 Mal, Scio
Buckwheat (common) 35-60 medium-fast 10-20 Common Gray, Japanese, Silverhull
Buckwheat (tartary) 25 medium-fast 10-20 Common varieties
Oats (spring or winter) 120 medium-fast 30-50 Amity (W), Walken (W), Grey Winter
(W), Cayuse (S), Border (S), Kanota
(S), Otana (S)
Peas (winter or spring) 120 medium-fast by soil test Austrian Winter (W or S), Melrose (S),
Miranda (S)
Ryegrass (annual) 30 fast 30-50 Common variety
Wheat (spring) 120 medium-fast 20-50 Treasure, Bliss, Owens, Dirkwin,
Fieldwin, Twin
Wheat (winter) 120 medium 30-50 Basin, Stephens, Dusty, Ute
Grain/pea 80/100 fast 20-30 Use varieties recommended in this table
PERENNIAL COVER CROPS

Grasses
Fescue (hard) 20 slow 20 Durar
Fescue (sheep) 20 very slow 20 Covar
Fescue (tall) 25 medium 20 Alta, Fawn, Forager, Kenhy
Perennial rye 25 fast 30 Elka, Linn, Manawa (H1), Manhattan,
Noriea, Pennfine
Russian wildrye 30 slow 20 Vinall, Swift, Cabree, Bozoisky
Siberian crested wheatgrass 35 medium 20 P-27
Standard crested wheatgrass 25 medium 20 Nordan
Forbs
White clover 4 medium 0 Dwarf types, English wild white clover
Strawberry clover 4 medium 0 Common varieties
W = winter variety S = spring variety
*Reprinted from Northern Horticulture Newsletter, Vol. 7, No. 1, Spring and Summer 1994. Dan Barney, Extension horticulturist,
University of Idaho College of Agricultural and Life Sciences, Sandpoint Research and Extension Center, Sandpoint, Idaho.

4 - 16
Chapter
Horticultural Equipment Management
5
I. Equipment Selection 2
A. Hand Tools for Cultivation 2
B. Power Tools for Cultivation 3
C. Wheelbarrow or Cart 5
D. Watering Equipment 5
E. Seedling and Planting Tools 5
F. Environmental Monitoring 6
Equipment
G. Trellises and Cages 6
H. Harvesting Equipment 6
II. Equipment Purchases and
Maintenance 6
A. Equipment Purchases 6
B. Equipment Maintenance 6
III. Cultivation Practices 7
A. Types of Soil Cultivation 7
B. Cultivation Time 7
C. Cultivation Requirements 7
Further Reading 8

5-1
Chapter 5
Horticultural Equipment
Management
G. F. Gardner
George F. Gardner, Former Extension Educator, Bannock County, Pocatello
I. Equipment Selection Note: Shovels and spades come with long handles
The type of equipment used to prepare your gar- in standard or D-shaped styles. Choice of
den will depend on the size of the garden, as well handle style will depend on personal pref-
as your physical ability, time, and budget. Op- erence: long handles offer greater leverage
tions include a spade or shovel, a power rotary and are less tiring to use; short handles are
tiller, a small garden tractor, or a full-sized farm often thicker and stronger. For general pur-
tractor. pose digging, lifting, and moving, a long-
A. Hand Tools for Cultivating handled shovel is ideal.
The minimum equipment needed by most
3. Spading fork—Another useful
gardeners is a shovel or spade, a hoe, a rake,
digging tool. It is ideal for
and a trowel. A wide selection of styles is breaking and turning heavy
available. The right choice is one of per-
soil and for loosening sub-
sonal preference and price. You can get the soil layers when double
best value by knowing each tool’s uses and
digging a bed. Turning
particular qualities.
coarse compost,
1. Shovel—A dish-shaped blade mounted to spreading
the handle at an angle and is used for mulches, and dig-
moving soil. A garden shovel with a ging root crops are
pointed blade is lighter and smaller than other jobs suitable
most other shovels and is well suited for for a spading fork.
use in the garden.
4. Hoe—Essential in any garden
for preparing the seed bed,
removing weeds, and
breaking up encrusted
soil. Several different
hoe styles are available.
5. Pointed hoe—Has a heart-
shaped blade and is lightweight and use-
ful for opening seed furrows and cultivat-
ing between plants.
6. Hula—Or action hoe, is very lightweight
Shovel Spade and maneuverable. It is pushed and
2. Spade—A flat blade and designed for pulled just under the soil surface. Be-
cutting rather than lifting or moving soil. cause the blade is relatively thin and
A spade is an excellent tool for shaping lacks the clod-breaking capabilities of a
straight-sided trenches and edging beds. heavier hoe, this type of hoe is most eas-

5-2
ily used where soil is not compacted and
where weeds have not gotten started.
7. Scuffle hoe—Is somewhat more sturdy,
and is used with a pushing motion rather Transplant trowel Small digging fork
than a pushing and pulling motion.
Hand cutlivator
Different kinds of scuffle hoes
Dandelion digger or
8. Square-bladed hoe—Probably the most Planting—Cultivating hoe asparagus cutter
commonly used hoe, lends itself well to
many garden tasks. sists of a 10- to 14-inch long solid metal
9. Rake—Useful in clearing the garden of rod with a two-pronged blade at one end
rocks and debris. It is also helpful in and a handle at the other. This tool is
spreading mulches and smoothing seed- practically indestructible and well worth
beds. The right rake depends on your size its price.
and strength and the uses you intend. As 13. Pickax—Used to break up extremely
the number of tines increases, the rake stony or hard-packed soil.
weight also in- 14. Mattock—Used to break up soil, but is
creases. Avoid equipped with a cutting blade for remov-
choosing a rake ing large roots. A mattock may also be
that is so heavy it used to chop up debris for composting.
will tire you after
15. Wheel cultivator—Has a number of at-
a short period of tachments for soil preparation and weed
use. The length
control and may prove to be a good in-
of the rake
vestment for those with larger gardens.
handle is impor-
tant too. The tip of the handle should B. Power Tools for Cultivation
come up to your ear when you stand up- 1. Rototiller—The power rotary tiller is the
right. A handle that is too short will make tool most commonly purchased by gar-
your work harder, causing excess bend- deners. Whether you need a rototiller de-
ing and back strain. pends on the size of your garden, your
capabilities, and the intended uses of the
10. Trowel—Used for many digging jobs
tiller. Tiller selection may be based on
that do not require a full-sized tool. Espe-
cially in the spring, a trowel is perfect for the nature of the work to be
done, the quality of the
transplanting seedlings and bulbs or dig-
machine, ease of re-
ging shallow-rooted weeds.
pair, and personal
11. Small hand cultivator—Often sold in sets preference.
with trowels, is useful for weeding small
areas and between closely-spaced plants.
12. Digger—Also called a weeder, cultivator,
or asparagus knife, is a small, useful dig-
ging tool. It is indispensable for digging
up weeds with long taproots, such as dan-
delions or Queen Anne’s lace; or for pry-
ing out Johnson grass rhizomes. It con-

5-3
The tiller’s engine powers rotating may mean that the tiller has been poorly
blades, or tines, which turn the soil and maintained. The oil and other fluids may
makes it loose, fluffy, and ready for also be checked by opening the drain
planting. It can also chop plant debris and plugs. Look for excessive dirt around the
mix it into the soil. The ability of the engine or in the air filter. This may also
tiller to do these jobs effectively is a indicate bad maintenance habits.
function of its weight, strength, design, a. Rear-tine tiller—If gardening is a full-
type of tines, and type of soil. time business or if you have a large
A heavy, powerful tiller is most effective garden, it would be wise to purchase a
on stony clay soils, while a smaller tiller rear-tine tiller. It should be a heavy-
is more appropriate in a small garden or a duty machine capable of continued op-
garden with light soil. Very lightweight eration. The rear-tine tiller is easier to
tillers, known as soil blenders, are de- control and is smoother in its cultivat-
signed mainly for raised bed gardening; ing process. It requires less mainte-
however, they are not widely available nance because it doesn’t bounce
and generally must be mail-ordered. A around; leverage is required for con-
tiller is a major investment. trol. New gardeners are sometimes
Look for tiller features such as: heavy scared away from these tillers because
cast iron, steel plate, and tubing; heavy they can run away with them.
bearings; strong welds used during con- b. Front-tine tiller—If gardening is sim-
struction; and easily operable controls. ply a hobby, or if your garden is small,
Ask to look at the operator’s manual and a front-tine tiller may be suitable.
try to determine how simply a tune-up Front-tine tillers are usually light in
can be performed. You can save yourself weight, but may require considerable
a great deal of trouble and money if you strength to guide them through the
can replace plugs and points yourself. soil. Operating this type of tiller is
Also consider the locations of service comparable to handling a large floor
centers and parts dealers. Careful atten- polisher such as those used in schools
tion to your needs, abilities, and price and hospitals. Leverage is required for
range is important. control. New gardeners are sometimes
Talk to people who have the types of afraid that these tillers will run away
tillers that interest you. If possible, bor- with them. The front-tine tiller may
row or rent various types of tillers and not make as straight a path as the
send for information before buying. If heavier rear-tine type, but it is much
you are considering the purchase of a easier to turn. The front-tine tiller is
used rototiller, plan to do so well ahead easy to use in small gardens and in
of time so you will not be rushed into a corner areas.
purchase. If you know little about tillers, 3. Cordless tools—Most are rechargeable,
have a mechanically-minded friend come with various cultivating attach-
evaluate the models you are considering. ments, and can make garden chores more
Above all, test each tiller for ease of pleasurable. Cordless tools are especially
starting and operation. An engine that useful to those with physical disabilities
smokes or runs roughly may require a lot that limit strength.
of work. Tines should operate smoothly 4. Garden shredder—This tool is helpful for
and freely. Check the welds in the a large garden with a lot of plant wastes.
handles to see that they are strong; re- Hand-operated shredders are slow but
welding may mean that the handles have useful if wastes are in small quantities
broken at some time, a common problem and are not too coarse. Gasoline shred-
in older tillers. Look at the dipstick if ders are quite expensive and may be dis-
there is one; low oil or very sludgy oil appointing to the gardener who wants to

5-4
chip branches and other large materials. 1. Spigot—If there is no outdoor spigot near
Shredders are best used for shredding the garden, the expense of having one in-
leaves, small branches, and other plant stalled may be greater than the benefits
wastes. A chipper, on the other hand, will gained, except in very drought-prone ar-
chip large branches and other coarse ma- eas, or in the case of a gardener who is
terials, but the cost ($1,000) is high. fully dependent on the season’s produce.
C. Wheelbarrow or Cart 2. Rain barrel or garden hose with a fan-
A wheelbarrow or cart is handy to have in type sprinkler—This simple watering
and around the garden area. It should be equipment will suffice where rainfall is
easy to handle when full. Durable construc- adequate, except occasionally in summer.
tion is well worth the cost to ensure a long, 3. Water breaker—Useful for small seed-
useful life. Be sure to choose the size appro- lings.
priate for your physical abilities and garden 4. Drip irrigation system—In areas where
needs. there are extended periods of hot weather
A wheelbarrow generally requires more without precipitation, the local water sup-
strength and control than do most garden ply is likely to be short. Since overhead
carts, but many of the small carts generally sprinklers waste water, a drip irrigation
available are made of relatively flimsy system may be in order. Drip irrigation
metal and, though inexpensive, are not par- puts water right at the roots and doesn’t
ticularly long-lasting or suitable for heavy wet plant leaves, thus helping to prevent
items such as rocks. disease. Timers are available for auto-
Consider your needs. If you plan to haul matic drip watering systems, but this type
only light straw, leaves, or sawdust, then a of system is relatively expensive and may
small cart is suitable. For heavier jobs, a be considered a nuisance by some gar-
wheelbarrow or cart is needed. deners because of maintenance and re-
The newer garden cart models, especially placement requirements.
ones with bicycle-type tires, are made of 5. The soaker hose—Probably the least ex-
heavy plywood and metal and are well-bal- pensive and easiest water system to use.
anced and easy to maneuver. It is fibrous hose that allows water to
seep out at a slow rate all along its length.
Note: These carts do, however, cost a lot (up There are also hoses with holes in them
to several hundred dollars) and a large that do basically the same thing. A flow
storage space. Only serious gardeners, regulator usually has to be included with
or those with other uses for these carts, the system so that water can reach the
find them economical. One alternative end of the hose, yet not be sprayed out at
is to build your own from one of several full force. A special double-wall type irri-
plans available from gardening maga- gation hose has been developed that helps
zines or private companies. to maintain an even flow.
6. Emitter-type system—Best used for small
D. Watering Equipment
raised bed or container gardens. With this
Watering is one job that most gardeners sytem, short tubes, or emitters, come off
must do at least occasionally. An adequate a main water supply hose. Emitters put
water supply may make a big difference in water right at the roots of the desired
garden yields. Purchase of watering equip- plants. This is generally the most expen-
ment depends upon available facilities, wa- sive form of irrigation and most complex
ter supply, climate, and garden practices. to set up.
Determine whether cultural practices such
E. Seedling and Planting Tools
as mulching, close plant spacing, shading,
or wide-bed planting will meet most of your Depending on the size of your garden and
extra water needs, then purchase watering your physical abilities, you may want to
gadgets accordingly. consider a row seeder.

5-5
1. Seeders—With wheels make easy work If you build your own trellises and cages,
of sowing long rows of corn, beans or you may save a considerable amount of
other vegetables. Seeders are available money and get better quality.
that make a furrow, drop the seeds prop- H. Harvesting Equipment
erly spaced, and close up the furrow. It is Varies depending on the size and type of
not worth the effort to set up a seeder for garden, whether food is to be stored, and the
small areas. A hand-held seeder is prob- way in which it is to be processed.
ably a better choice for this type of work.
1. Baskets—Useful to most gardeners. Bas-
2. Broadcast seeders—Are available for kets may be purchased at garden or farm
sowing seeds such as rye or wheat for supply stores or sometimes may be
cover crop, but are generally not neces- scrounged from local grocery stores or
sary for the average home gardener, be- fruit stands. Berry baskets for carrying
cause broadcasting is easily done by hand small fruits, baskets with handles for car-
once you learn the proper technique. rying vegetables, and peck or bushel bas-
3. Fluid-sowing kits—Contain presprouted kets for storing fruits and vegetables are
seeds in a gel that prevents drying. These all useful.
kits may be purchased, but fluid sowing 2. Fruit pole pickers—Useful and easy to
devices may be made inexpensively. use for tall fruit trees.
F. Environmental Monitoring Equipment 3. A sharp knife—For cutting vegetables off
Serious gardeners often invest in equipment plants is handy and helps prevent plant
that allows them to moniter the microcli- damage.
mate around the garden or indoors.
1. Rain gauge—An inexpensive device that
II. Equipment Purchases and
helps you determine if enough rain has Maintenance
fallen for garden plants. A. Equipment Purchases
2. Maximum-mimimum thermometer—A When purchasing tools, buy for quality
costly, but often useful, device to mea- rather than quantity. Your tools will be in
sure soil temperature and internal tem- frequent use throughout the garden season.
perature of a compost pile. Cheap tools tend to break or dull easily and
3. Light and watering meters—Can be pur- may end up making your job unnecessarily
chased for indoor plant monitoring. difficult and frustrating. Quality tools will
Electronic water meters measure the con- last and tend to increase in value if well
ductivity of soil, but are often greatly in- kept.
fluenced by fertilizers and other salt con- Tools should be lightweight for easy han-
centrations, resulting in a variable or in- dling, but heavy enough to do the job prop-
accurate measurement of water availabil- erly. Metal parts should be of steel, which
ity. Tensiometers work well for measur- will stay sharp, will keep their shape, and
ing water content. will outlast softer metals. Consumers’
G. Trellises and Cages magazines and garden publications fre-
For vining plants, these save space and keep quently have articles explaining what to
fruits off the ground, reducing plant damage look for in tools and listing alternatives to
and minimizing the amount of stooping re- local hardware stores, which often carry a
quired for harvest. Look for heavy-duty ma- single line of tools. Several excellent books
terials and sturdy designs that will stand up featuring garden tools have been published
to rain, wind, and drying. Wire should be and may be available at the library.
heavy gauge and wood should be treated B. Equipment Maintenance
with nonphytotoxic (nontaxic to plants) ma- Keeping a tool clean and sharp will increase
terials or materials nontoxic to humans. its usefulness and lengthen its life. Learn the
Metal parts should be rust-proof or rust- techniques of sharpening each tool and
resistant. practice them frequently. Professional gar-
5-6
deners often carry sharpening stones or files 4. Hand cultivation—By spading the soil
and sharpen their tools every hour or so deeply until it is loose and drains easily,
while working. prepares the soil.
Clean tools after each use. One effective B. Cultivation Time
method is to keep a five-gallon bucket filled Fall tillage has several advantages over the
with sand and used motor oil in the tool traditional spring plowing. It allows earlier
shed. At the end of the gardening day, re- spring planting, since the basic soil prepara-
move clinging dirt from tools by plunging tion is already done when spring arrives.
them into the oily sand several times. This Turning under large amounts of organic
will keep the tools cleaned and oiled, and matter in fall is likely to result in better de-
will help prevent rusting. composition because autumn temperatures
Perhaps the most important step in tool care are higher than those in early spring, and the
is to put tools in their proper place. Tools process has more time to take place. Insects,
left in the garden will rust and break and can disease organisms, and perennial weeds
be a safety hazard. Some gardeners paint may be reduced by killing or inactivating
handles with a bright color to make their them through burial or exposure to harsh
tools easy to spot. winter weather. The physical condition of
heavy clay soils may be improved by the
III. Cultivation Practices alternate freezing and thawing, which break
A. Types of Soil Cultivation up hard clods. Fall tilling alone is not rec-
1. Plowing—It once was assumed gardens ommended for hillside or steep garden plots
should be turned yearly with a moldboard since the soil is exposed all winter and is
plow, mostly for weed and pest control. subject to erosion when spring rains come.
While garden plowing is still a common If a winter cover crop is grown to improve
practice, turning the soil over completely soil and to prevent erosion, the ground will
has been found to be detrimental in some have to be tilled in the fall to prepare the
cases. It can cause soil compaction, upset soil for seed and again in spring to turn un-
balances of microorganisms, and bury der the green manure. A cover crop de-
layers of coarse organic material below creases erosion of the soil during the winter,
the influence of insects and microbes, adds organic material when it is incorpo-
which would otherwise cause the materi- rated in the spring, improves soil tilth and
als to decompose. porosity, and adds valuable nutrients.
2. Chisel plowing—This does not have this Spring tillage is better for sandy soils and
disruptive effect, is one alternative, but it those receiving shallow tilling. Generally,
is limited to sandy or loamy soils. Many most gardens must be disked or rotary tilled
gardeners do not have chisel plows. In in the spring to smooth the soil for planting.
addition, gardeners in non-rural areas C. Cultivation Requirements
have trouble finding a person who will Work the soil only when the conditions are
plow and disk a garden for a reasonable right. Pick up a handful of soil and squeeze
price. it. If the soil crumbles freely, it should be
3. Rototilling—Most home gardens’ soil about right. Take samples at the surface and
condition is sufficient, as long as plant at a 2- to 3-inch depth at several locations in
debris is not excessive. Rotary tilling the garden plot. If the soil is powdery or in
mixes rather than turns the upper layers clumps, it may be excessively dry and diffi-
of soil. One possible harmful effect of cult to work. If soil sticks to a shovel, or if
rototilling is the formation of a compac- the turned surface is shiny and smooth when
tion layer just beyond the reach of the spaded, it is still too wet. Working soil
tines. Use of deep-rooted cover crops or when excessively wet can destroy soil struc-
double digging can help prevent or allevi- ture, which may take years to rebuild. Plow-
ate this problem. ing with a tractor when soil is wet is

5-7
especaially damaging. It causes the forma-
tion of a compaction layer that will inhibit Further Reading
root growth. Soils with adequate humus lev-
els generally make cultivation easier be- PNW 320 Calibrating and Using a Backyard
cause of their improved structural qualities. Sprayer ($1.50)
Just before planting, break up large clods of CIS 792 Calibration and Safe Use of Lawn and
soil and rake the bed level. Small-seeded Garden Pesticide and Fertilizer
vegetables germinate best in smooth, fine- Applicators (35¢)
surfaced soil. Do not pulverize seedbed soil. CIS 1054 Low Input Landscaping ($1.00)
This destroys the structure and promotes
CIS 1065 Improving Sprayer Accuracy: Simple
crusting and erosion problems.
Methods for Correct Calibration ($1.00)
Any addition to the soil that improves its
CIS 858 Using Bark and Sawdust for Mulches,
physical or chemical condition is
Soil Amendments, and Potting Mixes
considerated a soil amendment. Many types
(35¢)
of amendments are available to the home
gardener. EXT 726 Weed Control in the Home Garden (50¢)
To order University of Idaho publications, contact
your county’s UI Extension office, or write Publica-
tions, University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho 83844-
2240, call (208) 885-7982, fax (208) 885-4648, or
email: calspubs@uidaho.edu. Idaho residents add 6
percent sales tax.
You can also check, and in some cases download,
the online publication and video catalog on the UI
Educational Communications web site (http://
info.ag.uidaho.edu).

5-8
Chapter
Plant Management
6
I. Plant Selection 2
II. Plant and Garden Location 2
A. Plant Location 2
B. Garden Location 2
III. Plant Site Preparation 2
IV. Planting Procedures for Seeds
and Transplants 2
A. Seeds 2
B. Bareroot Plants 4
C. Balled and Burlapped (B and B) 4
Plants
D. Container Grown Plants 4
V. Watering Considerations 4
A. Variables That Affect Plant 4
Water Requirements
B. Water Penetration 5
C. Soil Type 5
D. Watering Interval 5
E. Water Retention 5
F. Compaction and Thatch 5
G. Interfaces 6
VI. Irrigation Method 6
VII. Landscape Water Requirements 6
A. Plant Water Needs 6
B. Deep Watering 7
C. Lawns 7
D. Shrubs and Trees 7
E. Vegetables 7
F. Containers 7
Further Reading 7

6-1
Chapter 6
Plant Management
S. M. Bell and G. F. Gardner
I. Plant Selection and heat than southern and western expo-

sures. Planting on berms and slopes will
Select plants adapted to your cold hardiness zone
greatly affect drainage and influence plant
and growing season. Woody plant materials
growth. Keep that in mind when selecting
growing in Idaho can survive most winters with-
and placing plants.
out damage if they are rated for zones 2 to 4 for
the mountainous areas and zones 4 to 6 for lower B. Garden Location
elevations (see Fig. 1 and Chapter 15, “Landscap- A garden positioned higher than the sur-
ing,” Section IIIB). Dormant plants can withstand rounding area usually will not experience
low temperatures better than those that are not, as the same cold temperature because cold air,
long as low minimum temperatures do not last being heavier than warm air, flows down to
too long. low lying areas. Solid fences, walls, and
Plants such as vegetables grown from seed should thickly planted hedges will, however, im-
be selected to fit the length of growing season in pede the flow of cold air to cause a frost
your area. Talk to your local extension educator pocket. Gardens surrounded by these barri-
who will know your area. In mountainous areas ers may suffer more cold damage than those
many microclimates may exist. areas that allow free drainage of cool air.
II. Plant and Garden Location III. Plant Site Preparation

A. Plant Location When preparing the planting area, add finished
compost (1 to 2 inches) to the entire area if the
Choose the right location for the right plant.
soil is low in organic matter, very sandy, or heavy
Determine the best location by reading the
clay. Mix it into the top 9 to 12 inches of soil be-
growing requirements written on the plant
fore planting. Adding organic matter each year
tag, the seed packet, or in a garden book.
around plants, even on the soil surface, will im-
Pay close attention to the amount of light
prove soil structure as well as water and air
and moisture, range of temperature required,
movement in the soil. Use of raised beds, mound-
and type of soil best suited for the plant.
ing, and berms will also improve water and air
Avoid planting under house eaves and movement if soils are heavy clay. In areas with
downspouts. Dripping water can physically high water tables, tile drains can be installed.
damage plants and cause over watered con-
ditions conducive to root rots. IV. Planting Procedures for Seeds
Avoid planting near sidewalks, driveways, and Transplants
white-painted fences, and buildings that can
reflect excess light or heat back on to plants A. Seeds
to adversely affect growth. Eastern and Planting depth is dependent on seed size.
northern exposures are good for plants that Follow the recommendations on the seed
need shade, however, they provide less light packet.

6-2
Fig. 1. Zone map.
6-3
To order map
To order your copy of this map, please
send a check for $6.50 to Superintendent of
Documents, U.S. Government Printing

Office, Washington, D. C. 20402-9325.
Please make your check out to
“Superintendent of Documents.” When
ordering, also refer to the stock number,
001-000-04550-4.
If you would like to order the map by
credit card, call (202) 783-3238. In case you
have any questions regarding your order,
please refer to the stock number.
B. Bareroot Plants a. Pay special attention to B and B mate-
This kind of plant has had the soil washed rial planted in the summer. It must be
or shaken from its roots after digging. adequately watered to ensure the soil
1. Nearly all bareroot plants are dormant ball does not dry out.
deciduous trees or shrubs. Most mail b. When planting B and B stock, place
order plants are barerooted. Many tap the plant in the hole with the burlap
rooted plants, such as nut trees and some intact. See Chapter 16, page 16-4, for
fruit and shade trees, are barerooted be- detailed planting instructions.
cause they are not amenable to balling D. Container Grown Plants
and burlapping. 1. These plants are usually grown in the
2. Plants available in nurseries in early container in which they are sold and are
spring with roots wrapped in damp popular in the nursery trade.
sphagnum moss and packaged in card- 2. Container grown plants can be planted
board or plastic containers are also anywhere B and B plants are planted.
barerooted plants. These need special at- However, because of their appearance,
tention because their roots are tightly gardeners are often misled into thinking
bunched in unnatural positions in order to that these plants need little care. Contain-
force them into the package. er grown plants need the same careful
a. Letting the roots dry out is the single planting and maintenance as other plants.
greatest reason for failure with bare- Proper watering is critical.
root plants. Keep roots in the shade or 3. Container grown plants are removed
wrapped in plastic or wet paper until from the container before planting. See
planting time. Heeling a plant into the Chapter 16, page 16-4, for more detailed
soil is a good way to hold it tempo- planting instructions.
rarily.
b. Discard the sphagnum packing and be V. Watering Considerations
sure to spread the roots out into a natu- A. Variables That Affect Plant Water
ral cone position when planting. Requirements
3. Bareroot plants are planted while they are Slope, exposure, temperature, humidity,
dormant and are well suited to fall or light intensity, wind, ground cover, mulch,
early spring planting. organic matter level, and individual plant
C. Balled and Burlapped (B and B) Plants requirements are variables that affect water
requirements of plants. See Chapter 16,
1. These plants are likely to have grown in
pages 16-2 and 16-3, for more water infor-
nursery rows for some time and have
mation on landscape plants. Irrigating the
been root pruned so that the root system
home vegetable garden is covered in Chap-
within the ball is compact. B and B plants
ter 19, pages 19-12 and 19-13.
often reestablish themselves rapidly.
1. Inadequate watering causes roots to des-
2. B and B method is primarily used for
iccate and die. The top growth will begin
plants that never lose their foliage (ever-
to show abnormal symptoms such as
greens). Examples of B and B plants are
wilting or dry leaf margins.
broadleaf evergreens such as rhododen-
drons or azaleas, and conifers of all 2. To determine if overwatering or under-
types. watering is the problem, take a shovel or
trowel and dig down 8 to 10 inches. An
3. Many deciduous trees and shrubs, which
overly wet condition can be determined
have branching root systems that are eas-
by a simple moisture hand test. An overly
ily contained in a soil ball, are also B and
dry condition is self-evident.
B plants.
3. A soil probe can also be used and will do
4. B and B plants are planted almost any-
the job more quickly and effectively. A
time that the ground can be worked.
soil probe can be made from a 1-inch

6-4
Approximate length 3 feet D. Watering Interval
14 inches 1 inch
Sandy soils will allow water to penetrate
more quickly than will heavy, dense clay
Soil probe
soils. Wetting the entire root zone of a plant
diameter hollow metal tube, diagonally growing in a heavy soil may take hours.
cut at the “drill” end for easy insertion. 1. Sandy loam soil will accept from 1/2 to 3
“Handles” at the opposite end can be inches of water per hour.
made by drilling a hole for or welding on 2. A clay loam may absorb only 1/10 to 3/5
a smaller diameter solid metal rod that of an inch of water per hour.
runs perpendicular through the hollow E. Water Retention
tube to form a “T.”
Although light sandy soils will allow quick
a. Push the probe into the area to be and deep penetration of water, they dry out
tested to a depth of at least 12 inches. more rapidly. Heavy clay soils are more dif-
Remove the probe. A soil profile will ficult to penetrate with water, but once wet,
be trapped inside the probe. they dry out much more slowly than sandy
b. In sampling an area, often five to 20 soils.
soil profile samples are taken. These 1. You will need to irrigate heavy clay soils
are mixed together in a plastic bucket. far less often than light sandy soils. A
From that mixture a portion of soil is general rule is to deep water clay soils to
placed in a plastic bag and sent to a a 12-inch depth once a week and sandy
laboratory for analysis (ask your soils to a 12-inch depth once every 2 to 3
county extension educator for the near- days.
est location). 2. Soils that receive ample amounts of or-
B. Water Penetration ganic matter (OM) annually may have
When plants are watered, the entire root different water retention levels. For ex-
zone should be filled. For trees this may be ample, amended clay soils may accept
two to three times the diameter of the crown water more quickly than the surrounding
for width and 2 feet down for depth. Allow native soil, while amended sandy soils
the soil to partially dry before your next irri- will hold water longer than sandy soils
gation. that have not been amended.
1. How much drying is allowed will depend F. Compaction and Thatch
on the plant species and its size. If the Soils that are compacted or covered with a
soil dries too deeply in vegetable and deep thatch accumulation (in turf) will
flower gardens, wilting will occur. cause water to run off and be wasted.
2. Gardeners must learn how long it takes 1. For compacted areas, such as walkways
the root zones of the various garden across the yard and under the canopy of
plants to be completely moistened. trees, the best treatment is to aerate the
3. Each plant is different. Experimentation soil by removing plugs (core aeration)
is the key. followed by topdressing with a 1/4-inch
C. Soil Type layer of humus or good top soil.
Soil type or texture is a major factor deter- 2. For trees and shrubs, mulching around
mining how much water a soil can hold and them will help reduce future compaction
how quickly a soil can be irrigated. For ex- by cushioning foot traffic and water drop-
ample, 1 inch of water applied to a sandy lets.
soil will penetrate 12 inches, while 1 inch of 3. With compacted landscape soils, adding
water applied to good loam will penetrate 6 1 inch of humus over the surface, or
to 10 inches, and 1 inch of water applied to working it carefully into the top 2 or 3
clay soil will penetrate only 4 to 5 inches. inches of soil, will help restructure the

6-5
is kept sufficiently moist to encourage
roots to grow out into the surrounding
soil. Roots grow where there’s moisture
and, unless the media in the rootball and
planting hole are moist, the roots may
never grow out of the original nursery
soil. In such a situation, plants may girdle
themselves and die.
2. In heavy clay soils, it may be beneficial
to slightly amend (but only 25 percent of)
the backfill soil for improved aeration
and water penetration. Keep in mind that
amending the soil in a planting hole too
much will encourage an interface prob-
lem.
Bulb planters 3. In sandy soils, amending 25 percent of
the backfill will improve nutrient and wa-
surface layers and allow more efficient
ter retention.
water penetration. Using a bulb planter
(see artwork on next page) to add humus 4. Loamy soil types should not be amended.
between plants is also helpful.
VI. Irrigation Method
4. Compacted vegetable garden soil may
need 2 to 4 inches of raw OM incorpo- The irrigation method used to supply supple-
rated each year in the fall to make a dif- mental water to plants will depend upon the
ference. If humus is used, only 1 or 2 water sources available. The method you select
inches is needed. should be based on the least cost and labor re-
quired. Irrigation systems commonly used are
5. In thatchy areas of the lawn, using a
flood, sprinkler, trickle, and drip.
power rake or dethatcher then a wetting
agent to soak through dry organic layers VII. Landscape Water Requirements
of thatch will allow better water penetra-
tion. A thin thatch layer (1/4 to 1/2 inch) A. Plant Water Needs
is beneficial, but if the thatch layer is Plant roots grow in soils that contain suffi-
thicker than one half inch, consider cient moisture. If water is consistently sup-
dethatching. For more information on plied to only the top 2 to 3 inches of soil,
lawns, see Chapter 14. that is where the majority of roots will
G. Interfaces grow.
Interfaces are areas where one soil type
stops and another begins. This can prevent Note: To determine when a sprinkler has put
water from moving laterally through the out 1 to 2 inches of water (an average
soil. Interfaces occur where the soil is al- amount to use per week, if it doesn’t
tered, for example, amended backfill that is rain), simply place several same-sized
added to the transplant hole changes the soup cans at regular intervals starting
original soil. The new medium in the trans- near the sprinkler head and extending
plant hole will be different from the rootball out to the edge of the sprinkler pattern.
soil and the surrounding soil. All three of Take an average of the total amount col-
these soils will pick up and hold water dif- lected (divide the total amount of water
ferently, which can affect root development collected by the number of cans set out)
and plant growth. within the time the sprinkler was on.
1. For newly planted shrubs and trees, make This will help you decide watering pro-
sure that the soil surrounding the rootball cedures in the future.

6-6
B. Deep Watering 1. Water when the top 1/2 inch of soil is
Wetting the soil 12 to 18 inches down will dry. Water long enough to allow moisture
enable the roots of plants to grow further to flow out through the drainage holes.
down. There they can withstand temperature Remove excess water in the drainage dish
extremes and tap into deeper water and nu- to reduce the amount of accumulated fer-
trient reserves. During periods of drought, tilizer salts in the soil.
deep-rooted plants are less likely to be dam- 2. Plants in containers become potbound
aged or killed. quickly and dry out rapidly. If the soil
C. Lawns becomes too dry, it may be necessary to
See Chapter 14, “Turfgrass Establishment soak the entire container in a tub of water
and Management,” pages 14-13 and 14-14. until it is thoroughly wet again.
D. Shrubs and Trees 3. Repot containerized plants when the
roots become crowded. Use a thick wood
Shrubs and trees should be irrigated so that
or clay container for better root insula-
the entire area under the dripline (the area
tion. Plastic and metal containers are not
on the ground that starts at the trunk and ex-
good at insulating root systems.
tends to the end of the branch tips) and be-
yond is watered thoroughly. Tree root sys- 4. Timed drip irrigation may be effective in
tems can extend out two to three times the keeping outdoor containers consistently
size of their crowns! moist.
1. Although the dripline is often referred to,
much of the water and nutrient uptake of
shrubs and trees is accomplished by roots
Further Reading
outside the dripline. Keep this in mind
when applying water and fertilizer. Books
2. Watering woody plants by creating a ba- M. MacCaskey et. al. Complete Guide to Basic Gar-
sin around the trunk is only good for dening. HP Books, Inc., Tucson, AZ.
newly planted stock. As root systems ex- D. Raymond. Garden Way’s Joy of Gardening. Gar-
pand the watered area must also expand. den Way, Inc., Troy, NY.
Watering next to the trunk of large trees A. C. Sinnes. All About Fertilizers, Soils and Water.
does very little for the extensive root sys- Ortho Books, San Francisco, CA.
tem at the dripline and beyond.
3. Shrubs and trees near house foundations, Booklets and Pamphlets
or in southern and western exposures, University of Idaho
need special attention. Because of the CIS 923 Choosing Nursery Stock for
sun’s intensity and the reflected heat Landscaping, Conservation, and
from walls in these locations, these plants Reforestation (35¢)
are subject to greater water stress and BUL 704 Soil Sampling ($2.00)
may need more frequent watering during CIS 990 Water Conservation in the Landscape
hot, sunny weather. (50¢)
E. Vegetables To order University of Idaho publications, contact
See Chapter 19, “Vegetable Culture,” pages your county’s UI Extension office, or write Publica-
19-12 and 19-13. Use mulches whenever tions, University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho 83844-
possible to reduce surface evaporation and 2240, call (208) 885-7982, fax (208) 885-4648, or
weed competition. email: calspubs@uidaho.edu. Idaho residents add 6
F. Containers percent sales tax.
Outdoor containerized plants will have to be
watered several times a day during warm,
sunny periods.

6-7
6-8
Chapter
Backyard Composting
7
I. Introduction 2 V. Using Compost 14

II. The Composting Process 2 A. Benefits of Compost 14
A. Process Basics 2 B. Application 14
B. Decomposers 2 C. Compost Quality 15
C. Factors Affecting the VI. Alternatives to Composting 15
Composting Process 4 A. Grass Recycling 16
III. Composting Methods 7 B. Mulching 16
A. Piles 7 C. Worm Composting 16
B. Bins and Ventilated Containers 7 D. Soil Incorporation 16
C. Barrels and Tumblers 7 VII. Plans for Constructing
IV. Making and Managing Composting Bins 16
a Compost Pile 8 A. Wooden-Pallet Holding Unit 17
A. Materials 8 B. Wire-Mesh Holding Unit 17
B. Additives 9 C. Snow-Fence Holding Unit 17
C. Inoculants 10 D. Wood-and-Wire, Three-Bin
D. Location 10 Turning Unit 17
E. Volume 10 E. Wooden Three-Bin Turning Unit 17
F. Building Compost Piles 10 F. Worm Composting Bin 17
G. Turning 11 G. Concrete-Block Holding Unit 17
H. Moisture Management 12 H. Concrete-Block, Three-Bin
I. Odor Management 12 Turning Unit 18
J. Troubleshooting 12 Further Reading 18
K. Judging When Composting
Is Finished 12

7-1
Chapter 7
Backyard Composting
W. M. Colt, R. Rynk, and J. A. Robbins
W. Michael Colt, Extension Horticulturist Emeriti, Parma Research and Extension Center,
Bob Rynk, Former Extension Waste Management Engineer, and
JoAnn Robbins, Extension Educator, Jerome County, Jerome
I. Introduction B. Decomposers
Composting is the biological decomposition of Decomposers are the microorganisms and in-
organic matter. We practice it to recycle un- vertebrates that accomplish composting. Natu-
wanted organic materials, such as yard trim- rally occurring microorganisms, such as bacte-
mings and food scraps, and to produce com- ria, fungi, and actinomycetes, account for most
post, a valuable soil amendment. Finished of the decomposition, as well as the rise in
compost takes on many of the characteristics temperature that occurs in the compost pro-
of humus, the organic fraction of soil. Like hu- cess. Invertebrate animals, such as mites, milli-
mus, compost improves garden soils and aids pedes, insects, sow bugs, earthworms, and
in plant growth. snails, produce much of the physical decay
While composting occurs naturally, human inter- where the temperature is relatively cool (below
vention can accelerate it. The quality of the 90°F).
compost and the production speed depend Different decomposers prefer different organic
upon several factors that human composters materials and environmental conditions. A di-
can manipulate. verse microbial population represents a healthy
compost pile. If the environment becomes un-
II. The Composting Process suitable for a particular decomposer, that or-
A. Process Basics ganism will become dormant, die, or move to a
Composting is an aerobic, or oxygen-requir- more hospitable area of the pile. Changing
ing, process. The microorganisms and other conditions during the composting process lead
biological decomposers responsible for to an ever-changing ecosystem of decomposer
composting consume oxygen along with the organisms.
organic materials and produce primarily com- 1. Microorganisms: food and water.
post, carbon dioxide, water vapor, and heat a. Bacteria are the workhorses of the com-
(Fig. 1). The heat that is produced raises the post pile. They are the most numerous
temperature of the composting materials. and active decomposers. Bacteria gener-
The oxygen consumed during the process ally prefer moist conditions and attack
must continually be replaced by air movement the easily decomposed materials such as
through the materials. Because the penetration green vegetation, food scraps, and ma-
of air may be inadequate or inconsistent, some nure.
decomposition inevitably occurs under anaero- b. Actinomycetes (a branching type of bac-
bic conditions (without oxygen). Anaerobic teria) and fungi (yeast and molds) attack
decomposition is slower than aerobic decom- the more resistant materials that bacteria
position, produces little heat, and creates odor- use less efficiently. Fungi are particularly
ous byproducts. The challenge for the good at decomposing woody materials.
composter is to minimize anaerobic decompo- These groups of organism are also more
sition by creating and maintaining conditions tolerant of dry conditions than bacteria.
that favor the desired decomposers. They become more important near the
7-2
end of the process when the resistant or- 3. Microorganisms and temperature—Mi-
ganic compounds remain (e.g., cellulose croorganisms are grouped according to
and lignin compounds). The filaments, the temperatures in which they thrive.
molds, and spores formed by fungi and a. Psychrophilic organisms work in the
actinomycetes are often visible in the lowest temperature range and have an
later stages of composting. optimum temperature of about 55°F.
2. Aerobic vs. anaerobic microorganisms. Mesophilic organisms thrive at tem-
a. Aerobic organisms provide the most peratures between 70° and 100°F.
rapid and effective composting. They Thermophilic organisms are heat-lov-
thrive at oxygen levels greater than 5 ing and operate in a range between
percent (fresh air is approximately 21 113° and 155°F. If the temperature
percent oxygen). rises above 140°F, even the thermo-
b. Anaerobic bacteria prevail when oxy- philic microorganisms begin to suffer
gen is scarce. Anaerobic conditions are and decomposition slows.
undesirable in a compost pile because b. Aerobic microorganisms are the most
the decomposition products are often important initiators of decomposition
odorous. For example, a common and temperature rise within the com-
product of anaerobic decomposition is post pile. The initial temperature of the
hydrogen sulfide that smells like rotten compost pile is usually near ambient
eggs. Other odorous anaerobic prod- air temperature. Psychrophilic bacteria
ucts, some with aptly descriptive typically begin the decomposition.
names like “putrescine” or “cadaver- Their activity generates a small
ine,” are formed from organic nitrogen amount of heat that increases pile tem-
compounds. perature. This change in environment
Fig. 1. The composting process.
Carbon
Water Heat
Dioxide
Raw Materials
Organic Matter
Compost
Carbon, Nitrogen, Organic Matter
Other Nutrients Humus
The Minerals
Energy
Protein
Composting Process Water
Minerals Microorganisms
(Microorganisms)
Water
Microorganisms
Oxygen
(Air)

7-3
allows mesophilic organisms to domi- measure of the spaces between par-
nate. In turn, the more rapid decompo- ticles within the compost pile. These
sition by mesophilic bacteria further spaces provide a path for air circula-
increases the pile temperature and cre- tion. Porosity suffers as the compost-
ates an environment for the thermo- ing material becomes wetter because
philes to thrive. Later, as the compost the material in the pile becomes
matures, temperature decreases, meso- heavier and more compacted. Adding
philic bacteria again dominate, and fi- coarse materials, such as leaves, straw,
nally psychrophiles and invertebrates or cornstalks, increases the pile’s po-
return. rosity, resists compaction, and pro-
c. Although microorganisms are the pri- motes good aeration.
mary decomposers in a compost pile, b. Turning: As composting proceeds and
larger organisms also play a significant the materials decompose, they shrink
and beneficial role. Callemacroorgan- in size and begin to settle. Settling re-
isms, invertebrates, or secondary de- duces the pile’s air spaces and restricts
composers, these organisms include aeration. Regular mixing of the pile,
nematodes, flat worms, earthworms, referred to as turning, reverses the ef-
snails, slugs, mites, springtails, beetles, fects of settling.
ants, fly larvae, grubs, centipedes, mil- Although turning recharges the pile
lipedes, and sow bugs. Macroorgan- with fresh air, its main effect is to fluff
isms feed on plant tissue, partially de- up the material. This increases the
composed organic matter, or other or- pile’s porosity and improves natural
ganisms. In the process, they break air circulation. Turning also blends the
particles into smaller pieces, mix and composting materials and breaks apart
transport nutrients, convert materials clumps of materials. Because of these
into forms that microorganisms can benefits, turning speeds the compost-
digest, and add their own byproducts ing process.
and cell tissue to the compost. 2. Moisture—Microorganisms need mois-
Macroorganisms are not tolerate of ture. Water serves as a medium for
thermophilic temperatures. As tem- chemical reactions and provides a means
peratures rise above 90°F, they will for movement of nutrients and microor-
die, become dormant, or escape to the ganisms. On the other hand, too much
soil or cooler sections of the pile. They water makes the materials soggy and
will return after the temperature falls heavy, hindering aeration as explained
to tolerable levels. above.
C. Factors Affecting the Composting Process a. Generally, a moisture content in the
1. Aeration—Rapid aerobic decomposition range of 40 to 60 percent provides ad-
can only occur in the presence of suffi- equate moisture without limiting aera-
cient oxygen. Aeration replaces the oxy- tion. In practice, the acceptable level
gen-deficient air fresh oxygen-rich air of moisture depends on the materials
inside the compost pile. It also removes that you are composting. Coarse or
heat, water vapor, carbon dioxide, and fluffy materials such as leaves or straw
other gaseous products of the composting can be wetter than 60 percent moisture
process. Aeration occurs naturally by dif- content and still aerate well. Absorbent
fusion, wind, and when warm air (heated materials may need to be well above
by the compost process) rises through the 40 percent moisture to compost rapidly.
pile and draws in cool, fresh air from the b. The “squeeze” test is an easy way to
surroundings. gauge the moisture level of compost-
a. Porosity: The compost pile’s porosity ing materials. The material should feel
and moisture content affect air move- damp to the touch, but not dripping
ment through the pile. Porosity is a wet. Water should drip from the mate-
7-4
rial only when you squeeze it tightly in achieve the desired C:N ratio by mix-
your hand. If you can’t squeeze water ing several materials together in appro-
out, the pile is too dry (see Section IV, priate proportions. We refer to the ma-
Subsection H on “Moisture Manage- terials used and their proportions as a
ment,” page 7-12). “recipe.”
3. Carbon-to-nitrogen ratio (browns and
greens)—Microbial decomposers obtain Note: In a backyard or home composting
many nutrients from the composting ma- situation, it is impractical for you to be
terials but carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) precise when developing recipes. You
are the nutrients that affect the process can roughly predict the C:N ratios of
the most. Microorganisms primarily use mixtures from estimated C:N ratios of
carbon compounds as an energy source the ingredients as in Table 1. An easier
and ingest nitrogen for protein. approach is to develop recipes by
a. Because they require a balance of both thinking of carbon sources as
nutrients, the proportion of carbon to “browns” and nitrogen sources as
nitrogen is important when combining “greens” and then combining brown
organic materials to make compost. and green materials in rough propor-
The ideal ratio (C:N) of these two ele- tions. For example, a mix of one to
ments is about 30 parts carbon to 1 three volumes of browns (dry leaves)
part nitrogen by weight. At this 30:1 to one volume of greens (fresh grass
ratio, microorganisms decompose or- clippings) often produces a C:N ratio
ganic material quickly. When the C:N in the 30:1 to 50:1 range.
ratio is higher, the shortage of nitrogen
slows decomposition. When the C:N 4. Surface area and particle size—Most mi-
ratio is too low, excess nitrogen is lost crobial activity occurs along particle sur-
to the atmosphere in the form of am- faces, where oxygen is available from the
monia gas. In concentrated amounts, adjacent air spaces. Because surface area
this can lead to odor problems. Gener- increases as particle size decreases, chop-
ally, C:N ratios within the range of ping, shredding, or cutting material into
20:1 to 50:1 yield good compost in a smaller pieces usually speeds decomposi-
reasonable time without odor problems. tion. There is a limit to this benefit.
Smaller particles also decrease the pore
b. Most composting materials, by them-
size and structure and restricts aeration.
selves, do not contain C and N in the
Therefore, some compromise is neces-
right ratio (Table 1). Still, you can
sary. Usually a mixture of particles in the
Table 1. Typical carbon to nitrogen ratios of selected range of 1/8 inch to 2 inches (in the larg-
home composting materials.* est dimension) gives good results.
Material C:N ratio 5. Degradability—The nature of the materi-
als largely determines the speed at which
BROWNS Dry leaves 60:1
composting occurs. Not all organic mate-
Corn stalks 60:1
rials decompose at the same rate.
Straw 80:1
Shrub trimmings 50:1 a. Overall, microorganisms easily digest
Waste paper 400:1 materials made from sugars, starches,
Wood (sawdust, shavings, etc.) 500:1 proteins, and fats such as food scraps,
GREENS Grass clippings 17:1 manure, and green vegetation. Typi-
Kitchen scraps 15:1 cally, nitrogen-rich materials or
Vegetable culls 12:1 “greens” are the first to decompose in
Cattle manure 18:1 the composting process.
b. Materials such as straw and plant
*These values are only approximations. The C:N ratio of any of
these materials varies considerably from one source to the next
stems contain a large amount of cellu-
and as the materials age. lose that takes longer to decompose.
7-5
Woody materials contain a biologi- You can easily measure temperatures
cally resistant compound called lignin. in your home compost pile with a dial
Raw wood products, including saw- thermometer with a 12-inch stem
dust, are particularly difficult to de- (available from garden stores and cata-
compose biologically and pass through logs). You also can use the clues in
the composting process with little Table 2 to judge the temperature level.
change. Paper, a wood derivative, de- b. Home composting piles tend to be
composes relatively fast because of the small and are frequently short of nitro-
processing it receives in the papermak- gen. Therefore, if high temperatures
ing process. You can improve the (above 120°F) are reached at all, they
degradability of a biologically-resis- are usually sustained for only short pe-
tant material by reducing its particle riods of time. Piles typically get hot
size and ensuring that adequate soon after adding a large load of green
amounts of nitrogen and water are material, such as grass clippings, and
available. then gradually cool. High temperatures
6. Temperature—Heat, generated by micro- have the advantage of killing patho-
organisms, raises the temperature of the genic organisms and weed seeds.
compost pile. Depending on the pile size, Moderate temperature also result in
moisture content, and the material that effective composting, however. It is
you are composting, pile temperatures not important to achieve high tempera-
will rise temporarily to 100° to 120°F and tures if the materials being composted
may even surpass 160°F. Temperatures are not diseased and do not contain
between 90° and 140°F promote rapid many seeds.
composting. Microbial activity decreases 7. Time—Depending on the composting
as the temperatures reach 140°F or method, materials, and conditions, it can
higher. Many of the organisms die when take several weeks to several years to
temperatures exceed 160°F. produce finished compost. Methods that
a. Because microbial activity and the involve little or no turning usually require
heat generated are related directly, more than a year to produce mature com-
temperature is a useful guide in under- post. With regular turning, adequate
standing how well composting is pro- moisture, and a good mixture of carbon
gressing. Rising temperatures reflect (brown) and nitrogen (green) materials,
increased microbial activity. Warm, compost is ready for use in 3 to 4 months.
steady temperatures indicate steady With daily turnings and highly degrad-
activity. Falling temperatures suggest able material, you can reduce the
that the compost microbial activity is composting time to less than a month.
decreasing, either because the compost Frequent turning is of little benefit if you
is maturing or because a problem, such are using slow decomposing materials or
as lack of oxygen or moisture, exists. if the C:N ratio is high (too many
browns). These materials need
Table 2. Indirect clues of compost pile temperature level*. time, more than oxygen, to de-
compose.
Clue Temperature level
Because an immature compost
Material is frozen beneath the surface Frozen—little activity can cause damage to plants, it
Pile feels cold, colder than the surrounding air Low—slow rate of composting is best to be conservative in
Pile feels warm, not hot Moderate—rapid composting judging when composting is
Pile is steaming and hot to the touch High—rapid composting finished (see Section IV, Sub-
Pile is hot to the touch and the material inside section K, “Judging When
of the pile looks or smells charred Too high—undesirable Composting Is Finished,” page
*These are rough guidelines. Actual conditions depend on factors such as pile size, materi- 7-12).
als, and composting stage.

7-6
III. Composting Methods serve as holding units and holding bins can
The container and the manner and frequency be turned.
of turning characterize backyard composting 1. Holding bins—Generally made of light
methods. Common backyard methods include materials, holding bins are easy to take
piles, bins, ventilated containers, and rotating apart and move. Once the bin is apart,
barrels you can turn or harvest the finished
A. Piles compost. Common bin materials in-
1. A freestanding pile or heap is the sim- clude circles of wire fencing or hard-
plest form of composting, and it works ware cloth, old wooden pallets tied to-
very well. You can add materials to the gether, snow fencing, or wire mesh
pile as they become available or stockpile framed in wood. You can make sta-
until you have sufficient materials to tionary bins with wooden slats or by
make a good sized heap. In either case, it stacking together landscape timbers,
is helpful to have two or three piles—one concrete blocks, or rocks. In all cases,
for fresh material, another in the active the bin should allow air flow through
composting stage, and possibly a third for the sides and back. Aeration aids will
maturing compost. To generate enough improve air circulation. Examples in-
heat to raise the pile temperature, an ac- clude pallets, placing aeration mats or
tively composting pile should be 3 to 5 branches under piles and branches, or in-
feet wide and at least 3 feet high. Larger serting perforated pipes or wire tubes ver-
piles retain heat better, but as piles grow tically into the composting materials.
in height they become more difficult to Several manufactured holding bins are
aerate. available. Some are intended to compost
2. You can turn piles regularly or not at all. food scraps. Most of these are closed con-
A pitch fork is the typical turning device, tainers with air vents in the sides. Others
although you can use other tools to have vents only at the bottom and top of
loosen the pile. If the pile receives little the bin. These bins are not designed to
or no turning, then add highly degradable maintain aerobic conditions completely.
materials only in moderation. They control odors by enclosing the ma-
terials—and the odor—inside the con-
B. Bins and Ventilated Containers
tainer. Yard trimmings and food scraps
Bins are managed in almost the same man- are added at the top, and compost is re-
ner as piles. Compared to piles, bins more moved from the bottom.
neatly contain the composting materials and
2. Turning bins—Turning units contain
allow you to stack them higher. Certain
the composting materials while provid-
types of bins also discourage animal pests
ing easy access for turning. Materials
and keep rain away from the composting
are either turned in place or shifted
materials. See pages 7-16,17,18 for the wide
back and forth between adjacent bins.
variety of bins that you can use. They differ
Turning bins are similar to the stationary
in cost, construction materials, ventilation,
holding bins described above, but with
and ease of turning. Some bins are expen-
features such as an open side, removable
sive or require effort to build while others
walls, and multiple bins. Turning units
need little assembly and may even be free.
with a series of three bins are popular.
Backyard composting bins are sometimes Similar to the three-pile system, one bin
grouped into two basic categories: (1) hold- contains fresh material, the second ac-
ing units that let the materials decompose tively composted material, and the third
undisturbed, and (2) turning units that allow holds maturing compost.
regular turning of the composting material.
C. Barrels and Tumblers
The distinction between holding and turning
bins easily becomes blurred. Some struc- Rotating barrels or drums turn the materials
tures typically used for turning often can inside as they spin like a clothes dryer (via a

7-7
hand crank) or tumble end-over-end. There Without turning, composting takes 6 months to
are many manufactured models, although 2 years. You can make excellent-quality com-
you can make rotating barrels yourself. One post either way.
commercial model uses a solar-powered A. Materials
electric motor to continuously rotate the Almost all natural organic materials will de-
drum. Some drums and multisided tumblers compose, but not everything belongs in the
are designed to be rolled along the ground. backyard compost pile as you can see in
All of these composting units include some Table 3. Generally, you can compost garden
means of aeration plus loading and unload- vegetation, landscape trimmings, and most
ing features. Because you must load the bar- plant-derived food scraps without concern.
rels in batches, it is necessary to store fresh
1. It is prudent to avoid composting plants
materials. As an alternative, you can use
harboring disease, or treated with persis-
two drums—while one drum is composting,
tent herbicides, or carrying many seeds
the other is being loaded with fresh mate-
and insects. Also, it is a good idea to
rial. Given a large enough batch of material,
keep out certain noxious weeds, includ-
rotating barrels should generate high tem-
ing morning glories (bindweed), and
peratures.
grasses (such as quackgrass) with rhizo-
The idea behind rotating barrels is to make matous root systems. Backyard compost
turning effortless. Therefore, the material piles do not reliably produce the high
will be turned more often and decompose temperatures necessary to thoroughly kill
faster. Several manufactur-
ers claim their product can Table 3. Materials that you should and should not compost (adapted
produce finished compost 2 from NRAES-43, “Composting to Reduce the Waste Stream”).
weeks (although 1 month is
YES NO
a more realistic goal). In
order to achieve quick Aquatic plants Oily foods (attract pests)
composting, other factors Bread Butter
including easily degraded Branches—chipped Bones
and shredded materials, Brush—chipped Cheese
proper moisture, and C:N Coffee grounds Fish scraps
ratios must accompany the Corn cobs Lard
benefits of frequent turning. Cut flowers Mayonnaise
Egg shells Meat and poultry
IV. Making and Managing a Evergreen needles Peanut butter
Compost Pile Fruit Salad dressing
Composting is a natural and Fruit peels and rinds Sour cream
flexible process. It will take Garden trimmings Vegetable oil
place under a wide range of Grass clippings
conditions and methods regard- Leaves Possible sources of disease and weeds
less of either the efforts or ne- Manure—cattle, horse, rabbit Cat manure
glect of human composters. Paper Dog manure
Nevertheless, good manage- Sawdust Diseased plants
ment helps the process along Straw Plants with rhizomatous roots
and minimizes nuisances. Man- Sod Plants with severe insect infestation
agement determines how soon Tea leaves and bags Weeds that have gone to seed
the compost is produced. For Vegetables
example, turning a compost Vegetable trimmings and tops Possible sources of toxins
pile weekly can yield compost Weeds without seeds Black walnut leaves
in 1 to 2 months, with adequate Wood ash Cedar chips, bark, branches
moisture content and a good Wood chips Grass treated with persistent herbicides
combination of materials. Wool waste

7-8
rhizomes, weed seeds, and plant diseases. 1. Lime—Rarely helpful to the composting
For the same reason, do not add cat and process, lime is added sometimes to neu-
dog manure, which may contain patho- tralize acidic materials and organic acids
gens, to backyard piles. Avoid adding formed during composting. The effect of
fatty and oily foods because they tend to these acidic conditions, however, is sel-
attract animal pests (rodents, skunks, dom damaging. Composting decompos-
dogs, and cats). Also, oily foods are ers can work at a relatively low ph
quick to decompose and may generate (acidic) and further decomposition tends
odors. to push the pH toward neutral. Lime also
2. Another group of materials to be cautious encourages ammonia loss, especially if
about are those that may contain natural the C:N ratio is low (a lot of greens).
or manufactured compounds that are 2. Wood ash—Although wood ash adds
toxic to either plants or the composting mineral nutrients to the compost, it has
decomposers. Examples include grass little effect on the composting process.
and vegetation containing persistent her- Like lime, wood ash increases pH and
bicides, leaves from black walnut trees, encourages ammonia loss. Usually, the
and cedar wood. Even if these materials composting process is not adversely af-
decompose, the compost might retain fected by the amount of wood ash that a
some of the toxins. If you want to com- household wood stove generates.
post these materials, segregate them from 3. Inorganic fertilizers—Because backyard
the other materials. Also, use the compost composting piles usually lack nitrogen,
only where the toxins will not have a inorganic fertilizers tend to speed the
negative effect. For example, use composting process. The compost is not
composted walnut leaves as mulch for greatly affected. Inorganic fertilizers
walnut trees or use herbicide-treated should be dissolved in water and mixed
grass compost as lawn top-dressing. into the compost pile. You can only ap-
3. The degradability of materials is also a proximate the correct amount of fertilizer
consideration. Highly degradable materi- to add. For example, a pile of dry leaves
als such as grass clippings, food scraps, generally requires about 2.4 ounces of
and manure, require more turning and at- nitrogen per bushel (about 4 cubic feet).
tention (see odor control). Slowly degrad- Table 4 lists the corresponding amount of
able materials need shredding and time various types of fertilizers. Use less fer-
for composting, even with regular turn- tilizer as you add more greens to the pile.
ing. Chop or shred before composting If you add too much fertilizer, nitrogen
branches, plant stems, and other thick or will be lost to the atmosphere as ammo-
large particles of material. The less de- nia or leached from the pile into the
gradable a material is, the more important ground. In part, this occurs because the
shredding becomes. Also, chop whole
pieces of fruit and vegetables to break the Table 4. Amount of various nitrogen sources needed
protective barrier of the skin or peel. to supply 2.4 ounces of nitrogen (adapted
B. Additives from NRAES-43, “Composting To Reduce
the Waste Stream”).
Some composters add lime, wood ash, inor-
ganic fertilizers, and organic nutrient Percent Ounces of
Nitrogen source nitrogen fertilizer
sources into compost piles to enhance the
compost or the composting process. These Ammonium nitrate 33 7.0
additives are not necessary to composting. Calcium nitrate 15 16.0
Depending on the compost pile conditions, Urea 46 5.2
they may speed the process or provide no Dried blood 12 20.0
benefit at all. Fish meal 10 24.0

7-9
nitrogen from fertilizer is available to the rule, the minimum pile or bin dimensions
decomposers more quickly than the car- should be 3 by 3 feet at the base and 3 feet
bon from the organic materials. high. Piles and bins that are larger than 5
4. Organic nutrient sources—Concentrated feet high or 5 feet wide are difficult to aer-
organic sources of nitrogen such as ma- ate and require more turning.
nures, dried blood, fish meal, fish emul- Pile volume is most important during the
sion, and cottonseed meal are better cold season. Therefore, start new piles in the
sources of nitrogen. Compared to inor- summer and gradually enlarge them as win-
ganic fertilizers, these sources release ni- ter approaches.
trogen that more closely matches the F. Building Composting Piles
availability of organic carbon. You can construct compost piles gradually
C. Inoculants from the ground up by adding material as
Soil, vegetation, food scraps, compost, and they become available, and in batches by
the environment contain the desired organ- stockpiling materials until you have accu-
isms in ample quantities to start the com- mulated a certain amount. This is rarely an
posting process. Some composters claim to either/or choice—a pile or bin can grow
see faster composting after using inoculants. both gradually and in batches. Adding fresh
Others have found no difference. In any material in large quantities is more likely to
case, inoculants, activators, or compost produce high temperatures but it also in-
starters are not necessary. creases the chance of odors and requires
D. Location more turning.
The pile should not be in contact with trees, 1. Mixing or layering ingredients—The
wooden fences, and buildings because the most important task in constructing a pile
compost will accelerate wood decay and is to mix together the appropriate ingredi-
metal corrosion. Also, spontaneous combus- ents, including water. Blend brown and
tion (self-ignited fire) within a backyard green ingredients well for microorgan-
composting pile is a remote yet possible isms to obtain a balance of both carbon
danger. and nitrogen. Some composters add ma-
1. Shelter—A sheltered location is an asset terials without mixing and rely on subse-
because wind both cools and dries the quent turnings to blend the ingredients.
pile. Direct sunlight can be undesirable. Others add brown and green materials in
Although it provides warmth in the win- successive layers, 3 to 6 inches thick,
ter, sunlight dries the pile in the summer. with the first and last layers consisting of
coarse brown materials as in Fig. 2. An-
2. Water—The location should provide ac-
other variation intersperses layers of soil,
cess to water as you will need to water
fertilizer, or manure among the brown
piles frequently during the summer. You
and green layers. Layering provides an
are more likely to keep piles moist if the
easy and visual way to proportion materi-
water source is convenient—for example,
als. The layers, however, make a poor
within reach of a garden hose. Avoid
blend of materials. Turning is necessary
poorly drained locations that gather
to mingle the brown and green materials
standing water because materials will be-
together.
come waterlogged.
2. Burying materials—When adding to
3. Space—Finally, the location should pro-
piles continuously, bury materials (cer-
vide enough space to turn the pile and to
tain food scraps) that might attract flies
stockpile raw materials and finished com-
and pests 6 inches beneath the surface of
post, if necessary.
open piles and bins. If the pile is not dry
E. Volume or frozen, the material will partially de-
A pile or bin should be large enough to gen- compose in 1 to 2 weeks. Then you can
erate and hold in heat, yet small enough to turn the pile as desired. When adding
allow air to reach its center. As a general food materials in large quantities, mix
7 - 10
them into the pile, cover them, and then There are few hard-and-fast rules for turn-
turn the pile a week or so later. If you are ing composting materials. You can do it on
using enclosed bins and barrels, you do a regular schedule (weekly), when you add
not need to bury materials. fresh materials, occasionally at your conve-
3. Insulating the pile—Placing a layer of nience, or in response to the pile’s condi-
coarse material at the base of piles and tions. Turn piles according to the following
bins improves aeration and insulates guidelines.
them from the colder ground. The base 1. To speed the process and promote high
layer also absorbs liquids that may leak temperatures—In most cases, the more
from above. Appropriate materials in- often you turn a pile, the faster it com-
clude dry leaves, corn stalks, straw, wood posts. Therefore, the pile is more likely to
chips, and compost. You also can use achieve high temperatures. Turning is ef-
these materials to cover the surface of fective with moderately to highly degrad-
piles. A 3- to 6-inch outer layer protects able materials. It has limited effect on
piles from heat and moisture loss and slowly degradable materials.
helps to contain odors. 2. To blend materials—Turn piles when
G. Turning materials are poorly-mixed, when differ-
Although turning is not essential to back- ent sections of the pile show differences
yard composting, it performs several benefi- in consistency, color, moisture, tempera-
cial functions. It improves aeration by in- ture, or odor.
creasing porosity and charging the pile with 3. To cool the materials—Turn piles when
fresh air. It also blends materials, breaks temperatures become too high (above
apart particles, and removes heat, water va- 140°F).
por, and other gases contained in the pile. 4. To aerate materials—Turn piles when
Turning speeds the process and helps in odors begin to develop (see Subsection I
managing temperature, moisture, and odors. on “Odor Management” on page 7-12) or
Fig. 2. Building compost piles by layering.

7 - 11
when other signs of anaerobic conditions terial as green, and generally maintain good
appear such as an unexpected tempera- pile porosity.
ture drop or compacted, matted, or slimy- 1. Degradable materials—Highly degrad-
looking materials. able materials such as grass, manure, and
5. To drive off moisture—Turn piles when food scraps require particular attention.
the materials become saturated from rain Mix the materials thoroughly within the
or with the addition of wet materials. pile. If you add these materials in large
6. To add moisture—Turn piles when add- quantities (more than one-quarter of the
ing water. Otherwise, water is difficult to pile volume), then turn the pile regularly.
distribute throughout the pile. Unturned piles and holding bins do not
H. Moisture Management provide the air flow needed to aerobically
decompose large quantities of grass, ma-
1. Lack of moisture—The most common
nure, and food. If turning is not practical
ailment of composting piles in arid cli-
or if odors are a sensitive problem, it may
mates is lack of moisture. Without sub-
be best to avoid composting these materi-
stantial rain, you must add water to piles
als.
(perhaps weekly) to keep the process go-
ing. The more you turn a pile, the more 2. Correcting odors—The remedy for an
water you should add. You can reduce odorous pile is to supply more oxygen by
moisture loss by decreasing the turning turning and by increasing the pile’s po-
frequency, sheltering piles from wind and rosity (e.g, adding course brown materi-
sun, increasing pile size, and using bins als). Disturbing the pile will release the
with covers and small ventilation open- odorous compounds, so the odor may be-
ings. come more intense for a brief period. If a
pile develops strong odors, turning it
2. Too much water—A less frequent prob-
might aggravate the nuisance. You can
lem, you should turn piles that are too
allow the odorous pile to decompose un-
wet to distribute water within the pile and
disturbed and the odors should gradually
to encourage evaporation.
dissipate. Do not add water or fresh mate-
3. Moisture test—Although the surface of rial except for an insulating, odor-absorb-
the pile appears dry, the materials a few ing layer of course dry materials on the
inches below should look and feel damp. surface. Instead, start a new pile. When
Use the squeeze test to test for adequate the odorous pile becomes tolerable, turn
moisture (see Section II, Subsection C-2 it and combine it with a new pile.
on page 7-4). If the pile needs water, add
J. Troubleshooting
it with a trickle hose or sprinkler. Be-
cause water moves slowly through the The most prevalent problem associated with
mass of composting materials, turn the backyard composting is slow decomposi-
compost while adding the water. To con- tion. The first suspected cause is excessive
serve fresh water, you can routinely add drying of piles, followed closely by a lack
“used” water from certain household (for of nitrogen (not enough fresh green mate-
example, water from washing or cooking rial). Poor aeration caused by wet or com-
vegetables) and garden activities. pacted materials, also can hinder the
composting rate. In this case, odors may ac-
I. Odor Management
company the problem. Other occasional dif-
Most backyard composting materials ficulties include pests, ammonia-like odors,
present little odor risk. Still, odors can occur and extremely high temperatures. See Table
as a result of neglect or the wrong combina- 5 for troubleshooting guidelines.
tion of materials and conditions. The best
K. Judging When Composting Is Finished
way to manage odors is to avoid anaerobic
conditions—keep the pile from becoming Composting does not stop at a particular
too wet, turn at the first hint of odors, main- point. Biological decomposition of the raw
tain a mix with at least as much brown ma- materials and the compost continues almost

7 - 12
indefinitely. The compost becomes usable, point is part of the art of composting. Signs
and we consider the process finished when of mature compost include the following:
the decomposition rate slows to the point 1. The expected composting time period has
that the compost will not create odors nor elapsed since you last added materials to
adversely affect plants as it continues to de- the pile (see Section II, Subsection C-7
compose. Judging when the pile reaches this on page 7-6).
Table 5. Troubleshooting guidelines for home composting piles.

Problem Possible causes Clues Remedy
Rotten odor Anaerobic conditions Pile feels and looks soggy. Turn pile and/or mix in dry
because of excess moisture materials.
Anaerobic conditions Pile looks dense, matted, or Turn pile and/or mix in
because of poor porosity slimy with few or no large course brown materials—
and compaction rigid particles. straw, chipped wood, etc.
Ammonia odor Too much nitrogen; not Pile includes a lot of grass, Mix in more brown carbon-
enough carbon food, or manure rich material—leaves,
sawdust, etc.
Slow decomposition Not enough moisture Pile is barely damp to dry Add water and/or wet
inside. materials and turn pile.
Not enough nitrogen, or There is an abundance of Add green material or
slowly degradable materials brown materials in the pile nitrogen fertilizer, or shred
—wood, leaves, etc. and materials, or be patient—it
the pile is not dry. will happen.
Not enough oxygen— Pile is dense, looks matted Turn pile. Add course or dry
anaerobic conditions or slimy with hint of rotten material as needed.
odor.
Pile is cold—small volume Pile is less than 3 ft high Add fresh material and turn
and the weather is near pile. Increase pile size.
freezing.
Pile is totally frozen Frozen clumps within the Wait for spring, and then
pile turn.
Compost is mature Pile conditions are good. None needed
Not reaching high Small volume Pile is less than 3 ft high. Increase pile size.
temperatures (over 120°F) Not enough nitrogen Pile is more than 3 ft high. Add green material or
Weather is above freezing. nitrogen fertilizer.
Cold weather Pile is more than 3 ft high; Insulate surface of pile with
below freezing weather. compost, straw, leaves, etc.
Pile is too hot (over 140°F) Pile is too large Pile is more than 5 ft high. Divide into smaller piles.
Not enough air flow—poor Pile is less than 5 ft high, Turn pile. Decrease pile
ventilation but fairly dense and moist. size.
Pile is becoming too dry. Pile is less than 5 ft high Add water and turn pile.
Not enough evaporative and only slightly damp.
cooling
Pests attracted to compost Exposed food scraps Food scraps at or near the Bury food 6 inches beneath
pile (flies, bees, dogs, cats, pile surface the pile surface.
rodents, skunks, etc.) Meat, fish, or oily foods in Evidence of digging in the Remove food from pile, or
the pile pile turn into the pile center, or
use a pest-proof compost-
ing bin.

7 - 13
2. The pile of compost is consistent and has 3. Attracts beneficial soil organisms—Com-
a dark brown color, crumbly texture, and post contains a large and diverse popula-
earthy odor. tion of biological organisms plus organic
3. Except for pieces of wood, the compost matter that attracts earthworms and other
shows little evidence of the original yard beneficial soil organisms. These traits
trimmings and food scraps added to the contribute to compost’s ability to sup-
pile. press certain soilborne plant disease.
4. The moist pile remains cool and does not 4. Contains trace mineral and plant nutri-
become warmer after turning. ents—Although compost is not normally
5. Earthworms and other invertebrates have considered a fertilizer, it does contain
inhabited the compost pile. trace minerals and small quantities of ma-
jor plant nutrients. The amounts of nutri-
6. The moist compost does not develop of-
ents depend on the materials composted.
fensive or stale odors when stored in a
Typically composts made from yard trim-
closed plastic bag at room temperature
mings have N concentrations in the range
for 2 weeks.
of 0.5 to 1 percent with P and K ranging
from 0.2 to 0.5 percent. Most of the nitro-
Note: Unfortunately, an unfinished compost
gen and phosphorus are released slowly,
can exhibit some of these traits. There-
over a period of several years, and in a
fore, be sure several of these signs (the
pattern that tends to follow the growth
more, the better) are present before
patterns of plants.
harvesting the compost. To be safe,
allow the compost to cure in small B. Application
piles, about 3 feet high, for a month or See Table 6 for general guidelines for ap-
two after you judge the process to be plying compost. Because we use compost
complete. primarily as a soil amendment and not as a
fertilizer, the amount of compost you apply
is not critical. As a rule, use more compost
V. Using Compost for poorer soils.
Use compost as a soil amendment for flower 1. As a mulch or top-dressing—You can
and vegetable gardens, as a mulch around trees apply compost continually as a mulch or
and shrubs, as a top-dressing for lawns, and as top-dressing for gardens and lawns. The
a component of potting soil. Most compost organic matter and nutrients will gradu-
will greatly benefit plants, but unfinished com- ally work their way into the soil.
post, or compost stored under anaerobic condi-
2. As a soil amendment—The best time to
tions, can harm seedlings or sensitive plants.
add compost as a soil amendment is
Therefore, compost quality is important.
when you prepare the garden bed or lawn
A. Benefits of Compost surface before planting. Mix the compost
1. Improves soil structure—The addition of with soil to at least three times the depth
compost gives soil a crumbly texture and of the thickness of the compost layer that
increases the soil’s porosity so that plant you are applying. For example, mix a 1-
roots can more easily penetrate it. When inch thick layer of compost into the top 3
mixed with a sandy soil, compost adds to 4 inches of soil; mix a 2-inch layer to a
moisture and nutrient holding capacity. In depth of 6 inches or more. If only a small
heavy clay soil, compost particles bind amount of compost is available, incorpo-
with clay particles to form loose aggre- rate it in seed furrows or mix it with soil
gates of soil that drain better and resist for each annual or perennial plant’s trans-
surface crusting and erosion. plant hole following the 1 to 3 compost-
2. Buffers pH changes—Most composts to-soil ratio.
have a near-neutral pH and the ability to 3. As a potting mix—Compost should not
buffer pH changes in the soil. comprise more than one-third of the pot-

7 - 14
ting mix by volume. A popular compost- 2. Cure compost before using—Immature
based mix is one part peat moss, one part compost and compost produced or stored
vermiculite or perlite, and one part com- under anaerobic conditions may contain
post, by volume. organic acids and alcohols that can harm
C. Compost Quality plants. These conditions are not common
1. Quality depends on use—The required in backyard composting because piles and
qualities of a compost depend on its in- bins tend to be small. Nevertheless, it is
tended use. Compost intended as a top- wise to cure mature compost for a month
dressing for lawns should not have par- or more before using it. Store or cure
ticles greater than 1/4-inch in size. It is compost in piles that are relatively
often necessary to pass a top-dressing short—3 feet or less. If you have stored
compost through a 1/4-inch screen. Com- compost in a large pile, spread it on the
post used as a soil amendment can have ground and allow it to air out for a day or
large particles but should not contain a more (the longer, the better). Maturity
high percentage of wood. Soil microor- and other quality factors become increas-
ganisms compete with the garden plants ingly important if you use the compost in
for nitrogen as they decompose the re- a more concentrated manner. For ex-
maining wood. Gardens that are amended ample, compost used in potting mixes re-
with wood compost require extra applica- quires closer scrutiny than compost used
tions of nitrogen fertilizer. Compost that as a soil amendment.
looks and feels more like a collection of VI. Alternatives to Composting
small wood chips than soil is better suited
Composting is not the only way to make good
as a mulch than a soil amendment. Make
use of home and garden residues. Worm com-
this judgment after mixing the compost
posting produces a high quality soil amendment
because small particles tend to settle to
via a different biological process. Grass recy-
the bottom of undisturbed compost piles
cling, soil incorporation, and mulching are
leaving a blanket of wood particles on the
other ways to recycle garden and food residues
surface.
without the management demands of composting.
Table 6. Guidelines for applying compost.
Approximate Equivalent
application rate thickness
Landscape use (lb per 1,000 sq ft) of compost Comments
Soil amendment for gardens and 3,000 to 9,000 1 to 3 inches Mix with soil to a depth of about
lawn establishment 4 to 9 inches. Use more
compost for poor soils.
Soil amendment for planting trees 3,000 to 9,000 1 to 3 inches Mix with soil over an area of
and shrubs 2 to 5 times the root ball width
and to a depth of 6 to 10 inches.
Use more for poor soils.
Top-dressing for lawns 400 to 800 1/8 to 1/4 inch Broadcast evenly over lawn
surface. Best applied after
thatching or core aerifying.
Top-dressing for gardens 400 to 1,500 1/8 to 1/2 inch Spread evenly then lightly
and shrubs work into the soil.
Landscape or garden mulch 1,500 to 6,000 1/2 to 2 inches Spread evenly over surface.
Use the higher rate with coarse
woody composts.
Potting mix Not more than Blend with peat moss, sand,
one-third by volume perlite, vermiculite, or bark.
Helpful numbers: A 1-inch deep layer covering 1,000 square feet requires about 3 cubic yards of compost.
Compost weighs about 30 to 40 pounds per cubic foot (about 800 to 1,000 pounds per cubic yard).

7 - 15
A. Grass Recycling bedding materials include shredded paper,
Usually, the compost pile is not the best straw, peat moss, and sawdust. Worms work
destination for grass clippings. The simplest best at temperatures between 50° and 70°F
way to recycle grass clippings is to leave (10°- 20°C), so a basement or other cool
them on the lawn. This benefits the lawn by space is a good location for a worm bin. If
returning nutrients and organic matter to the the bin freezes or gets too hot, the worms
soil. This alternative also keeps herbicide- die. You can harvest and use the compost
treated grass out of the compost pile. when the bin contents become fairly uni-
“Grasscycling” works best with proper form, dark, and soil-like in texture. This
mowing, fertilizing, and watering practices. usually takes 3 to 6 months.
B. Mulching D. Soil Incorporation
You can use many organic residues from the Incorporating food scraps into the soil is an
home, garden, or landscape as mulches with alternative method for recycling nonfatty
little or no decomposition or preprocessing. food scraps. Within a month to a year, the
Placing organic mulches on the soil surface food material will decompose to fertilize
controls weeds, reduces evaporation, lessens established or future plantings. The time pe-
soil erosion, and moderates the soil tem- riod depends on the soil temperature, the
perature (keeps it cooler in the summer, number of organisms in the soil, and the
warmer in the winter). Types of yard trim- carbon content of the food. Chop the food
mings that you can use as mulches include scraps, mix with the soil at the bottom of an
grass clippings, leaves, pine needles, and 8- to 12-inch deep hole or trench, and cover
chipped branches and shrub-trimmings. All completely with clean soil. One system of
of these materials are suitable for surface soil incorporation rotates garden space
mulching around trees, shrubs, and other among food trenches, rows of crops, and
perennial plantings. walkways as in Fig. 3. Soil incorporation is
Shred leaves with a lawn mower or com- difficult, if not impractical, during the win-
mercial shredder before using them as a ter when ground is frozen or snow covered.
mulch. Unshredded leaves tend to limit wa- VII. Plans for Constructing Composting Bins
ter and oxygen movement into the soil. Ap-
You can make compost bins from readily
ply fresh grass clippings in layers that are
available materials. Types of enclosures in-
not more than 1 inch thick. Otherwise they
clude woven-wire fencing (hog wire, chicken
will mat together and limit air movement. A
wire, chain link), wood-slat fencing (snow
brief period of composting or drying can
fence), cement blocks, bricks, or scrap lumber.
approve the appearance and performance of
several mulching materials including leaves,
Fig. 3. Soil incorporation of food scraps—rotating-
grass clippings, and chipped wood.
trench method.
;;;;
;;
;
C. Worm Composting A B C
Worm composting, or vermicomposting, Food and Soil
in Trench
;;;
relies on worms to digest food scraps, paper,
manure, and vegetation. In the process the Walking Plants
Year 1 Space
worms leave behind castings that form a
;;;
high-quality soil amendment called Food and Soil
“vermicompost.” The type of worms used
;;; ;
in Trench
Walking
are red worms, not common soil dwelling Plants
Space
;;;
worms. Year 2
;;;
Worms need a dark, cool, moist, and aero- Food and Soil
bic environment. Therefore, mix food and in Trench
;;;
Walking
“bedding” in shallow layers in closed boxes Space Plants
or bins to compost. The bedding provides a Year 3
light, airy habitat for the worms. Typical A B C

7 - 16
A. Wooden-Pallet Holding Unit
You can build an inexpensive compost bin
with wooden pallets or pressure-treated
lumber. Used pallets are available from
manufacturers and landfills.
Snow-fence
holding unit
D. Wood-and-Wire, Three-Bin Turning Unit

You can use a wood-and-wire, three-bin
holding unit to compost large amounts of
yard, garden, and kitchen wastes in a short
Wooden-pallet time. Relatively inexpensive to build, it is
holding unit sturdy, attractive, and should last a long
time.
B. Wire-Mesh Holding Unit E. Wooden Three-Bin Turning Unit
Use either galvanized chicken wire or hard- This turning unit is a permanent, sturdy
ware cloth to build an inexpensive wire- structure made of pressure-treated lumber.
mesh holding unit. (You also can use
F. Worm Composting Bin
nongalvanized chicken wire, but it won’t
last very long.) Posts provide more stability Worm composting is a suitable option for
for a chicken wire bin, but make the bin dif- apartment buildings or homes with no yard
ficult to move. A wire-mesh bin without space. The worms stay in the bin and eat
posts is easy to lift and provides access to household scraps, and the bin gives off little
the already “done” compost at the bottom of odor.
the pile.
Worm
composting bin
Wire-mesh
holding unit G. Concrete-Block Holding Unit
A concrete-block holding unit is sturdy, du-
C. Snow-Fence Holding Unit rable, and easily accessible. Leave about 1/2
inch between each block to let in air. Stag-
A snow-fence holding unit is simple to
ger the blocks and drive wooden or metal
make. It works best with four posts pounded
posts through the holes in the blocks to sta-
into the ground for support.
bilize the bin.

7 - 17
Concrete-block, three-bin turning unit
H. Concrete-Block, Three-Bin Turning Unit Dindal, D. 1976. Ecology of Compost—A Public In-
A concrete-block turning unit looks like volvement Project. State University of New York,
three concrete-block holding units in a row. College of Environmental Science and Forestry,
It is sturdy and, if used blocks are avail- Office of Public Service and Continuing Educa-
able, it is inexpensive to build. tion, Syracuse, NY.
Martin, D., and G. Gershunny (ed.) 1992. The
Rodale Book of Composting. Rodale Press, Book
Reader Service, St. Emmaus, PA.
Further Reading Urban Home Composting, Rodent-Resistant Bins
and Environmental Health Standards. City
Books
Farmer, Canada’s Office of Urban Agriculture,
Appelhof, M. 1982. Worms Eat My Garbage. Vancouver, BC.
Flower Press, Kalamazoo, MI.
Backyard Composting. 1992. Harmonious Tech- Booklets and Pamphlets
nologies Press, Ojai, CA. University of Idaho
Benton, C. (ed.) 1994. Establishing a Home CIS 1066 Composting at Home ($3.00)
Composting Program in Your Community. CIS 1016 Don’t Bag It! Recycle Your Grass
Seattle, WA. Clippings (50¢)
Campbell, S. 1975. Let It Rot. Garden Way Pub- CIS 858 Using Bark and Sawdust for Mulches,
lishing, Storey Communications, Inc., Pownal, Soil Amendments, and Potting Mixes
VT. (35¢)
Compost Ontario: Home Composting Handbook— There is a nominal charge for each of the above
How to Promote Home Composting in Your University of Idaho publications. To order UI publica-
Community. 1992. Recycling Council of Ontario, tions, contact your county’s UI Extension office or
Toronto, Ontario. write to Publications, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID
Dickson, N., T. Richard, and R. Kozlowski. 1991. 83844-2240, call (208) 885-7982, or email:
Composting to Reduce the Waste Stream. calspubs@uidaho.edu. Idaho residents add 6 percent
Cornell Cooperative Extension, Northeast Re- sales tax. Also check, and in some cases download,
gional Agricultural Engineering Service, Ithaca, the online publication and video catalog on the UI
NY, NRAES 43. Educational Communications web site (http://

7 - 18
Chapter
Pesticide Management and Safety
8
I. Three Main Objectives

of Pest Control 2
II. Home, Yard, and Garden Pesticides 2
III. Pest Control Methods 2
IV. Herbicides 2
V. Insecticides 3
VI. Fungicides 4
VII. Pesticide Labels 4
VIII. Pesticide Categories 4
IX. Pesticide Formulations 4
X. Pesticide Hazards 5
A. Pesticide Toxicity 5
B. Pesticide Formulation 6
C. Exposure to Pesticides 6
D. Pesticide Poisoning 6
E. Pesticide Spills 7
F. Pesticide Storage 7
G. Pesticide Disposal Options 7
XI. Pesticide Law 7
XII. Pesticide Recommendations 8
Further Reading 8

8-1
Chapter 8
Pesticide Management
and Safety
V. J. Parker-Clark
Vickie J. Parker-Clark, District I Extension Director, Coeur d’Alene
I. Three Main Objectives of Pest Control 4. Food and water.

A. Prevention—Keep a pest from becoming a 5. Water supply.
problem. 6. Host resistance.
B. Suppression—Reduce pest numbers or dam- 7. Cultural control by mechanical sanitation
age to an acceptable level. or crop rotation.
C. Eradication—Destroy an entire pest popula- 8. Chemical control.
tion. B. The term “pesticide” refers to any substance
that is used to control organisms considered
II. Home, Yard, and Garden Pesticides
to be pests. The following are some of the
Pesticides are used to prevent or reduce dam- classes of pesticides available to
age caused by weeds, diseases, insects, mol- homeowners:
lusk, or vertebrates. Before you use a pesticide
1. Herbicides—Vegetation control.
you should:
2. Insecticides—Insect control.
A. Identify the pest. Remember various pests
cause similar symptoms; environmental 3. Fungicides—Fungus control.
conditions may cause similar symptoms to 4. Rodenticides—Rodent control.
pests. Be a detective. Ask questions to fo- 5. Acaricides—Mite control.
cus in on the most likely possibilities. 6. Nematocides—Nematode control.
B. Know what other control measures are 7. Molluscicides—Snail and slug control.
available (mechanical, chemical, and bio- 8. Repellents—Birds, mammals, and insect
logical). control.
C. Evaluate the benefits and risks of each 9. Desiccants and defoliants—For drying
method of control. plant foliage.
D. Choose the methods that are most effective 10. Disinfectants—Bacteria and fungi con-
and that will cause the least harm to people trol.
and to the environment.
E. Use the methods correctly. IV. Herbicides
F. Observe local, state, and federal regulations A. Plant life cycle dictates which chemical to
that apply to the situation. use and when to use it.
G. Observe precautions, restrictions, and 1. Annual—1-year life cycle.
preharvest intervals noted on the label. a. Winter annuals: Examples are annual
bluegrass, henbit, cheatgrass.
III. Pest Control Methods
b. Summer annuals: Examples are crab-
A. Many factors influence or affect pest control. grass, pigweed, lambsquarters.
1. Climate. 2. Biennials: 2-year life cycle. Example:
2. Natural enemies. mullen.
3. Topography.
8-2
3. Perennials: Live more than 2 years. a. Several of the organophosphates are
Example: Canada thistle. systemic. Others are contact.
B. Types of Herbicides b. Organophosphates are detoxified rap-
1. Selective—Specific to certain weeds or idly in animal tissues and are elimi-
groups of weeds. nated rather than being stored in fatty
2. Nonselective—Kills all vegetation. tissues.
C. How Do Herbicides Kill? c. Organophosphates persist in the envi-
ronment for relatively short periods in
1. To be effective an herbicide must reach
soils and plants. They are broken down
and stick to the leaf, penetrate the sur-
by the action of plant enzymes, sun-
face, move to the site of action, and dis-
light, air, moisture, and microorgan-
rupt a vital process.
isms. Some microorganisms (bacteria,
a. Only 1 percent of the herbicide
yeast, and fungi) are capable of using
reaches the plant surface.
insecticides as an energy source. Infor-
b. Surfactants help an herbicide stick to mation on the pesticide label concern-
the leaf and penetrate the surface. ing the interval required between ap-
c. Herbicide movement depends on plant plication and harvest (preharvest inter-
age and life cycle and on the mobility val) is a good indication of the persis-
of the herbicide. tence of the material.
d. Many herbicides are taken up by the 2. Chlorinated hydrocarbons—Affect ner-
roots. Example: triazines. vous system.
e. Other herbicides are “pre-emergent.”
a. Are not broken down rapidly in ani-
They kill the emerging seedling. To be
mals, so are stored in fatty tissues.
effective, these herbicides must form a
barrier against emerging plants. They b. Are more persistent in plants and soils
will not work if that barrier is dis- than other groups of pesticides. Some
turbed. They will not hurt plants al- remain for several years in the soil and
ready out of the ground. for weeks or months in plants. They
are not readily attacked by enzymes in
2. Nutrient/water movement at various
plants or microorganisms in the soil.
stages of plant growth: In young plants
movement is from the roots upward; in 3. Carbamates—Affect nervous system.
older plants movement is from the roots a. Some carbamates are systemics.
upward and from the leaves downward. b. They are rapidly detoxified and elimi-
In most mature plants, the movement is nated from the animal’s system. Car-
downward. bamates are not known to accumulate
3. Types of chemicals. in fat.
a. Immobile. c. Persistence varies in soils and plants,
b. Xylem mobile. from a few hours to several weeks.
c. Phloem mobile. 4. Botanicals—Derived from plants. Ex-
d. Ambimobile (xylem and phloem mobile). amples: pyrethrum, nicotine (highly toxic),
and rotenone (will kill fish). Use same
V. Insecticides handling and safety precautions for these
A. Classes as you would for any pesticide (see Sec-
1. Organophosphates. tion X, “Pesticide Hazards,” on page 8-5
2. Chlorinated hydrocarbons. and Section XI, “Pesticide Law,” on page
8-8).
3. Carbamates.
5. The timing of insecticide application de-
4. Botanicals.
pends on the life cycle stage of the insect
B. How do insecticides work? you are trying to control and on what kind
1. Organophosphates—Affect nervous system. of insecticide you use (systemic or contact).

8-3
a. Example: Aphids feeding on a maple use, symptoms of poisoning, physical haz-
tree. A contact chemical (labeled for ards, environmental hazards, preharvest in-
aphids on maple) applied directly to tervals, signal words (caution, warning, dan-
the aphids will kill any aphids not in ger), and first-aid information. These items
the egg stage. will be discussed later in this chapter.
b. If a systemic is used, the sap in the tree VIII. Pesticide Categories
must be moving to the leaves where
All pesticides are classified as either “general
the aphids are feeding in order to kill
use” or “restricted use.”
them. Example: A systemic would not
kill the adult stage of the leaf skeleton- A. General Use Pesticides—Considered mini-
izer because the adult does not feed on mally hazardous when used according to
the tree. The larval stage does. label directions. All home, yard, and garden
pesticides are general use.
Note: You must know the insect life cycle, B. Restricted Use Pesticides—Deemed exces-
the plant life cycle, and the “mode of sively hazardous to the environment or to
action” of the insecticide you are using the applicator.
to accomplish the most effective and 1. In Idaho, restricted use pesticides may
safe control. only be used by those people who have
been trained and tested by Idaho Depart-
ment of Agriculture personnel. These
VI. Fungicides
people must show a valid applicator’s li-
A. Ingredients—Sulfur, captan, triforine, cense to a chemical dealer before pur-
Daconil 2787. chase of this category of pesticides.
B. How do they work? By suppression or 2. Application of restricted use pesticides
smothering? by unlicensed personnel is a violation of
VII. Pesticide Labels Idaho law.
A. All home, yard, and garden pesticides are 3. Application of restricted use pesticides in
made up of materials from one of two cat- or around the home is risky business,
egories: given the high toxicity or wide range of
action these chemicals have.
1. Active ingredient(s)—This component
consists of the ingredient that will pre- IX. Pesticide Formulations
vent, destroy, repel, or mitigate any pest. Pesticide formulations are classified according
2. Inert ingredients—This component con- to the composition of active and inert ingredi-
sists of a wide variety of materials that do ents and the intended use.
not have any biological effect upon the A. Pesticide formulations requiring no dilution
pest. Some common inert ingredients are in water. These products include:
petroleum distillates, emulsifying agents 1. Dusts—Active ingredient combined with
(detergent-like materials), spreaders, inert materials such as fine clay particles,
stickers, clay particles, and even water. talc, etc.
B. Pesticide labels are required by law to pro- 2. Granules—Active ingredient combined
vide the buyer with a list of active ingredi- with inert materials such as coarse clay
ents in a product, and a description of the particles, marble chips, or corn cob grit.
percentages of the total that those active in- 3. Baits—Active ingredient combined with
gredients make up. an attractant such as food or scent.
C. Pesticide labels must also state the pest that 4. Pest strips—Active ingredient impreg-
the product will control and at what rate the nated in a plastic strip that slowly re-
product should be applied for safe control of leases pesticide into the atmosphere.
that pest on that plant. 5. Aerosols—Active ingredient combined
D. Pesticide labels must also give information with petroleum distillates and propellant
about storage, disposal, precautions during gas in a pressurized can.
8-4
6. Ready-to-use liquids—Active ingredient A. Pesticide Toxicity (The degree to which a
already diluted with water at the proper chemical tends to be poisonous)
use rate. 1. The toxicity of any substance is ex-
B. Pesticides requiring dilution in water. These pressed in terms of dosage.
products include: a. Hazardous doses vary with such fac-
1. Emulsifiable concentrates (EC)—Water- tors as age, sex, health, and body
insoluble active ingredient, usually in pe- weight.
troleum distillate with emulsifiers. When b. Dosages are normally expressed in
the distillate is combined with water, it milligrams (mg) of toxicant per kilo-
forms an emulsion. Agitation is needed to gram (kg) of body weight (1 kg = 2.2
provide an even distribution of the lb; 1 mg = one millionth of a kg).
chemical in water. Emulsifiable concen- 2. The toxicity of a pesticide is determined
trates are the most dangerous formula- by subjecting test animals (usually mice
tions to handle. or rats) to the pure active ingredient.
2. Wettable powders (WP)—Water-in- a. A common measure of the estimated
soluble active ingredient sprayed on very toxicity of a pesticide is the dose re-
fine solid particles, usually clay or talc. quired to kill half the animals treated
Add wetters and other adjuvants to aid in with a pesticide. This dose is termed to
the dispersion and suspension of the par- be the LD50 (lethal dose to kill 50 per-
ticles in water. The powders need agita- cent).
tion to mix.
b. An LD50 is always expressed as mg/kg
3. Water-soluble liquids (WS)—Active in- or g/kg. An LD50 of 3 mg/kg means
gredient is dissolved in a concentrate that a dose of 3 mg of pure toxicant
containing alcohol or water. The mix per kg of animal body weight will nor-
forms a true solution and needs little or mally be lethal to half of the test ani-
no agitation after mixing thoroughly. mals.
4. Dry flowable (DF)—The active ingredi- 3. Pesticide classifications based upon LD50
ent is packaged in granular form. The ratings are listed in Table 1. Almost all
chemical may or may not be water home, yard, and garden pesticides are
soluble. DF’s are as easy to measure as a category III or IV chemicals. Nicotine
liquid and are less likely to contaminate has an LD50 of 50 to 60 mg/kg so is a
body, clothing, or work area and to be class II chemical. Pyrethrum’s LD50 rat-
inhaled than either WPs or dusts. ing is 1,500 mg/kg.
X. Pesticide Hazards B. Pesticide Formulations
The degree of hazard associated with pesticide 1. As previously described, almost all pesti-
use is determined by various factors. The pri- cides are marketed in formulations that
mary concern, however, must be the hazard to contain considerably less than 100 per-
the health and welfare of humans. The major cent of the active ingredient. The hazard,
factors that determine the hazard of a pesticide therefore, of even a category I chemical
to humans, other mammals, and other animals in a typical home, yard, or garden formu-
include the following: lation would be small.
Table 1. Pesticide classifications based upon LD50.

Toxicity Oral LD50
category Signal word Toxicity (mg/kg) Amount needed to kill an adult
I DANGER POISON (fatal) Very high 50 or less A taste to a teaspoon
II WARNING (may be fatal) High 51 to 500 A teaspoon to a tablespoon
III CAUTION Moderate 501 to 5,000 An ounce to a pint
IV CAUTION Low Greater than 5,000 A pint to a quart or more

8-5
2. Some formulations pose a lower hazard i. Before making indoor pesticide appli-
than others, simply because of their cations: Remove or cover all food,
physical state. For example, a granular dishes, utensils, pet dishes, and toys;
pesticide will normally pose a lower haz- keep children and pets out of the appli-
ard than an emulsifiable concentrate be- cation area. If you have an aquarium,
cause it is more difficult to ingest or ab- cover it, and be sure to switch off the
sorb through the skin. aeration pump; cover any openings.
C. Exposure to Pesticides j. Always apply pesticides in a manner
1. Pesticides can enter the body through one that will minimize pesticide drift onto
of three methods: nontarget vegetation and the property
a. Through the digestive tract (ingestion). of others.
b. Through the respiratory system (inha- k. Wash yourself, your equipment, and
lation). your clothing immediately upon
c. Through the skin (dermal absorption). completion of pesticide applications.
Eyes absorb almost any chemical that Always wash contaminated clothing
gets into them. separately from other clothing.
2. The hazard of unnecessary exposure to a D. Pesticide Poisoning
pesticide can be reduced by following 1. People vary considerably in their suscep-
these guidelines: tibility and reactions to pesticides. Chil-
a. Replace leaky hoses, valves, and con- dren are particularly susceptible because
nections on sprayer before application. of their small size and weight. A dose that
Never use your mouth to blow out might make an adult sick could be fatal
clogged lines or nozzles. for a child. In addition, a child’s body is
b. Calibrate and clean application equip- often less able than an adult’s to detoxify
ment to ensure accurate and safe appli- some compounds.
cation. 2. The common symptoms of pesticide poi-
c. Always read the entire label before us- soning are headaches, giddiness, nausea,
ing a pesticide. blurred vision, and chest pains. Anyone
d. Pesticide handling and mixing should complaining of these symptoms within 12
be done outside. Watch out for wind hours after exposure to a pesticide should
when mixing or applying pesticides. be sent to the nearest medical facility.
Avoid breathing dust, and watch out
for the splash of liquids or the drift of Note: It is very important that the pesticide
fumes. label or container (or at least the name
e. Refrain from smoking, eating, or of the compound) also be delivered to
drinking while working with pesti- the doctor so appropriate first aid can
cides. be administered. If the container is
f. Wear clothing that covers the entire transported, carry it in such a way that
body, including a nonabsorbent hat. no further exposure to the victim or
others occurs.
g. Wear unlined rubber gloves and eye
protection whenever mixing pesticides. 3. Emergency first-aid procedures for pesti-
h. Before making outdoor pesticide ap- cide poisoning:
plications: Close all house doors and a. Pesticide in the eyes: Flush eyes with a
windows; remove any laundry, toys, gentle stream of tap water for at least
lawn furniture, and pet dishes; and 15 minutes.
keep children and pets out of the
b. Pesticide in the mouth: Flush mouth
sprayed area until the pesticide has
out with tap water for 15 minutes.
dried. If using a dust formulation, keep
children and pets out of the area until c. Pesticide spilled on clothing: Remove
dust completely settles. clothing; wash skin with soap and water.

8-6
d. Pesticide swallowed: Read and follow 3. Discard unidentified pesticides.
the first-aid directions on the label. If 4. Store liquid pesticides in a place where
there are no directions, go directly to they will not be exposed to temperatures
the nearest medical facility. below freezing or above 80°F. Heat can
degrade the active ingredients in dusts,
Note: Drinking water or milk will rarely in- granules, and soluble powders.
crease the problem and may reduce the 5. Be sure caps are secure on bottles or cans
potential damage by diluting the and check regularly for leakage.
chemical.
6. Do not store volatile herbicides with dry
pesticides, as the volatile products may
E. Pesticide Spills
contaminate the other products.
1. Liquids.
G. Pesticide Disposal Options
a. The spill should be covered with any
1. The best way to dispose of excess pesti-
substance that will absorb the pesticide
cides is to use them up in accordance
(kitty litter, sawdust, sand, dirt, or
with label directions. Buy small quanti-
even disposable diapers).
ties—only the amount you can use up in
b. After the pesticide has been absorbed, one season.
the material should be swept up and
2. Neutralize the pesticide if there are direc-
placed in a plastic garbage bag within
tions on the label for doing so.
another garbage bag. If the pesticide is
a home, lawn, or garden formulation, 3. Do not dump pesticides into a public
the bag may be disposed of via your sewage system via the sink or the toilet.
standard garbage collection service. Do not dump them into a street gutter that
drains into open water. Sprayers should
c. The spill area should then be washed
also not be drained near a well, pond, irri-
with detergent or an ammonia solu-
gation ditch, or stream.
tion. Call Chem Trec toll free at
1-800-424-9300 to find out what to 4. Do not discard pesticide or containers
use. Using the wrong solution could where soil, crops, water, or animals can
generate toxic gases. Prevent any con- become contaminated.
taminated soil from running into storm 5. Before disposing of a pesticide container,
drains or open bodies of water. triple rinse it. The pesticide contaminated
2. Dry pesticides should be swept up and water (rinsate) should be used in your
used or disposed of in accordance with sprayer. Never dump rinsate onto the
the label instructions. The spill area may ground, into a drain, or into a gutter.
also require washing with detergent or a 6. Puncture or crush empty metal containers
chlorine or ammonia solution. (except aerosol cans), and bury them in
F. Pesticide Storage an approved landfill. Do not burn.
1. Store pesticides in a cool, well-ventilated 7. Empty and triple rinsed containers may
place that is inaccessible to children and be wrapped in newspaper and disposed of
pets. The area should be away from food, via your local garbage collection service.
feed, and seeds, and should be locked. Rinsate should be used for diluting more
pesticide, if possible.
2. Store pesticides in their original contain-
ers. Never store pesticides in soft drink 8. Anyone wanting to dispose of unused
bottles or other containers that may be pesticides should contact their local
confused with foodstuffs. Always main- health department for proper disposal in-
tain a label on the container. structions.
XI. Pesticide Law
Note: It is illegal to store chemicals in any-
The primary law homeowners should be aware
thing other than their original containers.
of regarding safe use of pesticides is the Fed-

8-7
eral Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide
Act (FIFRA). Further Reading
A. This law regulates all pesticides from the
time of their manufacture until their ulti-
mate degradation. University of Idaho
B. The most important part of this law, as it PNW 320 Calibrating and Using a Backyard Sprayer
($1.50)
pertains to homeowners, involves the actual
use of any pesticide. FIFRA states, “any CIS 792 Calibration and Safe Use of Lawn and Gar-
den Pesticide and Fertilizer Applicators (35¢)
use of a pesticide in a manner inconsis-
tent with label instructions is a violation PNW 512 Farm Safety Series (English) ($6.00)
of this Act.” PNW 512S Farm Safety Series (Spanish) ($6.00)
C. All pesticide users should be aware that they PNW 278 First Aid for Pesticide Poisoning (50¢)
are subject to the provision of FIFRA. CIS 897 Herbicides for the Home Garden (35¢)
CIS 781 Laundering Pesticide-Contaminated Clothing
XII. Pesticide Recommendations and Safety Equipment (35¢)
Before recommending the use of any pesticide, CIS 1019 Pesticides for the Home Garden and How to
consider the following: Use Them ($1.00)
A. It is illegal to use a pesticide on any site or CIS 861 Quality Water for Idaho: Pesticide Handling
crop other than those listed on the pesticide Practices to Protect Groundwater (free)
label. It also is illegal to recommend a pesti- CIS 865 Quality Water for Idaho: Pesticides and Their
cide on a site or crop other than those listed Movement in Soil and Water (free)
on the pesticide label. There is a nominal charge for each of the above Uni-
versity of Idaho publications. To order UI publications,
Example: A client asks if it is all right to eat
contact your county’s UI Extension office or write to
a vegetable that was sprayed with a particu- Publications, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID 83844-2240,
lar insecticide. You find that the pesticide in or call (208) 885-7982. Idaho residents add
question is not labeled for use on this gar- 6 percent sales tax. Also check, and in some cases
den product. You tell your client that you download, the online publication and video catalog
cannot recommend eating that vegetable, on the UI Educational Communications web site
even though you may feel that the hazard is (http://info.ag.uidaho.edu).
minimal.
Oregon State University
B. In your capacity as a Master Gardener,
your pesticide recommendations must be PNW Insect Control Handbook ($25.00)
made in accordance with the pesticide PNW Plant Disease Control Handbook ($25.00)
guidelines provided on the pesticide label. PNW Weed Control Handbook ($25.00)
Extension publications and the Pacific These Pacific Northwest handbooks are updated annu-
Northwest pest control guides are based on ally. To order, contact your county’s Cooperative Exten-
pesticide labels. sion office or write to Publications Orders, Extension and
Station Communications, Administrative Kern A422,
C. Your pesticide recommendations must be Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331-2119.
limited to home, yard, and garden pest con-
trol. Pesticide recommendations for agricul- Washington State University
tural or commercial pest problems may be EB 1468 Read Pesticide Labels (50¢)
made only by licensed consultants. EB 1386 Safe Disposal of Home Use Pesticides (50¢)
EB 4734 Using Pesticides Safely in the Home and
Yard (50¢)
To order WSU publications, contact your county’s
Cooperative Extension office or write to Bulletin Office,
Cooperative Extension, Cooper Publications Building,
Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164-5912.

8-8
Chapter
Basic Entomology
9
I. Introduction 2 VI. Other Insect-Like Creatures 9

II. Insect Anatomy 2 A. Spider Mites, Spiders, Ticks,
III. Insect Development 3 and Scorpions—Arachnida 9
B. Millipedes—Diploda 10
IV. Insect Classification 3
C. Centipedes—Chilopoda 10
V. Major Orders of Insects 4
D. Sowbugs and Pillbugs—Crustacea 10
A. Beetles and Weevils—Coleoptera 4 E. Garden Centipede or Symphylan—
B. Moths and Butterflies— Symphla 10
Lepidoptera 5 Further Reading 10
C. Flies, Mosquitoes, Gnats, Midges—
Diptera 5
D. Bees, Wasps, Ants, Sawflies, etc.—
Hymenoptera 6
E. True Bugs—Hemiptera 6
F. Aphids, Scales, Leafhoppers,
Cicadas—Homoptera 7
G. Grasshoppers, Crickets, Cockroaches,
Camel Crickets—Orthoptera 7
H. Termites—Isoptera 8
I. Earwigs—Dermaptera 8
J. Thrips—Thysanoptera 8
K. Silverfish and Firebrats—
Thysanura 9
L. Springtails—Collembolla 9
M. Other Orders 9

9-1
Chapter 9
Basic Entomology
V. J. Parker-Clark
I. Introduction meter long, and some of the larger long-horned

The animal kingdom contains many distinct beetles that are as much as 6 inches long.
groups called phyla. Each phylum is divided Except for a few common structural features, in-
into a number of classes. The insects are in the sects are also variable in appearance. Some
class Insecta (or Hexapoda—“six feet”) within have bizarre horns and spines, while others
the phylum Arthropoda (jointed foot). The in- may resemble dead leaves. Some insects are
sect class is further divided into orders, fami- quite attractive like the butterfly, but “beauti-
lies, genera, and finally, species. ful” is hardly the word for a cockroach.
Approximately 1 million species of insects have All of this makes insects a fascinating group to
been identified to date. The greatest numbers investigate, but it also makes the study of in-
of these species belong to the beetle, fly, and sects and their classification somewhat com-
wasp-bee-ant groups. We generally associate plex. It is important to learn the main differ-
insects with crop loss or disease transmission; ences among insects, so that we can distin-
however, insects fulfill a useful function in our guish one group from another. Then we can
environment. suggest adequate control procedures and give
Only a small percentage of insects are considered quality management suggestions.
pests of humans and of their animals, crops, or
II. Insect Anatomy
fiber. However, this small number can cause
serious crop losses, or transmit serious dis- Insects are animals, however, unlike many ani-
eases to humans or animals. mals, they have no backbones. They have an
outer skeleton (exoskeleton) instead of the in-
Most insects appear to be beneficial or harmless.
ner skeleton (endoskeleton) of most large ani-
Many are predators, such as lady beetles,
mals. The following characteristics separate
which live by feeding on pestiferous aphids.
insects from other animals (Fig. 1).
Others are parasitic, such as the wasps. Still
others, such as honey bees, act as
Fig. 1. Parts of an insect.
pollinators of crops and also pro-
vide us with honey. Many insects thorax
wings
are responsible for the decomposi-
tion of plant and animal matter. A
head
good example is the carpenter ant.
Obviously, when it is attacking the
timber of our home it is a pest,
abdomen
however, when it is in the forest
mining the wood of old, fallen
trees, it is part of nature’s recycling
program. mouthparts
Size is quite variable throughout the antenna
insect world. The extremes include
tiny wasps that are less than a milli- legs
9-2
A. Insects have three body regions—Head, tho- tivities much, you will often hear the phrase
rax, and abdomen. “keying out.” This simply means identifying
B. Many adult insects have wings, and insects the insect (see MS 109 in “Further Reading”).
are the only flying invertebrates. B. Insects are also classified by the type of
C. Adults possess three pairs of legs, all lo- damage they cause. Some examples include
cated on the thorax. “root maggot,” “twig girdler,” or “crown
borer.” Destructive insect activities help
III. Insect Development narrow down the multitude of possible iden-
All insects change during growth by a process tities and often make insect identification
called metamorphosis (Fig. 2). Insect near- quicker and simpler.
relatives such as spiders, mites, and centipedes C. Some insects can be categorized as preda-
also undergo metamorphosis. tors or parasites. Predators and parasites ac-
The more highly developed insects make the count for much of the reduction of pest in-
most complete changes. Beetles, moths, butter- sect populations in nature, and, for this rea-
flies, wasps, and ants all go through four son, are also called beneficials (see PNW
stages. These are the egg, larva, pupa, and 343 in “Further Reading”).
adult. The larva is usually the damaging stage, Beneficials can be useful, but they usually
although adult feeding can be destructive. need some cultural encouragement. Their
Also, it is not unusual for the larval and adult use requires careful crop management and a
stages of a species to feed on different hosts or degree of tolerance for some crop loss.
different parts of the host. The pupa is a 1. Predators kill and feed on their prey; they
nonfeeding stage; in most cases it is also very are generally larger than their prey.
inactive.
2. Parasites are usually smaller and often
The lower forms or less-developed kinds of in- weaker than their prey; they gradually
sects change only slightly during metamorpho- kill by injecting eggs that develop on,
sis. True bugs, aphids, grasshoppers, termites, within, or near the insect over a period of
earwigs, stoneflies, etc., go through only three time. They may sting and paralyze their
stages. These stages are the egg, nymph, and prey in order to stock their nests with
adult. Except for size, the nymph and adult food for the developing larvae or eggs.
closely resemble each other. The major differ- The immature parasites will then con-
ence is the lack of fully formed wings in the sume the paralyzed insect at their leisure.
nymph. The nymph and adult generally feed
D. Another form of categorization is by feed-
on the same host or host parts.
ing mechanism or mouthpart. The broadest
IV. Insect Classification grouping is defined by chewing or sucking
There are several methods of separating or cat- mouthparts (Fig. 3).
egorizing insects.
Fig. 3. Insect feeding mechanisms.
A. The professional uses body parts for identi-
Chewing type Sucking type
fication and observes differences in these
parts through a microscope. He or she tracks
down an insect’s identity by using a written
insect “key.” The anatomy of an insect will
place it into a specific insect group called an
order. If you are around entomological ac-
Fig. 2. Metamorphosis stages in insects.
adult adult
pupa egg nymph egg
larva Gradual or
Complete metamorphosis incomplete metamorphosis Mandibles Sucking tube

9-3
Although this manner of separation is some- butterflies—Lepidoptera; flies—Diptera; bees,
what helpful for identification, its greatest ants, wasps, hornets—Hymenoptera; true bugs,
value is in determining if a certain kind of such as stink bugs—Hemiptera; aphids, scales,
pesticide will work. For example, systemic and leafhoppers—Homoptera; grasshoppers,
insecticides “generally” do not work as well crickets, and cockroaches—Orthoptera; ter-
on chewing insects as on sucking insects. mites—Isoptera; earwigs—Dermaptera. There
Proper identification is extremely important. are many other insect orders, but these are rep-
If a beneficial insect or a nondamaging in- resentatives of economic importance.
sect is improperly identified as a pest, a pes- Separating groups of insects may be quite diffi-
ticide application will usually disrupt a cult unless you have closely studied examples
natural control agent. The disruption of this of the various types. It is important to recog-
beneficial’s activity may induce the need for nize the structural characteristics that distin-
the chemical. Chances are you may have guish one insect from another (see “Further
made an application that did no more for Reading”). Use all of the characteristics listed
you than cost you money. in Table 1 to distinguish each order.
A. Beetles and Weevils—Coleoptera
Note: Do not make recommendations based Some of the typical beetles that you may see
on the verbal description of a pest by a are long-horned beetles and flatheaded bor-
client. Too many misidentifications are ers that bore into trees, logs, and lumber.
made this way, and wrong identifica- These beetles are variable in color. Long-
tion leads to ineffective control mea- horned beetles usually have long antennae
sures and unnecessary expense or and are strong fliers. Lady beetles are about
problems. Insist on seeing the pest, or 1/4-inch long and are usually red or orange,
at least its damage, before you volun- generally with spots. Lady beetles are ben-
teer anything. eficial as larvae and adults, since they feed
on aphids and other soft-bodied insect and
V. Major Orders of Insects mite pests. Some other common beetles are
Major insect groupings under the class level are the pea weevil, an important pest of peas,
called orders. Some representatives that you and click beetles, whose larvae are known
will see are: beetles—Coleoptera; moths and to some of you as wireworms.
Table 1. Major order of insects.
Name of order Common examples Wings/mouthparts
Coleoptera Beetles, weevils 2 pairs wings or wingless; chewing
Lepidoptera Moths, butterflies 2 pairs wings; chewing (larvae), sucking, or siphoning
(adults)
Diptera Mosquitoes, flies, and gnats 1 pair wings; chewing (larvae), piercing-sucking, or
sponging (adults)
Hymenoptera Wasps, bees, ants, and sawflies 2 pairs wings or wingless; chewing
Hemiptera Bed bugs, stink bugs, and cinch bugs 2 pairs wings; piercing-sucking
Homoptera Aphids, leafhoppers, scales, mealybugs 2 pairs wings or wingless; piercing-sucking
Orthoptera Grasshoppers, crickets, and cockroaches 2 pairs wings or wingless; chewing
Isoptera Termites 2 pairs wings or wingless; chewing
Dermaptera Earwigs 2 pairs wings or wingless; chewing
Thysanura Silverfish, firebrats Wingless; chewing
Thysanoptera Thrips 2 pairs wings or wingless; rasping-sucking
Collembola Springtails Wingless; chewing
Psocoptera Barklice, booklice 2 pairs wings or wingless; chewing
Mallophaga Chewing lice Wingless; chewing
Anoplura Sucking lice 2 pairs wings or wingless; piercing-sucking
Siphonaptera Fleas Wingless; chewing (larvae), piercing-sucking (adults)

9-4
1. Adults have a hardened, horny outer skel- Another Lepidoteran is the codling moth,
eton. which does damage to apples. The peach
2. Adults have two pairs of wings; the outer twig borer is a severe pest of peaches,
pair is hardened, and the inner pair mem- prunes, plums, and apricots.
branous. 1. Adults are soft-bodied with four well-
developed, membranous wings covered
Note: A few beetles are practically wingless, with small scales.
and some have only an outer hard pair 2. Adult mouthparts consist of a coiled,
of wings. sucking tube; adults feed on nectar and
other liquids.
3. Beetles have chewing mouthparts. 3. The larvae are caterpillars that are worm-
4. Adults usually develop noticeable anten- like, and variable in color; they are vora-
nae. cious feeders.
5. Coleoptera larvae have a head capsule 4. The larvae have chewing mouthparts.
and three pairs of legs on the abdomen. 5. The larvae have true legs on the thorax
and a variable number of prolegs on the
Note: Weevil larvae lack legs on the thorax. abdomen.
6. Both beetles and weevils go through a 6. Lepidopterans undergo complete meta-
complete metamorphosis as in Fig. 4. morphosis as in Fig. 5.
7. Some authorities consider the beetles to C. Flies, Mosquitoes, Gnats, Midges—Diptera
be the largest group or order of insects in Flies are an important group in terms of
nature. their medical effects on humans and ani-
B. Moths and Butterflies—Lepidoptera mals. Some, such as bot flies, are parasites
as immatures on mammals. Some flies, such
The moth and butterfly group has several
as the face fly, disrupt or annoy livestock,
damaging members. Cutworms damage
causing the cows or other animals to stop
many crops. For example, corn earworm
feeding. Fly maggots or larvae are generally
larvae, which are greenish or tannish with
found in manure or other decaying matter.
some stripes and about 1 1/4-inch long
when fully grown, cause severe damage to The flies most commonly encountered are
corn and attack a variety of vegetables. the housefly, the lesser house fly, and the
face fly. The grayish adults infest homes,
Alfalfa, celery, and cabbage loopers have
poultry houses, and livestock. The house fly
injurious larvae. They are often known as
has been suspected of mechanically trans-
measuring worms because of their looping
mitting such diseases as polio to food sur-
action, which gives the impression that they
faces.
are measuring the plant on which they are
feeding.
Fig. 5. Metamorphosis of a moth.
Fig. 4. Metamorphosis of a beetle.

9-5
Commercial agricultural insect pests in this 1. Pear slug—The adult is black with yel-
order include the cherry fruit fly, walnut low markings. The larva is small, slug-
husk fly, onion and cabbage maggot, and like, and feeds on leaves of pear, cherry,
carrot rust fly. Others are often disease vec- and plum.
tors, such as mosquitoes or deerflies. Vec- 2. Yellowjackets—The adults have black
tors can transmit such diseases as malaria. and yellow markings. They build nests in
Mosquitoes are small, slender, long-legged, the ground, or papery structures on trees
frail flies. The larvae are elongate and live or under eaves. Their stings are painful
in water. The adult female is the injurious and dangerous if you are allergic to them.
stage. She feeds by sucking human and live- Many species are beneficial predators.
stock blood by piercing the skin with her 3. Leafcutting bees—These are small- to
long stiletto-like mouthparts. medium-sized bees, variable in color.
1. Adults have only one pair of wings and They are noted for their long tongues.
are rather soft-bodied and hairy. One species is an excellent alfalfa polli-
2. Adults have sponging (house fly) or nator. Leafcutters may defoliate some
piercing (mosquito) mouthparts. trees and shrubs.
3. Diptera larvae may have mouth hooks or 4. Common ants—Several ants, such as the
chewing mouthparts. carpenter ants and the house ants (includ-
4. Most larvae are legless. ing the pavement ant and odorous house
ant), are in this group. Many are benefi-
5. The larvae of advanced forms, such as
cial predators or decomposers.
the house fly and relatives, have no head
capsule, possess mouth hooks, and are a. The adults have two pairs of membra-
called maggots. Lower forms such as nous wings.
mosquito larvae and relatives have a head b. The adults generally have chewing
capsule. mouthparts.
6. Diptera undergo complete metamorpho- c. The adults are rather soft-bodied or
sis as in Fig. 6. have slightly hardened bodies.
D. Bees, Wasps, Ants, Sawflies, etc.— d. The larvae have no legs (wasps, bees,
Hymenoptera ants) or have legs on the thorax and
This group is a large one. Many of its mem- the abdomen (some sawflies).
bers are important pollinators of agricultural 5. Hymenoptera undergo complete meta-
crops, such as the honeybee, leafcutter bee, morphosis as in Fig. 7.
and alkali bee. Some are important preda- E. True Bugs—Hemiptera
tors, parasites, and scavengers; others are Consperse stink bug—A gray or brownish
injurious to humans and their crops. plant bug that is shield shaped. The stink
bug feeds on many fruits and vegetables.
Fig. 6. Metamorphosis of a fly. Fig. 7. Metamorphosis of an ant.

9-6
1. Boxelder bug—This bug is gray-brown including the green peach aphid, which
to black with red lines on the under sur- carries the leaf roll virus of potatoes and
face and on the lower portion of the outer sugarbeets. The rose aphid, both green
wings. It feeds primarily on boxelder and and brown forms, are found on many or-
can invade homes in early summer or namentals. Apple aphids, and green, rosy,
fall. and woolly aphids all cause severe dam-
2. Lygus bug—These bugs are greenish, or age to apples.
brownish black and occasionally yellow- 2. Scales—Scale insects are usually quite
ish or gray; they are rather slim plant small and are usually circular or football-
bugs about 1/4-inch long. The head is shaped. During most of their life cycle,
blotched with black. They are probably they are protected by a hardened scale
the most injurious bugs of seed crops in covering. San Jose scale is a pest of many
the United States. fruit trees and ornamentals. Oyster shell
a. The adults have two pairs of wings; scale is a brown cornucopia-shaped scale
the second pair is membranous, the (horn of plenty) found on ornamental
first pair is membranous and thickened trees and shrubs. Lecanium scale is a
on the basal half. The nymphs are not large, brown, hemispherical-shaped scale
fully formed and are called “wing found on trees and woody plants of sev-
pads.” eral types.
b. Adults and nymphs usually resemble a. These insects are generally small and
one another. soft-bodied, though cicadas are larger
c. True bugs have piercing-sucking and hard-bodied.
mouthparts. b. Members may be winged or wingless.
d. Adults and nymphs both are damaging c. All stages have sucking mouthparts.
stages. d. Many members are carriers of plant
e. True bugs have a gradual metamor- pathogens.
phosis (Fig. 8). The stages are egg, e. Homopterans have a gradual metamor-
nymph, and adult. phosis as the aphid in Fig. 9.
F. Aphids, Scales, Leafhoppers, Cicadas— G. Grasshoppers, Crickets, Cockroaches,
Homoptera Camel Crickets—Orthoptera
1. Aphid—There are many types, sizes, and Some examples of grasshoppers and their
shapes of aphids. The giant willow aphid allies are migratory and two-striped grass-
is a large, black species. The pea aphid is hoppers and the red-legged grasshopper.
a rather large, green species found on al- These are damaging pests of crops and
falfa, peas, clover, sweet clover, and rangeland. The camel cricket, the Jerusalem
other herbaceous legumes. It may also be cricket, and the German roach are also com-
pinkish in color. Several species of monly encountered. Crickets also can dam-
aphids attack vegetable and tree crops, age crops. The German cockroach is a met-
ropolitan pest.
Fig. 8. Metamorphosis of a bug.
1. Adults are moderate to large and are of-
ten rather hard-bodied.
Fig. 9. Metamorphosis of an aphid.

9-7
Fig. 10. Metamorphosis of a grasshopper. Fig. 11. Metamorphosis of a termite.
2. Adults usually have two pairs of wings.

The forewings are elongated, narrow, and
leathery; the second pair of wings are
membranous with an extensive folded
area.
3. Adults and nymphs have chewing mouth- ornamentals, small trees, and houses
parts and are damaging. throughout the state of Idaho, but it may
also be beneficial since it often preys upon
4. The hind legs of forms other than cock-
other insects.
roaches and walking sticks are enlarged
for jumping. 1. Adults are moderately sized.
5. Immature stages are called nymphs and, 2. They have chewing mouthparts.
except for being wingless, resemble 3. Earwigs are elongated, flattened and have
adults. strong, movable forceps on the rear end.
6. Orthopterans have a simple metamorpho- 4. They have short, hardened outer wings
sis as in Fig. 10. and cover folded, membranous inner
H. Termites—Isoptera wings.
The injurious termites are generally placed 5. Earwigs have a gradual metamorphosis
in two groups: the dampwood and subterra- (Fig. 12).
nean types. Both feed on wood and wood J. Thrips—Thysanoptera
products. The dampwood types are usually 1. Thrips are small with sucking mouthparts
not primary feeders on sound wood in build- that are assisted by a single mandible that
ings, while the subterranean types are found aids in rasping the plant tissue.
in large numbers in sound structures where 2. Wings may be present or absent. If
they may do considerable damage if not de- present, they are long and narrow and
tected early and controlled quickly. Colo- fringed with long hairs.
nies of the subterranean type must have a 3. Many feed on ornamentals and some on
connection with soil to obtain moisture. vegetable crops such as peas and onions.
1. These are so-called “white ants.” Many are predators on other insects. A
2. Termites are distinguished from true few species bite humans.
ants by their thick “waists” and their 4. Thrips have a gradual metamorphosis.
white or light brown color.
3. Termites have thin, straight antennae;
Fig. 12. Metamorphosis of an earwig.
ants have elbowed antennae.
4. Termites have chewing mouthparts.
5. They possess many forms or castes
such a worker, soldier, and queen.
6. Termites have a gradual metamorpho-
sis as in Fig. 11.
I. Earwigs—Dermaptera
The European earwig is our only species of
earwig. It is occasionally a pest of gardens,

9-8
K. Silverfish and Firebrats—Thysanura many of which are beneficial predators;
1. Group members have chewing mouth- book or bark lice—Psocoptera, basically
parts. scavengers, but with some species that are
2. Thysanura is one of the few insect orders stored-products pests; animal lice and suck-
whose members do not possess wings. ing lice—Anaplura; and chewing lice—
Mallophaga.
3. These insects have bristles on the tip of
the abdomen. VI. Other Insect-Like Creatures
4. They are household pests and feed on Several noninsect pests may be found in the
such items as paste, paper, and crumbs. field and home and include those listed in
5. They have a gradual metamorphosis. Table 2.
L. Springtails—Collembolla A. Spider Mites, Spiders, Ticks, and
1. Springtails are minute insects with chew- Scorpions—Arachnida
ing or piercing mouthparts. 1. Spider mites—These tiny, soft-bodied
2. They possess an appendage on their ven- animals have two body regions, thick
tral (under) side; it operates as a spring to waists, four pairs of legs, and are without
aid the insect in quick escape. antennae. Common species include the
3. These insects are abundant in moist following.
areas, hence the reference to “moving a. The two-spotted spider mite and its
piles of soot” in backyards during the near relatives, the Pacific, Atlantic,
wetter seasons. and McDaniel spider mites. These
4. They feed on decaying organic material mites have two spots on the back and
primarily but will on occasion attack have tail-end spots in some species.
plants, particularly in greenhouses. They may be clear, green, orange, or
5. Springtails undergo a gradual metamor- red. They are usually hard to observe
phosis. without a hand lens.
M. Other Orders b. European red mite: This mite is car-
mine red with white spines.
Many other insect orders are of no real con-
cern in the home garden. Some of the more c. Brown mite and the clover mite: These
common ones are stoneflies—Plecoptera; mites are brownish or grayish, flat, and
caddisflies—Thichoptera; dragonflies and have very long front legs.
damsel flies—Odonata; and mayflies— 2. Spiders—Spiders resemble mites except
Ephemeroptera. These orders are all associ- that most are larger and the two body re-
ated with aquatic habitats. gions are more clearly distinct from one
Some others you should be aware of include another (thin waist). Most spiders are
the nerve-winged insects—Neuroptera, beneficial predators. Common pest spe-
cies include:
Table 2. Noninsect pests.
Class Example Description
Arachnida Spiders, ticks, mites, scorpions 4 pairs legs; 2 body regions—cephalothorax and abdomen; no
antennae; chewing or sucking mouthparts
Chilopoda Centipedes 15 or more pairs of legs with only 1 pair of legs per body segment; 1
pair of antennae; 2 body regions—head and trunk; body flattened;
chewing mouthparts; fast moving
Diplopoda Millipedes 2 pairs of legs per apparent body segment; 1 pair of antennae; 2 body
regions—head, trunk; body rounded; chewing mouthparts; slow
moving
Crustacea Sowbugs, pillbugs 1 pair of legs per body segment; 1 pair of antennae; 2 body regions—
head and trunk; chewing mouthparts; roll into ball when disturbed
Symphla Symphylan, garden centipede 11 or 12 pairs of short legs; centipedelike animals

9-9
a. Black widow spider: Shy and likes D. Sowbugs and Pillbugs—Crustacea
dank, dark places. This spider spins a Sowbugs are highly dependent on mois-
characteristically messy web. It is nor- ture, which accounts for their common as-
mally a shiny black, moderately sized sociation with damp habitats. Generally,
spider with a reddish or orange hour- they feed on decaying plant material, but
glass marking on the underside of the they will attack young plants in green-
abdomen. Males and immature fe- houses and gardens. They are oval with a
males can have stripes of red, yellow, hard convex outer shell made up of a num-
and black on the abdomen. ber of plates.
b. The hobo spider, sometimes called the E. Garden Centipede or Symphylan—
aggressive house spider: Is a common Symphla
light brown spider that is often found Members of this group resemble tiny centi-
in basements. This spider has a pain- pedes. Generally, they are a pest of veg-
less bite, but sometimes the skin etables and found in damp soils rich in or-
sloughs off in the bite area. ganic matter.
c. The brown recluse spider: A poisonous
spider which, fortunately, does not oc-
cur in the Pacific Northwest, however, Further Reading
it is a potential threat. It is often con-
fused with harmless wolf spiders and Booklets and Pamphlets
other hunting spiders. The brown re-
cluse spider can be recognized easily University of Idaho
by a distinct, brown “fiddle case” on a PNW 343 Beneficial Organisms Associated with
light brown or grayish background. Pacific Northwest Crops ($3.00)
3. Ticks—Ticks resemble large mites and CIS 989 Carpenter Ants (50¢)
are important in agriculture and medi- PNW 186 Cockroaches ($1.50)
cine. They are parasites of humans and PNW 550 Encouraging Beneficial Insects in Your
animals. Garden ($1.00)
B. Millipedes—Diploda MS 109 Keys to Damaging Stages of Insects
Millipedes are generally inoffensive crea- Commonly Attacking Field Crops in the
tures that feed on fungi and decaying plant Pacific Northwest ($20.00)
material. At times, they can be fairly de- CIS 902 Mosquitoes and What You Can Do
structive to vegetables or other plants in About Them (35¢)
greenhouses. They are elongate inverte- CIS 988 Nuisance Ants (50¢)
brates with two visible body regions: a CIS 414 Spiders and Their Relatives ($1.00)
head and a body. They generally are
CIS 1002 Subterranean Termites (50¢)
rounded in cross section. With the excep-
tion of the first four or five segments, all CIS 936 Yellowjackets and Their Control (25¢)
of the body segments possess two pairs of To order University of Idaho publications, con-
legs. They are relatively slow moving. tact your county’s UI Extension office, or write
C. Centipedes—Chilopoda Publications, University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho
83844-2240, call (208) 885-7982, fax (208) 885-
Centipedes strongly resemble millipedes.
4648, or email calspubs@uidaho.edu. Idaho resi-
They are different in that they have longer
dents add 6 percent sales tax. Also check, and in
antennae, are flattened in cross section,
some cases download, the online publication and
have only one pair of legs on each body
segment, and move rapidly. They are ben-
tions web site (http://info.ag.uidaho.edu).
eficial because they prey on other
arthropods.

9 - 10
Chapter
Insect Management
10
I. Terms and Definitions 2

II. Why Worry About Insect Control? 2
III. Methods of Insect Control
Available to Homeowners 2
A. Mechanical Insect Control 2
B. Chemical Insect Control 2
C. Biological Insect Control 3
D. Cultural Insect Control 3
E. Regulatory Insect Control
(Quarantines) 4
F. Integrated Insect Control 4
IV. Specific Pests 4
A. Ornamental Pests 4
B. Lawn Pests 6
C. Houseplant Pests 7
D. Tree Fruit Pests 7
E. Garden Pests 8
F. Household Pests 10
G. Spiders 12
Further Reading 12

10 - 1
Chapter 10
Insect Management
V. J. Parker-Clark
I. Terms and Definitions 4. Disadvantages—Time consuming. Many

insect species can fly away or drop to the
A. Insecticide—A chemical used to control,
ground and therefore escape control ef-
repel, suppress, or kill insects.
forts.
B. Preharvest Interval—The amount of time
B. Chemical Insect Control
that must elapse (legally) after application
of pesticide before harvest takes place. 1. Specific insecticides control only certain
insect species. It is important to know the
II. Why Worry About Insect Control? target species and the crop affected be-
fore selecting an insecticide.
A. The average insect population per square
mile is estimated to be equal to the world 2. It is particularly important to apply the
human population. insecticide properly. This includes care-
fully measuring the chemical, carefully
B. Destruction of crops by insects in the United
diluting the solution with the correct
States ranges from $4 billion to $15 billion
amount of water, and taking care not to
annually.
apply too much or too little spray.
C. Forest insects destroy more useful timber
3. Apply insecticides only to plant species
than do forest fires.
listed on the product’s label. Failure to
D. Termites consume about $100 million worth follow label directions may result in dam-
of wood structures annually. age to desirable plants or unhealthy resi-
dues in foods.
III. Methods of Insect Control Available
4. Always determine the safe preharvest in-
to Homeowners terval for a crop you plan to spray with a
A. Mechanical Insect Control given insecticide. This information can
1. Can be used on all insect pests. be found in one of two written formats on
2. Manual removal of insects and eggs from pesticide labels.
infested plants. a. Written out on a pesticide label. For
a. Two-block method: Place the insect on example, Ortho Sevin 5 Dust states
one block (wood or stone) and strike that the product should not be applied
with second block. Repeat as needed. to cole crops within 3 days of harvest.
b. A soap and water spray (or water b. Written as a number between paren-
alone) is sometimes helpful for control theses immediately after the crop list-
of aphids and similar insects. ing on the label. For example, Lilly
c. Light traps: Be careful not to use lights Miller Fruit and Berry Insect Spray
that may attract insects to your garden. has the listing Apples (7), indicating a
preharvest interval for apples of 7
3. Advantages—Extremely selective; can be
days.
slightly to extremely effective, depending
upon the species of insect and the crop. 5. Always read and follow label directions
carefully.

10 - 2
6. Advantages—Good to excellent control 4. Companion crops are often used to repel
of insect pests; a minimum of labor is re- insect pests, or to attract them away from
quired. crops. Don’t rely on these methods with-
7. Disadvantages—Special application out constant observation. If they do not
equipment needed; spray programs are work, be prepared to spray, plow, dig up,
often rather inflexible regarding harvest etc.
times; beneficial insects often are killed. a. Repellent crops are specific as to
C. Biological Insect Control which plants they protect and which
1. Use of beneficial insects can be difficult insects they affect. For example, mari-
to assess for the homeowner. Many in- golds are useful in repelling cutworms.
sects are offered for sale (particularly la- At best they can be marginally effec-
dybird beetles, lacewings, and praying tive; at worst, they will attract un-
mantids), but success with these intro- wanted insects to your garden.
duced predators is often inconsistent.
Also, these insects may have to be rein- Note: Marigolds often attract leafminer butter-
troduced each year in order to maintain a flies.
garden’s population after winter kill or
migration. b. Trap crops can quickly become over-
2. It is a good idea to be able to identify run with insects. For example, nastur-
beneficial insect species in all their tiums can attract cabbage aphids away
growth stages, so as to prevent their unin- from cole crops. If aphids are not con-
tentional destruction as pests. trolled on the trap crop, they will even-
tually move to the crop you are trying
3. Advantages—No labor is involved; after
to protect.
the initial release, the population can be
self-perpetuating. You can establish bio- 5. Weed and volunteer crop control pre-
logical control, as the predator will target vents them from becoming an alternative
only the pest. For example, Bacillis food for insects, particularly before crop
thuringiensis is useful for caterpillars. emergence. Weed residues can also har-
bor insect pests.
4. Disadvantages—Only selected insect
species will be controlled; control may 6. Sanitation in your lawn and garden area
often be cyclical or incomplete. is very important, as many insects are at-
tracted to, and overwinter in, plant debris
D. Cultural Insect Control
or trimmings. Nonproducing vegetable
1. For homeowners, the most important cul- plants should be removed or turned under
tural control is to maintain good plant as soon as possible after harvest to deny
health with proper care through an effec- insect pests a “free lunch” or an overwin-
tive water and nutrition system. A tering site. Clear away planks, cardboard
healthy plant is better able to withstand boxes, and overgrown areas; these pro-
insect infestations. vide an excellent habitat for pests such as
2. Crop rotation breaks plant/insect pest re- slugs, sowbugs, and earwigs.
lationships. By varying the location of 7. Resistant crop varieties are sometimes
crops within a garden (when possible), or available to the homeowner, although
by not growing certain crop types for a most resistance involves plant diseases
number of years, certain insect pest popu- and not insects.
lations can be drastically reduced.
8. Using transplants or adjusting seeding
3. Highly organic soils provide attractive dates to avoid emergence of the plant
habitat for many soil insects. In addition, during peak insect populations may help
insecticides are more rapidly broken reduce damage.
down in these soils.

10 - 3
9. Advantages—Often simple to perform; fallow, or switching to another sort of
often accomplished through other good crop, may reduce the population of cab-
gardening techniques. bage maggots in the garden.
10. Disadvantages—Generally incomplete.
IV. Specific Pests
E. Regulatory Insect Control (Quarantines)
A. Ornamental Pests
1. Generally, quarantines take two forms:
1. Balsam woolly adelgid—Ap-
a. No movement of the host crop allowed pear as white, woolly masses
out of an area. This method keeps the on limbs and trunks of all firs.
insect more localized where control All active stages have sucking
programs can be implemented more mouthparts and cause dam-
effectively. age. Spray timing is impor-
b. No movement of the possibly contami- tant. Spray to ensure adequate
nated host crop is allowed into a control. Sprays may stunt or
“clean” area. This keeps the insect out kill trees. Organic phosphate
of an area where infestations could be aphid pesticides do not ad-
disastrous. equately control adelgids.
2. Under quarantine laws, government 2. Spruce aphids—These aphids
agencies may be allowed to use a part of are dull green with sucking
chemical control under emergency use mouthparts. All active stages
guidelines. damage spruce trees, and the
3. Advantage—By requiring a control ef- damage is frequently very se-
fort, the spread of certain pestiferous in- rious. For example, they can
sects can be slowed, once infestation is cause severe needle drop.
identified. Spray in February or late win-
4. Disadvantages—Laws must be enforced ter.
to do any good and geographical situa- 3. Cooley spruce gall adelgid—
tions may limit control. Appear as white, cottony
F. Integrated Insect Control masses on firs. They have
1. The best insect control plans start with sucking mouthparts, and all
the simpler methods, then progress to in- stages cause damage. They
clude aspects from all types of control. tend to alternate between
For example, a control program for the spruces and Douglas-fir. They
cabbage maggot may begin with trans- cause galling on spruces and
plants. This approach allows older, more yellowing and needle distor-
vigorous seedlings to escape infestation. tion on both types of trees.
2. Transplanting is followed by the destruc- Organic phosphate aphid pes-
tion of plants immediately upon harvest ticides do not adequately con-
of cole crops. Quick destruction after har- trol adelgids. Treat spruce as
vest prevents maggots from completing the new growth is unfold-
their life cycle. ing in the spring. Treat
Douglas-fir in early spring.
3. If cabbage maggots continue to be
troublesome, placement of lorsban or 4. Rose aphid—Many species of
Diazinon granules around transplants aphids attack the rose, par-
may be attempted. This method prevents ticularly when there is new
infestation of roots. growth. They cause chlorosis
(yellowing green tissue), and
4. If maggots still remain a problem, it may
they may produce a toxin that
be necessary to stop growing cole crops
kills leaf tissue. Rose aphids
for a season or two or to only grow them
excrete honeydew and cause
every other year. Allowing the field to lie

10 - 4
sooty molds. Some people adults chew small holes in
hose plants periodically, leaves, while the larvae
but hosing may lead to skeletonize leaves. They
other problems such as dis- can cause complete defo-
eases. Check any chemicals liation.
suggested for treatment.
Some may adversely affect Note: Destroy if found.
the plant.
5. Root weevil—May be 1/4 7. Leafhopper—Small tor-
to 1/2 inch long. They can pedo-shaped insects with
be black, brown, or gray. wings held roof-like over
They have chewing mouth- the body. Found in a vari-
parts. Root weevils often ety of colors. Leafhoppers
attack ornamentals, such as are active jumpers. They
azaleas and rhododendrons, attack a variety of orna-
and many garden groups. mentals, fruit trees, and
The white larvae are C- garden plants, and may be
shaped. When the larvae found throughout the grow-
feed on the roots, the plant ing season. They have
becomes spindly. Feeding sucking mouthparts and
allows entry by root rots. feed on the undersides of
Larvae may also girdle leaves, which causes white
crowns, particularly in con- speckling on leaves (hop-
tainerized plants. Adults per-burn). Leafhoppers can
appear in June and feed un- transmit virus diseases.
til September. Their effect
8. Cotoneaster webworm—
is less serious. They tend to
Small, dark-brown to black
notch leaves. Though they
caterpillars are the damag-
rarely kill the plant, the re-
ing stage. They have chew-
sult is unsightly. They usu-
ing mouthparts and hide in
ally feed at night. Root
dense webs. They tend to
weevils’ fall migrations
skeletonize cotoneaster
into homes may cause
leaves and can kill or se-
some owners alarm, but
verely damage plants.
their purpose is hiberna-
tion. Spray for adults at 9. Fall webworm—Adults are
regular intervals starting in pure white moths, though
late June. they occasionally have a
6. Elm leaf beetle—Charac- few black spots. The larvae
terized by black and yellow are yellowish brown with
stripes on wing covers of long, whitish hairs arising
the adults and bodies of the from orange and black
larvae. They generally ap- bumps. They can be identi-
pear April through August. fied quickly because they
These beetles live through form unsightly tents en-
two generations and may closing entire branches.
overwinter in homes. They The chewing mouthparts
have chewing mouthparts. are damaging. Webworms
Both larvae and adults tend to cause problems
cause damage to elms. The only as larvae, and prima-
rily for ornamentals and

10 - 5
fruit trees. The larvae are vae have chewing mouthparts. Tent cater-
present from midsummer pillars are troublesome in early spring
to fall. Treatment is a prob- and into summer. Sometimes you can
lem, because if you remove deal with them by clipping tents and by
and burn the branch and burning. Forest tent caterpillars overwin-
the tent, you may destroy ter as eggs in bands around twigs. De-
the symmetry of the shrub stroy these by crushing them. Or you can
or tree. spray in early spring; later they may be
10. Juniper webworm—The tough to kill with chemicals.
larvae are light brown with 13. Birch leafminer—Only the larvae of the
dark brown stripes on the birch leafminer are damaging. They mine
back; they grow to a length and blotch the leaves of birch trees. They
of 1/2 inch. The larval have chewing mouthparts. To deal with
stage is the most damaging. them, spray just after the leaves unfold in
Larvae have chewing the spring. There are two generations.
mouthparts, and they tend The second is in mid-July, but if you do a
to attack junipers and red good control job on the first, the second
cedar. They feed in early will need only a minor use of spray to
spring. Webworms can be control.
identified easily because 14. Scales—Scales are small, with a soft or
they web the foliage to- hard coat surrounding the insect. The
gether. Mechanically de- covering takes on various forms from
stroy the larvae when hardened armor to soft, cottony
possible. masses. They often promote
11. Mourning cloak butterfly—Larvae are sooty molds, and all active
large and black with orange spots on their stages are damaging to many
spiny backs. The larval stage is the most plants. They have sucking
damaging. Larvae attack willow, elm, mouthparts and are stationary
and poplar. They are foliage feeders with (sedentary) feeders. They kill
chewing mouthparts. These caterpillars plants or plant parts. In order to
are gregarious feeders and are easily con- treat, find out what scale is
trolled by clipping twigs with groups of present and at what time the
caterpillars. Simply burn the clippings. active crawling stage is
Spraying is not necessary if the problem present. Spraying with an insecticide will
is caught early enough. be effective at that stage. Oil and sulfur
dormant sprays are usually the most ef-
12. Tent caterpillars—The lar-
fective.
vae are rather attractive,
dark, fuzzy caterpillars. B. Lawn Pests
The forest tent caterpillar 1. Lawn moths—Damage may be mistaken
has diamond- or keyhole- for thatch or fungus problems. The larval
shaped spots in a row along stage is the most damaging. Lawn moths
the back. The western tent have chewing mouthparts.
caterpillar is yellow with
blue lines. Tent caterpillars
congregate in small tents
during the day. The larval
stage is the damaging
stage, seriously defoliating
trees of many kinds. Lar-

10 - 6
2. Earthworms, nightcrawlers—These are plant reactions: leaf curl,
not insects, but annelids. They are nor- leaf cupping, stunting,
mally considered to be beneficial; how- lumpy fruit, etc.
ever, in certain instances, intense earth- 4. Apple-and-thorn skeleton-
worm activity leads to castings being izer—The larval stage is
thrown up on the surface, leaving an un- the damaging stage;
sightly lawn. the larva has chew-
C. Houseplant Pests ing mouthparts and
See Chapter 23, “House-plants and Home skeletonizes leaves.
Greenhouses,” Section V, Insect Pests. The adult stage is a
D. Tree Fruit Pests moth.
1.Codling moth—The larvae 5. Fruit leafrollers—The lar-
have chewing mouthparts val stage is the most dam-
and bore into fruit. Apples aging. Larvae are usually
and pears are the main shiny green with a
hosts. The larval stage is black or brown head.
the most damaging. It is They have chewing
extremely important to mouthparts and feed
time sprays properly. Use on the fruit and the
recommended materials leaves of many orna-
about 10 days after full mentals and fruit trees.
petal fall and repeat as nec- They tend to bind
essary, depending on mate- leaves together with a
rials used and local recom- webbing to form a
mendations. hiding place.
2. Aphid (woolly apple 6. Blister mite—Blister mites are arachnids,
aphid)—These are reddish not insects. They have chewing mouth-
aphids are covered by parts. The only evidence of their presence
white woolly wax. They is the circular blisters within which these
have sucking mouthparts. tiny microscopic mites reside. They may
All active stages are dam- become so numerous as to cover an entire
aging. These aphids are
bark feeders, and their
damage interferes with the
growth of the tree, often
killing a young tree. They
also attack roots. Their at-
tacks cause the most seri- tree. Young shoots suffer the most. Blis-
ous injury in apple trees, ter mites cause malformation of pear
but occasionally they are fruit; they also attack apple and cotoneas-
problems for pear trees. ter trees. The blistered surfaces later turn
3.Aphid (not woolly spe- into scablike areas. They are best con-
cies—They have sucking trolled during the delayed-dormant period
mouthparts, and all active (February or March).
stages cause damage. They 7. Pear psylla—Related to aphids and leaf-
include the green peach, hoppers, pear psylla have sucking mouth-
plum, rosy apple, and parts. Feeding is done by all active
green apple aphids. A toxin stages. The pear psylla secretes honey-
in the saliva causes various dew, which may kill leaf tissue and
which russets fruit. A sooty mold devel-

10 - 7
ops in honeydew and 11. Peach tree borer—The
blackens affected tissue, adult is a clear-winged
which leads to “pear de- moth. The larvae are dam-
cline.” Other problems aging to peaches, nectar-
from psylla include re- ines, and plums. Larvae
duced vigor, fruit loss, have chewing mouthparts.
poor fruit set, and occa- Their injuries are recog-
sionally the death of the nized by jellylike gum
tree. mixed with dirt and small
8. Pear slug—A relative of pellets of frass excreted by
the sawfly bee group, sev- the borers at ground level.
eral species of the pear slug This damage can seriously
are known. The larvae are injure a tree or even kill it.
covered with a slimy mate- Heavily infested trees are
rial, making them sluglike so devitalized that the
in appearance. The larval leaves turn yellow in a
stage is the most damaging. manner similar to nitrogen
Pear slugs have chewing deficiency.
mouthparts that skeletonize 12. Peach twig borer—The
the leaves. Pears, cherries, adult is a small, gray moth.
and roses are hosts com- The damaging larvae are
monly attacked by the pear light- to dark-reddish
slug or one of its relatives.
9. Cherry fruit fly—The lar-
val stage is the most dam-
aging; the larvae have
rasping mouthparts. The
adult is a small picture-
winged fly. Eggs are laid in
fruit starting when the fruit
changes to pink or yellow
(depending upon the vari- brown with a black head
ety). The larvae proceed to and yellow-white, ringlike
feed internally. Breathing segments around the abdo-
holes in fruit point out the men. Larvae have chewing
presence of the maggots. mouthparts. They attack
10. Walnut husk fly—The lar- developing twigs and bur-
val stage is the most dam- row down the tender
aging. Larvae attack shoots, causing them to
mainly walnuts, but occa- wilt and die. Later broods
sionally attack late peach attack fruits. The oriental
varieties. The adult is a fruit moth causes similar
picture-winged fly. In wal- damage, but is not as wide-
nut trees the damage to the spread in Idaho.
husk results in the staining E. Garden Pests
of shells and, at times, the 1. Cutworms—The adult is a miller moth.
darkening of the kernels. The larvae have chewing mouthparts and
Bitter, shriveled kernels are the most damaging stage for garden
may occur. produce. Many kinds of cutworms exist

10 - 8
and damage all kinds of mouthparts and attack many sorts of
plants. Control with plants. They can be scavengers or preda-
chemicals when they are tors also. The best control methods are
young. The more mature various dusts. Apply dust recommended
cutworms are difficult to in your area to soil surfaces when you
control with chemicals. If first notice the problem. Repeat if neces-
cutworms have been a sary.
problem, vigorous 5. Flea beetles—There are
disking or rototilling in several species of flea
the spring, before plant- beetles, all of which have
ing, will help destroy chewing mouthparts. Both
them. Also avoid persistent the larvae and the adults
weed patches as this is a cause damage. The adults
good source of cutworms. attack leaves of many veg-
2. Wireworms—Have rather etables. The larvae attack
hard, shiny, golden col- roots and tubers. The adults
ored, elongated larvae. The are very tiny beetles and,
adult stage is a click beetle. like fleas, are good jump-
The larval stage is the most ers. Use chemical control if
damaging. Wireworms necessary.
have chewing mouthparts. 6. Aphid—All active stages
They are a soil pest; their cause damage. The peach
feeding stunts crops. They aphid is one of the most
may kill the plant or cause important aphids. It affects
produce to be inedible. Po- not only peaches but also
tatoes and bulb crops are potatoes. It is a vector of
particularly hard hit by this the potato leaf roll virus,
pest; however, corn and which discolors tubers. The
other crops may be dam- asparagus aphid is also be-
aged. coming important.
3. Garden symphylan (insect 7. Pea leaf weevil—The adult
relative)—These are soil is the damaging stage. The
pests with chewing mouth- larvae feed on root nodules
parts; they tend to attack of peas. Pea leaf weevils
underground parts of all have chewing mouthparts.
vegetables, small fruits, While peas are the pre-
and many flowers. All ferred host, this weevil will
stages of the garden attack other plants such as
symphylan are damaging; beans.
infestations are sporadic. 8. Colorado potato beetle—
Control of this pest is diffi- Although mainly a pest of
cult for the home gardener. potatoes, Colorado potato
When the attack is severe, beetles can feed on tomato,
plants wilt and die. eggplant, and nightshade
4. Earwigs—Often merely a nuisance, weeds when potatoes aren’t
though all active available. Both the larvae
stages cause and the adults are damag-
damage. Ear- ing. These beetles have
wigs have chewing mouthparts.
chewing

10 - 9
9. Asparagus beetle—Rather bage maggot, except that
small beetles with chewing onion maggots attack only
mouthparts, asparagus onions, garlic, and shallots.
beetles are steel blue in 12. Cabbage maggot—The
color with reddish margins adult is a fly. The larval
and a few yellowish spots stage is the most damaging.
on wing covers. Larvae and The larvae are small, whit-
adults damage young ish maggots with rasping
shoots, but they are chiefly mouthparts; they bore into
a pest of mature plants, roots and stems of cabbage,
which may be completely broccoli, cauliflower,
defoliated. brussel sprouts, and kale,
often killing them. The
fleshy roots of radish and
turnips may be riddled with
holes. Control consists of
Note: The spotted asparagus beetle is some- diazinon or chlorpyriphos
what elongated and red-orange with (dursban) treatments at the
black spots. time of transplant or plant-
ing.
10. Carrot rust fly—The larvae
have rasping mouthparts. Note: Be careful. Highly organic or humus
The larval stage is the dam- soils tend to tie up insecticides such as
aging one. The adult is a diazinon and dursban.
small, nondescript fly,
while the larvae are small 13. Cabbage looper—The adult is a moth.
maggots that burrow into The larvae have chewing mouthparts.
the crowns or roots of car- They attack many cruciferous plants, as
rots, parsnips, and certain well as fruits, weeds, and ornamentals.
weeds. Only highly organic They are defoliators.
or humus soils harbor this
insect. Remove carrots as
soon as possible, since the
damage will increase if
they are left in the ground.
A diazinon application will
reduce, but not eliminate,
the carrot rust fly. How-
ever, mid- to late-June F. Household Pests
plantings tend to reduce 1. Stored products.
damage. a. Many pests go after stored products.
11. Onion maggot—The adult They include the carpet beetle, ciga-
is a fly. The larval stage is rette beetle or drugstore beetle, Indian
the most damaging. Larvae meal moth, sawtooth grain beetle, and
cause damage with their cockroach. Sanitation is the best con-
rasping mouthparts and trol.
create problems similar to b. Locate the pest sources and clean them
those caused by the cab- out thoroughly. Destroy infested mate-
rial or heat to 140°F. Vacuum infested
drawers and cupboards.

10 - 10
c. Spray with pyrethrum in and around
possible hiding places, but not on or
around food.
d. Maintain a regular spring cleaning pro-
gram.
2. Structural pests.
a. Termites: These pests are antlike, but
they do not have constricted waists.
They usually attack only damp or rot-
ting wood and are an indica-
tion of an already existing
problem. It is important to
treat these pests properly.
When carpenter ant or subter-
Carpet beetle
ranean termite infestations
are apparent, it would be wise
to contact a reputable PCO Sawtoothed grain beetle
(exterminator) to kill these
damp wood termites.
b. Ants: The most common ant pests
are carpenter ants.
Carpenter ant
3. Nuisance pests.
a. Flies: Flies are common, especially in
the summer and the fall. Tight seals
around windows and screen doors Cockroach
help. It also helps to maintain general
cleanliness, as fly larvae can breed in Indian meal moth
any kind of refuse. Keep garbage con-
tainers clean. Pyrethrum sprays will
kill the adults.
b. Mites: Many mite species, including
the clover mite, enter homes in large
numbers, causing the inhabitants great
alarm. Some scavenging mites, such as
grain mites, can get into stored foods.
House dust mites can be a source of
allergies.
c. Centipedes and millipedes: Though
centipedes are normally beneficial,
these elongated, multilegged insect
relatives often enter homes and cause Mite
annoyance. Centipedes can inflict
painful bites, while millipedes can be-
come pests in greenhouses. Millipede Centipede

10 - 11
d. Other: Careful calking, screening, and CIS 628 Insects and Mites Destructive to Berries
patching will prevent many problems (50¢)
with wasps, bats, and other home in- CIS 834 Insects and Other Pests in Firewood
vaders. Many true bugs such as (35¢)
boxelder bug, sage bug, grass bug, and MS 109 Keys to Damaging Stages of Insects
others will invade homes and other Commonly Attacking Field Crops in the
structures in the late summer and fall. Pacific Northwest ($20.00)
While they’re capable of biting, the
CIS 829 Locust Borer (25¢)
true bugs normally are considered nui-
sance pests. Several beetles are also CIS 902 Mosquitoes and What You Can Do
invaders and become severe nuisance About Them (35¢)
pests. Control is difficult; sweeping or CIS 988 Nuisance Ants (50¢)
vacuuming is normally recommended. PNW 326 Preventing and Controlling Powderpost
These include grass weevils, root wee- Beetles in and Around the Home (50¢)
vils, and the elmleaf beetle (overwin- CIS 414 Spiders and Their Relatives ($1.00)
ters in large numbers in attics). CIS 1002 Subterranean Termites (50¢)
G. Spiders CIS 936 Yellowjackets and Their Control (25¢)
Most spiders are harmless. The black widow To order University of Idaho publications, con-
is the most dangerous spider in the North- tact your county’s UI Extension office, or write
west. (The brown recluse spider has not Publications, University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho
been found in Idaho.) The hobo or “aggres- 83844-2240, call (208) 885-7982, fax (208) 885-
sive” house spider is common and can cause 4648, or email calspubs@uidaho.edu. Idaho resi-
skin sloughing. For more information about dents add 6 percent sales tax. Also check, and in
spiders see the University of Idaho College some cases download, the online publication and
of Agriculture CIS 414, “Spiders and Their video catalog on the UI Educational Communica-
Relatives.” tions web site (http://info.ag.uidaho.edu).
Spiders can become numerous in the fall as
Washington State University
they seek out overwintering spots. Be sure
to seal up basement entries (holes, cracks). EB 1106 Biology and Control of Tent
Caterpillars ($1.00)
EB 1270 Birch Leafminer ($1.00)
Further Reading EB 1380 Bronze Birch Borer ($1.00)
EB 0818 Carpenter Ants: Their Biology and
Books Control ($1.50)
Smith, M., and A. C. Carr. 1988. Rodale's Garden EB 1257 Carpet Beetles ($1.00)
Insect, Disease and Weed Identification EB 1068 Cherry Fruit Flies ($1.00)
Guide. Rodale Press. EB 1072 Codling Moth Control ($1.00)
Berry, R .E. 1978. Insects and Mites of Economic EB 0918 Disease and Insect Spray Schedule for
Importance in the Northwest. Corvallis, OR: Home Orchards—Peaches, Nectarines,
Oregon State University Bookstores, Inc. Apricots, Plums, Cherries ($1.00)
Booklets and Pamphlets EB 1206 European Earwig Prevention and
Control ($1.00)
University of Idaho
EB 1011 European Pine Shoot Moth ($1.00)
CIS 729 Apple-and-thorn Skeletonizer (25¢)
EB 0827 Fall Webworm ($1.00)
PNW 343 Beneficial Organisms Associated with
EB 0963 Gypsy Moth ($1.00)
Pacific Northwest Crops ($1.00)
EB 0472 Household Insects and Their Control
CIS 989 Carpenter Ants (50¢)
($1.00)
PNW 186 Cockroaches ($1.50)
EB 0695 Houseplant Pests ($1.50)

10 - 12
EB 0826 Insect and Mite Control on Ornamentals
($3.00) Acknowledgment
EB 4361 Maple Bladder Gall Mite ($1.00)
EB 0936 Pine Bark Beetles ($1.00) Illustrations for this chapter are used with the
EB 0970 Root Weevil Control on Rhododendrons permission of Oregon State University and by
($1.50) courtesy of J. Haugen and K. Burkhardt.
EB 1485 Snailcase Bagworm ($1.00)
EB 1154 Western Boxelder Bug ($1.00)
EB 0643 Yellowjackets and Paper Wasps ($2.50)
For more information or to order, contact your
county’s Cooperative Extension System office or
write to Bulletin Office, Cooperative Extension,
Cooper Publications Building, Washington State
University, Pullman, WA 99164-5912.

10 - 13
10 - 14
Chapter
Rodents, Birds, and Other Pests
11
I. Introduction 2
II. Safety in Handling 2
III. Identification 2
IV. Vertebrate Pests—Rodents 3
A. General Rodent Information 3
B. Ground Squirrels, Chipmunks, 3
and Chucks
C. Pocket Gophers and Voles 4
D. Mice and Rats 4
E. Rabbits 4
F. Bats 5
V. Vertebrates—Other Mammals 5
A. Raccoon 5
B. Deer 6
C. Skunk 6
D. Dogs and Cats 7
VI. Vertebrates—Birds 7
A. General Bird Information 7
B. Yellow-Bellied Sap Sucker 8
C. Starlings 8
VII. Invertebrates and Arthropods
of the Home Yard and Garden 8
A. Nematodes 8
B. Slugs and Snails 9
C. Earthworms and Nightcrawlers 10
Further Reading 10

11 - 1
Chapter 11
Rodents, Birds, and
Other Pests
K. M. Laughlin
Kevin M. Laughlin, Extension Educator, Ada County, Boise
I. Introduction move around slowly (described in other chap-

ters), these pests are marauders, staging hit-
Some gardeners worry about critters while oth-
and-run attacks on desirable plants, yards, and
ers consider them part of nature’s plan. One
gardens.
gardener’s wildlife habitat or sanctuary is an-
other gardener’s nightmare or problem. To find acceptable solutions, you must accu-
rately identify the target pest. Most creatures
Over the years you spend tending a garden,
have predictable needs and activities, and you
you come to realize there are a few shortcuts to
may be able to control or deter them by under-
preventing animal and other pest problems.
standing their habits.
Some you need to control; others you learn to
live with; and others you learn to share with A. This chapter covers only a few of the most
other gardeners. common pests.
In all cases, you need to consider personal pest B. Your best source for specific species man-
management objectives, the environment (city agement is the Nebraska Cooperative Exten-
or country) in which you are gardening, your sion System’s Prevention and Control of
neighbors, and how treatments will impact the Wildlife Damage Handbook. This resource
individual plant as well as the environment. publication covers more than 80 species.
Proper identification, timing, persistence, and C. You can obtain more information about spe-
diversification will play an important role in cific pests from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife
successful pest management plans. Service, USDA-APHIS Animal Damage
Control Specialists, the Idaho Cooperative
II. Safety in Handling Extension System, or the State of Idaho Fish
and Game Department.
Recently in Idaho, hantavirus has become a
concern for anyone handling vertebrate pests. D. It is unlawful in Idaho to gas, poison, shoot,
Also of concern are several other animal-hu- trap, or otherwise harm any endangered,
man transferred diseases and parasites includ- wild animal, or wild bird species without
ing rabies, plague, lyme disease, and Rocky special permits. Hunting seasons, the Migra-
Mountain spotted fever. tory Bird Act, and the Eagle Protection Act
regulate other animal harvesting. Before
If you handle equipment and work in areas
starting a vertebrate pest management pro-
where vertebrate pests are a problem, wear or
gram, be sure it is legal. Check with a local
use masks, gloves, and other protective cloth-
game warden for any local shooting and
ing when implementing control measures.
trapping limitations.
III. Identification E. Always read the labels of federal and state
approved pest control products before
Gardeners often become frustrated with the implementing control measures. It is illegal
diverse creatures described in this chapter. Un- to use any pesticide not listed on a label.
like many garden pests that remain in place or

11 - 2
The user is responsible for checking the la- been used with some success against spe-
bel to see that the site is listed. cific rodent species.
F. Some pest-control measures are traditional B. Ground Squirrels, Chipmunks, and Chucks
or involve folklore repellents. The Coopera- These rodents are voracious feeders on
tive Extension System does not have scien- lawns, bulbs, and leafy succulent plants dur-
tific data to support the use of most, but you ing spring and summer. Ground squirrels
may wish to try them. (Fig. 1) may dig a burrow system with en-
trances 2 to 3 inches (5 to 8 cm) in diameter.
IV. Vertebrate Pests—Rodents They are particularly troublesome in gar-
A. General Rodent Information dens that border fields or wild lands.
Most methods used in controlling rodents 1. The simplest removal method is to fill
are aimed at destroying them. Poisoning, burrows with water. Reflooding may be
shooting, exclusion, destruction of habitat, necessary to keep them discouraged.
trapping, and fumigating are among the 2. Also consider live traps (check daily for
methods used. Of these, poisoning is the relocation), gas bombs (place well back
most popular and probably the most effec- in the burrow after plugging all en-
tive and economical. Because rodent control trances), and poison baits.
is a diverse and complicated subject, it is 3. Protect bulb beds above ground with a
beneficial to learn the life cycle of each ro- cover of fine mesh chicken wire.
dent pest as you encounter it and before 4. Repel rodents by placing moth balls or
management. moth flakes in the runs or holes where
1. “Rodent” is rather all inclusive and per- they enter buildings.
haps a bit deceptive, because all ro-
denticides or repellents are not reg- Fig. 1. Sometimes, the Richardson ground squirrel (from top
istered for all species. This requires to bottom), the 13-lined ground squirrel, vole, and mole
accurate identification of the par- are called gophers.
ticular pest and careful selection of
control materials.
2. Rodenticides differ widely in their
chemical nature. Strychnine,
indandiones, coumarins (anticoagu-
lants), zinc phosphide, and several oth-
ers are labeled for commercial use. Of
the rodenticides available, the antico-
agulants are safest to use around the
home, provided you follow label
directions and pets don’t acci-
dentally ingest them. This is a
particular concern with cats
that are good “mousers.” Sold
as baits, the animal must ingest
them for several consecutive
days before they are effective.
Several other restricted use ro-
denticides are available for
trained and licensed applica-
tors. Rodent repellents Biomet-
12 naphthylene, paradichlo-
robenzene, polybutanes, poly-
ethylene, R-55 and thiram have

11 - 3
5. Chief natural enemies are foxes, snakes, 2. Diligently apply taste and smell repel-
hawks, and owls. Dogs and cats also can lents to the problem areas. Use live or
work into the control picture. spring traps or place bait boxes or poison
C. Pocket Gophers and Voles baits where other animals and children
Pocket gophers burrow through the ground, cannot reach them. Some rats may be-
feeding on root crops and roots of garden come bait shy and others may develop an
plants and do surface damage to lawns and immunity to anticoagulants, so change
gardens. Voles, as in Fig. 1, primarily do the types and active ingredients of poi-
surface damage to grass areas and may sons when confronted with extended
girdle woody plants. problems. Immunity develops over time
Gopher runways run parallel to the ground and constant exposure to anticoagulants.
surface and are located 6 to 10 inches (15 to It may be necessary to prebait. After
25 cm) below ground level. Control is usu- completing sanitation measures, create
ally easiest in early spring or fall when fresh bait stations. Place the baits in runways
mounds indicate activity. along a wall or fence where rodents often
travel or places where rats or mice seek
1. Place poison baits, fumigant type pellets,
shelter. Check baits frequently to ensure
or traps in their runs. Locate the burrow
they are fresh, dry, and free of mold.
with a long screwdriver or probe. Care-
fully follow the control product or trap 3. In orchards, field mice feed on trunks of
label instructions. If trapping efforts fail, trees, rarely burrowing below ground. If
line the sides of planting holes with light the orchard is mulched, be sure to pull
gauge chicken wire or hardware cloth. the mulch back a few feet from tree
trunks in the fall. To deter field mice,
2. Eliminating ground cover reduces popu-
place wire cylinders, tree collars, and
lation. Soil cultivation destroys burrows
plastic or paper wraps around the base of
and reduces cover.
fruit trees.
D. Mice and Rats
E. Rabbits
Mice or rats can spread disease and viruses,
Rabbits will girdle young trees, chew off
consume and contaminate stored products,
bark and young twigs of woody plants in
and may girdle woody plants by chewing
winter, and consume leafy plants during
bark (particularly in the winter). Mice eat
summer (Fig. 2).
seed and grain products and grass, and cre-
ate runways and bare patches on lawns. Fig. 2. Cottontails and jackrabbits can become seri-
Damage to lawns can be severe in winters ous, year-round pests.
when snow covers the ground for months.
1. Sanitation is your first line of defense.
Conduct a general cleaning, eliminate
food sources, and destroy rodent nests.
Get rid of rock piles, old boards, and
junk. Keep piles of wood and lumber up
off the ground. Mow lawns regularly and
remove long grass and vegetation from
adjacent areas. Keep areas around the
base of trees and shrubs free of grass and
loose mulch where mouse damage is a
problem. Store all dried and bagged food
in rodent-proof containers. Proper
composting of kitchen waste is important.
Keep seeds and livestock or pet food in
sealed containers.

11 - 4
1. You can live trap and relocate rabbits. 1. One or two bats in a house is a problem.
Reduce the rabbit habitat by removing Usually, a bat will find its way out by de-
overgrowth on ditches, bushy fence rows, tecting fresh air movement, so the sim-
or brush piles within or near garden ar- plest solution is to open windows or
eas. Rabbits don’t like to be far from doors leading outside. Bats have day and
cover so mowing, brush cutting, and gen- nocturnal roosts that they return to daily.
eral clean up can help control them. Each species selects roost sites with spe-
2. Place guards made of fine mesh (1/4 cific temperatures. If the roosting area is
inch) screens around the base of trees to too hot, too cold, or too drafty, they will
protect them from rabbit damage. Form leave. A single light bulb in the space
the guards into cylinders about 2 inches where they roost may keep it too hot for
larger than the diameter of the tree trunk bats. Another solution is to create a draft
and long enough to protect the tree above by opening doors and windows and using
the snow line. Tightly woven (no larger an electric fan. To discourage bats from
than 1-inch mesh wire and at least 30 roosting in one place, scatter 3 to 5
inches high) fences, well anchored to the pounds of moth flakes over the floor or
ground also work well. hang them in mesh bags from the rafters.
3. Plant “trap” crops like beans away from 2. The best time to bat proof a building is in
the garden to divert rabbits. This may the fall or winter when bats migrate to
provide extra food, however, resulting in wintering areas. As soon as they leave,
more rabbits. Also, onions seem to repel seal the openings in eaves and attic lou-
rabbits, so it may help to interplant an vers with 1/4-inch mesh, narrowly-
occasional row with your crops. spaced, parallel tight-wires or fishing-line
4. Also effective are commercial repellents screen, or boards. Seal narrow cracks
containing Thiram or Ziaram fungicides with caulking compounds. If you are bat
or other materials sprayed or painted on proofing a building, be sure all bats are
tree trunks, plants, or shrubs. Blood dust, outside before plugging the last opening.
nicotine, and other repellents are labeled Not all bats will leave at the same time.
for rabbit control. Consider installing a one-way device to
allow bats to leave but not return. Build-
5. To discourage rabbits, some gardeners
ing bat houses for excluded bats may
sprinkle dried blood meal around plant
help with the problem the next season.
roots or spray a cow manure and water
solution to reduce interest in particular 3. Placing floodlights in the attic or direct-
plants. Others apply powdered rock phos- ing them at openings for several nights
phate, powdered aloes, red cayenne pep- will not discourage entry. Instead, the
per, or fish tankage with bone meal to lights will attract nocturnal insects such
seedlings as they emerge or as a dust on as moths, providing a ready food source
plants. Some gardeners spray or place for bats.
coyote, fox, or other animal urine mix-
tures around garden areas as repellents.
V. Vertebrates—Other Mammals
F. Bats A. Raccoon
Bats are beneficial insect-eating animals. Raccoons have become adapted to urban
Occasionally bats get into buildings or attics and suburban areas, feeding at night at “gar-
where they foul the area with odorous feces bage can” restaurants or from pet dishes
or guano and disturb the occupants with (Fig. 3).
their nocturnal activities. Bats can carry ra- 1. Raccoons are easy to catch with box
bies. Always vaccinate your pets. Do not traps. Normal fencing will not keep rac-
handle bats. If you must handle them, wear coons from your garden; however, elec-
heavy leather or rubber gloves. tric fencing is particularly effective.

11 - 5
Fig. 3. Raccoons become especially bothersome near Fig. 4. To learn more about controlling deer damage
harvest for corn, melons and other fruit. and deer-resistant plantings, see the various
publications in the “Further Reading” section
at the end of this chapter.
2. Sprinkle black pepper on corn ears before

they are ripe. Installing motion lights and 3. Several commercial repellents are regis-
leaving radios on in the garden at dusk tered and may be partially successful.
and dawn may help repel raccoons. They require repeated applications, par-
B. Deer ticularly after rains or watering. Spray
contact or taste repellents such as
Deer can damage herbaceous and woody
Thiram, Ziram, and capsaican (derivative
plants by browsing (Fig. 4). Orchard and
of chili pepper) on the lower trunks of
vegetable crop damage are a concern, too.
trees and lower limbs at 2-week intervals.
1. Base your landscaping on deer-feeding
4. Other methods include sport hunting to
preferences to avoid using expensive
reduce populations; live traps for removal
chemical repellents. Planting resistant or
by conservation officers or professional
less palatable vegetables, annuals, peren-
biologists; temporary frightening devices
nials, trees and shrubs in landscapes will
such as gas exploders, tethered dogs, fire-
discourage browsing.
works, or a radio left on at night; human
2. An inexpensive way to exclude deer is to hair balls or deodorant soap bars hung at
construct a wire-mesh fence, 7 to 10 feet close intervals around valuable plants or
(2 to 2-1/2 m) high, around small gardens around the garden; and blood meal, coy-
or orchards. A horizontal outrigger—a ote, or other animal urine sprayed or
fence extension—makes it harder for placed around garden areas as repellents.
deer to jump fences. Some gardeners
C. Skunk
have had success with two parallel 5-foot
fences with a 5-foot “no deer” area be- Skunks are protected by law in most states
tween them. In some areas, electric and frequently are found to carry rabies. If
fences work if constructed with at least possible, avoid handling skunks because
five wires. Tightly strung piano wire in they can eject their scent 6 to 10 feet. The
the Australian fashion of crossbeams persistent odor on clothing, in gardens, or
forming an “X” at three heights also buildings is highly offensive (Fig. 5).
works. Deter deer by placing welded- 1. One method of control is to exclude
wire fencing around individual trees or skunks from their sleeping or nesting
plants or types of plants or use other me- quarters. Sprinkle a thin layer of flour
chanical devices such as rigid tubes around holes or building entrance areas to
(Vexar, Tree Shelters, and Tubex), flex- form a tracking patch. Examine the area
ible sleeves, and bud caps. after dark, when the tracks lead out of the

11 - 6
entrance. Close the space off with lumber 2. Repellents are almost too numerous to
or fencing, or consider live trapping and mention including allyl isothiocyanate,
relocating the skunk. Leaving a radio on amyl acetate, anethole, bittrex, bone oil,
all day in the skunk’s nesting area may capsaican, citrus oil, cresylic acid, euca-
disturb sleep patterns enough to cause lyptus, geranium oil, lavender oil, lemon-
them to relocate. grass oil, menthol, methyl nonylketone,
2. A chemical known as Neutroleum-Alpha methyl salicylate, nicotine, pentanethiol,
is probably the most effective odor neu- pryidine, sassafras oil, and thymol.
tralizer available. A tablespoon in a water
bath works well for pets and humans un- VI. Vertebrate Pests—Birds
fortunate enough to be “hit.” Use 2 A. General Bird Information
ounces in each gallon of water to scrub All birds, in one way or another, are benefi-
walls, out buildings, basements, outdoor cial to man. They can, however, create
furniture, and the like. You also can use problems singly or in groups. Birds are im-
chlorine bleach or household vinegar (di- portant in preventing insect outbreaks and
luted 1 to 10 parts water) with a little de- their control of other garden pests benefits
tergent. Tomato juice is not as effective. most gardens. Man considers birds pests
D. Dogs and Cats when they consume and destroy fruit and
Male dogs urinate and kill parts of leafy seed crops such as strawberries, sweet cher-
plants, especially conifers; female dogs’ ries, and sunflowers; contaminate foodstuffs
urine may cause dead patches in a lawn. or buildings with their feces; and transmit
Dogs leave feces on lawns or flower beds diseases directly or indirectly to man, poul-
and dig in garden beds. Cats can severely try, or dairy animals.
damage bark on young trees where they 1. Avicides registered by the Environmental
sharpen their claws. They dig in garden Protection Agency (EPA) for specific
soils and leave fecal matter that may trans- species often require prebaiting for sev-
mit parasites or diseases to humans. Cats are eral days and the quick removal of dead
the number one enemy of song birds in the birds at regular intervals to be effective.
garden. Chemosterilents, birth control agents, and
1. Controls include fences; scolding; clap- repellents are also available. There are
ping hands; waving brooms; or spraying three repellent categories: (1) olfactory
the cat or dog with water from a garden (odor), (2) tactile (touch), and (3) gusta-
hose. A screen around the tree base will tory (taste). In the olfactory category,
obstruct cats as will clipping the cat’s gardeners have used naphthalene (moth
claws. Cats will avoid resting or walking balls) granules or flakes to repel all do-
on walls or fences with moth crystals mestic animals. Tactile repellents are
sprinkled at regular intervals. made of various gooey combinations of
caster oil, petroleum, or solvents and ap-
Fig. 5. Skunks are kin to weasels and are not afraid of man. plied as thin strips or beads to roosts,
window ledges, and resting areas. Taste
repellents are varied and have multiple
uses. For example, fungicides applied as
seed treatments sometimes inhibit
seed-pulling birds.
2. To protect sprouting
seedlings and maturing
vegetables, floating row
covers are easy to use
and need no supports.
Drape cheesecloth, nylon

11 - 7
netting, or other mesh materials over gar- VII. Invertebrates and Arthropods
den crops or fruit trees susceptible to bird of the Home Yard and Garden
damage during ripening. Put these up 2 to
3 weeks before ripening. Place screen or A. Nematodes
cloth over strawberries and other small Nematodes or eelworms are tiny, unseg-
fruits. mented worms that may be as small as
3. Commercially designed noisemakers are 1/125 inch in length. An impermeable cu-
partially effective but not very popular in ticle covers and protects them. They survive
populated areas. Stakes and flags, con- during unfavorable periods of cold or heat
tinuous string flagging or netting, spiral in protective egg shells. Accurately identify-
twirlers, shiny propellers, and other ob- ing this pest and learning its specific life
jects that flash in the sunlight, rustle, or cycles (eggs may remain viable in cysts for
rattle as they spin are useful in small ar- several years) is the key to proper manage-
eas until birds become accustomed to ment.
them. 1. Nematodes cause their greatest damage
4. Poisoning is effective but not selective. when soil moisture and temperature are
Invariably, poisons will kill several song suitable for germination. They frequently
or protected birds, so it is not recom- will pierce roots and feed on them. They
mended. may lay their eggs on roots causing knots
to form. Nematodes can transfer diseases
B. Yellow-Bellied Sap Sucker
between plants. A plant attacked by para-
A member of the woodpecker family, sap sitic nematodes loses nourishment and
suckers drill horizontal rows of squarish may appear stunted or die. There are a
holes through the bark of spruce, Scots pine, number of beneficial free living, nonpara-
birch, nut trees, and Siberean elm. They sitic nematodes associated with root sys-
feed on sap and sap wood. Hummingbirds tems of many plants; therefore, finding
will feed on this sap and, like the sap root knots does not always indicate
sucker, take advantage of the insects at- nematode injury.
tracted to the ooze. Girdled trees may die.
2. Control culturally by selecting nematode-
Because sap suckers are a protected species,
free planting stock or resistant plant vari-
it is unlawful to kill them; so wrap the dam-
eties. You can kill considerable numbers
aged trees in burlap and treat with pruning
of nematodes by soil solarization, flood-
paint. Painting a mixture of cayenne pepper
ing the soil for extended periods, or by
and petroleum jelly on affected areas may
permitting the soil to completely dry out.
discourage continued damage. Noise makers
Maintaining high fertility levels or add-
also may scare birds away.
C. Starlings Fig. 6. Starlings can cause damage because of their
Exclude starlings (Fig. 6) by closing all prolific numbers and flocking habits.
openings to less than 1 inch (2.54 cm). Use
boards or metal coverings at 45° angles and
metal prongs or sticky repellents on ledges
or rafters. Attach netting to prevent roosting
on buildings or rafters. PVC strips work
well to cover door openings. Frightening
devices including alarms, distress calls,
lights, and bright objects may work. Repel-
lents to protect ripening fruit and poison
baits also are available.

11 - 8
ing organic amendments (peat, manure, pearance. Their color varies
and green chop) to garden soils decreases from white to pale yellow
the pest’s impact. Some commercial to lavender-purple to nearly
preparations of organisms (bacteria, black with brown spots,
sporozoa, fungi, viruses, protozoa, preda- specks, and mottlings. They
tory nematodes, tardigrades, mites, and have rasping mouthparts.
springtails) that prey on nematodes are Slugs are humidity-loving
available. animals that attack all kinds
3. Crop rotation is perhaps the most inex- of garden and ornamental
pensive, yet effective way to control plants. They may eat ir-
nematodes. Nematode-suppressive plants regular sections or consume
such as French marigolds (Tagetes entire leaves. There is only
patula), asparagus, garlic, and onions one generation per year.
have been reported to abate nematodes if 1. Culturally control slugs
they are planted in blocks and used as by eliminating cool,
part of a rotation. moist, dark hiding places
4. Orchard floor management through the (low-growing weeds,
use of cover crops in orchards or vine- stones, trash, and ground
yards can have a significant impact on covers) where slugs seek
nematode problems. Sanitation, prevent- daytime shelter. Keeping the garden dry
ing the movement of soils or water from and plants well spaced can help. Regular
an infested area of the garden, and plant- hand picking slugs from plants at night,
ing or harvest dates based on soil tem- maintaining a border of bare soil, and
perature with an understanding of nema- building copper screens or copper strip
tode life cycles also may help. barriers that they cannot crawl over may
5. Gardeners seldom use nematicides unless also help. Commercial traps are avail-
they encounter greenhouse or cold frame able. Shallow pans placed at ground level
problems. Most of today’s chemical and filled with stale beer are good home-
nematicides are soil fumigants, volatile made alternatives. Shingles, boards, and
halogenated hydrocarbons. There are no flower pots placed on the ground as hid-
nematicidal agents registered for use in ing places also make good traps; check
the home garden. If this pest problem oc- traps daily and scrape off and destroy the
curs, you will need to contact a commer- slugs. Commercial preparations of diato-
cial applicator. To avoid damaging other maceous earth can be effective as a pro-
plants, the products must be applied be- tective barrier if kept dry. Among their
fore planting. Chemical applications must natural enemies are ladybug larvae,
have high vapor pressure to spread ducks, chickens, snakes, and turtles.
through the soil and successfully contact 2. You can chemically control slugs by us-
nematodes in the water film surrounding ing molluscicides such as metaldehyde
soil particles. baits. Note these baits may attract and be
B. Slugs and Snails toxic to pets. Improve the bait’s effec-
tiveness by placing it under a protective
These are molluscs, not insects. Both have
cover such as a 5-inch diameter pie pan.
soft bodies and secrete a silvery mucus that
Fresh baits are most effective. Do not al-
appears as trails across the garden. Snails
low bait to come in contact with edible
carry a shell about with them. They spend
parts of plants. Methioacarb (Mesurol) is
the winter in the soil as eggs. Young and
the most effective of the insecticides reg-
adult slugs often rest in night crawler tun-
istered for use against snails and slugs on
nels. They appear in early spring and multi-
ornamentals. Other registered insecticides
ply rapidly under moist conditions. There
include Carbaryl and Mexa-carbate.
are several kinds, but all are similar in ap-

11 - 9
3. Do not use salt because it contaminates
soil and kills plants. A solution of one Further Reading
half household ammonia and one half
water in a spray bottle may destroy slugs Books
and snails without harming the soil. Keep Ball, J. 1988. Rodale’s Garden Problem Solver;
the spray solution off leaf surfaces as it Vegetables, Fruits, and Herbs. Rodale Press,
can damage plants; however, it will leave Emmaus, PA.
nontoxic residues. Barne, Danny L., and Mark S. Taylor. 1992. Con-
4. A mulch of oak leaves or tobacco stem trolling Deer Damage in Idaho Horticultural
meal will repel slugs and snails. A Crops and Gardens. Idaho Fish and Game
drenching of wormwood tea will deter Department.
them. Hellebore has long been used to Bienz, D. R. 1980. The Why and How of Home Hor-
keep slugs from grapevines. ticulture. W. H. Freeman & Co., San Fran-
C. Earthworms or Nightcrawlers cisco, CA.
Earthworms need a moist environment. Craven, S., and S. Hygnstrom. 1992. Controlling
They are headless, eyeless, toothless, with- Deer Damage in Wisconsin. Agricultural Bul-
out antennae, and bisexual (they have both letin, Madison, WS.
male and female reproductive organs). Soils Flint, M. L. 1990. Pests of the Garden and Small
with high worm populations often have high Farm University of California Publication
organic matter levels. Saline soils, sandy 3332, Oakland, CA.
soils, and soils with a pH of 4.5 or lower
Hogan, E. L. 1988. Sunset Western Garden Book,
usually have few worm problems. Earth-
Sunset Publishing Corp., Menlo Park, CA.
worms are normally found in the top 6 to 30
inches of the soil. They come to the surface Sayer, R. W., and D. J. Decker. 1990. Resistance of
at night and after heavy rains. Woody Ornamental Plants to Deer Damage.
USDA-APHIS/ADC, Cornell Cooperative Ex-
1. Earthworms can grow to 10 inches in
tension, and the New York Cooperative Fish
length. Most gardeners feel they are ben-
and Wildlife Research Unit.
eficial, but for some their burrowing and
hard casts make a lawn lumpy and diffi- Sullivan, D. 1990. Management of House Bats. Mon-
cult to mow. Earthworms burrow through tana Department of Agriculture, Helena, MT.
soil, feeding on organic matter and dead Tanem, B. 1993. Deer Resistant Planting. Deer Re-
leaves or stems at the soil surface. They sistant Plant Books, San Rafael, CA.
decompose thatch, mix organic material The Encylopedia of Organic Gardening, 1978. Or-
through the soil, and aerate the soil with ganic Gardening Magazine, Rodale Press,
their tunneling. Emmaus, PA.
2. Culturally some lawn maintenance pro- Timm, R. M. 1983. Prevention and Control of Wildlife
fessionals use heavy lawn rollers in the Damage, University of Nebraska Cooperative
spring before the mowing season, or Extension, Lincoln, NE.
when problems occur, to level the Vaillancourt, G. 1994. Backyard Pest Management
ground. in Alberta, Alberta Agriculture, Food and Ru-
3. No chemicals are registered for earth- ral Development, Edmonton, Alberta.
worm control. Wildlife Pest Control around Gardens and Homes,
1984. Agricultural Information and Publica-
tions, University of California, Davis, CA.
Ware, W. W. 1988. Complete Guide to Pest Control
With and Without Chemicals. Thomas Publi-
cations, Fresno, CA.

11 - 10
Booklets and Pamphlets Oregon State University
University of Idaho PNW 225 Building an Electric Antipredator
BUL 778 A Private Landowner’s Guide to Fence (50¢)
Managing Northwest Bluebird EC 1429 Controlling Ground Squirrel Dam-
Habitat ($1.50) age to Forages ad Field Crops,
PNW 225 Building an Electric Antipredator Ditches, and Dams (50¢)
Fence ($2.50) EC 987 Controlling Moles (75¢)
CIS 1041 Conduct Your Own Garden EC 1117 Controlling Pocket Gopher Damage
Research ($2.00) to Agricultural Crops ($1.50)
CIS 1018 Hantavirus (50¢) EC 1255 Controlling Pocket Gopher Damage
CIS 868 The Potato Rot Nematode ($1.00) to Conifer Seedlings ($1.50)
CIS 847 Virus and Nematode Diseases of CORN ANIM Pesticide Applicators Training
Raspberries (35¢) Manual/Animal ($5.00)
To order University of Idaho publications, con- CORN STRU Pesticide Applicators Training
tact your county’s UI Extension office, or write Manual Structural and Rodent
Publications, University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho ($8.00)
83844-2240, call (208) 885-7982, fax (208) 885- FS 372 Slugs (25¢)
4648, or email calspubs@uidaho.edu. Idaho resi- To order OSU publications, contact your county’s
dents add 6 percent sales tax. Also check, and in Cooperative Extension System office or write to
some cases download, the online publication and Publication Orders, Agricultural Communications,
video catalog on the UI Educational Communica- Oregon State University, Administrative Services
tions web site (http://info.ag.uidaho.edu). A422, Corvallis, OR 97331-2119 or call (503) 737-
Washington State University 2513.
EB 1147 Animal Damage Control in
Washington ($3.00)
EB 1677 Animal Warning Devices ($1.00)
EB 1602 Attracting Birds of Prey ($1.00)
PNW 154 Meadow Mouse Control in Tree
Fruit Orchards (25¢)
EB 1028 Moles ($1.00)
EB 0648 Organic Gardening ($1.00)
EB 1404 Pocket Gopher Control ($1.00)
EB 1663 Utrasonic and Subsonic Pest
Control Devices ($1.00)
To order WSU publications, contact your county’s
Cooperative Extension System office or write to
Bulletin Offices, Cooperative Extension, Cooper
Publications Building, Pullman, WA 99164-5912 or
call (509) 335-2857.

11 - 11
11 - 12
Chapter
Plant Disease Diagnosis and Management
12
I. Introduction to Plant Diseases 2 IV. Diseases Caused by Abiotic 6

A. History of Plant Diseases 2 (Nonliving, Nonparasitic, or
B. Significance of Plant Diseases 2 Noninfectious) Agents
in the United States A. High or Low Temperatures 6
II. Disease Concepts 3 B. High or Low Soil Moisture 6
A. What Is a Disease? 3 C. High or Low Light Intensity 6
B. Symptoms of Diseases 3 D. Lack of Aeration or Low 6
Oxygen Supply
C. Signs of Diseases 3
E. Air Pollution 6
D. Causal Agents of Disease 3
F. Nutrient Deficiencies 7
E. Inoculum and Pathogen 4
Dissemination G. Mineral Toxicity 7
F. Pathogen Survival 4 H. Unfavorable Soil pH 7
G. Factors Affecting Disease 4 I. Pesticide Toxicity 7
Occurrence J. Improper Cultural Practices 7
III. Diseases Caused by Living 5 V. Diagnosing Plant Disease Problems 7
(Biotic, Parasitic, or Infectious) A. Why Is Diagnosis Important? 7
Agents B. Basic Steps in Reaching 8
A. Fungi 5 a Diagnosis
B. Bacteria and Phytoplasmas 5 VI. Principles of Plant Disease Control 9
C. Viruses 5 A. Exclusion of the Pathogen 9
D. Nematodes 5 B. Eradication or Reduction of the 9
E. Parasitic Higher (Flower) Plants 6 Pathogen Population
C. Use of Disease-Resistant 10
Cultivars
D. Chemical Protection of Plant 10
E. Biological Control 11
F. Integrated Disease Management 11
VII. Plant Disease Terms 11
Further Reading 13

12 - 1
Chapter 12
and Management
S. K. Mohan
S. Krishna Mohan, Extension Plant Pathologist,
Parma Research and Extension Center
I. Introduction to Plant Diseases demics dramatized the effect of plant dis-

eases on mankind. Tragically, these epidem-
Plant pathology or phytopathology is the science
ics caused famine and death for over a mil-
dealing with plant diseases and their control.
lion people. Between 1845 and 1860, death
Plant pathologists study plant diseases caused by
and migration accounted for the loss of
fungi, bacteria, viruses, nematodes, and parasitic
nearly one-third of Ireland’s population.
plants. They also study plant disorders caused by
nutrient imbalances, air pollution, and other unfa- In 1861, a German botanist, Anton De Bary,
vorable growing conditions. proved that a fungus (Phytophthora
infestans) was the causal agent of late blight
A. History of Plant Diseases
of potato. This was a milestone in the study
Plant diseases have had profound effects on of plant diseases since it showed that a fun-
mankind through the centuries as evidenced gus was indeed the cause of a plant disease
by Biblical references to the blasting and rather than an organism simply associated
mildew of plants. The Greek philosopher with the disease. Two years later, Louis Pas-
Theophrastus (370-286 B.C.) was the first teur proposed his germ theory of disease
to describe maladies of trees, cereals, and that finally disproved the theory of sponta-
legumes that we currently classify as leaf neous generation and changed the way mod-
scorch, rots, scab, and cereal rust. The Ro- ern science investigated the diseases of all
mans were also aware of rust diseases of living organisms.
their grain crops. They celebrated the holi-
B. Significance of Plant Diseases in the United
day of Robigalia when sacrifices of reddish-
States
colored dogs and cattle were made in an at-
tempt to appease the rust god Robigo. A few examples of plant disease epidemics
that have resulted in devastating plant losses
With the invention of the microscope in the
in the United States include: chestnut blight,
17th century, fungi and bacteria associated
introduced in 1904, virtually eliminated
with plants were investigated. In 1665, Rob-
chestnut trees from North America; citrus
ert Hooke published the first illustration of
canker, introduced in 1910, and a closely
rust on a rose leaf. Advances in the study of
related bacterium called citrus bacterial spot
diseases were hampered by the widely held
discovered in 1984, resulted in the destruc-
belief in the theory of spontaneous genera-
tion of millions of citrus trees; white pine
tion. This theory, held by most people in the
blister rust, introduced in 1912, caused large
mid-18th century, considered pathogenic or
economic losses in the timber industry; and
disease causing microorganisms as products
Dutch elm disease, introduced in 1930, con-
of disease rather than causes of disease.
tinues to destroy large numbers of elm trees
Epidemics of late blight of potato devas- from the East Coast to the Pacific North-
tated Ireland in 1845 and 1846. These epi- west.

12 - 2
As a direct result of severe disease losses Diseases in plants are caused by either liv-
from imported diseased plant material, plant ing (biotic, parasitic, or infectious) agents
quarantine laws were passed by the United called pathogens, or nonliving (abiotic, non-
States Congress in 1912. The Agricultural parasitic, or noninfectious) environmental
Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) factors. Plant diseases may also be grouped
has quarantine inspectors stationed at points by the causal agent involved (fungal dis-
of entry into the country as well as at certain eases, bacterial diseases, viral diseases,
interstate points to intercept produce likely nematode diseases, etc.), the plant part af-
to carry new plant pathogens. fected (root diseases, seedling diseases, leaf
diseases, stem diseases, flower diseases,
II. Disease Concepts fruit diseases, tuber diseases, etc.), or the
A. What Is a Disease? types of symptoms (damping-off, wilts, leaf
There are many ways to define what a plant spots, cankers, blights, galls, root knots, mo-
disease is. However, simply put, plant dis- saics, storage rots, etc.).
eases involve profound changes within the B. Symptoms of Diseases
host that cause a disruption of normal plant Symptoms are the visible reactions of a
function. A good working definition of a plant to a disease and may suggest a causal
healthy plant is one that can carry out its agent. A sampling of disease symptoms
physiological functions to the best of its ge- might include wilting, necrosis, abnormal
netic ability. coloration, defoliation, fruit drop, abnormal
Diseases are among the most important fac- cellular growth, or stunting of the infected
tors that can significantly diminish growth plant. However, it is important to remember
and yield, or reduce the usefulness of a plant that different disease agents can cause simi-
or plant product. Healthy or normal plants lar symptoms on the same host. An equally
develop and function to the maximum of important point to remember is that insect
their genetic potential. However, when feeding can also cause disease-like symp-
plants are adversely affected by continuous toms on plants.
irritation by a disease-causing agent, which C. Signs of Diseases
interferes with normal development and Signs are the visible parts of the pathogen or
functioning, plants are considered to be dis- its products seen on the host that can be
eased. This broad definition excludes injury used to identify the pathogen. Examples of
or damage such as mechancial injury (e.g., common disease signs include: the white
lawn mower or weed-eater injury to trees); coating of mycelium visible on powdery
deer, rodent, and bird damage; hail damage; mildew-infected leaves, mushroom growth
and lightning injury. on a tree limb, droplets of bacterial ooze
In addition to reduction in growth, yield, running down a fruit tree twig, nematode
and economic or aesthetic value of a plant cysts on plant roots, or dark fungal fruiting
or plant product, diseases may lead to the bodies visible in leaf lesions.
death of the whole plant or destruction of D. Causal Agents of Disease
the entire crop under conditions favorable A pathogen is any organism that can cause a
for the disease. Diseases may interfere with disease. Pathogens cause infectious diseases
absorption and translocation of water and that can spread from an infected plant to a
nutrients from the soil to the various parts of healthy plant. Pathogens that cause infec-
the plant, may reduce the photosynthetic ef- tious diseases include bacteria, fungi, vi-
ficiency of the plant parts, may interrupt the ruses, nematodes, and parasitic plants. Plant
translocation of photosynthetic products disease can also be caused by noninfectious
through the plant, or may interfere with the or nonliving factors. Causes of disease by
reproduction and storage of food reserves in nonliving factors include unfavorable grow-
the plant. ing conditions, mineral deficiencies, and air
pollution.

12 - 3
Pathogens that cannot be cultured apart todes or fungal zoospores swimming
from their host are classified as obligate through water in the soil toward plant roots.
parasites. Pathogens that can be cultured Only a fraction of any pathogen’s inoculum
apart from their hosts on artificial media are will ever land on a susceptible host. The
called nonobligate parasites. In general, vast majority of inoculum lands on material
obligate parasites only attack very specific that cannot be infected. Most pathogens pro-
host plants, whereas nonobligate parasites duce a tremendous surplus of inoculum.
typically have a wider range of plants they F. Pathogen Survival
can infect. Some pathogens are restricted to Pathogens in temperate climates must have
a single plant species, while others infect a a way of overwintering when their host
single plant genus. Still others attack a large plants are dormant or absent. In perennial
number of hosts from many plant genera. plants, pathogens can survive in infected
There are also several levels of parasitism plant parts such as roots, bulbs, stems, and
that pathogens can have with their hosts. bud scales. Annual plants, however, die at
When a pathogen is capable of infecting a the end of the growing season and patho-
plant, the plant is considered susceptible to gens must survive in insects, seeds, or as
that pathogen. If a pathogen cannot infect a resistant spores.
plant, then the plant is considered immune G. Factors Affecting Disease Occurrence
to that pathogen. Plants can vary in their re-
Diseases in plants are an exception rather
sponse to pathogens from high resistance
than a rule. Three factors, called the disease
(very little disease development), to partial
triangle (Fig. 1), must coincide for a plant to
resistance (moderate disease development),
become diseased: the host, the pathogen,
or high susceptibility (severe disease devel-
and the environment. The interaction be-
opment). Pathogens can vary in their degree
tween these three factors with time deter-
of virulence on a susceptible plant ranging
mines the occurrence and severity of a dis-
from highly virulent (causing severe disease
ease. For the disease to occur, the following
symptoms) to weakly virulent (causing less
conditions must be met:
disease).
1 The host plant must be of a susceptible
E. Inoculum and Pathogen Dissemination
species or cultivar at the right stage of
Inoculum is any part of the pathogen that development (susceptible host).
can cause infection. Examples of inoculum
2. The pathogen must be of a virulent race
include fungal spores, bacterial cells, virus
or strain and must be present in sufficient
particles, or nematode eggs. Inoculum that
numbers (inoculum potential). The pres-
survives the winter and causes the original
ence of appropriate vectors or other
or primary infection in the spring is called
agents of dispersal is also necessary.
primary inoculum. Secondary inoculum
causes additional infections throughout the 3. The environmental (atmospheric and soil)
growing season. conditions such as temperature, humidity,
rainfall, wind, moisture, light, soil type,
Inoculum is sometimes present at the site
texture and pH, density of planting, aera-
where a plant is grown and can also be in-
tion, and nutritional status (mineral defi-
troduced from an outside source. Inoculum
ciency or excess) must be favorable for
already present at a plant site includes soil
disease development.
pathogens or pathogens that overwinter on
perennial weeds. Introduced inoculum in- Fig. 1. Plant disease triangle.
cludes infected plant material such as in- Pathogen
fected seeds, wind-blown fungal spores, and •
inoculum transmitted by insects.
Inoculum can be disseminated passively by
wind, rain, and man. Inoculum can also be
disseminated actively by insects and nema-
Environment • • Host plant
12 - 4
4. Understanding the various aspects of the tions, bacteria reproduce very rapidly and
host, the pathogen, the environment, as can cause serious damage in a short period
well as their interaction is essential to of time. Bacterial pathogens are spread by
implement an effective disease manage- wind-splashed rain, insects, contaminated
ment strategy. seed, or implements. Bacterial diseases are
relatively difficult to control because there
III. Diseases Caused by Living (Biotic, are very few chemicals that are effective
Parasitic, or Infectious) Agents against them.
A. Fungi Some commonly encountered bacterial dis-
Commonly known as molds, fungi (singular eases are: crown gall of rose, grape, apple,
= fungus) are mostly microscopic organisms cherry, and other ornamental plants; fire
that have bodies (mycelium) composed of blight of apple and pear; soft rot of potato;
multi-cellular, thread-like, branched fila- ring rot of potato; and aster yellows
ments (hyphae) and reproductive structures phytoplasma on carrots, tomatoes, onions,
called spores. Since they do not possess lettuce, etc.
chlorophyll, fungi depend on either dead C. Viruses
organic matter or living plants for their Viruses are infectious agents so small they
growth and reproduction. Some fungi pro- must be observed through an electron mi-
duce vitamins and antibiotics that are useful croscope. Particles of these viruses may be
to us. in the form of rods, spheres, or threads.
A few fungi, like some types of mushrooms They are composed mainly of a nucleic acid
and morels, are edible. On the other hand, core surrounded by a protein coat. Viruses
some fungi thrive on living plants, drawing can multiply only in a living host cell and
their nutrition from them and sometimes can often spread systemically throughout
producing toxins that cause disease and the infected plant.
death of the plants they infect. These are Viruses can be transmitted from infected to
called plant pathogenic fungi. healthy plants mechanically, through grafts,
A majority of diseases in plants are caused and by contaminated propagating material.
by fungi. Some examples commonly en- Viruses can also be transmitted by certain
countered in home gardens and landscape organisms, referred to as vectors. In addi-
trees are: brown rot of cherries, apple scab, tion to insects (primarily aphids, white flies,
black spot of rose, snapdragon rust, corn leafhoppers, and beetles), virus vectors in-
smut, powdery mildew of rose, peach leaf clude mites, nematodes, and fungi in the
curl, sycamore anthracnose, early blight of soil.
potato, Verticillium wilt of tomato, damp- Viral diseases are not controlled by pesti-
ing-off, and root rot of vegetables. cide chemicals. Examples of viral diseases
B. Bacteria and Phytoplasmas are: curly top of tomato, bean, cucurbits,
Bacteria (singular = bacterium) and etc.; potato leaf roll; bean common mosaic;
phytoplasmas (formerly known as myco- and rose mosaic.
plasmas or mycoplasma-like organisms) are D. Nematodes
microscopic, single-celled organisms that Nematodes are microscopic roundworms
cause some of the most destructive diseases that live in soil as well as water, and survive
in plants. Some bacteria, like those that in- as eggs or cysts. Most of them are
duce nodulation in leguminous plants, are saprophytes, but some infect living plants
beneficial to plants because they fix nitro- and cause diseases. Most plant parasitic
gen from the air into the root nodules in a nematodes feed on the underground parts of
form that the host plant can utilize for its the plants (roots, tubers, bulbs, etc.) causing
growth. lesions or root knots. However, a few nema-
Phytoplasmas are a type of bacteria that lack todes also affect the buds, leaves, flowers,
distinct cell walls. Under favorable condi- and stems of plants. Nematodes spread

12 - 5
through contaminated planting material (tu- to trees; and frost damage to tomatoes,
bers, seedlings, etc.), manure, soil, water, beans, potatoes, etc.
machinery, and implements. Some nema- B. High or Low Soil Moisture
todes are vectors of plant viruses. Too much moisture due to excessive water-
Some examples of plant parasitic nematodes ing, poor drainage, ponding, or flooding
are: root knot nematodes of tomato, potato, may cause plants to turn yellow and be
beans, and many other plants; root lesion stunted. Potted indoor plants, for example,
nematodes of corn and potatoes, cyst nema- may show poor development or root rots.
tode of sugarbeets; stubby root nematode of Seedlings are vulnerable to damping-off
corn; stem and bulb nematodes of onion; caused by soilborne pathogens under these
and foliar nematode of chrysanthemum. conditions.
E. Parasitic Higher (Flowering) Plants In some indoor or greenhouse plants (e.g.,
Several flower- and seed-producing plants geraniums, begonias) growing under warm,
live as parasites on other plants (host humid atmospheric conditions and exces-
plants), deriving their nutrition from them sive soil moisture, a condition known as
and adversely affecting the host plant’s edema (small, wart-like rusty, corky bumps)
growth and yield. Dodder (also know as can develop on the underside of the leaves,
strangleweed and devil’s hair), for example, and on the stems. At the other extreme, low
parasitizes several garden plants such as po- moisture or drought conditions can lead to
tatoes and carrots. It produces orange or yel- poor development, wilting, and death of
low vine strands that entwine the stems and plants.
other plant parts from which it draws its nu- C. High or Low Light Intensity
trition through tube-like structures it intro- High light intensity is usually not a problem
duces into the host tissue. Dodder produces but low light conditions, especially for in-
abundant seeds that ensure its propagation door plants, can lead to etiolation (spindly
and spread. Another example of a parasitic or lanky plant growth with chlorotic yellow
plant is dwarf mistletoes on pines. foliage).
IV. Diseases Caused by Abiotic D. Lack of Aeration or Low Oxygen Supply
(Nonliving, Nonparasitic, or Low aeration can deprive plant roots of ad-
equate oxygen and can adversely affect their
Noninfectious) Agents development or even kill the plant. Inad-
A variety of environmental and cultural factors equate oxygen supply during the storage of
can cause diseases in plants. Since these diseases potato tubers can lead to the development of
occur in the absence of pathogens, they do not a condition called blackheart, the browning
spread from a diseased plant to a healthy plant. and death of internal tuber tissue.
A. High or Low Temperatures E. Air Pollution
When plants or plant parts are exposed to Certain chemcals, such as ozone, sulfur di-
high temperatures for prolonged periods, oxide, and nitrogen dioxide are released into
symptoms of scorching or scalding may de- the air from factories, power plants, and au-
velop. Some examples are: sunburn or tomobile exhausts. These chemicals can ac-
scorching of leaves and sunscald of fruits cumulate in the atmosphere in sufficient
(e.g., apples, tomatoes, peppers, and mel- concentration to cause damage to plants.
ons). Similarly, low temperatures, like frost Ozone damage appears in the form of mot-
or freeze, can damage the exposed or sensi- tling, chlorosis, spots, and bleaching of
tive organs (buds, flowers, young fruits, young leaves. This is common in certain re-
etc.) or may kill the entire plant. Examples gions of the country where there is a high
include: southwest-side damage to trunks of ozone concentration in smog. For example,
apple trees; frost damage to blossoms and ozone damage is frequently found on the
young apple fruits; russet ring (caused by leaves of beans, petunias, and grapes. Some
frost) on apple and pear fruits; winter injury of the air pollutants responsible for acid rain
12 - 6
cause damage to vegetation in certain re- ample, if wettable sulfur is sprayed (for
gions. In Idaho, however, plant damage due powdery-mildew control) on a very hot day
to air pollution is not common. (above 90°F), it will result in injury to the
F. Nutrient Deficiencies plant phytotoxicity). However, the most
Plants require several major (nitrogen, phos- common type of chemical injury to plants is
phorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, due to soil residues or spray drift of herbi-
and sulfur) and minor (iron, boron, copper, cides.
zinc, etc.) elements for normal growth. De- Examples of pesticide toxicity are: 2,4-D
ficiency or lack of any of these essential nu- damage to beans and tomatoes, dicamba
trients results in disease symptoms in the (Banvel) damage to vegetables and trees,
plant. Specific symptoms depend on the and glyphosate (Roundup) damage to fruit
plant species and the deficient nutrient. If trees. Some herbicides used as soil sterilants
not corrected, a prolonged acute deficiency may leave the soil unsuitable for any plant
of essential nutrients can lead to death of the growth for several years.
plant. J. Improper Cultural Practices
Common examples of nutrient deficiencies Any cultural practice done in the wrong way
are: nitrogen deficiency in beans, iron defi- or at the wrong time can result in significant
ciency in peaches, zinc deficiency in apple damage to plants. Injury can result from im-
trees, and calcium deficiency in apple fruit proper amounts of chemical fertilizer or
(bitter pit). In the home garden, the common pesticide or improper chemical mixes in the
blossom-end rot of tomato fruit is caused, in spray tank. Root pruning can result from
part, by calcium deficiency. excessively deep cultivation; distorted and
G. Mineral Toxicity twisted roots can result from pot-bound con-
Presence of excessive available amounts of ditions of a plant. African violet leaves
certain minerals in the soil can lead to min- sprinkled with very cold water develop
eral toxicity to the plants. The extent of in- rings and ring-like patterns that resemble
jury depends on the mineral, its concentra- symptoms caused by some viruses.
tion, and the species of the plant. Excessive
amounts of sodium salts in the soil can lead
V. Diagnosing Plant Disease Problems
to high pH and to alkali injury (e.g., alkali A. Why Is Diagnosis Important?
injury to apple). Plants growing in acidic Whether in an effort to save existing plants
soils can be injured by aluminum or manga- or to prevent problems from recurring, it is
nese toxicity. important to know “What went wrong?” Di-
H. Unfavorable Soil pH agnosis is the process of gathering informa-
Although many plants can grow in a rather tion about a plant problem and determining
wide range of soil pH, plants growing in the cause. Once the cause has been deter-
soils with unfavorable pH usually show mined, it is then possible to recommend a
poor growth and mineral deficiency or tox- solution or remedy.
icity symptoms. Diagnosing plant problems can involve con-
For example, iron deficiency symptoms are siderable detective work. Sometimes there
very common in plants growing in high pH is insufficient information and other times,
soils in Idaho. Under conditions of high soil the primary cause of a problem is hidden by
pH, iron in the soil becomes unavailable to more obvious, but less-important, problems.
the plant, thus inducing interveinal chlorosis Success in diagnosing plant problems de-
and yellowing of leaves. The plant may die pends on how much we know about the host
if the condition remains uncorrected for a plant, about the plant problems in general,
prolonged time. and the quality of information obtained
I. Pesticide Toxicity from the client.
Some pesticides, if improperly used, can For example, 10 tomato plants all similarly
cause serious damage to plants. For ex- damaged, are brought to you. All have yel-

12 - 7
low leaves, stunted growth, and very few of diseases in plants, look for the symp-
feeder roots. You learn from questioning the toms and signs of the disease. The char-
grower that he applied one-half of a 20- acteristic internal or external alterations
pound bag of 10-10-10 fertilizer to a tomato of a plant in response to a disease-caus-
plot that measures 60 square feet. The ing agent are called symptoms (leaf spot,
grower put 10 pounds of fertilizer on 60 necrosis, blight, canker, wilt, lesion, gall,
square feet, which translates to a rate of 166 witches’ broom, rot, chlorosis, mosaic,
pounds per 1,000 square feet. This is almost etc.). Sometimes, the pathogen that
10 times the normal rate of 20 pounds per causes the disease produces its own
1,000 square feet of a 10-10-10 fertilizer. characteristic growth or structures on the
The grower’s fertilization rate is enough to diseased plant that are of diagnostic
kill fine feeder roots. The diagnosis is dam- value. These are referred to as signs of
age to the roots caused by overfertilization. the disease (mold, mildew, sclerotia,
B. Basic Steps in Reaching a Diagnosis mushrooms, conks, etc.).
1. Identify the plant—The better your plant 5. Tentative diagnosis—Based on your
identification skills the faster you will be knowledge of the plant and information
able to diagnose a problem. Most refer- from reference books, formulate a tenta-
ences on plant pests and diseases are or- tive diagnosis. This will help you focus
ganized by plant, so knowing the plant is your examination of the plant and assist
the essential first step in using many ref- in collecting relevant information.
erence books. 6. Double-check the diagnosis—Once you
2. What is normal? Your familiarity with have arrived at a diagnosis, unless it is an
the normal appearance and cultural re- obvious diagnosis, double-check it. Ask
quirements of the plant will enable you to other master gardeners or extension edu-
differentiate normal changes from symp- cators for their opinions. Read through
toms of a problem. the reference books about your diagnosis
3. What is the problem? To make a disease to make certain everything matches. Ad-
diagnosis, you need to know: the pattern ditional laboratory work may be needed
of distribution of the diseased plants or to confirm your diagnosis.
plant parts, the plant species or cultivar 7. Types of plant disease diagnosis—Verbal
involved, the site where the plant is descriptions by a telephone call or evalu-
growing (field, orchard, garden, green- ation of a sample provide the most com-
house, inside the house, etc.), and previ- mon diagnostic opportunities. However, a
ous crop history of the site. site visit provides more complete infor-
For example, uniform damage to many mation.
species in an area, to all plants on one To make a telephone diagnosis, you must
side of the field or garden, or to all shoots completely rely on information provided
on one side of the tree indicates that the by the caller in order to make your diag-
cause may be an abiotic factor. Also, if nosis. There will be common, familiar
the damage is well demarcated in a gar- problems, such as powdery mildew of
den or in a plant, it may suggest that apples, when a little information easily
some abiotic factor is involved. On the leads to a correct diagnosis. In other
other hand, if there is evidence of pro- cases, it will be very difficult to make a
gressive spread of the disease from an diagnosis over the telephone and it may
initial focus to other plants of the same be necessary to evaluate a sample.
cultivar or species or to different parts of Much of your diagnositic work as a mas-
the plant, it may indicate that an infec- ter gardener will be done with plant
tious agent is involved. samples. Usually, the sample will provide
4. Examine the plant and note symptoms the clues necessary to solve the problem.
and signs —For a presumptive diagnosis But when the sample only confirms the

12 - 8
identification of the plant, you must con- under which certain crops may be grown
centrate on acquiring information to and distributed between states and coun-
reach a diagnosis. Your job will be to tries. We cannot import several types of
learn about the plant’s cultural and envi- plant material from abroad without specific
ronmental conditions, the care the plant permission and inspection by the appropri-
has received, and whether the sample is ate quarantine authority.
representative of the problem affecting An example of a state quarantine is in rela-
the plant. tion to white rot of onion and garlic. White
A site visit provides the greatest opportu- rot is a very destructive disease of onion and
nity to gather information, but a success- garlic. Once introduced in the soil, the
ful plant diagnosis also depends on a pathogen can survive for over 20 years and
combination of factors: your knowledge there are no satisfactory chemical control
of the plant involved, your understanding measures. At present, our commercial onion
of the plant’s basic cultural requirements, growing areas in southern Idaho are free
and your recognition of the potential from this disease. Therefore, the State De-
problems that might affect it. It also department of Agriculture in Idaho restricts
pends on your ability to gather informa- the importation of onion and garlic bulbs
tion, both through observation of the and other related plants for planting in
plant and discussion with the client. southern Idaho.
Restriction of bean seed from outside of
VI. Principles of Plant Disease Contro1 Idaho prevents the introduction of two seri-
Plant disease control aims at preventing or reduc- ous bacterial diseases: halo blight and com-
ing the amount of damage or economic loss. Most mon blight.
plant disease-control measures are aimed at pre- Homeowners can keep some serious plant
venting or protecting plants from the disease pathogens out of their yards and gardens by
rather than curing the plant after it is diseased. By planting only certified, disease-free planting
the time the disease symptoms appear, it is often material (seeds, tubers, bulbs, seedlings,
too late to reverse the damage caused by the dis- nursery stock, etc.). For example, a home-
ease agent. In some cases, acceptable control owner can avoid several virus diseases and
measures are not available to halt the disease, ring rot of potato by planting certified dis-
short of plant removal. Correct diagnosis of the ease-free tubers.
disease is important in order to implement a con- B. Eradication or Reduction of the Pathogen
trol strategy to prevent or reduce the incidence of Population
the disease in the next crop cycle. Serious disease damage to a crop or garden
The various controls for diseases can be classified patch can be prevented or reduced by pull-
as exclusion strategies, inoculum reduction meth- ing out and destroying the first plant or the
ods, use of disease-resistant cultivars, chemical first few plants that show the disease symp-
control, and biological controls. Integrated dis- toms (roguing). This prevents the spread of
ease-management strategies may utilize any or all the pathogen to other healthy plants (e.g.,
of these methods. elimination of the first bean plants with mo-
A. Exclusion of the Pathogen saic symptoms).
Some destructive plant diseases do not oc- Since some of the root-infecting pathogens
cur in our country, state, or region. To pre- remain viable in the soil even after the crop
vent import and introduction of these patho- is harvested, avoid planting the same or
gens national, regional, or state regulations, similar susceptible crop in that part of the
known as quarantines, are put into force. garden for the next 2 to 3 years. An appro-
Some examples are the customs and plant priate crop rotation in the garden is very es-
health inspection services at airports and sential to reduce the damage caused by root
check points on highways. In addition, na- rot and wilt-causing pathogens and nema-
tional and state laws regulate the conditions todes (e.g., Fusarium root rot and wilt, Ver-

12 - 9
ticillium wilt, and nematodes on tomato). tance to Fusarium wilt, Verticillium wilt,
Eliminating the infected leaves and diseased nematodes, and tomato mosaic virus; and
or dead branches, as well as using clean gar- apple cultivars resistant to fire blight).
den tools and similar methods of sanitation, D. Chemical Protection of Plant
will prevent the spread and build up of dis- The most common method of direct protec-
ease-causing organisms. tion of plants against plant pathogens is
Other cultural practices, such as growing through the use of chemicals. Chemicals
plants on raised beds and using composted used for control of fungal diseases are called
tree bark in the planting medium for con- fungicides, those that control bacterial dis-
tainerized nursery stock, help reduce the eases are called bactericides, and those that
damage caused by certain soilborne patho- control nematodes are called nematicides.
gens (e.g., damping-off, root rots, and No chemicals at this time are effective
wilts). against diseases caused by viruses.
Proper irrigation management can prevent Certain chemicals, used to control soilborne
some diseases (e.g., collar rot of apple). pathogens, are called fumigants. These are
Using the sun’s heat during the summer highly volatile chemicals that are toxic to all
months to reduce some of the soilborne the living organisms (biocides), including
pathogens can be successful in certain re- insects, weed seeds, fungi, bacteria, and
gions. In this process, called soil solariza- nematodes. An example of a soil fumigant
tion, the soil is cultivated to a fine texture is methyl bromide. Fumigants need extreme
and deeply watered.The moist soil is cov- care in handling and application, and there-
ered with a clear polyethylene sheet. The fore, can only be used by certified pesticide
sheet’s edges are buried to create an airtight applicators.
environment. The moist soil below the poly- Based on the mode of action, pesticide
ethylene mulch heats up and is slowly chemicals can be classified as follows:
“cooked.” Under sunny weather conditions Protectants: These chemicals, when applied
for at least 4 weeks, this process reduces or to the plants, remain on the plant surface
eliminates several soilborne pathogens. and prevent spore germination and infec-
Marigolds interplanted with nematode- tion of the plant by the pathogen (e.g.,
susceptible crops produce substances in the sulfur, captan).
soil that are toxic to plant parasitic nema- Systemics: These chemicals are absorbed by
todes and thereby reduce the nematode plants and are translocated to other plant
damage to the crop plant. parts (e.g., Benlate, Ridomil).
Controlling insects with insecticides can re- Eradicants: These chemicals can eradicate
duce the spread of some of the diseases the pathogen from plant tissue after the
caused by viruses that are transmitted by infection has occurred; that is, after the
insects (e.g., potato leaf roll virus spread by penetration by and establishment of the
aphids). pathogen inside the host tissue (e.g.,
C. Use of Disease-Resistant Cultivars Rally).
Where available, use of disease-resistant Based on the type of chemical (active ingre-
cultivars is the most cost-effective, safe, dient), these pesticides can also be classified
easy, and environmentally desirable option as copper compounds, sulfur compounds,
for the gardener. In fact, for some diseases dithiocarbamates, benzimidazoles, antibiot-
(such as curly top of tomato), resistant culti- ics, etc. Disease-control chemicals can be
vars offer the only practical control option applied as seed treatments, foliar sprays,
available. Varieties resistant to one or more dusts, fumigants, wound paints, dips, or
diseases are available in several vegetables through irrigation water (chemigation).
and fruits (e.g., tomato cultivars with resis- The effectiveness of chemical control mea-
sures is dependent upon our understanding
of the disease cycle, host susceptibility, tim-
12 - 10
ing, mode of application, coverage, and rial, seed treatment, appropriate planting
choice of the appropriate product. Timing of date, planting depth and density, irrigation
the application and thorough coverage of and fertilizer use, weed control, sanitation,
the plant surface are very important for ef- timely pesticide applications, proper har-
fective disease control. For best results, vesting, and handling and storage of the
most chemicals are applied before the produce. The integrated disease manage-
pathogen infects the host. Also, most chemi- ment measures selected should be effective
cal sprays have to be applied several times (should control the disease), economical
at regular intervals for best disease control. (should result in an economic return), and
Always follow the label directions and pre- sustainable (should be environmentally
cautions. Development of pathogen strains sound).
resistant to chemicals or antibiotics (e.g.,
streptomycin-resistant strains of apple fire VII. Plant Disease Terms
blight pathogen) can lead to these products Anthracnose—Black or brown dead areas on
becoming ineffective in disease control. leaves, stems, or fruits (anthracnose of sy-
E. Biological Control camore, maple).
The strategy for biological control of plant Blackleg—Darkening at the base of a stem
diseases involves the use of antagonistic mi- (blackleg of potato).
croorganisms before or after infection takes Blight—Rapid death of leaves and other plant
place. There has been successful control of parts (fire blight of apple, early blight of to-
crown gall with strain K84 of Agrobac- mato).
terium radiobacter, which produces an anti- Brown rot—Soft rot of fruit covered by gray to
biotic specific against crown gall bacterium. brown mold (brown rot of cherries, peaches,
Commercial biological control agents are nectarines).
available as seed treatments and soil amend- Canker—Sunken, discolored, dead areas on twigs
ments to protect plants against soilborne and branches, usually starting from an injury
pathogens. or wound (Cytospora canker of trees, common
Currently, the bacteria Bacillus subtilis and canker of rose, fire blight cankers).
Pseudomonas spp. and the fungi Glio- Chlorosis—Yellowing or whitening of normally
cladium virens and Trichoderma spp. are green tissue (iron chlorosis of trees).
the organisms with the most applications in
Crown gall—Excessive, undifferentiated growth
biological control strategies. There is tre-
that may girdle roots, stems, or branches
mendous research interest in developing
(crown gall of grapes, rose, apple, cherry).
new biological tools for plant disease con-
trol, but research-based options are limited Curly top/leaf curl/leaf roll—Rolling and curling
at this time. Genetic engineering of of leaves and growing point (curly top of
biocontrol microorganisms has sparked sugarbeet, tomato, bean, etc.; peach leaf curl;
wider environmental concerns, which will potato leaf roll).
limit the speed of this new technology’s use Damping-off—Stem rot near the soil surface
in plant disease control. leading to either failed seed emergence or fall-
F. Integrated Disease Management ing over after emergence.
An effective, economical, and sustainable Epidemic—A widespread and severe outbreak of
disease management strategy should incor- a disease.
porate all the available approaches of a dis- Etiolation—Long internodes and pale green color
ease management program. It should in- of plants growing under insufficient light or in
clude the relevant preventive and control complete darkness.
measures appropriate for the crop, such as Fumigation—The application of a toxic gas or
selection of planting site, selection of the volatile substance to disinfect soil or a con-
most adapted and disease-resistant variety, tainer such as a grain bin.
crop rotation, pathogen-free planting mate- Fungicide—A compound toxic to fungi.

12 - 11
Host plant—A plant that is invaded by a parasite. Root knots—Swelling and deformation of roots
Host range—The various plants that may be at- (tomato root knot).
tacked by a parasite. Rust—Raised pustules on leaves, stems, and
Inoculum—The pathogen or its parts that can fruits; contain yellow-orange or rust-colored
cause infection. spore masses (snapdragon rust, geranium rust).
Integrated control—An approach that attempts to Sanitation—The removal and disposal of infected
use all available methods for control of a pest plant parts; decontamination of tools, equip-
or disease. ment, hands, etc.
Isolation—The separation of a pathogen from its Saprophyte—An organism that can subsist on
host by culturing on a nutrient medium or on nonliving matter.
an indicator plant. Scab—Slightly raised, rough areas on fruits, tu-
Lesion—A localized area of discolored or dead bers, leaves, or stems (common scab of potato,
tissue (early blight lesions on potato leaf). apple scab).
Life cycle—The successive stages of growth and Shot-hole—Roughly circular holes in leaves re-
development of an organism. sulting from the dropping out of the central
Microscopic—Organisms so small that they can dead areas of spots (Coryneum leaf spot of
be seen only with the aid of a microscope. peach).
Mosaic—Intermittent yellowish and green mot- Sign—The part of a pathogen seen on a host plant
tling of leaves (bean common mosaic, rose (moldy growth, spores, etc.).
mosaic). Smut—Black masses of spores in galls that may
Necrosis—Death of tissue (necrotic area in black form on stems, ears, etc. (common smut of
spot of rose). corn).
Organism—A living being. Spore—The reproductive unit of a fungus, similar
to the seed of a plant.
Parasite—An organism that lives in or on an-
other organism (host) and derives its food from Susceptibility—The condition of a plant in which
the latter. it is prone to the damaging effects of a patho-
gen or other factor.
Pathogen—A disease-causing agent.
Symptom—The altered external or internal ap-
Plant disease—Any lasting change in a plant’s
pearance of a diseased plant (spot, gall, soft
normal structure or function that deviates from
rot, etc.).
its healthy state.
Systemic—Spreading internally throughout the
Plant pathology—The study of diseases in plants:
plant.
what causes them, what factors influence their
development and spread, and how to prevent Vascular pathogen—A disease-causing organism
or control them. that invades mainly the conductive tissues (xy-
lem or phloem) of the plant.
Powdery mildew—Fine, white to gray, powdery
coating on leaves, stems, and flowers (pow- Vector—A living organism that is able to trans-
dery mildew of rose, grapes, lilac, and apple). mit or spread a pathogen.
Resistance—The ability of a host plant to prevent Virulent—Capable of causing severe disease.
or reduce disease development by retarding Wilt—Drooping and drying plant parts due to in-
multiplication of the pathogen within the host. terference with the plant’s ability to take up
Root and stem rots—Soft and disintegrated roots water and nutrients (Verticillium wilts,
and lower portions of the stem, sometimes re- Fusarium wilts).
sults in death of plant (root rot of pea, damp-
ing-off of seedlings, collar rot of apple).

12 - 12
Small Fruit
Further Reading CIS 341 Crumbly Fruit in Raspberries (25¢)
CIS 789 Diseases of Raspberries in Idaho
Books (35¢)
Agrios, G. N. 1997. Plant Pathology, 4th ed. CIS 847 Virus and Nematode Diseases of
Academic Press, Inc., New York, NY. Raspberries (35¢)
APS Press. The Disease Compendia Series.
American Phytopathological Society, 3340 Tree Fruit
Pilot Knob Road, St. Paul, MN 55121. CIS 729 Apple-and-Thorn Skeletonizer
Horst, R. K. (ed.) 1990. Westcott’s Plant Disease (25¢)
Handbook, 5th ed., Van Nostrand Reinhold PNW 282 Bee Pollination of Tree Fruits (75¢)
Co., New York, NY. CIS 812 Fusarium Root-rot of Orchard Trees
PNW Plant Disease Control Handbook. Oregon (50¢)
State University, Administrative Services– CIS 866 Homeowner’s Guide to Fruit Tree
A442, Corvallis, OR 97331. Fertilization (35¢)
Powell, C. C. 1988. Disease Control in the PNW 518 How to Reduce Bee Poisoning from
Landscape. The Ohio State University, CES Pesticides ($1.50)
Bulletin, No. 614. PNW 121 Nutrient Disorders in Tree Fruits
Schumann, G. L. 1991. Plant Diseases: Their (web only)
Biology and Social Impact. APS Press, CIS 229 Peach Leaf Curl (25¢)
St. Paul, MN. CIS 752 Phytophthora Collar-Rot of Orchard
Sherf, A. F., and A. A. Macnab. 1986. Vegetable Trees (50¢)
Diseases and Their Control, 2nd ed. John CIS 692 Weed Control in Tree Fruits (25¢)
Wiley & Sons, New York, NY.
Sinclair, W. A., H. H. Lyon, and W. T. Johnson, Ornamentals
1987. Diseases of Trees and Shrubs. Cornell CIS 869 Controlling Sunscald on Trees and
University Press, Ithaca, NY. Vines (25¢)
CIS 1068 Fertilizing Landscape Trees ($1.00)
EXT 514 Why Is My Evergreen Brown?
University of Idaho (50¢)
Pesticide Safety
CIS 792 Calibration and Safe Use of Lawn Gardening
and Garden Pesticide and Fertilizer CIS 292 Blossom-end Rot of Tomatoes
Applicators (35¢) (25¢)
PNW 512 Farm Safety Series ($6.00) CIS 1051 Late Blight of Potato and Tomato
PNW 512S Farm Safety Series (Spanish) ($2.00)
($6.00) CIS 993 Management of Vegetable Diseases
PNW 278 First Aid for Pesticide Poisoning in Home Gardens (50¢)
(50¢) BUL 775 Planning an Idaho Vegetable
CIS 1030 Idaho Homeowner’s Commonsense Garden ($4.00)
Guide to Pesticides: Storage and Lawns
Disposing of Home and Garden BUL 676 Fairy Rings in Turf (50¢)
Pesticides ($1.00)
CIS 1062 Starting a Home Lawn ($1.50)
CIS 781 Laundering Pesticide-Contaminated
CIS 1063 Thatch Prevention and Control in
Clothing and Safety Equipment
Home Lawns ($1.00)
(35¢)
CIS 1019 Pesticides for the Home Garden and
How to Use Them ($1.00)

12 - 13
To order University of Idaho publications, con-
tact your county’s UI Extension office, or write
Publications, University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho
83844-2240, call (208) 885-7982, fax (208) 885-
4648, or email calspubs@uidaho.edu. Idaho resi-
dents add 6 percent sales tax. Also check, and in
some cases download, the online publication and
tions web site (http://info.ag.uidaho.edu).

12 - 14
Chapter
Weeds
13
I. Introduction 2 V. Herbicide Application Equipment 10

II. Weed Biology and Classification 2 A. Hand Spray Bottles 10
A. Annual Weeds 3 B. Hose-End Sprayers 10
B. Biennial Weeds 3 C. Compressed Air Canister Sprayers 10
C. Perennial Weeds 3 D. Backpack Sprayers 10
III. Identification 4 E. Power Sprayers 10
A. Flower 4 F. Wick-Wipers 11
B. Leaves and Stem 4 G. Granular Applicators 11
C. Weed Structure 4 VI. Sprayer Calibration 11
D. Roots 4 A. Calculating Your Sprayer 11
IV. Weed Control Methods 4 B. Granular Applicators 12
A. Prevention 4 VII. Tree Stump Removal 12
B. Biological Control 5 A. Mechanical Removal 12
C. Cultural Control 5 B. Chemical Treatments 12
D. Mulches 6 VIII. Noxious Weeds 12
E. Mechanical Control 7 Further Reading 13
F. Chemical Control 8

13 - 1
Chapter 13
Weeds
R. O. Ashley, D. W. Morishita, G. F. Gardner, R. Bradish
Roger O. Ashley, Former Extension Educator, Bonneville County, Idaho Falls;
Don W. Morishita, Extension Weed Scientist, Twin Falls; George F. Gardner, Former Extension Educator,
Bannock County, Pocatello; and Rae Bradish, Master Gardener, Pocatello
I. Introduction tires and injure bare feet. Pets also are affected
“A weed is a plant that interferes with by weeds. Weed seeds may enter their nostrils
the management objectives for a given and ears causing irritation and infections; weed
area of land at a given point in time.” seeds may become enmeshed in their fur caus-
J. M. Torell ing discomfort. Often times a veterinarian is
needed to remove the seed.
A weed is any plant that is growing where it is
not wanted and is more competitive than the Most homeowners are concerned with weeds that
surrounding desirable plants. Time, energy, exist near their homes because weeds are a
and money for weed control can be kept to a general nuisance, mar the natural beauty of a
minimum by planning carefully and choosing home site, and decrease the value or market-
wisely in practices and materials. Effective ability of residential properties. Weeds contrib-
weed management involves learning about the ute to fire and safety hazards and reduce prop-
weed, understanding the particular site and erty values.
situation, and employing a diversity of prac- Landscapes and yards overgrown with weeds
tices to provide desirable results. serve as a reservoir of weed seed that can
Weeds are not only unsightly but also compete spread to neighboring yards. As a result, some
with desirable plants for nutrients, water, sun- municipalities have ordinances requiring own-
light, and space. In addition to competing with ers to cut down overgrown, weedy lots. A few
landscape and vegetable plants, some weeds imported weeds are so invasive and expensive
secrete toxins into the soil which, much like to control that they have been declared noxious
herbicides, damage or inhibit growth of desir- and therefore illegal to grow or go to seed.
able plants. Weeds can ruin lawns, gardens, Although seeds are generally thought of as unin-
and flower beds. In some situations, weeds can vited guests, weeds do have some limited ben-
be such a problem that the only practical weed eficial characteristics. Weeds can be a source
control is to destroy the entire planting. of feed for domestic animals and wildlife, can
Weeds can also provide a “bridge” for insects and help prevent erosion, and can add organic mat-
diseases from one growing season to another. ter to the soil.
When weeds are present, additional applications II. Weed Biology and Classification
of insecticides and fungicides may be required.
The classification of weeds is achieved by
Weeds have contributed to several other prob- grouping together those weeds whose similari-
lems in the home landscape environment. Field ties are greater than their differences. For pre-
bindweed, for example, can grow through as- ciseness, weeds are grouped botanically by
phalt causing premature failure of driveways family, genus, species, and variety. For conve-
and streets. Weeds contribute to health prob- nience, weeds are commonly classified in cat-
lems such as hay fever, respiratory problems, egories such as terrestrial and aquatic, or
and skin irritations. Some weeds puncture bike woody and herbaceous.

13 - 2
Weds also are classified as trees, shrubs, prostrate spurge, prostrate knotweed,
grasses, sedges, and ferns. Weeds are also green and yellow foxtail, barnyardgrass,
commonly grouped according to similar life and crabgrass.
cycles, that is the cycle of life from viable seed 2. Annuals that germinate and emerge in the
to mature plant and the cycle of viable seed fall, lie dormant during the winter, re-
formation to death of plants. On this basis, sume growing in the spring until matu-
weeds are grouped as annuals, biennials, and rity, and die in the late spring or early
perennials. summer are referred to as winter annuals.
A. Annual Weeds Some of the most troublesome winter an-
These complete a life cycle in one year. An- nual weeds are annual bluegrass, downy
nuals germinate from seed, emerge, grow, brome, and a number of mustards such as
flower, set seed, mature and die in one shepherd’s purse and flixweed.
growing season. Annual weeds depend upon B. Biennial Weeds
the production of large numbers of viable Biennials require two growing seasons to
seeds for long term survival. Many success- complete their life cycle. Biennials germi-
ful weed species produce thousands of seeds nate, emerge, and usually form a rosette
per plant (Table 1). In addition, weed seed (radial cluster of leaves lying close to the
has varying levels of dormancy that contrib- ground) the first year. During the second
ute to its persistence (Table 2). This charac- year, the plant bolts (produces a flower
teristic gives weeds the ability to germinate stalk), flowers, sets seed, matures, and dies.
over a period of many years. Biennial weeds are not as prevalent as an-
1. Annuals that complete a life cycle during nual weeds in gardens; but they may appear
the period from spring to fall are referred along property borders, in ground covers,
to as summer annuals. The majority of and within perennial planting. Biennials
weeds that are found in the garden or in that are commonly found in a home gar-
new lawns and landscapes are summer den-landscape site include: sweet clover,
annuals. Examples of summer annual common burdock, common mullein, bull
weeds commonly found in yards include thistle, and Queen Anne’s lace.
different pigweeds, common lambsquar- C. Perennial Weeds
ters, hairy nightshade, common purslane, These live 3 years or more and reproduce
sexually (from seed) and asexually (from
Table 1. Seed production for common weeds.
vegetative growth). They may or may not
Number of seeds flower the first year. Perennials that repro-
Common name produced per plant duce from seed are identical to annuals and
Barnyardgrass 7,000 biennials in the seedling stage and thus are
Green foxtail 34,000 most susceptible to control when they are
Redroot pigweed 117,000 young. Within a few weeks or months,
however, perennials develop vegetative
reproductive organs, giving them the abil-
Table 2. Germination percentages per year of weed seeds ity to propagate and spread asexually. It is
buried 8 inches deep.
this characteristic that makes perennials so
Common name Life cycle 1 2 3 4 16 21 difficult to control. Perennials are classified
— Percentage of germination after (years) —
into three different categories based upon
Canada thistle perennial 21 35 15 6 3 1
how they reproduce.
Green foxtail annual 1 3 6 4 0 0 1. Simple perennials have either a large tap
Quackgrass perennial 21 0 0 0 0 0 root such as a dandelion or a fibrous root
Redroot pigweed annual 9 0 1 11 0 0 system such as bunchgrass. Simple pe-
Velvetleaf annual 0 0 45 70 75 57 rennials propagate mostly by seed, but if
the roots are broken into pieces, each
Gross, W. L., “Viability of Buried Weed Seeds,” Journal of Agricultural
Research, Vol. 29, No. 7, pp. 349-362. piece is capable of reproducing new plants.

13 - 3
2. Creeping perennials reproduce by rhi- C. Weed Structure
zomes (stems) or creeping roots as well as Leaf arrangement, type, presence or absence
by seed. Quackgrass and field bindweed of stipules, petioles, and tendrils, venation,
are good examples. length, shape, surface, and succulence are
3. Bulbous perennials reproduce by bulb or all important clues for identifying weeds.
nutlike structures and by seeds as well. D. Roots
Purple nutsedge and bulbous bluegrass are All the below ground plant parts can also
examples of a bulbous perennials. provide information on the plant. Pull or dig
III. Identification up some of the root system and below-
ground plant parts. Determine whether it has
Identification of a weed should be the first step
a fibrous or tap root system and look for
taken in a successful control program. Suc-
bulbs, corms, tubers, or rhizomes.
cessful identification of weed species requires
that a sample, with as much of the plant as Identification of the weed before imple-
possible, be intact. This includes flowers, menting control practices is important but
stems, leaves, and roots. Careful examination requires more extensive knowledge than
of various plant structures should be used in what has been covered in this section.
the identification process to distinguish be- Weeds of the West, Weeds of Nebraska and
tween “look-a-likes.” A knowledge of where the Great Plains, and Weeds 2.0 for Identifi-
and how the weed was growing also will help in cation of Weeds of the Western United
identifying which control measures can be used. States are several excellent identification
references available to help identify weeds.
A. Flower
County Extension educators and the UI De-
This is the structure most commonly used in partment of Plant, Soil and Entomological
classifying and identifying plants. However, Sciences also are available to assist in iden-
weed control measures often must be imple- tification of problem weeds and to provide
mented before flowering. When flowers are suggestions for their control.
present, note the arrangement on the stem,
their size, shape, color, the presence or ab- IV. Weed Control Methods
sence of various flower parts, and number Once the weed is identified and biology of the
of petals. These are all important factors in plant is understood, control measures can be
determining the particular family in which a considered. “Silver bullets” and “one-shot con-
plant is classified. If the plant has set seed, trol programs” that will control weeds without
note characteristics such as size, shape, type harming nontarget plants are very rare or non-
of fruit, capsules, pods, burs, hardness, and existent. An integrated approach to weed con-
structure. trol is the most efficient and environmentally
B. Leaves and Stem safe approach. An integrated approach also
Weeds also can be identified through care- uses a combination of cultural, mechanical,
ful examination of leaves and stem. Stem physical, and chemical techniques to bring
woodiness, cross section, and the presence weed populations to an acceptable level. Six
or absence of leaves on the stem should be methods available to the homeowner include
observed. Stem woodiness is classified as prevention, biological, cultural, mulches, me-
herbaceous (a stem that is not woody), chanical, and chemical.
semi-woody, and woody ( a perennial stem A. Prevention
that is entirely woody such as found in a Is the most effective, least costly weed con-
tree). Cross section of the stem refers to the trol strategy. Avoid the introduction of weed
shape of the stem and is often closely tied to problems through careful examination of
leaf arrangement and leaf shape. Stems may materials that will be used in developing the
be oval, round, triangular, ridged, square, home landscape or garden.
winged, or grooved. Flowering stem leaves 1. Carefully examine the label on packaged
may be absent (dandelion) to uniformly leafy. seed and bulk seed. Avoid buying seed

13 - 4
containing weed seed. If noxious weed urban home horticultural settings, but may
seed is present, return the seed to the sup- find some use on small acreages. Geese can
plier and ask for your money back. It is be used to remove actively growing weeds
against the law to sell and propagate nox- in dormant strawberries, asparagus, pepper-
ious weeds. Some seed catalog compa- mint, cane berries, and trees. Hogs will seek
nies sell “wildflower” mixes that may out fleshy-rooted weeds in fallow. Sheep
contain noxious weed seed. The scientific and goats can control many weed and brush
names found in the catalog description species in pastures. Insects and diseases also
and on the seed packet should be com- can be used to suppress or kill specific
pared to the list of noxious weeds listed weeds; however, this type of control gener-
at the end of this chapter. Report the ally lags behind weed populations. Many
problem to your county weed supervisor gardening enthusiasts have been disap-
who will contact the Idaho Department of pointed in the use of insects and diseases to
Agriculture to lodge a complaint against control weeds.
the company. C. Cultural Control
2. Inspect nursery plants and transplants be- These practices have been found to be effec-
fore purchase to avoid introducing roots, tive and cost efficient in a home horticul-
rhizomes, or stolons of perennial weeds. tural setting. Integrating cultural control
Buy your plants from a reliable nursery components with other control measures
that sells only weed-free plants. minimizes the impact of weeds on desirable
3. Avoid introducing weed seeds, roots, rhi- plants, yet provides acceptable control.
zomes, stolons, and bulbs into the garden 1. Select competitive plants. Use plant com-
and flower beds by using weed-free petition to minimize weed establishment,
straw, manure, mulch, compost, and soil. growth, and reproduction. A vigorously
Unless these amendments have been ster- growing ground cover that is more com-
ilized, they probably contain weed seed. petitive than the weeds will lessen the
Know the source of these amendments weed problem. Generally, weeds are
before transporting them to your yard. more competitive than the garden crop
Selecting sources with relatively low species during early development. Weed
weed populations and avoiding sources competition during the first 3 to 4 weeks
with undesirable weed species will pay after the garden emerges will have the
off in the long run. greatest affect on the garden yield. Vigor-
4. Tillage equipment can easily spread un- ously growing garden crops develop
wanted weeds to relatively weed-free ar- canopies that shade weeds, suppress
eas. Clean garden tractors, tillers, hand weed germination, and hinder growth.
tools, and other equipment to remove Garden crops that are slow growing and
soil, weed seeds, and plant parts. less competitive should be transplanted.
Irrigation water that flows through canals Table 3 shows when selected garden
and streams can transport weed seed to crops are most sensitive to weed competi-
your yard. Screen irrigation water from tion.
surface sources. 2. Anything that would encourage vigorous
“One year’s seed, seven years of weeds.” growth of desirable garden plants to com-
Control vegetative and seed sources pete with weeds should be implemented.
around the yard and garden. Destroy Provide moisture to desirable plant roots,
weeds before they become established, using a method that will reduce or elimi-
set seed, and mature. nate the moisture to weeds. Rotate crops
B. Biological Control to break the natural cycle of weeds, in-
sects, and disease. A rotation may include
This type of control uses other organisms to
fallowing or omitting crop production for
control weeds. This is not a very practical
one or more years. Growing different
solution to many weed problems found in

13 - 5
Table 3. Weed competition period for garden crops. mulches are effective in eliminating annual
Critical period for weed competition weeds and reducing the competitiveness of
(number of weeks after perennial weeds; artificial mulches are ef-
Crop emergence or transplanting) fective in controlling both annual and peren-
Beets 2 to 4 nial weeds.
Cabbage 3 to 4 1. Natural mulches are applied 2 to 4 inches
Carrots 4 1/2 deep after weeds are removed through
Corn 3 cultivation or with an herbicide. They are
Cucurbit family (melons) 5 composed of materials such as bark,
Onions 12 grass clippings, leaves, compost, manure,
Peas 3 to 4 sawdust, wood chips, straw, hay, crushed
Potatoes 3 to 4 corn cob, and pine needles. Most natural
Row crops not covered 4 mulches are considered waste products
Snap beans 4 and are often disposed of in landfills.
Spinach and lettuce 3 to 4 Many of these mulching materials are
Tomatoes 5 free of charge. A visit to your local tree-
Source: Nelson, J. E., G. McKinney, and J. F. Connor. Home care expert or gardening store may pro-
Garden Weed Management. EB 58. Dec. 1989. Montana State vide a source.
University, Bozeman.
As with other materials used in the home
landscape, the homeowner should exam-
ine and avoid mulch material with weed
types of plants in the area each year may seeds and live vegetative plant parts ca-
also be effective. Plant winter cover or pable of establishing new weed infesta-
competitive plants rather than leaving tions. The life expectancy of natural
soil bare. mulch will vary from 1 to 3 years de-
3. Alter planting dates. Delay planting until pending on the material used, depth of
after the first flush of weeds has emerged, material, and management associated
then use cultivation to remove small with the landscape or garden.
weeds. Plant for optimum growth of de- Live mulches such as grasses and le-
sired plants while avoiding growing con- gumes sometimes are used between pe-
ditions conducive to weed germination rennial plant rows. These live mulches
and growth. Seeding lawns in late sum- are grown to a predetermined stage,
mer and early fall is a good example of killed, and allowed to remain in place to
this method. decompose over time. In the garden,
Place and time fertilizer applications to natural mulches such as straw can be
maximize plant growth by banding fertil- used in planting of asparagus, cabbage,
izer applications. Banding or sidedressing carrots, cauliflower, lettuce, peas, pota-
fertilizers near desirable plants promotes toes, turnips, and other cool season crops
optimum crop growth while placing nu- to reduce weed competition while main-
trients in a less-available position to taining cool soil temperatures.
weeds growing between the rows. 2. Artificial mulches include plastic, polyes-
D. Mulches ter landscape cloth, and sometimes news-
These are an extremely effective weed-con- paper and tar paper. When artificial
trol tool in the garden and around the home mulches are used in a landscape applica-
landscape. Mulches are soil coverings such tion, natural mulches are applied 1-inch
as plastic or straw that prevent sunlight from deep on top. The natural mulch hides the
reaching the soil. A mulch conserves mois- artificial mulch and protects it from solar
ture and modifies the microclimate and soil degradation. Polyester landscape cloth
temperature around the plant Mulches are should be used in landscape applications
categorized as natural or artificial: natural rather than plastic or tar paper. Polyester

13 - 6
landscape cloth allows air exchange and and most direct solar radiation occurs at
moisture percolation through the mulch vernal equinox, June 21. Plastic should
to the root zone. Natural mulches will be in position by June 1 and left in place
stay put on polyester landscape cloth but for about 2 months. If precipitation is
will have a tendency to slide off plastic. more than 20 inches per year, solarization
In vegetable garden applications, black may need to be extended into midsummer
plastic is the preferred artificial mulch. It and may be less satisfactory in such ar-
increases the rate at which soils warm eas.
during the growing season and it modi- Late winter and early spring solarization
fies the microclimate for improved may reduce weed populations before
growth rates of warm season vegetables planting, but it is not as effective as late
such as tomato, muskmelon, watermelon, spring and summer solarization. How-
cucumber, and squash. Black plastic is ever, the entire growing season is not lost
relatively inexpensive and easy to handle. with this type of solarization. The process
When black plastic is used, irrigation ap- for accomplishing this type of solariza-
plications need to be modified from sur- tion is as follows:
face or sprinkler applied to drip applica- a. Till the garden soil and prepare the
tions below the plastic. Other colored seedbed in autumn.
plastics may enter the commercial market b. Place clear plastic over the garden in
place in the future. Colored plastic midwinter or soon after snow melt. So-
mulches such as red has increased tomato lar heat will warm the soil under the
yields by 10 to 15 percent over black plastic whenever the days are warm
plastic mulch. and sunny, causing seeds to germinate.
Newsprint also can be used in the garden Sprouted weeds will die as daytime
and can be very effective in reducing temperatures under the plastic rise to
weed problems. Newspapers can be temperatures of 100°F to 130°F which
turned into the soil at the end of the sea- should be high enough to kill most
son unlike black plastic which must be species. Weeds may also die from
taken up before cultivation. Tar paper can freezing.
be used to mulch around trees and shrubs, c. Leave plastic in place and continue so-
but it is more difficult to apply and is larization until planting time. Because
rarely used. tilling the soil after removing the plas-
3. A process that has become more popular tic brings more weed seeds near the
in recent years is solarization. Solariza- soil surface, plant without further till-
tion uses the sun’s energy to raise soil age.
temperatures high enough to kill weeds E. Mechanical Control
including seeds, roots, and rhizomes as
Includes hoeing, pulling, rototilling, mow-
well as many soil organisms. Solarization
ing, cultivating, and burning. Mechanical
is accomplished by laying and anchoring
methods are best adapted to eliminating an-
the edges of a sheet of clear plastic over
nual weeds depending on the species, the
the entire fallowed area to be treated. The
particular location, and the type of imple-
soil should be moist to conduct and hold
ment used. Seedling biennial and perennial
heat, to stimulate weed seed germination,
weeds also can be controlled mechanically.
and to prevent dormancy of below-
Once the perennial weed is able to vegeta-
ground vegetative plant parts. The soil
tively reproduce, mechanical control is not
should be firm to conduct heat as deeply
very effective. Mechanical methods such as
as possible.
hoeing, mowing, and cultivating cut the
Maximum weed kill depends upon the plant off at or just below the surface leaving
amount of bright, sunny weather and the root or rhizome behind to send up new
weed species. The longest day of the year growth. Deeper tillage such as rototilling or

13 - 7
deep plowing may bring some of the roots 4. Hand weeding is effective but is a labor-
or rhizomes to the surface, but even if a intensive method of removing weeds
small root segment or rhizome remains in growing close to desirable plants. Care
moist soil, the weed can establish itself must be taken that the pulling of the weed
again. does not damage the roots of desirable
In some instances mechanical control can plants.
spread weeds to infest new areas. Effective 5. Burning or flaming weeds is generally
mechanical control of perennial weeds will done with a propane torch. Timing of the
require cultivation every 14 to 21 days. This operation must be such that control is
repeated cultivation over 2 to 3 years stimu- performed before viable seed set. The
lates root development while depleting most effective control of annual weeds is
stored food (carbohydrates) and eventually when they are small (about 3 to 5 inches
the plant dies. tall). The effect of burning perennial
1. Hoeing cuts the plant at or just below the weeds is similar to that of mowing.
soil surface. Hoes should be kept sharp to Consider carefully where and when this
reduce the effort of controlling weeds. method is used, since it is more difficult
Often times gardeners will use the hoe to to control in tall dry weeds than previous
dig or aerate the soil. This is an improper methods outlined. There have been cases
use of this tool. Use a shovel or rototiller in which out-of-control burning opera-
to aerate soil. Deep cultivation has a ten- tions have burned a straw pile, barn, or
dency to bring weed seed to the soil’s home. Check with local ordinances and
surface providing an excellent environ- regulations before burning perennial
ment for weed seed germination. Deep weeds.
hoeing or tillage in the garden also can F. Chemical Control
damage desirable plants. A proper hoeing This method can save labor while providing
technique disturbs the soil very little acceptable control. When used correctly,
while removing the weed. Many different chemical control can be an inexpensive
hoe styles are available. weed control tool. However, it does have
2. A hand cultivator or tractor-mounted cul- some drawbacks. Herbicides can injure or
tivator generally consists of v-shaped kill desirable plants and are expensive if
teeth which is used to till soil 1 to 2 used improperly.
inches deep. The action of this tool is Extension educators are often asked to in-
similar to the hoe, that is it cuts the weed vestigate injured or dying trees, shrubs, and
off at or just below the soil surface and other desirable landscape or garden plants
drags the small weed root to the soil sur- that “the neighbor sprayed” only to find out
face to dry. Other implements such as that the gardener used herbicide inconsistent
disk harrows, sweeps, rolling cultivators, with the label’s instructions.
and finger weeders are in this same cat-
Thoroughly read the label of any herbicide.
egory.
Be sure the beneficial plant to be protected
3. Mowing is an effective way of reducing is listed on the label. Timing of the herbi-
the amount of seed that weeds will pro- cide applications must follow the label in-
duce and eliminating annuals. The prac- structions. Even an application of 2,4-D for
tice must be timed to remove the top be- control of weeds in lawns can injure grass if
fore seed is produced. Mowing after vi- applied during the heat of the summer. Al-
able seed has set can be a good way of ways read and follow label directions!
spreading weeds to new areas. The vigor
1. Herbicides usually are not used in veg-
and stand density of established perennial
etable gardens for several reasons:
weeds can be reduced through repeated
mowing, although it requires a long pe- • No single herbicide can be used safely
riod of time. on all vegetables grown in a garden;

13 - 8
• Some herbicides can persist in the soil 3. Herbicides are further classified as selec-
and injure sensitive vegetable crops tive and nonselective. If the herbicide
the following year; kills the weed but does not injure the ben-
• Spray drift can injure sensitive plants eficial plant, then the herbicide is termed
growing in the garden. selective. If the herbicide injures or kills
2. Herbicides are grouped into families the weed and beneficial plant, then the
based on chemical properties and how the herbicide is known as nonselective.
chemical works to kill the plant. Herbi- Herbicides should only be used according
cides also are grouped by when they are to label directions. Registered uses and
applied to control weeds. rates of application are listed on the prod-
Preemergence herbicides are applied be- uct label. Improper use or application rate
fore the emergence of the weed or crop. can cause injury or death to nontarget
Herbicides in this group kill weeds as plants even though the product is selec-
they germinate. These herbicides are fur- tive. Selectivity of an herbicide may de-
ther classified as preplant and postplant pend on any one or a combination of the
preemergence herbicides. Preplant herbi- following factors:
cides are applied to the soil before plant- a. Some plants may be able to detoxify
ing the desired crop and before the weeds the herbicide by metabolizing it into a
germinate. Postplant herbicides are ap- harmless substance while other plants
plied after the desired crop has been are killed.
planted but before the weeds or crop have b. Foliar-applied herbicides may not be
germinated. absorbed by leaves or stems because
Generally, preemergence herbicides are various structures (such as pubescence,
applied to the surface of the soil and ei- and thick way cuticles) block the ab-
ther watered in (precipitation or irriga- sorption of the herbicide.
tion) or mechanically incorporated into c. Selectivity of a herbicide may also be
the soil. Failure of these herbicides to due to its placement in the soil. Herbi-
work may be the result of poor incorpora- cides such as Casoron, when applied
tion because weeds are already germi- correctly by shallow incorporation,
nated. will kill germinating weeds and shal-
Postemergence herbicides are designed to low-rooted weeds. Deep-rooted desir-
kill emerged weeds. These herbicides able perennial plants will not absorb
may be translocated (e.g., 2,4-D) or may the herbicide because the herbicide is
be contact herbicides (e.g., paraquat). placed above the root zone.
Translocated herbicides are applied to 4. Soil sterilants are applied to the soil to
foliage or soil. Plants absorb the herbi- prevent the growth of weeds and other
cide through leaves, stems, or roots; and plants. Some sterilants may be applied to
move it through the plant to the site of foliage with desired results, but they will
herbicidal action (where the herbicide leave a long-lasting residue in the soil.
works). Translocated herbicides work The length of time that a sterilant will be
well on perennial plants because the her- effective depends on the rate applied and
bicide is moved to roots and other below- the persistence of the herbicide.
ground vegetative reproductive parts. Extreme care should be taken when using
Contact herbicides are applied to the foli- soil sterilants. Some of these products
age of the plant. These herbicides kill have a tendency to move with water and
only where they directly contact the plant can easily be leached from the point of
and do not move within the plant. Con- application to root zones of beneficial
tact herbicides are a poor choice for the plants (trees, shrubs, and grass) thus in-
control of perennial weeds. juring nontarget plants. Soil sterilants are
not suggested for use in the yard or gar-

13 - 9
den because they are long lasting and dif- B. Hose-End Sprayers
ficult to remove if the homeowner de- These sprayers attach to the end of a garden
cides to change the use of the treated hose and may be acceptable for soil
area. drenches and preemergence herbicides with
Fumigants are nonselective and can kill a wide margin of safety. Because they are
seed and plant parts below the soil sur- difficult to calibrate and too variable for
face. Fumigants are not readily available proper application, hose-end sprayers are
and are only used in greenhouse or com- not recommended for most herbicides where
mercial operations. precision of application is desired.
5. Herbicides must undergo a series of tests C. Compressed Air Canister Sprayers
before the labeling of the product for use The most common sprayers used by home-
by the gardener. These tests evaluate the owners are 1- to 3-gallon compressed air
fate of the herbicide in the environment sprayers. There are metal and plastic mod-
and potential hazards to the user and non- els. Both are equally effective, but the plas-
target organisms. Determining the fate of tic model is less expensive. A compressed
the herbicides in the environment include air sprayer is ideal for spot spraying
how they degrade, how herbicides move postemergence herbicides and will provide a
with water (leach), how they bind with reasonably precise application of preemer-
soil, how quickly they volatilize and drift, gence herbicides. Problems encountered
and how toxic they are to fish or other through the use of this sprayer include
nontarget organisms. The label contains nozzle plugging and spray tank corrosion
most of this information as well as direc- (this is not a problem with plastic or stain-
tions for use. Impact to the environment less steel sprayers).
can be minimized by following all of the Compressed air sprayers do present a safety
label instructions and environmental problem if the pressure in the tank is not
warning statements. equalized with the outside pressure before
Additional information specific to the be- opening the tank to refill or clean. However,
havior of herbicides in plants and soils, some manufacturers now include a pressure
use precautions, toxicological properties, relief valve that eliminates this hazard.
and herbicidal use can be obtained from D. Backpack Sprayers
your Extension educator.
Several models of backpack sprayers are
V. Herbicide Application Equipment available. These are usually more expen-
Several types of application equipment are sive; but they are versatile, have up to a
suitable for weed control. Application equip- 5-gallon capacity, and can be maintained at
ment ranges in price from inexpensive canister more uniform pressure than canister spray-
plastic sprayers to elaborate and expensive ers. These sprayers are constructed of plas-
power sprayers pulled by garden tractors. The tic or stainless steel, but the inexpensive
most important consideration is to find suitable plastic models are preferred. One of the few
equipment for the particular job or situation. disadvantages associated with a backpack
Choose dependable equipment that will have a sprayer is the tendency for the applicator to
long service life and will do the type of job leak and then soak the wearer’s back with
you need. Types of application equipment in- herbicide.
clude: E. Power Sprayers
A. Hand Spray Bottles These sprayers are a good investment and
Several home and garden herbicides are ideal for large areas. These sprayers have a
now packaged in a ready-to-use, disposable pump and regulator to provide constant
applicator spray bottles, much like common pressure and a more uniform spray delivery.
glass and window cleaners. They are meant The spray tank may consist of plastic, fiber-
to be used for spot treating small areas or glass, stainless steel, galvanized steel, or ep-
individual weeds. oxy-lined steel. These systems usually have

13 - 10
a gun-type nozzle for spot treatments and Therefore, the amount of water used is not as
sometimes a boom for broadcast applica- important as the amount of herbicide used per
tions. The disadvantages of power sprayers unit area as long as adequate coverage is ob-
are similar to those of the backpack sprayers tained with the water used.
and pressurized canister sprayers. Factors affecting the calibration of a sprayer
F. Wick-Wipers include pressure, nozzle size, condition, num-
Various makes and models of “wiper” appli- ber, as well as the viscosity of the spray, and
cators are available, primarily for use in ap- the speed at which the area is covered. Vari-
plying a 33 percent solution of glyphosate. able pressure will cause variable sprayer.
Wick-wipers allow accurate placement of Therefore, maintaining constant pressure or
herbicide on unwanted plants and avoid using a pressure regulator will facilitate a con-
problems with spray drift. sistent application. The rate of speed that an
G. Granular Applicators area is covered should be held as constant as
possible to improve the accuracy of the appli-
These applicators spread granular herbicide
cation. Gardeners using hand-held or hand-op-
formulations of and fertilizers. Two general
erated sprayers will operate their sprayers at
types of granular applicators are available to
different pressures and cover areas at different
homeowners:
speeds. Therefore, calibration should be done
1. The gravity, or drop-type applicator, is by the individual who will be making the ap-
best used on level turf areas or on level plication.
areas where the soil has been firmed. Use
A. Calculating Your Sprayer
of this type of applicator on a steep hill or
loose soil conditions will result in non- Any kind of sprayer can be calibrated by
uniform applications. using the following steps:
2. The cyclone or whirlybird will operate 1. Check the operation of the sprayer.
under almost any type of condition but is Check for a clogged nozzle and hose, rust
affected by wind and tall vegetation. in the tank, and leaks. Thoroughly clean
and repair the sprayer before calibrating
Note: It is best not to use the same sprayer the sprayer.
for both insect and weed control. Some 2. Mark off 100 square feet. (You may want
herbicides, such as 2,4-D, are difficult to use 1,000 square feet for more accurate
to completely remove from sprayers. If calibration.) Use a string or garden hose
you do decide to use the same sprayer, to mark off the area.
be sure to wash it with detergent after 3. Add a known quantity of water to the
herbicide use. Then, fill the tank and sprayer that is sufficient to cover the
prime the system with an ammonia so- marked off calibration area.
lution (1 quart of household ammonia 4. Spray the calibration area exactly as you
in 10 quarts of water) and let stand. would spray herbicide. Be sure to walk
After 12 to 24 hours, rinse and purge the same speed and use the same pressure
the sprayer with clean water until the as you would when spraying the herbi-
ammonia solution is totally removed. cide. Remember, you only need to lightly
wet the plants. Don’t spray until the wa-
VI. Sprayer Calibration ter drips off.
Many people do not calibrate their application
equipment and then wonder why their weed Note: Many recommendations are given per
control efforts fail. Calibration for an herbicide 1,000 square feet. If 100 square feet is
treatment differs from an insecticide or fungi- used for calibration, multiply the dif-
cide treatment. Insecticides and fungicides are ference remaining in the tank by 10 to
applied at a specific concentration while herbi- calculate the amount of water that
cides are applied at a specific rate of product would be required to cover 1,000
per unit area (e.g., ounces per 1,000 sq ft). square feet.

13 - 11
5. Measure the remaining water in the tank. A. Mechanical Removal
The difference between what you origi- Using heavy equipment, such as a back hoe,
nally added to the tank and what remains to remove a tree stump can be expensive. It
is the amount of water required to cover also might result in unacceptable damage to
100 square feet (or 1,000 square feet). turf, ornamentals, or other adjacent vegeta-
• If you applied 18 fluid ounces to a 100 tion. Failure to remove the complete stump
square foot area, 180 fluid ounces or and roots will often result in a proliferation
1.4 gallons of water to cover a 1,000 of new shoots.
square foot area. Some homeowners use an axe or chain saw
• Add the recommended rate of chemi- to cut away stumps. This generally requires
cal to the amount of water needed to a lot of time and energy but can be success-
spray 1,000 square feet. ful if the trunk is not too large, and if the
• Apply the herbicide by walking the roots can be removed.
same speed and using the same pres- B. Chemical Treatments
sure as when you calibrated. Treating tree trunks with an appropriate her-
bicide concentrate before cutting (or treat-
Example: You have sprayed 13 ounces ment of live stumps after cutting) will kill
on the 100 square feet. stumps and roots, and stop sprouts from de-
13 oz x 10 = 130 oz (about l gallon) veloping. Use caution when treating trunks
per 1,000 square feet or stumps with herbicides. Some herbicides
Add the recommended amount of her- may leach into the root zone of nearby
bicide to 1 gallon of water to spray the plants. Application of herbicide is usually
1,000 sq ft area. best accomplished with a paint brush rather
than a sprayer. A dead stump will normally
B. Granular Applicators decompose in 1 or 2 years. Then, the rotted
These can be calibrated in a similar way as wood can easily be removed by hand.
sprayers, but the applicator must use the VIII. Noxious Weeds
herbicide granular material in the calibration
process. A cement or asphalt driveway or a “Noxious weed” means kind of
large plastic canvas sheet can be used to species of any plant having the potential
catch the herbicide as it is distributed by the to cause injury to public health, crops,
spreader. The surface area of the drive or livestock, land or other property, and
which is designated as noxious by the
canvas sheet is measured. Then the applica-
director.
tor is operated in the same manner that it
Chapter 24, Title 22, Idaho Code, Noxious Weeds
would be operated for the actual application.
After completing this calibration applica- Noxious weeds are weeds that have been de-
tion, the granules are swept up and weighed. clared by law to be noxious. Property owners
Adjustments are made to the applicator until must not allow noxious weeds to go to seed or
the desired amount is being applied in a propagate on their land. Idaho, through the
consistent manner. The operator should note State Department of Agriculture, determines
the setting on the applicator so that calibra- weeds to be listed as noxious and provides
tion is not required before each time an ap- counties the power to administer the law.
plication is made. However, calibration Procedures have been set by law and rules pro-
should be done whenever the source of the mulgated by the State Department of Agricul-
material changes, or at the beginning of the ture which form noxious weed districts. These
season each year. districts direct noxious weed control efforts
within in their jurisdiction. These efforts may
VII. Tree Stump Removal include handling complaints, entering property
When trees are cut from a landscape, removal through an established procedure to control
of the remaining stumps often becomes a diffi- noxious weeds, attaching claims against prop-
cult problem.
13 - 12
erty to cover control costs, and cooperating
with other agencies and organizations in con- Further Reading
trolling noxious weeds. The weeds listed in
Books
Table 4 are officially designated and published
as noxious. Whitson, T. D. et al. 1991. Weeds of the West. The West-
ern Society of Weed Science in cooperation with
It shall be the duty and responsibility the Western United States Land Grant Universi-
of all persons and nonfederal agencies to ties, Cooperative Extension Services.
control noxious weeds on land and Stubberdieck, J., G. Y. Friisoe, and M. R. Bolick. 1994.
property that they own, in accordance Weeds of Nebraska and the Great Plains. Ne-
with this chapter and with rules and braska Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant
regulations promulgated by the director Industry, P.O. Box 94756, Lincoln, NE 68509.
of the Department of Agriculture. Weeds of the North Central States, North Central Regional
Chapter 24, Title 22, Idaho Code, Noxious Weeds Publication No. 36, University of Illinois, Agricul-
tural Experiment Station, Circular 718.
Table 4. Designation of Idaho noxious weeds. Herbicide Handbook. 1994. Weed Science Society of
America, 1508 West University Avenue,
Black henbane (Hyoscyamus niger L.)
Champaign, IL. Seventh edition.
Buffalobur (Solanum rostratum Dun.)
Canada thistle [Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop.] Pacific Northwest Weed Control Handbook. Revised an-
Dalmatian toadflax [Linaria dalmatica) (L.) Mill.] nually by Extension Services of OSU, WSU and UI.
Diffuse knapweed (Centaurea diffusa Lam.) Order from Extension and Station Communications,
Dyer’s woad (Isatis tinctoria L.) OSU, Administration Kern A422, Corvallis, OR
Eurasian watermilfoil 97331-2119.
Field bindweed (Convolvulus arvensis L.) Callihan, R. H., R. T. Dobbins, and S. L. Carson. 1993.
Hoary cress [Cardaria draba (L.) Desv.] Weeds 2.0 for Identification of Weeds of the Western
Johnsongrass [Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers.] United States. University of Idaho, Cooperative Ex-
Jointed goatgrass (Aegilops cylindrica Host) tension System, Weed Diagnostics Laboratory.
Leafy spruge (Euphorbia esula L.)
Matgrass (Nardus stricta L.)
Meadow knapweed (Centaurea pratensis Thuill.) PNW 320 Calibrating and Using a Backpack Sprayer
Milium (Milium vernal Bieb.) ($1.50)
Orange hawkweed (Hieracium aurantiacum L.) CIS 792 Calibration and Safe Use of Lawn and Garden
Musk thistle (Carduus nutans L.) Pesticide and Fertilizer Applicators (35¢)
Perennial pepperweed (Lepidium latifolium L.) CIS 1041 Conduct Your Own Garden Research ($2.00)
Perennial sowthistle (Sonchus arvensis L.) EXT 723 Herbicides for Lawn Weed Control (50¢)
Poison hemlock (Conium maculatum L.)
CIS 897 Herbicides for the Home Garden (35¢)
Puncturevine (Tribulus terrestris L.)
CIS 1019 Pesticides for the Home Garden and How to
Purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria L.)
Use Them ($1.00)
Rush skeletonweed (Chongrilla juncea L.)
Russian knapweed [Acroptiloa repens (L.) DC.] BUL 775 Planning an Idaho Vegetable Garden ($4.00)
Scotch broom [Cytisus scopariu (L.) Link] CIS 888 Weed Control in Lawns (50¢)
Scotch thistle (Onopordon acanthium L.) EXT 726 Weed Control in the Home Garden (50¢)
Silverleaf nightshade (Solanum elaeagnifolium Cav.) CIS 692 Weed Control in Tree Fruits (25¢)
Skeletonleaf bursage (Ambrosia tomentosa Nutt.)
Spotted knapweed (Centaurea maculosa Lam.) To order University of Idaho publications, contact your
Syrian beancaper (Zygophyllum fabago L.) county’s UI Extension office or write to Publications,
Tansy ragwort (Senecio jacobaea L.) University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho 83844-2240, call
Toothed spurge (Euphorbia dentata Michx.) (208) 885-7982, or email: calspubs@uidaho.edu. Idaho
White-top [Caradaria draba (L.) Desv.] residents add 6 percent sales tax. Also check, and in
Yellow hawkweed (Hieracium pratense Tausch) some cases download, the online publication and video
Yellow starthistle (Centaurea solstitialis L.) catalog on the UI Educational Communications web site
Yellow toadflax (Linaria vulgaris Mill.) (http://info.ag.uidaho.edu).

13 - 13
13 - 14
Chapter
Turfgrass Establishment and Management
14
I. Introduction to Turfgrass Culture 2 VI. Maintenance of Established Turf 12

II. Soil Considerations 2 A. Genetic Potential 12
A. Texture 2 B. Mowing 12
B. Soil Structure 2 C. Removing Clippings 13
C. Soil Depth 3 D. Irrigation 13
D. Preplant Fertility 3 E. Fertilization 14
E. pH 3 F. Aeration 16
III. Site Preparation 4 G. Thatch 16
A. Preplant Weed Control 4 H. Top-dressing 17
B. Grading and Surface Preparation 4 I. Weed Control on Established Turf 17
C. Drainage 4 J. Turf Renovation 18
D. Installing the Sprinkler System 4 K. Turf Problems 18
IV. Choosing a Turfgrass 4 Further Reading 20
A. Cool Season Grasses 4
B. Warm Season Grasses 6
V. Establishing the Lawn 7
A. Seeding Lawns 7
B. Sodding 9
C. Vegetative Planting 11

14 - 1
Chapter 14
Turfgrass Establishment
and Management
S. M. Bell, R. O. Ashley, and W. M. Colt
Susan M. Bell, Extension Educator, Ada County, Boise;
Roger O. Ashley, Former Extension Educator, Bonneville County, Idaho Falls,
and W. Michael Colt, Extension Horticulturist Emeriti, Parma Research and Extension Center
I. Introduction to Turfgrass Culture mowed turf such as ground covers, meadow

Idaho’s climate, soils, and topography are highly grasses, or mulches should be considered.
variable. The environment varies from warm Lack of water, poor drainage, or poor soils can
arid to cool semiarid growing conditions. also limit quality turfgrass.
Natural vegetation varies from sagebrush and
II. Soil Considerations
bunchgrass to evergreen forest. Growing a
lawn in Idaho requires knowledge of the cli- A. Texture
mate and resources available for establishing This is the percentage of sand, silt, and clay
and maintaining the desired type of lawn. that make up a soil. Lawns can be estab-
Establishing and maintaining the ideal or perfect lished and maintained on essentially any
lawn is a long term commitment of labor, soil texture from sand to clay. Sand, silt, and
money, and other resources. Wise use of these clay describe the three basic sizes of soil
resources will result in a relatively problem- particles that are found in soils (see Chapter
free living area and will reduce chronic prob- 4, “Soils and Fertilizers”). Coarse-textured
lems that may be difficult to solve once a mis- or sandy soils provide a difficult base for
take is made. maintaining nutrition and moisture. How-
ever, fine textured soils or clay soils can
Everyone knows what a perfect lawn should look
have drainage problems that are difficult to
like—a uniformly green carpet free of insects,
correct.
weeds, and diseases that holds its color for
most of the year. Homeowners often desire B. Soil Structure
perfection, but this expectation may have to be This refers to the way soil particles clump
adjusted. or hold together (aggregate). All soils, from
The homeowner must decide what type of lawn is sand to clay, can be improved by the addi-
really needed. Will it be a showplace, a recre- tion of organic matter. Organic matter, such
ational area, an average lawn, or just some sort as livestock manure or plant materials,
of green cover? modifies the soil structure by improving
aeration and drainage in soils. In addition to
What level of maintenance will be given? High
improving the structure of soils, organic
maintenance for perfection usually means ex-
matter can also improve the ability of soil to
pending time and money. Are both available,
retain nutrients for growing plants (see
and will they be committed to the project?
Chapter 4). Organic matter adds nutrients to
What are the limitations of the site? In general, to the soil as it decomposes and provides a
be successful with turf, at least 4 hours of di- growing medium and food supply for ben-
rect sunlight per day is needed. In low light eficial soil microorganisms.
areas or on steep banks, an alternative to

14 - 2
Expectations of most homeowners are that E. pH
the lawn they establish will last 20 to 30 Soil pH in Idaho varies from alkaline to
years or longer. Consequently, the only acid. A soil analysis for the particular site
chance to modify soil structure and drainage where the lawn is to be established will pro-
is before lawn establishment. Homeowners vide information on the soil pH level. Soil
should take this opportunity to rototill in 2 pH outside the range where lawn grasses
inches of compost (well-decomposed or- flourish (6.0 to 7.5) can lead to chronic mi-
ganic matter). If decomposed organic matter cronutrient deficiencies resulting in poor
is not available, organic matter in various turfgrass growth. Soils in most areas of
forms such as peat moss, rotted sawdust, southern Idaho are alkaline (7.1 to 8.5), and
weathered livestock manure, shredded may require the addition of sulfur to reduce
leaves or straw, dried grass clippings, and the soil pH to a desired level.
other plant materials can be added 3 to 6 Table 1, along with your soil analysis before
months before establishing turfgrass to al- adjusting soil pH, will help determine the
low for decomposition. Tough, fibrous ma- need for sulfur. Fine-textured soils (clay)
terials such as sawdust, leaves, or straw will will require more sulfur than coarse-tex-
need an extra application of nitrogen fertil- tured soils (sand). After the application of
izer to help their breakdown process (see sulfur and before seeding, the sulfur should
Chapter 7, “Backyard Composting”). be thoroughly mixed in the top 6 inches of
C. Soil Depth soil. Soils with a pH greater than 8.3 may
In general, it is best to have at least 1 foot of need gypsum instead of sulfur to reduce pH.
permeable rooting medium over any hard- In northern Idaho, soils tend to be acidic. If
pan, dense clay, or gravelly subsoil. If only your soil pH is below 6.0, lime is required
2 to 4 inches of soil are placed over a ce- to raise the soil pH to the desirable level.
ment-like layer of hardpan, turf failure is Table 2 will help you determine how much
inevitable because of drainage problems and lime is needed.
restricted root growth. Clay subsoil may re- Sulfur, lime, or gypsum can be added at the
quire tiling to ensure adequate drainage and time other amendments are being applied.
aeration in the rooting zone. Sandy subsoil Consult your county Extension educator if
with adequate fertility can be used quite you have questions on altering pH or need
well when establishing new lawns. information on soil testing.
D. Preplant Fertility Table 1. Amount of sulfur required to lower soil pH to
A soil test will give valuable information on 6.5 within the top 6 inches.
nutrient levels and soil pH. Phosphorus, Original Sandy Loamy Clay
which helps with root development, is best pH of soil soils soils soils
incorporated in the top 4 inches of soil be- — pounds per 100 square feet —
fore seeding or sodding since it does not 7.5 1.0 to 1.5 1.5 to 2.0 2.0 to 2.5
move into the root zone when placed on the 8.0 2.5 to 3.0 3.0 to 4.0 4.0 to 5.0
surface. Nitrogen and potassium are both 8.5 4.0 to 5.0 5.0 to 6.0 6.0 to 7.5
soluble in water. Nitrogen will find its way 9.0 5.0 to 7.5 — —
into the root zone as water moves down Source: Western Fertilizer Handbook
through the soil. Potassium, although it
moves slowly with water, should be incor- Table 2. Suggested application levels of finely ground
porated when possible. limestone to raise pH of a 7-inch layer of soil.
In the absence of a soil test, apply the fol- Textural class pH 4.5 to 5.5 pH 5.5 to 6.5
lowing nutrients per 1,000 square feet be-
Sands and loamy sands 25 30
fore turf establishment. Incorporate to a
Sandy loams 45 55
depth of 4 to 6 inches: 1/2 to 2 pounds of Loams 60 85
actual nitrogen (N), 2 to 3 pounds of phos- Silt loams 80 105
phate (P2O5), and 1 1/2 to 3 pounds of pot- Clay loams 100 120
ash (K2O).

14 - 3
III. Site Preparation In areas of poor drainage, it is especially im-
A. Preplant Weed Control portant to slope the grades away from the
If there are perennial weeds or undesirable house. Water should quickly drain from any
grasses on the site, the first step should be paved areas so the pavement doesn’t be-
weed control. Glyphosate is the most com- come icy, creating a safety hazard, or re-
monly used herbicide material for preplant main unusable for hours after irrigation or
weed control as it kills many herbaceous rain. A 1-foot drop in 50 feet will usually
weeds within 7 to 10 days without causing a supply adequate surface drainage. Grades
detrimental soil condition for future plant steeper than a 1-foot drop in 4 feet may
growth. Glyphosate is sold under many cause mowing and erosion problems. Alter-
trade names including Roundup. More than natives to a steep grade include terraces, re-
one application may be necessary for some taining walls, or planting a ground cover or
weeds. Follow label directions. meadow grass that is not mowed.
B. Grading and Surface Preparation D. Installing the Sprinkler System
Remove building debris and other trash When supplemental irrigation is necessary
from the lawn area during lawn construction and an underground system is desired, in-
and grading. Such material causes mowing stall the system after final grading and
hazards and blocks root system develop- smoothing. Drainage lines are usually
ment. Rotting wood can serve as a nesting placed 6 to 18 inches deep. Whenever pos-
site for termites and is often the host of the sible, set irrigation pipe below the frost line
troublesome “fairy ring” disease in lawns. and normal tillage depth.
The subgrade should be sloped away from IV. Choosing a Turfgrass
the house, and the area should be allowed to A. Cool Season Grasses
settle several weeks before seeding or sod-
These grasses can withstand Idaho’s cold
ding. After establishing the rough grades,
winters and perform well under most condi-
roll, rake, and smooth the area to the final
tions.
grades. Minor surface irregularities will be-
come permanent after the roots have locked 1. Bentgrass—Well-maintained creeping
soil particles together. The smoother the and colonial bentgrasses are the most
area, the better the appearance once mowing professional appearing turfgrasses since
begins. Allow 2 to 4 weeks for settling be- they can be mowed at very low heights
fore planting. Two or three wetting and dry- (less than 1/2 inch) and form a dense,
ing periods during this time will speed up tight green carpet as seen on golf greens.
the process. Bentgrasses are often found invading
other turfs in a home lawn situation, but
C. Drainage
they are not usually recommended for
Drainage tile is not often used in Idaho ex- home lawn use unless their high mainte-
cept where hardpans and extremely heavy nance levels can be maintained.
clay subsoil layers are found. When internal
Bentgrasses have the highest fertility, wa-
drainage is a problem, and the situation re-
ter, and mowing requirements of all the
quires a tile drainage system to remove ex-
cool season grasses. Thatch development
cess water, an adequate outlet should be
is high, consequently, bentgrasses will
found before designing the drainage system.
need frequent dethatching. They are also
Tile lines are laid during lawn construction.
susceptible to several diseases including
Place the tile lines at least 12 to 24 inches
red thread, Fusarium blight, and take-all
below the finished grade and at intervals of
patch. See Table 3 for suggested variet-
10 to 15 feet. Apply a 4- to 6-inch layer of
ies.
pea gravel over the tile lines, then layer sand
or sandy soil, and finally apply topsoil up to 2. Fescues
the surface. a. Turf-type tall fescues: These grasses
are well adapted to a wide range of

14 - 4
soil conditions. Tall fescues tolerate overseeding poor lawns to improve
heat and drought better than most cool turf quality. In mixtures with other
season turfgrasses due to their deep grasses, they add disease resistance to
root systems (4 to 6 feet). Fescues can the turf. Fine fescues are adapted to
withstand traffic and heavy use and are well-drained, infertile soils. Often they
often used on football and other play- are grown on slopes and left unmowed
ing fields. The new turf-type tall fes- to create a meadow effect. Their fer-
cues, especially the new dwarf variet- tilization requirements are low to mod-
ies such as Bonsai and Twilight, are erate.
thinner bladed than older varieties. The creeping red fescues have a
Since fescues do not spread by stolons spreading or rhizomatous root system
or rhizomes, they do not form thatch. that will easily cover open soil areas to
Fescues are usually planted as a mo- create a lawn. The chewings fescues
noculture (a pure stand of a single spe- are bunchgrasses that do not spread.
cies). They do not accept low mowing. They should be planted thickly enough
Their fertility requirements are low to to ensure a dense and even turf. The
moderate. See Table 3 for suggested hard fescues are also bunch-type,
varieties. make excellent turf, have extensive
b. Fineleaf fescue: Fine fescues include root systems, and are drought tolerate.
creeping red fescue, chewings fescue, See Table 3 for suggested varieties.
and hard fescue. Fescues have the fin- 3. Kentucky bluegrass—This is probably
est leaves of any lawn grass. They per- the most traditionally used cool season
form best in shady lawns in mixtures grass. Monocultures of Kentucky blue-
with shade-tolerant Kentucky bluegrasses are not recommended in southern
grasses. These grasses are excellent for Idaho because of insect and disease prob-
Table 3. Turfgrass cultivars for Idaho.

Type of turfgrass Cultivars
Cool season grasses
Bentgrass Astoria, Highland, Exeter
Turf-type tall fescue Amego, Arid, Bonanza, Crossfire, Era, Falcon, Finelawn I, Gala, Houndog, Jaguar II,
Mirage, Monarch, Mustang, Rebel II, Tarus, Thoroughbred, Titan, Trident, Rebel, Olympic
Turf-type dwarf tall fescue Bonsai, Twilight, Monarch, Shortstop
Chewings fescue Banner, Barfalla, Cascade, Highlight, Jamestown, Koket, Scarlett
Creeping red fescue Atlanta, Cindy, Dawson, Illahee, Pennlawn, Rainer, Ruby, Wintergreen
Hard fescue Biljart, Durar, Reliant, SR 3000, Valda, Scaldis
Kentucky bluegrass Adelphi*, Fylking*, Parade*, Alene, Galaxy*, Park, Aquilla*, Glade*, Pennstar*, Baron*,
Liberty*, Ram No1*, Bonnieblue*, Majestic*, Ronde*, Continental*, Merion, Touchdown*,
Freedom*, Newport, Victa*, Bango**, Green Ley**, Nuget**, Challenger**, Kenblue**,
Plush**, Chateau**, New Blue**, Ronde**, New Star**, Washington**, Classic**
* Improved varieties with low-growth habit and suitable for relatively close mowing.
**Kentucky bluegrass varieties released since 1990.
Perennial ryegrass All Star, Brenda, Diplomat, Derby, Elka, Evening Shade, Fiesta II, Gator, Lindsay, Manhattan II,
Norlea, Omega II, Ovation, Pennant, Pennfine, Ranger, Regal, Saturn, SR 4000, Troubadour,
Palmer, Prelude, Patriot II,
Yorktown II
Crested wheatgrass Fairway
Warm season grasses
Buffalograss Texoka, Sharps Improved, Prairie, 609, Washoe
Zoysiagrass Meyer

14 - 5
lems. Bluegrasses, however, may be a Agriculture, Ag Research Service, Belts-
part of most grass mixtures. Bluegrasses ville Agricultural Research Center, Belts-
are slow to germinate and establish. They ville, MD 20705. Sites in the intermoun-
are good at repairing damaged turf areas tain region are listed in these reports.
because of their ability to spread. This B. Warm Season Grasses
can be a problem when flower beds bor- These grasses are not commonly grown in
der turf areas. Bluegrasses have a moder- Idaho because their performance is not as
ate to high fertility requirement. satisfactory as most cool season grasses.
More than 250 varieties of Kentucky Warm season grasses go dormant, turn tan
bluegrass have been released through the or brown with the first frost, and stay that
Idaho Crop Improvement Association way until the weather warms. In southern
(ICIA) Certification Program. A few are Idaho, experiments are being conducted to
listed in Table 3. Patented seed varieties test their extreme drought tolerance.
are generally certified and are sold in 1. Buffalograss—These warm season
blends with other varieties. stoloniferous grasses, due to their drought
4.Perennial ryegrass—Turf-type perennial resistance, are becoming popular in the
ryegrasses germinate and establish very West, even in cool season areas. Buffalo-
rapidly. They are extremely wear toler- grasses are resistant to heat and drought.
ant, producing beautiful lawns that do not They are well adapted to a wide range of
form thatch. Ryegrasses blend well with soils, but especially to alkaline conditions
other grasses and add disease and insect and soils of low fertility. Buffalograsses
resistance to bluegrass mixes. Ryegrass are slow to establish (1 to 3 years) and
leaves are fibrous, requiring a sharp they require infrequent mowing. Like
mower blade to avoid shredding or tear- most warm season grasses, they have a
ing the turf. Like Kentucky bluegrass, short growing season (4 to 5 months) in
ryegrasses require moderate to high fer- the north due to their inability to with-
tility levels (Table 3). stand cold weather. Hence, during half
5. Crested wheatgrass—Crested wheatgrass the year or more in Idaho, a buffalograss
is a cool season bunchgrass that is not lawn will be tan or brown in color (Table 3).
considered a turfgrass, however, it is of- 2. Zoysiagrass—One species of zoysiagrass
ten used along roadsides and in dryland called Japanese lawn grass is cold toler-
pastures where turfgrasses would not ant. It will persist, even in a subarctic cli-
thrive. This grass is intended for low mate, however, it has a very short grow-
maintenance and restricted irrigation or ing season. Zoysiagrass is adapted to a
natural precipitation situations. Under wide range of soil conditions but grows
natural precipitation in southern Idaho, best on well-drained, slightly acidic soils
the majority of growth occurs in early of medium texture and fertility. Although
spring until midsummer. When moisture it is quite tolerant of drought, heat, and
deficiencies occur, the plant will go dor- cold stress, like most of the warm season
mant until sufficient moisture is received. grasses, it is slow to green up in spring
Crested wheatgrass will stay green at and late season discoloration begins at
higher elevations (cooler conditions) if 50°F to 55°F. Zoysia is slow to establish.
watered through the summer. The variety The density and toughness of the grass
‘Fairway’ has a lower, more spreading blades may require a heavy, reel mower.
growth characteristic than standard ‘Meyer’ is the only variety of zoysiagrass
crested wheatgrass varieties. suggested for use in Idaho at this time.
Additional information on cultivar per-
formance (e.g., disease resistance, tex- Note: Consult with your local Extension edu-
ture, color, spring green up, etc.) is avail- cator for the recommended species
able through the National Turfgrass suited to your area.
Evaluation Program, U.S. Department of

14 - 6
V. Establishing the Lawn Inert matter: The percentage (by weight) of
chaff, dirt, trash, and anything that is not
A. Seeding Lawns
seed.
Seeding is the most inexpensive way to pro-
Date of test: The date of test should be
duce a lawn. Start with a well-prepared seed
within the last 15 months.
bed and quality seed. The purchase of lawn
seed is a long-term investment, and the seed Weed seeds: The percentage (by weight) of
you buy will influence your success in de- all weed seeds in the sample and the
veloping a beautiful lawn. It is not possible number of noxious weed seeds present. It
to evaluate the quality of seed by looking at is against the law in Idaho to sell seed
it. Information that will help you make a containing noxious weeds. If the seed
wise choice is printed on the seed package. listed contains noxious weed seeds, avoid
Check the label accompanying the package purchase of this seed and report it to the
of seed. Purchase weed-free seed whenever Idaho Department of Agriculture.
possible. Other crop seeds: The percentage (by
There are differences in lawn seed, and it weight) of crop seed other than the crop
pays to compare. The price you pay for seed specified. For example, in tall fescue, this
will represent only a small portion of the includes orchardgrass and ryegrass. In
total cost of planting, fertilizing, mowing, Kentucky bluegrass, it may include
etc. Don’t let low cost be your only consid- bentgrass, ryegrass, tall fescue, or peren-
eration when purchasing lawn seed. Choose nial ryegrass contaminants.
varieties that have been tested and proven 1. Cost-effectiveness—When considering
best for your area. Idaho has a seed truth-in- seed lots of similar quality, compare the
labeling law that requires truth in labeling. amount of Pure Live Seed (PLS) in the
The label on the package must include an package. The only thing you really want
analysis of the seed it contains. This analy- to pay for is the seed that will grow. To
sis enables the purchaser to determine the determine the amount of PLS, look at the
kind of seed contained in the package, to analysis on the label; multiply the germi-
estimate how well it should perform, and to nation percentage by the percentage of
compare its cost-effectiveness with other pure seed and then multiply by 100 to get
brands. A sample seed label may look like the percentage of PLS. For example:
this: Germination = 85%
Kind: Kentucky bluegrass Purity = 98%
Variety: Park 0.85 x 0.98 = 0.833
Pure seed: 98% 0.833 x 100 = 83.3% PLS
Germination: 85% To obtain the cost per pound of PLS, di-
Inert matter: 1.2% vide the price per pound by the PLS. If
Date of test: 6/95 the seed costs $2.25 per pound, then
$2.25 divided by 0.833 equals $2.72, the
Weed seed: 0.3%
actual cost per pound of PLS.
Other crop seed: 0.5%
2. Quality—Certified seed is a guarantee
Lot: IA from the seller that you will get the kind
Noxious weeds: None and variety of lawn seed named on the
John Doe Seed Co., Idaho Falls, ID label. Buying certified seed is a good
practice. If the seed is certified, a blue
The terminology used on the label is defined certification label will be attached to the
below: seed package.
Pure seed: The percentage (by weight) that Most grass seed sold at the retail level in
is actually seed of the crop specified. Idaho will not have a blue certification
Germination: The percentage of viable tag attached to the package. However,
(live) seed.

14 - 7
many of the varieties are patented and 4. When to sow—The optimum time for
most originators of these varieties require seeding turf in southern Idaho is in the
the variety to be certified in order for it to fall, August 15 to September 30. Fall
be marketed. If you find specific varieties seeding has a much higher success rate
listed on the package, the seed probably than spring seeding for many reasons.
came from a certified lot and is of good The warm days and cool nights of fall are
quality. Consumers should still check the ideal conditions for seedling growth.
label for pure seed, weed seed, inert mat- There is less weed competition in the fall
ter, and other factors which indicate seed than in spring. Lawns seeded in the fall
quality. will be well rooted and have sufficient
The University of Idaho has worked with top growth in spring to be drought and
the U.S. Department of Agriculture, heat tolerant by summer.
seedsmen, and the Idaho Crop Improve- Be sure that seeding is completed early in
ment Association to develop a program the fall so that the grass is well estab-
that helps purchasers recognize quality lished before winter. In some areas of
lawn seed. Special labels are placed on Idaho, grass seed is sown on top of the
packages containing seed that meets very soil just before winter snows. This is a
high standards of purity, germination, viable method of seeding grass, espe-
and freedom from weed and other crop cially in dry areas or where the growing
seed. Seed in a package that carries a cer- season is short.
tified seed label is certified and recom- Spring seeding (April-May) is used for
mended for use. establishing warm season grasses, for
3. Seeding methods—Lawn areas can be seeding cool season grasses if you live in
seeded with a drop spreader or a rotary northern Idaho, or if you missed the fall
(cyclone) spreader. Drop spreaders are seeding time. Seed as soon as the ground
more accurate than rotary spreaders and can be safely worked. If the seed is sown
allow planting along driveways, side- too early, when the soil is too cold and
walks, and flower beds without wasting damp, slow, irregular germination will
seed. The spreader should be calibrated result. There is also strong competition
to deliver the appropriate seeding rate. from germinating weeds during the
Only very small spots can be seeded by spring. When practical, wait until weed
hand, as it is difficult to obtain an even seeds germinate, cultivate the soil to kill
distribution of seed using this method. them, and then sow the grass seed.
Because the seeds of different grasses Establishing turfgrass by seeding in mid-
vary in size, weight, and growth, there is summer is difficult because of high tem-
considerable variation in seeding recom-
mendations. Follow directions on the Table 4. Seeding rates for turfgrass.
seed package or use the guidelines shown Seeding rate
in Table 4. Choose your seeding method, Species Pounds per 1,000 square feet
as discussed above, but ensure uniform
Cool season
distribution by dividing the recom- Bentgrasses
mended seed amount into two equal Colonial 0.5 to 2.0
parts. Sow one-half of the seed in one di- Creeping 0.5 to 1.5
rection and the second half in the oppo- Kentucky bluegrass 1.0 to 2.0
site (perpendicular) direction. A light rak- Perennial ryegrass 4.0 to 8.0
ing will mix the seed into the soil surface. Fine fescue 3.0 to 5.0
Do not rake heavily or the seed will be Tall fescue 4.0 to 8.0
covered more than the necessary 1/8- to Warm season
1/4-inch. A light rolling will make a firm Buffalograss 3.0 to 6.0 (burs)
seed-to-soil contact, which promotes ger- Zoysiagrass plugs or sprigs only
mination.

14 - 8
peratures, quick moisture evaporation, the reduction in irrigation frequency. As
and drought stress conditions. Seeding water evaporates, is used by the plants,
can only be successfully achieved in mid- and drains from the soil, air is pulled into
summer if supplemental irrigation is the soil. Plants require adequate amounts
available, and the seeded area is well sup- of oxygen in the root zone for respiration.
plied with moisture several times a day to 7. Mowing—Start mowing as soon as the
encourage seedling establishment. grass is tall enough to cut (over 1 inch).
5. Mulching—This is the practice of apply- Set the mower at the proper cutting
ing plant materials or other foreign matter height for your species and keep the
(such as fiberglass sheeting) to a seedbed blade sharp. Immature stands are mowed
to reduce erosion and provide a more fa- by the one-third rule used on established
vorable germination and seedling envi- turf—no more than one-third of the shoot
ronment. While mulching is not essential growth is removed at each mowing.
for lawn establishment, it will help pre- Avoid mowing when it is muddy because
vent surface erosion, especially on sloped the wheels can pull seedlings out of the
sites. Mulch also moderates temperature ground. Frequent mowing will help con-
fluctuations at the soil surface, reduces trol annual weeds and limit clipping ac-
crust formation, and reduces surface cumulation that might smother the new
evaporation. Humidity levels at the soil turf.
surface are increased with mulch, and 8. Overseeding—Reseeding bare spots or
seed loss or seed displacement from thickening sparse turf by overseeding is
wind, birds, and rain (or irrigation) is re- usually done in late summer or early fall,
duced. however, on small areas that are kept
Not all mulches serve all of these func- moist during germination, overseeding
tions, and some are better than others. can be done anytime. For spot seeding,
Which material is selected depends on work up the area with a hard-tined rake
specific requirements at each site, cost, or shovel. Mix a starter fertilizer into the
availability of materials, and ease of han- soil, and sow the grass seed. When
dling. A light mulch of weed-free straw overseeding thin turf, rake the area first
or grass hay will encourage faster seed to loosen compacted soil and ensure a
germination. Early season cuttings of hay good seed-to-soil contact.
are preferred, as they are less likely to Changing grass species can also be con-
contain weed seeds. Use a rate of 75 to sidered overseeding when the following
100 pounds per 1,000 square feet; make technique is used. Kill the established
sure 50 percent or more of the soil is vis- turf by using a glyphosate herbicide,
ible after mulching. The straw or hay mow as close as possible after the turf
need not be removed after seedlings dies, and seed into the dead turf. This
emerge. practice has been very successful in
6. Watering—Failure to provide sufficient changing Kentucky bluegrass lawns to
moisture is a major cause of unsuccessful tall fescue. Keep in mind that if soil prob-
turf establishment. After planting, if rain- lems exist before seeding, such as dry
fall is inadequate, the upper 1 inch of soil spots from compaction or puddling due to
must be kept moist with daily, light irri- poor drainage, they will exist with the
gations for the first 2 to 3 weeks. After new turf as well. Improve poor soil con-
the seed germinates and seedlings de- ditions through major renovation and re-
velop enough to mow, the lawn can be sort to the more conventional method of
watered less frequently, but more deeply seedbed preparation.
(8 to 12 inches deep) to encourage good B. Sodding
root development and adequate soil aera- This offers the instant beauty of a lush,
tion. Improved soil aeration accompanies weed-free lawn that can be used about 3

14 - 9
weeks after installation. It gives a head start tion. For a long delay, it is best to unroll
against lawn weeds and there’s no need for the sod on cement or a sheet of plastic to
mulching the turf area. Sod may be an im- avoid having it root into itself or into soil
portant consideration for a family in a new where it will not be laid.
home where children need a safe, clean 2. When to lay sod—Landscapers lay sod
place to play or where the lot must be pro- successfully almost year-round, except
tected against erosion due to its slope. The during the winter. Sodding in spring or
cost of sod is about six times more than early summer, while grasses are growing
grass seed. Other considerations are the la- rapidly, allows quick rooting. In dry areas
bor involved to install the sod correctly and or during hot weather, supplemental irri-
whether the grass species or cultivars you gation will be necessary to establish the
desire are available in sod. sod. Before planting, water the soil 6
If you have the opportunity, examine the inches deep. It is important to schedule
sod before ordering. Check for consistency this watering in advance to avoid a
in turf texture and for the presence of weeds muddy site when sod installation begins.
or diseases that can indicate a poorly main- Do not lay sod on dry soil. Even if sod is
tained sod crop. There should be a uniform watered immediately after being laid on
color and thickness to the sod. When the sod dry soil, root growth will be retarded.
is delivered, examine several rolls before 3. Installation—If you plan to lay the sod
accepting it. yourself, be prepared to squat or kneel on
Several types of sod are available for resi- a wide board to protect and prevent com-
dential landscapes. The basic types are Ken- paction of the soil surface as you work.
tucky bluegrass blends, Kentucky bluegrass- Handle sod with care to avoid tearing and
fine fescue mixtures, Kentucky bluegrass- excessive stretching. Lay the first strip of
perennial ryegrass mixtures, Kentucky blue- sod along a straight edge such as a drive-
grass-tall fescue mixtures, and tall fescue way or sidewalk. If there are only curves,
monocultures. Each type of sod is best suited lay at a right angle to the curve or use a
to particular uses and geographic areas. string to establish a straight line. Butt
The easiest way to install sod is to hire a joints tightly together to prevent root dry-
landscaper, but if you decide to save money ing, but do not overlap. On the second
by doing your own sodding, follow the steps row, stagger the joints similar to the way
below. Do not skimp on soil preparation, bricks are laid.
site grading, or watering. Use a sharp knife to cut sod to fit curves,
1. Soil preparation—Preparations for seed- edges, and sprinkler heads. Try to avoid
ing and sodding are essentially the same. using short or narrow leftover pieces be-
Make sure the site is prepared before cause they tend to dry out rapidly. If two
scheduling delivery of the sod. Sod is pieces are not long enough to butt to-
heavy; it weights about 50 pounds per gether, mound soil against the exposed
square yard. Sod arrives on wooden pal- sod edges to protect them from drying.
lets each stacked with 50 square yards of When sodding slopes, start at the bottom.
grass. Pieces are typically 18 inches wide If the slope is very steep, peg both ends
and 24 inches long. Pieces vary with the of the sod strip with wooden pegs. Allow
particular cutting machine used, but usu- the pegs to remain until sufficient rooting
ally three pieces make 1 yard. has occurred to stabilize the soil. When
Try to be on site when the sod arrives so watering sodded slopes, take care to
that the pallets can be positioned to mini- avoid starting erosion around or under-
mize the distance rolls must be carried neath the sod.
for installation. Plan to lay the sod imme- Do not wait to water until the whole lawn
diately. If there is a short delay, keep the is sodded; the first laid strips may be
rolls moist, but not wet, in a shady loca- dried out by then. As you complete a

14 - 10
conveniently large area of sod, water ging can be used to propagate new
lightly. Continue to lay sod and water turfgrasses in bare soil or to introduce a
previously sodded sections until installa- new species into an existing turf. For ex-
tion is complete. ample, a Kentucky bluegrass lawn can be
4. Rolling and watering—Roll the lawn af- converted to zoysiagrass by planting
ter laying all the sod. Rolling eliminates plugs. The conversion, which is usually
irregularities and establishes a good con- slow, can be accelerated by adjusting cul-
tact between the sod and soil. Water the tural practices to favor the introduced
completed lawn thoroughly. The soil turfgrass.
should be moist to a depth of 6 inches Plugs are planted mechanically or by
after irrigating. Irrigate daily until the sod hand in an upright position (with the ex-
becomes rooted, usually in about 10 days. ception of the small cores taken during
Keep people off the lawn for 3 to 4 core aeration). The tops of the plugs
weeks until the grass is well anchored. should be flush with the soil surface.
After the sod is established, decrease wa- Zoysiagrass is most commonly propa-
tering frequency but increase the amount gated by plugging, but any stoloniferous
of water per application. Deep (8 to 12 or strongly rhizomatous turfgrass can be
inches), infrequent watering is best for started in this way.
developing healthy, deep-rooted turf (see Cores taken during core aeration are usu-
Section VI for more information on irri- ally broadcasted onto a planting bed and
gating). rolled to crush them and provide a
5. Mowing and fertilizing—Make sure the smoother surface. The cores are highly
blade is sharp on your mower. Begin susceptible to desiccation, consequently,
mowing new sod after it is well rooted the planting bed must be kept continually
and growing. Use the one-third mowing moist until rooting has taken place.
rule referred to earlier in this chapter. Six 2. Sprigging—A sprig is a section of stolon
weeks after installation, apply 1 pound of with two to four nodes. Sprigs are usually
actual nitrogen per 1,000 square feet. planted in 2- to 3-inch deep rows with a
Thereafter, follow the fertilizer recom- portion of the sprig above the soil sur-
mendations listed in Section VI of this face. Sprigs, unlike plugs and sod, are
chapter for your particular turf species. free of soil. Hence, they are more prone
C. Vegetative Planting to desiccation. Sprigging is primarily
Some grasses may not be available in seed used for propagating stoloniferous warm
or sod, instead they may be produced veg- season grasses, but it is also used for
etatively using plugs, sprigs, or stolons. creeping bentgrass. Sprigs can be planted
Many warm season grasses are established mechanically in furrows or plunged into
vegetatively, while occasionally cool season the soil individually using a notched
grasses are repaired using plugs. stick.
1. Plugging—This is the planting of turf us-
ing sections of sod varying in size from
Fig. 1. Types of plugs.
small cores 1/2 inch across, such as those
extracted during core aeration, to large
round or square plugs measuring 2 to 4 Turf
inches or larger and 1 to 3 inches deep
(Fig. 1). Several variations in plug sizes Roots
are available depending on the plugging and soil
equipment used and the area to be propa-
gated or repaired. Square plug
Plugs are a quick way to repair damage

on golf courses and athletic fields. Plug- Round plug

14 - 11
3. Stolonizing—Stolonizing is a method of Scalping, or mowing lower than the recom-
broadcasting the sprigs and then top- mended rate is not advisable at any time of
dressing or lightly discing the area to par- year because of the stress it causes turf. Of-
tially cover the stolons. To reduce desic- ten a brown, scorched appearance follows
cation of the sprigs, stolonizing is done in close cutting due to the removal of grass
3- to 4-foot strips followed immediately blades that shade and protect the delicate
by top-dressing and light irrigation. crowns.
Mowing, in general, is detrimental to
VI. Maintenance of Established Turf turfgrasses because it reduces carbohydrate
The wide variety of microclimates and soil production and photosynthesis. It also
types in Idaho make it difficult to formulate a causes a temporary cessation of root growth,
uniform program of lawn maintenance. The temporarily increases water loss from cut
basic factors required for maintaining a lawn leaf ends, and because the leaves are cut,
are discussed in this section. However, the rec- creates the potential for more disease infec-
ommendations may need to be modified for tion. To reduce the loss of photosynthesiz-
your particular location. ing tissue in the blades, mowing should be
In addition to considering the genetic potential done frequently to remove as little of the
of a turfgrass for your lawn, important factors green area of each leaf as possible. In
in maintaining high-quality turf should include shaded areas, photosynthesis is not as active
an annual program of mowing, fertilization, as in the sun, therefore, grasses in these ar-
weed control, irrigation, and leaf raking. In ad- eas are not mowed as frequently. Turf in
dition to these, the following cultural practices hot, sunny areas should also be cut some-
may be necessary in some years: dethatching, what taller especially during the summer to
pH adjustment, aeration, disease control, and reduce evaporation from the soil surface.
insect control. The benefits of mowing, on the other hand,
A. Genetic Potential are to encourage lateral bud growth and
The potential for a lawn to provide a quality tillering. (Tillering is the formation of new
surface is dependent upon the varieties of aerial shoots from axillary buds located
grass in the lawn. New, improved varieties along the crown.) When tillering increases,
are released each year. Periodic infusion of the grass becomes finer, the sod gets thicker
improved varieties into the existing turf will and more dense, and the turf’s overall ap-
increase the chances of producing a high pearance is more attractive.
quality lawn. The best maintenance program Some grasses are easy to cut, while with
is not likely to produce a quality lawn if in- others it is difficult to get a clean cut.
ferior turfgrasses dominate the stand. Table 5. Recommended mowing heights.
B. Mowing Species Height in inches
This is the most basic of all turfgrass cul-
Cool season
tural practices since it influences many
Bentgrasses
other cultural operations. Frequent mowing
Colonial 0.3 to 0.8*
(once or twice weekly) is recommended to
Creeping 0.2 to 0.5
avoid removing more than one-third of the
Kentucky bluegrass 1.5 to 3.0
grass blades at any one time (Table 5). The
Perennial ryegrass 1.0 to 2.0
one-third rule is especially important during
Fine fescue 1.5 to 2.0
periods of midsummer stress on cool season
Tall fescue 2.0 to 4.0
turfgrasses. Violations of the one-third rule
Warm season
are of less consequence during non-stress
Buffalograss 1.0 to 2.0 **
periods such as cool weather. Mow new
Zoysiagrass 0.5 to 1.0
lawns early in their development and don’t
allow excessive growth to accumulate on *Note: Use the higher end of range in summer on cool season
grasses.
established lawns between mowings. **Buffalograss can be left unmowed for a meadow look.

14 - 12
Ryegrasses (due to their fibrous vascular evening. Daytime watering is not encour-
bundles) and zoysiagrass (due to the leaf aged, especially on hot or windy days,
silica content), are difficult turfgrasses to because of high evaporation rates and
cut cleanly if your mower blade is not sharp. water displacement.
In contrast, bentgrass, and Kentucky blue- 2. How much water to apply—Various
grass are easy to mow. turfgrasses differ in their water require-
C. Removing Clippings ments and drought resistance. Warm sea-
Whether to catch clippings or not has long son grasses such as buffalograss will
been an argument in lawn culture. Clipping thrive with only a once-a-month deep
removal is necessary on golf greens, but on watering while Kentucky bluegrass will
home lawns it is optional. Clippings are a probably need a once-a-week deep water-
source of plant nutrients, especially nitro- ing to thrive. Soils differ in their ability
gen. Short clippings left on the lawn will to hold water. Clay soils hold water
filter through the grass and decompose. As longer than sandy soils. Clay soils can be
high as 20 to 30 percent of a lawn’s nitrogen watered once a week and hold water for
requirement can be derived from clippings the entire week while sandy soils may
left in place. Leaving clippings eliminates need to be watered two or three times per
one fertilizer application per year. Con- week to maintain some moisture.
versely, regular removal of clippings will Apply water slowly to prevent runoff and
necessitate the application of additional fer- achieve good infiltration, especially on
tilizer to compensate for nutrient removal. slopes to encourage deep rooting. Water
Clippings are not the cause of thatch in most long enough for moisture to reach a soil
grasses. Long clippings, however, should be depth of 8 to 12 inches. Kentucky blue-
removed to avoid suffocation of the turf be- grass and perennial ryegrass have the
neath. ability to develop root systems 12 to 18
D. Irrigation inches deep. Tall fescues can develop
To know how to irrigate properly, you must roots up to 6 feet deep!
know your soil’s texture, structure, and Avoid overwatering as it can cause many
depth. The surest way to determine when to problems, including nutrient leaching and
irrigate is to feel the soil in the root zone root rots. If you squish around on your
area by using a soil probe, trowel, or shovel. turf 24 hours after watering, or if you see
Check to see if the soil at a 12-inch depth standing water on your lawn, you may be
feels damp, like a wrung-out sponge. The overwatering or have a drainage problem.
soil should crumble easily when tapped, yet Excessive water might also be indicated
should form a ball when pressed inside your by a yellowish-green grass color. Water-
fist. It should not hold together in a tight, logged turf will develop a shallow root
wet, mud ball or be bone dry. Learning to system due to the lack of oxygen in the
“read” your turf is important too. A blue- soil. Shallow-rooted turf will not be able
green turf color, failure of blades to spring to handle temperature extremes.
back when walked on, and lack of dew for- Check watering amounts using the “can”
mation on turf at night are signs of exces- method. Place four to five same-sized,
sive dryness. flat-bottomed cans (such as soup cans) in
1. Timing of irrigation—Night watering a line equally spaced in one sprinkler pat-
uses water efficiently due to less evapora- tern. The reason for using several cans
tion. However, fungus problems may in- instead of one is that nozzles do not spray
crease with night watering because hu- an equal amount of water over the entire
midity and moisture levels on and around pattern. Start within a foot or two of the
plants remain high for hours. Early morn- sprinkler head and continue to the end of
ing watering is a better choice because the watering pattern. To determine aver-
plants have a chance to dry off before age sprinkler output over a designated

14 - 13
period of time, collect and measure the growing turf is also more susceptible to dis-
total amount of water in the cans and di- eases and insects.
vide by the number of cans used. Fertilizers can provide nitrogen to plants
immediately or over an extended period of
Example: You watered for 30 minutes time. The amount that can be safely applied
and collected 4 inches of total at one time depends upon the availability of
water from four cans. Four the nitrogen. The portion of the nitrogen
cans divided into 4 inches that is slowly available is listed on the fertil-
equals 1 inch of water being izer bag as Water Insoluble Nitrogen
applied in 30 minutes). A good (WIN). For example, a 30-10-10 fertilizer
watering rule is to apply no with 5 percent WIN actually provides 5/30
more than 1 to 2 inches of or 1/6 of its nitrogen in the slow-release or
water per week. slowly available form. A 50-pound bag of
this material would provide 15 pounds of
Whenever possible, replace only the wa- total nitrogen (.30 x 50 = 15 pounds) of
ter used by the turf. During hot, dry sum- which 2.5 pounds (.05 x 50 = 2.5) would be
mer days a turf may consume more than slowly available (WIN).
2/10 inch of water per day. Two inches of If no WIN is listed on the fertilizer label,
water per week is recommended for most assume that it is all water-soluble or quick-
turf during the heat of summer in dry, release (quickly available) nitrogen, unless
rainless areas. The amount of water the fertilizer contains sulfur-coated urea.
needed will be 1 inch or less per week Sulfur-coated urea fertilizers provide slowly
when the weather is cool, especially in available nitrogen, but the fertilizer label
spring and fall or on cloudy, overcast does not list it as WIN.
days.
Statements on the fertilizer bag such as
Under water stress, the turf may wilt. Just “contains 50 percent organic fertilizer” do
before wilting, however, grass leaves will not mean that the fertilizer is 50 percent
turn a grayish blue-green color and the slowly available. It is impossible to calcu-
turf will no longer spring back after being late the amount of WIN from this informa-
walked on. If you notice these symptoms, tion.
water immediately. A little stress will not
Source of fertilizer nitrogen also has other
kill turf, but watering before these symp-
characteristics that should be considered
toms is best. During severe drought con-
when purchased and used. Those with high
ditions, cool season grasses often protect
“burn potential” should be watered into the
themselves from desiccation by going
lawn with 1 to 1 1/2 inches of water. If ap-
into a dormant state.
plications are to be made when soils are
E. Fertilization cold, those which cause a “rapid” response
A soil test is a good way to begin determin- should be used. Also, homeowners should
ing fertility needs. Contact your local Exten- be aware of the leaching potential of the
sion office or a laboratory listed in the tele- materials used. Table 6 summarizes these
phone Yellow Pages about soil testing. characteristics.
An adequate fertility program can reduce On established turf, a fertilizer ratio of 3-1-2
weeds, lawn moss, and certain diseases. or 3-1-1 is recommended. Examples of
Plus, the lawn will be dense, well-colored, these ratios are: 15-5-10, 15-5-5, 30-10-20,
and of manageable growth. Overfertilizing and 30-10-10. If these analyses cannot be
should be avoided since it increases thatch found, select the fertilizer with the closest
development and surface and groundwater analysis to the ratio. If your soil test results
contamination. An overfertilized lawn will indicated adequate amounts of phosphorus
grow rapidly and require more water and or potassium, you may only need to apply a
more frequent mowing. Succulent, fast- nitrogen fertilizer such as 21-0-0.

14 - 14
1. How much to apply? Different turf spe- Table 7. Recommended fertilizer rates for turfgrass.
cies require different amounts of fertilizer Pounds of
to thrive. Examine Table 7 for recom- Species nitrogen (N) per year
mended fertilizer rates for your particular Cool season
grass type. Bentgrasses
When making fertilizer applications, Colonial 3.0 to 6.0*
avoid applying more than 1 1/2 pounds of Creeping 4.0 to 8.0
nitrogen (N) per 1,000 square feet per ap- Kentucky bluegrass 2.0 to 6.0
plication. Inorganic sources of nitrogen, Perennial ryegrass 2.0 to 6.0
when used at larger rates, can burn the Fine fescue 1.0 to 2.0
turf and contaminate surface and ground- Tall fescue 2.0 to 4.0
water due to leaching. To reduce nitrogen Warm season
loss and maintain some level of longevity Buffalograss 0.5 to 2.0
to nitrogen fertilizers, use a slow release, Zoysiagrass 1.5 to 3.0
granular material whenever possible as
*The fertilizer range is determined by cultural practices such as
part of your fertilizer program. Organic irrigation and clipping removal. Lawns maintained with limited
nitrogen sources, on the other hand, can irrigation will need less fertilizer than irrigated lawns. Likewise,
be applied at a rate as high as 2 pounds N lawns where clippings are left will need less fertilizer than lawns
per 1,000 square feet per application where clippings are removed.
without the risk of burning due to the

slow release nature of the material. efficient and easier to use along drive-
ways and walks. Remember to overlap
Note: Lower more frequent rates of quick- the wheel areas to avoid leaving notice-
release N fertilizer can be used on able stripes. Hand spreading of fertilizer,
sandy to sandy loam soil. except for small areas, is not recom-
mended because of uneven coverage.
For even fertilizer coverage, apply granu- 2. Time of application—In general, it is best
lar or pelleted fertilizer with a cyclone or to apply two applications of fertilizer dur-
drop spreader. Drop spreaders are more ing the fall (September through Novem-
Table 6. Characteristics of common turfgrass nitrogen sources.
N content Leaching Burn Low temperature Residual

Fertilizer source percentage potential potential response effect
Inorganic
Ammonium nitrate 33-34 High High Rapid Short
Calcium nitrate 16 High High Rapid Short
Ammonium sulfate 21 High High Rapid Short
Organic
Urea 45-46 Moderate High Rapid Short
Urea solutions 12-14 Moderate High Rapid Short
Sulfur coated urea 14-38 Low Low Moderate Moderate
Resin coated urea 24-35 Low Low Moderate Long
Isobutylidene diurea (IBDU) 30-31 Mod. low Low Moderate Moderate
Methylene urea
and urea formaldehyde 38 Low Low Low Mod. long-long
Natural organic
Activated sewage sludge 6 Very low Very low Very low Long
Manure 3-10 Very low Very low Very low Long
Other natural products 3-15 Very low Very low Very low Long

14 - 15
ber). Fall fertilization is very important to dressing follows coring. However, core
encourage turf vigor and spring green up. aeration alone is not a recommended way
Follow with a third application in late to control thatch.
spring (May) and, if needed, make a final G. Thatch
application in June. Avoid fertilizing cool Thatch is a brown, fibrous, spongy layer lo-
season grasses in the heat of summer cated between the soil and the grass blades.
(July and August) when they tend to go Thatch accumulation is a natural process.
semidormant. Fertilizing to stimulate As grass plants grow, new tissues are pro-
growth when turf physiologically needs duced and as old tissues die, it is sloughed
to slow down or “rest” is stressful and off. Thatch is the accumulation of plant tis-
over time the turf will thin out and sues high in lignin, such as dead stems and
weaken. roots. Thatch accumulates when dead grass
F. Aeration parts exceed the rate of decomposition.
Coring or core aeration is also called Leaving grass clippings on the lawn is not
aerification. It involves removing cores or the cause of thatch for most cool season
plugs of turf and soil with the purpose of grasses. Less than 1 percent of thatch is
improving compacted soil. Aeration is ac- composed of grass blades. Grass blades tend
complished by using power or hand-driven to be succulent and decompose rapidly. An
machines that remove cores of soil 1/4 to 1 exception is some of the warm season
inch across and 3 to 4 inches long. The grasses.
holes in the turf are made 4 to 6 inches 1. Benefits and disadvantages of thatch—
apart. Aeration should be done on well- A thin layer of thatch (1/4 to 1/2 inch
moistened soil. Tines usually do not pen- thick) is beneficial as it helps decrease
etrate to the needed depth in compacted dry soil moisture evaporation and soil tem-
soil. Cores can be left to decompose in place perature fluctuations. Thatch also helps
or collected and removed. If left in place, retain nutrients and insulates the soil and
crush the cores with a roller or rake them roots from compaction by cushioning
into the soil. They will help reduce thatch. footfalls and equipment used on the turf.
Lawns exposed to heavy traffic may require Thatch that is more than 1/2 inch thick,
aeration at least twice during the season. however, can be detrimental because it
Spring and early fall are the best times to will restrict water, air, fertilizer, and pes-
aerate. Aeration may be done every month ticide movement into the soil. Roots of
if needed, as long as the soil is not frozen or the grass plants will grow in thick, dense
too wet. If done properly, aeration does not thatch instead of the soil, making the turf
harm the lawn or roughen the turf. Equip- less heat and drought tolerant. Turf in-
ment rental centers usually have lawn aera- sects and many diseases find thick thatch
tion equipment available. a good home.
Many benefits are derived from core aera- 2. Causes of excessive thatch—Good condi-
tion; the following is a list of the most obvi- tions for organic matter accumulation and
ous: poor conditions for its decomposition
1. Increased soil aeration and water penetra- create thatch. Overfertilizing can encour-
tion. age thatch formation because turf is
2. Stimulated root and shoot growth. growing (and dying) at a faster rate. Ex-
3. Reduced soil compaction. cessively wet or dry conditions and cool
weather also encourage thatch buildup.
4. Increased germination of overseeded
Under these conditions, soil microorgan-
grasses.
isms that assist with thatch breakdown
5. Improved turfgrass response to fertilizers cannot live or function well.
and better fertilizer infiltration.
Stoloniferous grasses naturally form
6. Reduced thatch, especially where soil more thatch during normal growth.
cores are reincorporated or where top-

14 - 16
Bentgrasses, especially when mowed too brushes, rakes, or special drag mats are used
high, can accumulate excessive thatch. to work the topdressed material into the turf.
Kentucky bluegrass, for example, is a When using top-dressing to control thatch,
high thatch former while creeping red first verticut or power rake the area, then
fescue is a medium thatch former. Peren- topdress. For controlling thatch, top-dress-
nial ryegrass and turf-type tall fescue do ing is applied at 3- to 6-week intervals as
not develop much thatch since they are many times as needed.
bunchgrasses. I. Weed Control on Established Turf
3. How to remove thatch—Preventing The first step to any successful weed control
thatch buildup with good turf manage- is to identify the weed. Weeds have differ-
ment practices is the best method of con- ent life cycles and sometimes need different
trolling thatch. Use proper fertilizer and control measures. Annual weeds, for in-
irrigation rates to create the well-bal- stance, are much easier to control than pe-
anced conditions needed for grasses to rennial weeds. Hoe an annual weed at
grow moderately. If dethatching becomes ground level and it dies; do the same to a
necessary, use a power rake or vertical perennial weed and it comes back from the
mower (also called a verticutter). Vertical root left in the soil.
mowing (verticutting) is cutting with Some control methods will save you time
blades or tines that move vertically to the and money. For example, mowing slightly
soil surface. Hence, vertical mowing is higher will shade out germinating annual
cutting and slicing the turf vertically to broadleaf weeds so that herbicide use can be
rip thatch and turf. Use the power rake avoided. Also, mowing the top off annual
once in one direction and once in the op- broadleaf weeds before they form seed will
posite (perpendicular) direction. reduce their population. Because competi-
Late summer or fall is the preferred time tion is an important factor in seed germina-
for dethatching because it causes the tion and plant survival, one of the best weed
lawn to look rough or ragged. Damage deterrents is a dense stand of turfgrass.
caused by thatch removal may require Hand pulling, using boiling water, or apply-
overseeding. Follow dethatching with ing a commercial herbicide on individual
fertilization and irrigation to minimize weeds can give an economical and selective
the rough look of the lawn after dethatch- method of control without broadcasting her-
ing. The old thatch that is brought up bicide material over the entire turf.
should be removed. Top-dressing with a Organic methods of control such as hoeing
sand/peat mixture, compost, or topsoil is and hand pulling are practical for annual
optional after dethatching. When thatch is weeds, however, perennial weeds can be
extreme (1 inch or more), it is easier to difficult to control without herbicide use.
remove the lawn and reseed or resod the Weekly removal of top growth is an old
area. practice that reduces root vigor on persistent
H. Top-dressing weeds. This method, unfortunately, may
Refers to the practice of spreading a thin take more than one year to eliminate some
layer (1/4 inch) of soil, compost, humus, or weeds.
sand and peat mix over the turf or soil. Top- If herbicides are to be used, make sure the
dressing is used to control thatch and help grass is established and growing vigorously
level turf surfaces and cover seeds, stolons, before treatment. Always read and follow
or rhizomes during turf propagation. Top- the herbicide label carefully for your own
dressing is a common golf course mainte- safety and the health of your plants. Avoid
nance operation that has a home lawn appli- spray drift by not using excessive pressure.
cation. Avoid spraying on windy days when wind
Usually a drop spreader is used for top- velocity exceeds 2 to 3 miles per hour. For
dressing. After the material is dropped, the health of your landscape plants, avoid

14 - 17
applying herbicides, such as Banvel To renovate a turf, the sod is either de-
(dicamba), near the root zones of desirable stroyed with a nonselective herbicide or
trees and shrubs. To avoid contaminating taken out with a sod cutter. Next, plowing
desirable plants, always use a separate or rototilling follows and soil amendments
sprayer designated for herbicide use only. are added if necessary. Grading, smoothing
Timing is important for effective weed con- and seeding or sodding are the final steps as
trol. Weeds, whether annuals or perennials, discussed in Sections III and V of this chap-
are more easily controlled when they are ter.
small. Spring (April-May) is a good time to K. Turf Problems
spray summer annuals, while early fall 1. Insects and insect control—Many differ-
(September) is the best time to spray winter ent types of insects are present in a lawn.
annuals and some perennials. Tough peren- Most of these are not harmful to the
nial weeds such as Canada thistle or field grass. Insect control is not necessary un-
bindweed (wild morning glory) may take less the population of undesirable insects
several herbicide treatments if herbicide ma- builds up enough to cause visible damage
terials are applied early in the season. Sum- to the lawn.
mer and early fall applications may be more Close examination, on hands and knees,
effective on these weeds since they are most is the best way to identify insect pests in
susceptible to herbicides after their flower a damaged lawn. You may be able to see
buds have formed. Annual grasses such as the insect in action. If you think you have
crabgrass are usually treated with a an insect problem, your local Extension
preemergent material in March before the office can help identify the pest and sug-
seeds have a chance to sprout. gest control measures.
Two types of herbicides are used on turf: The most common above-ground insect
selective herbicides are those that eradicate pest in Idaho lawns is sod webworm,
certain plants but not all plants (2,4-D, these insects feed on grass leaves and
MCPP, Banvel); nonselective herbicides are stems. Below ground, the most common
those that eradicate all plants (Roundup). pests are white grub larvae and billbug
Preemergent herbicides that kill seeds be- grubs which feed on plant stems and
fore they emerge, such as Dacthal, fit into roots. Sod webworms are the larval or
the nonselective category. caterpillar stage of several species of
The control of perennial weeds can be a Lepidoptera. Adults are commonly seen
continuing problem on new turf or thin, un- flying in jerky, short flights as you walk
healthy turf. For more information on weed through the grass. The caterpillars feed
control methods, refer to University of on the grass blades at night. Sod web-
Idaho Extension publication CIS 888, Weed worms prefer well-managed lawns. Dam-
Control in Lawns. For more information on age appears as small brown areas in the
specific herbicide controls, see CIS 723, grass.
Herbicides for Lawn Weed Control. White grubs are the larval or grub stage
J. Turf Renovation of several species of beetles and chafers.
This will be needed for deteriorated lawns Typically, white grubs have a cream-col-
and any turf areas where sods are too poor ored body with a dark-colored area at the
to save. Renovation will also be needed for posterior end, a brown head, and front
extremely weedy or thatchy lawns, and legs but no back legs. White grubs feed
lawns with structural faults such as poor on roots, causing brown areas in the
drainage or extreme compaction. Renova- lawn. Usually turf damaged by grubs can
tion will, in the long run, minimize the frus- be rolled back like a rug to reveal the
tration and cost that goes along with trying large white grubs.
to keep these turf areas alive. Billbug and weevil larvae look much like
white grubs, except that they are much

14 - 18
smaller and do not have legs. Larvae feed d. Examine overall pattern of damage.
on roots, and adult beetles feed on grass How did damage appear to spread?
blades and stems. Damage is similar to Note if it’s most prominent on well-
that caused by white grubs. drained or poorly drained areas, where
2. Turf problem diagnosis—Proper diagno- thatch is heavy or minimal, or whether
sis of turfgrass problems is essential if an it appears to follow mower or foot traf-
effective solution is to be found. Fact and fic patterns.
observation must be correlated to deter- e. Examine plant leaves. Note lesions,
mine the causes of turf problems. Some fungus fruiting structures, and symp-
turf problems have their “roots” in main- tom appearance.
tenance practices from previous years, f. Examine plant roots. In particular, note
which makes diagnosis difficult. Seldom their color; healthy roots are white.
does the homeowner recognize that there g. Check the thatch layer. Ask about the
is a problem until considerable damage mowing program. Determine height of
has occurred. It is virtually impossible to cut, frequency of mowing, sharpness
accurately diagnose the initial cause of and adjustment of equipment, and
some problems because the damage oc- whether a rotary or reel mower is used.
curred so long ago that there is no identi-
h. Check the soil. Measure the depth and
fiable symptom or causal agent present.
determine the type if possible. Also
Diagnosis of turfgrass problems requires note drainage, compaction, evidence
a pocket knife, a good quality hand lens, of hardpan or claypan, or presence of
and a soil probe. The following is a buried materials. Note whether a soil
checklist to help diagnose problems and test has been made in the past 3 years.
give you an appreciation for the complex-
i. Ask questions about the chemicals ap-
ity of diagnosing:
plied. Determine the fertilizer analysis,
a. Observe site conditions such as the ex- type of nitrogen, herbicides, insecti-
posure and severity of slopes; the loca- cides, fungicides, and other products
tion of sidewalks, driveways, and pa- used.
tios; drainage patterns; traffic distribu-
j. The final step is to correlate all known
tion; and locations of buildings and
facts, observations, and weather condi-
other structures. Note the location,
tions; then, make a judgment on pos-
size, and types of trees; how much
sible causes of damage and corrective
shade they cast; and their rooting pat-
measures to be taken.
tern. Check prevailing winds, orienta-
tion of buildings in relation to the sun, 3. Common lawn problems to watch for:
play areas, or areas that may be com- a. Improper watering (too much or too
pacted due to use. little) is the single most important
b. Determine the species and, if possible, cause of poor turf. Use 1 to 2 inches of
varieties of grasses. Evaluate vigor, water per week, except when rain
density, amount and type of cover. supplements irrigations. Weather will
Note whether growth is sparse or determine if a low (1 inch) or high (2
dense, and whether the color indicates inches) rate of water is necessary.
chlorosis. Note the types of weeds b. Poor soil drainage, especially on clay
present. soils, may show up as standing water
c. Note overall color of turf, any mottled or as constant wetness with moss
appearance, patterns of dead or dam- growing. This may require amending
aged turf, presence of weeds, condi- the soil or adding drainage tiles.
tions of adjoining turf areas, and gen- c. Summer dry spots are a common oc-
eral vigor and density of overall currence especially in southern Idaho.
growth. Use a wetting agent, aerate and top-

14 - 19
dress, or amend the soil and reseed. On bug on bluegrass and fairy ring fungus
severe slopes, terrace the area or use are two very common culprits in
ground cover or turf that will not be southern Idaho. In high elevations,
mowed. snow mold may be a problem.
d. Mowing too low (scalping) can stress Refer to UI Extension publication
turf and cause it to scorch. Mow at the EXP 676, Fairy Ring in Turf, and CIS
height recommended for your variety 374, Bluegrass Billbug Control in
(Table 5). Idaho Lawns and Turf. Consult with
e. A dull, tan cast on the surface of the your local county Extension educator
grass may indicate a dull mower blade. for additional information.
Pick a blade of grass and look at it up
close. If the tip or cut end looks torn or Further Reading
shredded instead of flat across, it’s
time to sharpen the blade. Books
f. If the turf seems to be growing too fast Vengris, Jonas. 1973. Lawns: Basic Factors, Construc-
to keep up with the mowing, consider tion and Maintenance of Fine Turf Areas.
fertilizing less. If you dislike mowing, Thomson Publications, Indianapolis, IN.
use a dwarf tall fescue such as Bonsai, Turgeon, J. J. 1985. Turfgrass Management. Prentice-
which only grows 3 to 4 inches tall. Hall, Inc., New York, NY.
g. Thatch buildup is evident on turf that
feels especially spongy when walked Booklets and Pamphlets
on. Check the thatch layer by cutting a University of Idaho
wedge out of the turf. If the thatch is CIS 1041 Conduct Your Own Garden Research ($2.00)
more that 1/2 inch thick, dethatch with CIS 1016 Don’t Bag It! Recycle Your Grass Clippings
a power rake in the fall. (50¢)
h. If weeds or crabgrass are a constant EXP 676 Fairy Rings in Turf (50¢)
problem next to a driveway or side- EXT 723 Herbicides for Lawn Weed Control (50¢)
walk, it usually indicates that the turf CIS 340 Lawn Pest Control (50¢)
is stressed due to reflected heat from CIS 911 Northern Idaho Fertilizer Guide: Northern
the paved areas. Consider removing Idaho Lawns ($1.00)
the turf to make a planting bed of CIS 583 Selecting Turfgrasses for Idaho Lawns (35¢)
shrubs, bulbs, perennials, or annuals CIS 846 Southern Idaho Fertilizer Guide: Southern
along these hard-to-grow turf areas. Idaho Lawns ($1.00)
i. Thin turf may be a result of shading or CIS 1062 Starting a Home Lawn ($1.50)
improper fertilizing and watering. If CIS 1063 Thatch Prevention and Control in Home
shade is the problem, use a shade-tol- Lawns ($1.00)
erant grass-like red fescue or use a PNW 299 Turfgrass Seedings: Recommendations for
ground cover instead. Fertilizing cool the Pacific Northwest (75¢)
season grasses during the heat of sum- CIS 888 Weed Control in Lawns (50¢)
mer can disrupt their natural physi-
ological cycle as they tend to slow To order University of Idaho publications, contact your
down or go semidormant during hot county’s UI Extension office or write to: Publications,
weather. Fertilizing forces them to University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho 83844-2240, call
grow. Over time, this practice will (208) 885-7982, or email: calspubs@uidaho.edu. Make
stress a turf and cause it to thin. Fertil- checks payable to Publications. Idaho residents add 6
ize in the fall, whenever possible. Ad- percent sales tax. Also check, and in some cases down-
ditional applications may be applied load, the online publication and video catalog on the UI
from spring to early summer. Educational Communications web site (http://
j. Turf diseases and insects occasionally info.ag.uidaho.edu).
occur on even the best of lawns. Bill-

14 - 20
Chapter
Landscaping
15
I. Introduction 2
II. Definitions 2
III. Creating a Plan 2
A. Define Your Goals and Objectives 2
B. Do a Thorough Site Analysis 3
C. Define Use Areas 4
D. Define Planting Areas 5
E. Principles of Design 5
F. Elements of Design 6
G. Plant Selection 6
H. Other Considerations When
Buying Plants 7
IV. Installation and Renovation 7
A. Primary Hardscape 7
B. Install Planting Beds 7
C. Plant or Move Trees and Shrubs 7
D. Install Automatic Irrigation System 7
E. Plant Lawn or Ground Covers 7
V. Maintenance and Irrigation 7
A. Maintenance 7
B. Water Management 8
Further Reading 8

15 - 1
Chapter 15
Landscaping
T. Finnerty
Terry Finnerty, Former Extension Horticulturist, Sandpoint Research and Extension Center
I. Introduction C. Landscape Architect—A professional who cre-

Horticulture is an art and a science—especially ates landscape designs.
when it comes to landscaping. Imagine the D. Landscape Plan—Describes how you are going
landscape as the canvas with the greenscape to meet the goals and expectations of the land-
(plants) and hardscape (sidewalks, edging, and scape design.
patios) providing the colors, shapes, and pat- E. Landscape Maintenance—The specific activi-
terns of the living portrait. Landscape archi- ties (weeding, spraying, watering, fertilizing,
tects even use the term “plant palette” when etc.) needed to meet the goals and objectives
referring to plant lists. of the landscape plan.
The skill to match the proper plant to the proper F. Landscape Management—Coordinating the
environment and to provide the proper cultural maintenance procedures to meet the landscape
inputs to guarantee the survival of plants on plan’s objectives .
the landscape is the science of landscaping. In G. Landscape Contractor—Someone who installs
addition to being more attractive and easier to and sometimes maintains landscapes. This in-
maintain, the benefits of a well-planned, well- dividual also may be the landscape manager
designed landscape include economic savings who is responsible for meeting the landscape
(reduced inputs of water, fertilizer, and pesti- plan’s objectives.
cides), enhanced real estate values, and per- H. Landscaping—Includes all of the concepts
sonal satisfaction and peace of mind. from design to maintenance.
To help you create an attractive and functional
landscape, we will discuss some basic prin- III. Creating a Plan
ciples of landscaping including planning and Have a plan before you plant! Whether you are
design, plant selection, and installation and developing a landscape plan for a new home or
maintenance. Although the following prin- renovating an older landscape, it is important
ciples are primarily for homeowners, you also to have a plan before you do anything. In the
can apply them to larger properties or landscapes. long run, not having a plan may create mainte-
nance problems and reduce the overall appear-
II. Definitions ance of the landscape. The following steps will
A. Landscape—An arrangement of outdoor help you develop a plan for a landscape that is
space for a specific purpose or goal. Goals both functional and aesthetically pleasing.
may be as general as increasing the attrac- A. Define Your Goals and Objectives
tiveness of a landscape to more specific
This is the most important step of the land-
things such as reducing the amount of wa-
scape process. Establishing clear goals and
ter, maintenance, and chemical inputs into
objectives at the beginning will help you
the landscape.
achieve the benefits you hope to receive
B. Landscape Design—A blueprint or drawing from your landscape plan.
of the landscape that the designer creates to
Decide what type of plan best fits the needs
fulfill the property owner’s goals and objec-
of your household, while working within the
tives for the landscape.

15 - 2
economic, social, environmental, and physi- b. Physical barriers or obstacles on the
cal constraints that will affect your final landscape.
landscape plan. Specific goals and con- c. Social (includes public ordinances re-
straints might include the following: stricting water use or plant selection).
1. Goals d. Economic.
a. Low maintenance, low input (includes e. Physical handicaps.
reduced watering, pesticide and fertil- B. Do a Thorough Site Analysis
izer applications, and less mowing).
Gather as much information as possible
b. More privacy. about your site and the area where you live.
c. More recreation area. Make a preliminary map of your property,
d. More color. drawn to scale, that includes the locations of
e. More wildlife habitat (includes forage your house, buildings, sidewalks, and drive-
;;
and cover for birds and desirable in- way. Indicate on the map, or on a separate
sects). sheet of paper, the following information:
2. Constraints 1. Macroclimate—This refers to major
a. Environmental conditions (includes weather patterns (temperature and pre-
;;
climate, soil, and precipitation). cipitation) that affect large areas. In
Idaho, cold hardiness is a critical factor
Fig. 1. USDA plant hardiness zones for Idaho. for determining plant survival. Idaho cov-
;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;
;
ers five USDA hardiness zones, 2 to 6,
;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;
(-50° to -10°F), with temperatures being
;; ;
;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;
affected by elevation and latitude (Fig. 1).
;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;
Temperature and precipitation can vary
Range of average annual
;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;
minimum temperatures for each considerably within a hardiness zone. Al-
;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;
zone: ways consult local or regional weather
;;; ;;
services or extension publications for
;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; Zone 2 -50° to -40° F
specific weather information for your
;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; area.
;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;
Zone 3 -40° to -30° F
2. Microclimates—These are the weather
;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;
;;;
Zone 4 -30° to -20° F patterns that the landscape in your imme-
;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; diate area affects. When conducting a site
;
;;;;
;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;
Zone 5 -20° to -10° F analysis, look for potential problem areas
;;;;
;
;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;
such as hot spots, frost pockets, wet
;;;; Zone 6 -10° to 0° F
;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;
spots, or shaded areas. Mark these micro-
;;;
;;;;
;
;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;
climates on your preliminary map for fu-
ture reference.
;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;
;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;
3. Soils—See Chapter 4 for more informa-
tion about soils. In regard to urban or
;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;
;;;;
residential landscapes, consider the fol-
;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; lowing:
;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; a. Most urban or residential soils are dis-
;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; turbed soils and probably won’t re-
;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;
;;;;
semble the less disturbed, native soils
;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; of the surrounding region.
;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; b. Proper soil conditions are as important
;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;
to plant growth and survival as ideal
;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;
;;;;
climate conditions. Drainage, pH,
;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;
structure, organic matter, and mineral
;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;
composition are factors to consider in
relation to plant growth.
15 - 3
c. Because you are working with a small c. Don’t plant species near utilities that
area, it is easier to improve the soil us- can prevent access or cause mainte-
ing various soil amendments. nance problems; and
d. Avoid planting species such as pop-
Note: If your site has a lot of variability in lars, willows, and cottonwood with
the soil, you should indicate the differ- dense, fibrous roots near sewer lines or
ent areas on your preliminary map and septic systems.
plan accordingly. See the UI Extension
Bulletin 704, “Soil Sampling,” for in- Note: See the UI Extension CIS 991, “Land-
formation about taking soil samples on scaping and Utilities: Problems, Pre-
your site. vention, and Plant Selection,” for more
information.
4. Topography—Besides altering the micro-
climate, topography can affect drainage 10. Views—Indicate your views looking out
and make some areas difficult to plant from your house, and approaching your
and maintain. house. What do you want to see? What
5. Aspect—Note the exposure of the site don’t you want to see? What do you
relative to the sun. This is more critical in want others to see or not see?
mountainous areas or areas with steep 11. Available water—Show the location of
hills. Generally, plants growing on the your water sources. If your property has
warmer, south-facing side of a slope will areas that are difficult to water, you may
break dormancy faster than plants grow- want to modify your plan to meet the
ing on the north-facing side. This pro- needs of these areas by using drought-
vides a longer growing season, but it also tolerant plants or hardscape (nonliving)
can make plants more susceptible to late materials.
frosts and other freezing-related injuries. 12. Local ordinances—Consult state and lo-
6. Existing plant materials and structures— cal authorities for specific regulations
Show existing plant materials, sidewalks, about planting trees and shrubs along
driveways, patios, and other structures on streets, sidewalks, and rights of way.
your preliminary plan. C. Define Use Areas
7. Access—Besides driveways and side- You can divide use areas into three major
walks, plot “traffic” areas around the categories:
landscape. Consider ways to improve ac-
1. Public areas—This usually describes the
cess to your home or other parts of the
front of your landscape. The primary
landscape.
function of this area is aesthetics and to
8. Easements—Draw these on your map to “welcome” visitors to your home.
prevent planting any permanent plant ma-
terials in these areas. Note: There are no distinct boundaries on
9. Overhead utility lines, sewer lines, under- these areas, and they will frequently
ground cables, and transformers—Note overlap in terms of function and ap-
these on your preliminary site plan and pearance. Within these major use
plan accordingly. Some basic rules for areas, you should designate specific
planting in these areas include: use areas (e.g., recreation, perennial
a. Plant trees and shrubs away from utili- flower beds, vegetable garden, and pa-
ties; tio) for the various activities that you
b. Plant taller or broad spreading trees are planning for your landscape. For
away from overhead lines, and use more information about planning your
shorter, slower growing trees for landscape see CIS 990, “Water Con-
closer planting if you must plant near servation in the Landscape.”
overhead utilities;

15 - 4
2. Private areas—These are the areas used may want to leave large areas of open
for recreation, family activities, and en- space with reduced opportunities for con-
tertaining. cealment. Perhaps you would like to en-
3. Service areas—These areas are reserved courage more wildlife on your land-
for the vegetable garden, composting, pet scape? Then you will need to plan for
and livestock areas, storage shed, wood- more areas that provide both food and
piles, and other utilitarian purposes. They shelter. Plan and plot your objectives be-
can include areas that are difficult to fore starting to plant.
maintain, have limited access to water, or E. Principles of Design
have poor soil. The house is the focal point of the design.
D. Define Planting Areas The landscape should complement, not
Plot planting zones based on water needs or clash, with the house. The landscape is an
the plants’ maintenance requirements and to extension of the living space. Just like the
meet the landscape plan’s objectives. appearance and arrangement of your house
1. Hydrozone or group plants with similar affects your personal living space, so does
water needs in the same areas. For ex- the appearance and arrangement of your
ample, consider planting willows, dog- landscape. It affects you aesthetically based
woods, or birches that usually thrive un- upon your inward and outward views and
der moister conditions near annual flower from a functional perspective.
beds (high water users). To conserve wa- 1. Balance—You can achieve balance on
ter, do not mix plants that have low water the landscape in two ways:
requirements with plants that have high a. Symmetrically: Place equal numbers
water requirements. of plants, plants of equal size, or struc-
2. Reduce maintenance activities by group- tures or planting beds of equal size op-
ing plants with similar maintenance re- posite each other on the landscape. For
quirements together. example, plant two shrubs of the same
a. Perennials generally require less fre- size and species on opposite sides of
quent maintenance than annuals. In an entryway or plant two flower beds
Idaho, most of the maintenance of pe- of equal size, dimension, and species
rennials occurs in the spring and fall. composition on opposite sides of a
sidewalk.
b. Plant trees or shrubs with messy
leaves, fruits, or seeds away from b. Asymmetrically: Balance plants and
flower beds especially if these plants structures in terms of volume of space
reproduce easily from seed. It is easier occupied on the landscape. One ex-
to rake this material up or remove the ample might be to plant a large red oak
new seedlings from a lawn than from on one side of the yard to counterbal-
your planting beds. ance a mass planting of ornamental
shrubs on the opposite side. Also, you
c. Group shrubs with similar flowering
could counterbalance a deck with a pe-
periods together so it’s easier to re-
rennial bed.
member which plants you need to
prune in early summer and which ones 2. Movement—You can create a sense of
in the fall or early spring. Grouping vertical and horizontal movement on the
also will help you focus maintenance landscape. For example:
activities on specific areas of your a. Tall, columnar trees or shrubs draw
landscape. your eyes upward, whereas a low, flat
3. Design planting areas to meet the objec- bed of colorful annuals pulls your eyes
tives of your landscape plan. If your ob- downward.
jective is privacy, design planting areas b. Lines, especially curved lines of walk-
to maximize privacy. On the other hand, ways or planting beds, create a sense
if you are concerned about security, you of motion that encourages you to move

15 - 5
visually and physically through the 3. Texture—Texture is the “visual feel” of
landscape. the landscape or of landscape plants.
3. Harmony—The proper use of space, Some plants have a coarse texture be-
color, texture, and plant materials on the cause of their foliage, branching patterns,
landscape creates harmony. or bark. For example, a horse chestnut
a. Use plants and structures that are in tree with its large, serrated, compound
scale with the house. leaves will have a coarser texture than a
weeping willow.
b. Enhance the overall landscape design
with plants and plantings that comple- 4. Plant arrangement—The individual at-
ment each other. tributes of the plantings and overall effec-
tiveness of the landscape plan is affected
F. Elements of Design
by plant arrangement.
1. Space—Use space effectively by consid-
a. Specimen plants draw attention to
ering the following principles:
themselves because of their color,
a. Select a mixture of plants that provide shape, or size. Plant them by them-
an effective transition from the vertical selves or enhance beds with mass
plane (air) to the horizontal plane plantings. Large shade trees (oaks,
(earth) to create a better sense of har- maples, and conifers) or small trees
mony and balance. and shrubs (ornamental crabapples,
b. Plant trees that provide filtered shade hawthorns, burning bushes, and vibur-
(e.g., honey locusts) rather than trees nums) make effective specimen plants.
that provide heavy shade (e.g., maples) b. Mass plantings enhance the appear-
for a more subtle influence on vertical ance of plants that may not be as at-
space. tractive or effective individually. An-
c. Select different species of plants based nuals, perennials, small shrubs, and
upon their form and structure as well ground covers are generally more ef-
as their color or flowering habits. fective as mass plantings. Also, on
d. Use curved lines to create a more natu- more naturalized landscapes, it is best
ral, informal appearance. Straight lines to plant shrubs in odd numbered clus-
are less natural and more formal. ters for a more natural appearance.
2. Color—Color affects the landscape de- G. Plant Selection
sign in various ways. Select plants that meet your design objec-
a. It gives the landscape movement, ac- tives. These might include the following:
cent, shade, and depth. For example, 1. Functional.
bright colors such as reds and yellows 2. Aesthetically pleasing.
are good for accent, variety, and for
3. Cold hardy—Check if the plant is
attracting attention to specific areas.
adapted to the minimum temperature
Use blues and dark colors to create
zone for your area.
shade and depth.
4. Low maintenance—Select species that
b. Color affects moods. Reds are exciting
require a minimum amount of pruning,
colors that generate energy; pinks and
watering, and raking. Cut the frequency
greens are soothing colors; and light
of maintenance time for woody plants by
blues create a cool feeling.
reducing the variety of early- and late-
flowering species.
Note: A color wheel will help you make ef-
fective color choices. They are avail- 5. Low input—Select plants that require
able at crafts, art, paint, or office sup- less water and chemical inputs.
plies stores. 6. Nonpoisonous and safe—This is espe-
cially important in areas that children will
use. Try to reduce the number of plants

15 - 6
that may have poisonous fruits, flowers, money, and you will be able to inspect
or foliage or that have thorns or spines the plants for pests and diseases. Also,
that can cause injuries. you are more certain of getting a live
plant.
Note: Contact your local Extension educator
IV. Installation and Renovation
or the Poison Control Center if you
have any questions. Follow these steps when installing a new land-
scape or renovating an older one. The se-
7. Appropriate selections for planting near quence depends upon your needs and abilities.
utilities. A. Primary Hardscape
8. Economical—What we want is not al- Install sidewalks, driveways, walls, terraces,
ways what we can afford. Your budget decks, patios, and ponds. These will define
will determine your choice and size of your use areas and will prevent future dam-
plant materials that you can purchase. age to your landscape if done in the begin-
9. Native or nonnative species—Some ning.
people recommend planting native (in- B. Install Planting Beds
digenous) species over nonnative Amend soils, if necessary, and install weed
(nonindigenous) species because, theo- barriers, if desired.
retically, they are better adapted to an C. Plant or Move Trees and Shrubs
area. This is not necessarily true since Plant and transplant shrubs early in the
most residential landscapes are disturbed spring or late fall when plants are dormant
sites and unnatural environments that and the soil is workable. Do not transplant
probably will have more inputs (irriga- large trees and shrubs when they are ac-
tion, fertilizing, and pest control) than the tively growing. (See CIS 528, “Plant Your
preexisting natural environment. Native Container-Grown Seedlings Right,” for in-
plants are not always more drought toler- formation about planting and transplanting
ant than nonnative species either. trees.)
D. Install Automatic Irrigation System
Note: The bottom line is to choose the best
plant that is adapted to the area you are E. Plant Lawn or Ground Covers
going to plant it in and that meets your Add soil amendments if you have poor
desires for your landscape. soils—especially soils low in organic mat-
ter—or plant some type of an annual cover
10. Nonnoxious—Noxious weeds are a seri- crop to improve the soil before planting.
ous problem in agricultural areas. If you
V. Maintenance and Irrigation
plan to purchase or introduce plants
from out of state, contact your local Ex- A. Maintenance
tension educator for information or the Review the maintenance requirements of
County Weed Control supervisor about your landscape plan before actually install-
noxious weeds in Idaho. ing the landscape. This will save you a lot
H. Other Considerations When Buying Plants of frustration and expense in the long run.
Refer to other Master Gardener chapters for
Some other important things to consider
more information about the following main-
when you are buying plants are:
tenance activities:
1. To ensure greater adaptability to your
1. Proper pruning—Timing and technique is
area, purchase plants that local seed
important. (See UI BUL 819, “How to
sources have produced. This is especially
Prune Deciduous Landscape Trees.”)
important for woody and herbaceous pe-
rennials. 2. Staking and wrapping trees or shrubs.
2. Before purchasing plants via mail order, 3. Mulching—Includes organic, inert, and
check local nurseries. You may save synthetic mulches. Organic mulches
should not be deeper than 2 to 4 inches.
15 - 7
Incorporate fine mulches such as sawdust Calkins, Carol C., Ed. 1981. Reader’s Digest Illustrated
into the soil. Plastic, nonporous mulches Guide to Gardening. The Reader’s Digest Asso-
are not recommended for landscape use. ciation, Inc., New York, NY.
(See UI Extension CIS 858, “Using Bark Dirr, Michael A. 1983. Manual of Woody Landscape
and Sawdust for Mulches, Soil Amend- Plants. Stipes Publishing Co., Champaign, IL.
ments, and Potting Mixes,” for more in- Hogan, Elizabeth L., Ed. 1990. Sunset Western Garden
formation about mulches on the land- Book, 5th Ed. Sunset Publishing Corp., Menlo
scape.) Park, CA.
4. Pest control—Includes disease, insect, Krukeberg, Arthur R. 1982. Gardening with Native
Plants of the Pacific Northwest. University of
and weed control.
Washington Press, Seattle, WA.
5. Proper turf management—Mow grass to Millard, Scott, Ed. 1977. All About Groundcovers for
proper heights. Leave trimmings as a Slopes, Walkways, Rock Gardens, Wide Open
mulch to improve soil and water reten- Spaces, and Nooks and Crannies. Ortho Books,
tion, fertilizing, and top-dressing. Proper Chevron Chemical Co., San Francisco, CA.
watering is also important to maintain a Nelson, Wm. R., Jr. 1975. Landscaping Your Home,
healthy lawn, and to avoid waste, runoff, Revised Edition. Cooperative Extension Service,
and water pollution. (See Chapter 14 for College of Agriculture, University of Illinois,
more information and publications about Champaign, IL.
establishing and maintaining a lawn.)
B. Water Management
University of Idaho
Match the irrigation program to the plants’
CIS 923 Choosing Nursery Stock for Landscaping,
moisture requirements, the time of the year,
Conservation, and Reforestation (35¢)
and soil types. Important components of a
CIS 1068 Fertilizing Landscape Trees ($1.00)
good water management program include:
PNW 496 Grafting and Budding Plants to Propagate,
1. Proper timing and duration of watering— Topwork, Repair ($2.50)
Deep and infrequent waterings are better
BUL 819 How to Prune Deciduous Landscape Trees
than shallow frequent waterings. Deep ($2.00)
water evergreen trees and shrubs before
BUL 644 How to Prune Coniferous Evergreen Trees
the ground freezes in the winter. ($1.50)
2. Match sprinklers and irrigation schedul- CIS 991 Landscaping and Utilities: Problems,
ing to plants and planting areas—Trees Prevention, and Plant Selection ($1.00)
and shrubs require less frequent watering CIS 238 Leaf Scorch of Broadleaf Shade Trees (35¢)
than turf and herbaceous ornamentals. CIS 1054 Low Input Landscaping ($1.00)
3. Monitor and maintain the irrigation sys- PNW 500 Plant Materials for Landscaping—A List of
tem frequently to prevent runoff, waste, Plants for the Pacific Northwest ($2.50)
and pollution. EXT 704 Soil Sampling ($2.00)
CIS 735 Transplanting Native Seedlings (25¢)
Further Reading CIS 858 Using Bark and Sawdust for Mulches, Soil
Amendments, and Potting Mixes (50¢)
Books CIS 990 Water Conservation in the Landscape (50¢)
Adams, E. Blain. 1992. Homescaping. Publication B- To order University of Idaho publications, contact your
951, Cooperative Extension Service-USDA, Uni- county’s UI Extension office or write to Publications,
versity of Wyoming, P.O. Box 3313, Laramie, University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho 83844-2240, call
WY 82071-3313. (There is a nominal charge for (208) 885-7982, or email: calspubs@uidaho.edu. Idaho
this landscaping kit.) residents add 6 percent sales tax.
Bienz, D. R. 1980. The Why and How of Home Horticul-
ture, W. H. Freeman and Co., San Francisco, CA.

15 - 8
Chapter
Landscape Plants
16
I. Why Ornamental Plants? 2 V. Stem Problems 5

II. Soils and Water Considerations 2 A. Heart Rot 5
A. Soil Composition 2 B. Stem Wounds 5
B. Water Status Definitions 2 C. Sunscald or Southwest Disease 5
C. Water Movement 2 D. Branch Rots and Infections 6
D. Soil Structure (Aggregate Size) 2 E. Damage to Crotch Areas 6
E. Drainage Problems 3 F. Freeze Damage 6
F. Overcoming Drainage Problems 3 G. Graft Incompatibility 6
III. Planting and Site Preparation 3 VI. Leaf Problems 6
A. Types of Plant Materials 3 A. Drought 6
B. Planting 3 B. Frost Damage 6
C. Pruning After Planting 4 C. Root Injury 6
D. Staking 4 D. Vascular System Injury 7
E. Salt Damage 7
IV. Plant Problems 4
F. Leaf Chlorosis and Nutrient 7
A. Circling Roots/Potbound 4
Deficiencies
B. Girdling Roots 4
G. Herbicide Damage 7
C. Kinked Roots/One-Sided 4
H. Insecticide Injury 8
Root System
D. Root Rots 5 Further Reading 8
E. Changing Soil Grades 5
F. Trenching/Cutting Roots 5
G. Compaction 5

16 - 1
Chapter 16
Landscape Plants
S. M. Bell
I. Why Ornamental Plants? 2. The solid material is composed of or-

ganic matter, decomposed rock, and vari-
Landscape plants are placed as they are for
ous biological life.
various purposes: to create shade, to define
space, to enhance architecture, to provide food B. Water Status Definitions
(e.g., fruit trees), and to further general aesthet- 1. Hygroscopic water—Tightly bound to the
ics. These plants should be installed according soil particles; not available for plant
to a plan, so that they are correctly selected and growth.
placed to create the desired design effect. 2. Capillary or available water—Held less
Plantings should be in tune with the environ- tightly to soil particles; available for plant
mental situation and take into account such usage.
things as exposure, amount of light, pH, water 3. Gravitational water—Moves with the
availability, and soil type. force of gravity; drains away. This water
Trees and shrubs will last in the landscape for is not available to the plant.
many years. However, when a stress is im- 4. Saturated conditions—Tend to exclude
posed on a plant, that plant becomes much air; detrimental to most plants (with the
more susceptible to other problems, including exception of aquatic species).
insects and disease. A large percentage of land- C. Water Movement
scape plant problems can be related directly to
1. The thicker the film of water, the greater
improper selection of plant material and im-
the ease of movement in the soil. The
proper cultural practices that lead to plant
thinner the film of water, the harder it is
stress. In some cases, the effects of improper
to move through the soil, therefore, be-
cultural practices may not be seen for years.
coming less readily available to plants.
II. Soils and Water Considerations 2. Water movement is always from wetter
areas in the soil mass to drier areas.
A. Soil Composition
a. When water is lost from the soil sur-
Soils are roughly 50 percent solid material face (through evaporation), more water
and 50 percent pore space. (Pores are holes is drawn up from lower levels.
in the soil that are either filled with air or
b. When a plant draws water in through
water.)
the roots, more water moves into the
1. Pore space, ideally, should be 50 percent area.
air and 50 percent water.
c. Roots do not seek water; roots grow
a. Air is necessary for root respiration where water is.
and normal metabolism, including the
D. Soil Structure (Aggregate Size)
uptake of water.
1. Soil particles may be made up of many
b. Water is used in transpiration within
small particles clumped together.
the plant and for the transport of dis-
solved mineral nutrients from the soil a. Spaces (macropores) between large
to roots and on up the plant through the particles contain air for root respira-
xylem. tion.

16 - 2
b. Spaces between smaller particles and 3. Add tile to create good drainage.
within very large particles contain cap- 4. Contour slope away from plants so that
illary (available) water. Water also is water runs off.
found on the surface of larger par- 5. Break through hardpan layers.
ticles.
2. Increase aggregate size by: III. Planting and Site Preparation
a. Adding of calcium (usually gypsum): A. Types of Plant Materials
Only works with clay soils. 1. Bareroot (B.R.)—Dug without a ball of
b. Adding organic matter: Water and air soil; little or no soil around the roots. Ex-
are found in and between the organic amples: dormant deciduous shrubs, roses,
matter particles. Organic matter loos- deciduous trees, and small evergreens.
ens a clay soil for better air and water 2. Balled and burlapped (B and B)—Dug
movement. In sandy soils, organic with soil that is enclosed in burlap or
matter helps hold water and nutrients. some sort of synthetic material. The root
E. Drainage Problems system has been cut for easier handling
1. Hard, compacted soil—Air space and transport.
squeezed out; low infiltration, little air 3. Field-potted—Dug with or without soil
space, and slow drainage. and potted into a container.
2. Impenetrable layers—Clay layers, hard- 4. Container—Plant grown for a time in a
pan, and plowpans, etc.; may not allow container.
water or roots through. B. Planting
3. Fine-textured soil—Preferable over a 1. Bareroot
coarse-textured soil or gravel.
a. Cut back damaged or broken roots.
a. At the interface, water cannot move
b. Dig hole twice as large as the root sys-
rapidly into coarse soil; consequently,
tem.
moisture is limited or not continuous.
c. Put the plant in the hole at the same
Note: The interface is where one soil type level it grew originally. Build a cone
stops and another begins. or mound of soil at the bottom of the
hole under the plant for support and to
b. Water movement downward is im- aid in spreading the roots. Be sure the
peded across the interface, and much roots are spread.
of the finer soil’s pore space may fill d. Backfill with native, not amended,
with water. soil.
4. Coarse-textured soils over or contained e. Water thoroughly.
within a fine-textured soil. f. Fertilize with a high phosphate fertil-
a. Drainage through coarse soils is rapid. izer (5-10-10) or a balanced slow-re-
b. Infiltration into fine soils is slow, caus- lease fertilizer (10-10-10). Fertilizers
ing macropores in the coarse soil to fill may be added to a backfill material.
with water. Fertilizer may also be added to the soil
c. Roots lack oxygen and root rots may surface after watering. Always follow
ensue. label directions as to amount.
d. Add organic matter to the coarse soil 2. Balled and burlapped.
to slow water penetration. a. Dig hole twice as wide as the ball of
F. Overcoming Drainage Problems soil.
1. Till by adding 3 to 4 inches of organic b. Remove all of the rope, twine, or
matter. string on the ball after setting it in po-
2. Raise plant slightly above grade and cre- sition in the hole. The burlap can be
ate a bed with good soil, or a raised bed. sliced on the sides, and the top burlap

16 - 3
should be laid back so that no burlap is 4. Prune to shape, if necessary.
exposed above ground. Burlap ex- D. Staking
posed above ground will wick mois- 1. Avoid staking unless wind is a problem.
ture away from the root ball. Synthetic Stake as low on the stem as possible and
or plastic burlaps should be removed remove the stake after 1 year.
totally. Unless B and B trees have
2. Reasons for staking.
been kept in burlap for a long time,
don’t worry about girdling roots or a. To anchor plant until it can root into
cutting damaged roots. the soil.
c. Follow steps d through f of Section B, b. To protect the tree from slanting with
subsection 1. the wind.
3. Container plant. c. To straighten a crooked trunk.
a. Dig hole twice as wide for root system 3. Used mostly for B.R. and B and B plants.
spread. 4. One- and two-stake methods.
b. Remove container, no matter what
IV. Plant Problems
type.
c. Roots. Problems associated with plant roots may
show up in other plant parts, especially the
• If the roots are not circling
leaves.
(potbound), carefully spread the ex-
terior roots outward, away from the A. Circling Roots/Potbound
soil ball. 1. Symptoms—A general decline of plant
• If the roots are circling, make three vigor over a period of time.
to four vertical cuts into the sides of 2. Causes—Plant remaining in container too
the root ball (1/4 to 1/2 inch into the long at some stage of development, not
ball). If the roots are woody and necessarily the last stage of production.
cannot be cut with a knife, lay the 3. Remedies—“Butterfly” the root ball, or
ball on its side. Using a sharpened cut and spread the roots before planting.
spade or shovel slice through the B. Girdling Roots
lower half of the root ball. This is 1. Symptoms—Girdling roots limit water
called “butterflying.” Spread out the and nutrient transport causing deteriora-
two flaps of roots and place in tion of the plant. Top growth diminishes;
planting hole so the top of the root plant is stressed.
system is level with, or slightly
2. Causes—An impenetrable planting hole;
higher, than the surrounding soil.
twisting the plant after setting into hole;
When butterflying, be sure not to
bending roots to fit into a hole that is too
damage the crown by splitting too
small; and planting potbound or
close to the trunk. Make sure the
rootbound container stock.
split area is filled with soil so that
no air spaces are left. 3. Remedies—Chop off girdling root;
spread roots when planting; remove de-
d. Follow steps d through f of Section B,
bris or rocks in planting area.
subsection 1.
C. Kinked Roots/One-Sided Root System
C. Pruning After Planting
1. Symptoms—A general decline of plant
1. Leave as much of the crown intact as
vigor over a period of time.
possible, and remove only dead, injured,
and diseased branches. 2. Causes—Improper production methods
(such as dragging with a mechanical
2. Remove interfering, rubbing, or poorly
planter causing “J” hooked roots or jam-
placed branches.
ming the plant in the pot or the planting
3. Remove a branch from narrow “V” hole).
crotches or multiple leaders.

16 - 4
3. Remedies—Cut off kinked roots when 2. Causes—Removing top layers of soil to
planting; carefully spread and straighten change a grade or damaging roots by cut-
the roots. ting.
D. Root Rots 3. Remedies—Avoid cutting large roots;
1. Symptoms—Soft, brown, partially to to- fertilize and water the rest of the root sys-
tally decayed roots resulting in wilting or tem; use a high phosphorus fertilizer to
death of the plant. encourage new root development.
2. Causes—Cause varies with susceptibility G. Compaction
of the plant. There might not have been 1. Symptoms—Decline of the tree from the
enough soil aeration; the water table top down.
might be high; the backfill might have 2. Cause—Soil compaction after the plant is
been amended with fresh manures when in the ground.
planting; or the soil might be water- 3. Remedies—Direct foot traffic and ma-
logged. chinery away from the dripline of trees.
3. Remedies—Improve downward and lat- Aerate soil using a core aerator or cush-
eral drainage; tile, if necessary; and plant ion the soil with a thick mulch.
in raised beds. Select a water-loving spe-
cies of plant and amend the soil to im- V. Stem Problems
prove drainage. Stem maladies usually arise from improper
E. Changing Soil Grades cultural practices and stresses to the plant.
1. Symptoms—No buttressing or flaring A. Heart Rot
roots at tree base; general decline of tree; 1. Symptoms—Decay of heartwood.
leaves and branches die from top down;
2. Causes—Improper pruning, topping,
collar rots are evident. The decline may
breakage, or wounding of the stem or the
take several years to occur or to com-
large branches.
plete. Susceptibility varies with species.
3. Remedies—Prune properly and avoid
2. Causes—Filling with soil or pavement on
wounding. Remove decayed branch
top of an established root system results
wood; if rot is in an advanced stage, re-
in a decreased air supply to the plant
move the tree.
changing drainage and water patterns.
B. Stem Wounds
3. Remedies—Cover roots with a thick
layer of gravel, then with soil. Provide 1. Symptoms—Cankers, girdling, holes,
drainage, and in some cases, welling the splits, and oozing.
trunk will help. 2. Causes—Various, including hitting the
tree with lawn mowers and string weed-
Note: Welling is the building of a “well” or ers; leaving support wires or B and B
wall around the tree several feet out to string around stem; diseases, borers, and
keep soil away from the trunk. sunscald.
3. Remedies—Stay away from plant stems
F. Trenching/Cutting Roots and trunks with equipment. Remove all
1. Symptoms—Cutting roots reduces water lawn grass to at least 1 foot from the
and nutrient uptake. The decline may trunk. Keep all mulch 2 to 3 inches from
take several years to occur or complete. plant stems. Identify and treat insects or
Cuts can become infected with root rot disease. Remove labels and ties when
leading to the decline of plant growth. planting. Painting or spraying with tree
The result is often the death of a tree wound compound does not improve heal-
from the top downward. Sometimes the ing, but it may prevent insect entry.
decline is limited to that half of the tree C. Sunscald or Southwest Disease
with the cut or damaged roots. 1. Symptoms—Bark tends to be blistered,
burnt, dead, or split on the southern or
16 - 5
southwestern sides of the trunk. Young your zone; do not fertilize trees and
and newly transplanted trees are the most shrubs after July 1.
susceptible. G. Graft Incompatibility
2. Causes—Alternating freezing and thaw- 1. Symptoms—Large overgrowths above
ing of bark on sunny side of tree during and below union; earlier than normal fall
winter. Intense heat during summer. coloration; a stem that breaks off at graft.
3. Remedies—Shade south and southwest 2. Cause—Incompatibility between scion
sides of trunk; wrap the trunk with tree and stock.
wrap or paint with white, water-based 3. Remedy—Purchase plants rooted from
(latex) paint. If there is an advanced stage cuttings or use a reliable source of
of damage, carefully remove any dead grafted stock.
bark, apply tree wound dressing, and
wrap to keep insects out of heartwood. VI. Leaf Problems
D. Branch Rots and Infections Problems with stems and roots often will show
1. Symptoms—Oozing, cankers, holes, and up in the leaves. If a plant is wilted, the leaves
splits. are either not getting enough water or are los-
2. Causes—Improper pruning. Branch stubs ing water faster than it is being supplied by the
or flush cuts leave a tree open to disease roots. Determine the cause of wilting. There
and insects. also are many insects and diseases that affect
3. Remedies—Prune correctly; cut back leaves.
only to the branch collar; do not top trees. A. Drought
Treat insects and diseases when first no- 1. Symptoms—Wilting, drying of soft
ticed. growth, and blotchy necrosis.
E. Damage to Crotch Areas 2. Causes—Extended periods of dryness.
1. Symptoms—Splits, oozing at crotch. High heat/bright sunlight on shade-loving
2. Causes—Narrow “V” crotches, borers, plants could cause leaf scorch, early leaf
water gathering in crotch. drop, or marginal and interveinal chloro-
3. Remedies—Prune out all but one of the sis or necrosis.
leaders if the tree is young and has mul- 3. Remedies—Water plant; provide better
tiple leaders. Narrow branch angles can soil preparation by adding organic matter
be spread when the tree is young; cable to increase water-holding capacity; mulch
or brace narrow crotches if the tree is to reduce surface evaporation. Select
older to prevent breakage. drought-tolerant plants. Shade plant; mist
F. Freeze Damage periodically for temporary cooling.
1. Symptoms—Blackened tissue; dead B. Frost Damage
twigs or buds; death of plant. Stem die- 1. Symptoms—Partial to total necrosis of
back. Usually younger stems die, but young leaves or buds. Older leaves may
older wood also can be damaged during become distorted if buds were injured.
severe winters. There is generally a par- 2. Causes—New growth frozen by late
tial to total necrosis of the young leaves. spring frost when the plant is in the soft
Older leaves may become distorted later. growth stage.
New growth might have been frozen by C. Root Injury
late spring frost when plant was in the 1. Symptoms—Wilting, early leaf drop, leaf
soft-growth stage. chlorosis, root damage, necrosis, and
2. Causes—Lethal winter temperatures and plant death.
early or late frosts. 2. Causes—Root damage due to trenching,
3. Remedies—Use frost prevention meth- insects (such as root weevils), or disease.
ods; select trees and shrubs specified for Overwatering limits oxygen uptake by
roots and encourages root rot.
16 - 6
3. Remedies—Determine the cause, then early, and leaves at tips of branches
take appropriate action. If the cause is not may be bushy with few or none along
a root rot, then proper watering of the re- the branch. Manganese deficiency is
maining root system will help. Fertiliza- similar to iron deficiency, but chloro-
tion with a high phosphorus fertilizer sis is not so dominant on young leaves.
may help rejuvenate the root system. If Also there is severe browning and
overwatering is the problem, increase dropping of leaves with maturity.
drainage and cut back on water. If a high b. Cause: Iron, zinc, or manganese defi-
water table or poor drainage exists, ciencies because of the soil pH.
choose water-loving plants (such as a c. Remedies: A long-term solution is to
willow). decrease soil pH. A temporary solution
D. Vascular System Injury is to apply the deficient nutrient. You
1. Symptoms—Wilting or drying of a por- may need to make annual spring or fall
tion of the plant. applications.
2. Causes—Disease, such as Verticillium 3. Other causes of leaf chlorosis.
wilt, can plug the xylem vessels. a. Wrong soil pH for acid-loving plants.
3. Remedies—Determine the cause and take Example: azaleas.
appropriate action. Remove the infected b. Herbicides (see Subsection G of this
portion; treat for Verticillum. section and Table 1).
E. Salt Damage c. Drought (see Section VI, subsection
1. Symptoms—Marginal to interveinal A).
chlorosis/necrosis; rootlets are brown in- d. Natural leaf maturity and abscission in
stead of white. autumn.
2. Causes—Salts from excessive use of e. Natural variegation.
commercial fertilizers, manures, and de-
G. Herbicide Damage
icing salts. The latter may be more preva-
lent next to sidewalks and driveways. Herbicides are formulated to be toxic to spe-
cific weeds, but they also may cause dam-
3. Remedies—Leach with water, if pos-
age to desirable plants.
sible; limit the use of offending materials.
Alternate organic fertilizers with com- 1. Symptoms—Some herbicides act hor-
mercial fertilizers to reduce salt buildup. monally and produce a twisted, cupped,
puckered, or distorted growth. Other her-
F. Leaf Chlorosis and Nutrient Deficiencies
bicides inhibit photosynthesis and chloro-
1. Nitrogen deficiency. phyll formation, causing a peculiar col-
a. Symptoms: Overall yellowing of older oration or characteristic chlorosis de-
leaves first. Stunted growth of plant. pending on the material used (see Table 1
Pale green color on rest of plant. on next page). In general, if many plants
b. Cause: Nitrogen deficiency. in one area are affected with unusual
c. Remedy: Fertilize with a nitrogen fer- twisting, puckering, or with strange col-
tilizer. orations and drying leaves, chemical or
2. High pH (over 7.5). herbicide misuse may be the culprits. If
only part of the conifer root system is af-
a. Symptoms: Interveinal chlorosis, light
fected by a herbicide, the damage may
green to white in color (with zinc,
create a spiral pattern on the stem of the
older leaves affected; with iron, new
plant.
leaves affected first). The margins of
leaves may become necrotic, but the 2. Causes—Most people do not know where
veins remain green. With zinc defi- the root zones of desirable plants are;
ciency, leaves may be small, narrow, consequently, they overspray, and trans-
and thickened. Foliage loss may be location of the herbicide into a desirable
plant occurs.

16 - 7
3. Remedies—Almost all problems arise 2. Causes—When used for insect and mite
from misapplication and misuse. Few control on needled evergreens, dormant
problems arise when label directions are oil may cause burns, especially if the
followed closely and the broadcasted ma- concentration is too high, if the oil is ap-
terial is kept 5 to 10 feet away from the plied during freezing weather, or if the
dripline of desirable plants. Spot treat plant has started to grow.
weeds rather than broadcast when possible.
H. Insecticide Injury
1. Symptoms—Dormant oil will remove the Further Reading
waxy bloom that gives the blue cast to
Colorado Blue Spruce Oils used on de- Books
ciduous plants that have started to show Partyka, R. E. 1980. Woody Ornamentals: Plants
green will burn exposed green tissue. and Problems. ChemLawn Corp.
Some insecticides, such as malathion, Harris, R. W. 1983. Arboriculture: Care of Trees,
will burn leaves when applied during Shrubs and Vines in the Landscape. Prentice-
high temperatures. Hall, Inc.
Table 1. Common herbicides.
Herbicide Damage symptoms University of Idaho
Dichlobenil Broadleaf plants: Tip, marginal to CIS 867 Cold Hardiness in Woody Landscape
(Casoron) interveinal chlorosis/necrosis. Plants: Its Role in Winter Survival and
Sometimes more severe on How to Maximize It (25¢)
leaves oriented toward the
afternoon sun.
CIS 869 Controlling Sunscald on Trees and
Shrubs (25¢)
Conifers: Needle tip chlorosis to
necrosis. CIS 735 Transplanting Native Seedlings (25¢)
Phenoxy Broadleaf plants: Twisted, distorted To order University of Idaho publications, con-
compounds leaves and stems. Blistering of tact your county’s UI Extension office, or write
(2,4-D, MCPP, bark on London Plane trees. Publications, University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho
MCPA) Conifers: Misshapen, hooked 83844-2240, call (208) 885-7982, fax (208) 885-
needles. 4648, or email calspubs@uidaho.edu. Idaho resi-
Dicamba Broadleaf plants: Twisted, cupped, dents add 6 percent sales tax. Also check, and in
(Banvel) distorted new growth, chlorosis, some cases download, the online publication and
necrosis, death of stem tissue. video catalog on the UI Educational Communica-
Conifers: Distorted, twisted tions web site (http://info.ag.uidaho.edu).
needles, needle necrosis from
the base to the tip; club-shaped
growth, needle distortion on
pines.
Glyphosate Broadleaf plants: Yellowing and
(Roundup) necrosis of part or entire plant.
New leaves do not develop
correctly; they are skinny,strap-
shaped, yellow.
Triazines Broadleaf plants: Marginal
(Atrazine) chlorosis.
Simazine Conifers: Tip chlorosis.
(Princep)
Chemical sterilants Severe chlorosis, and necrosis,

(many kinds) death if applied near the root
system of desirable plants.

16 - 8
Chapter
Woody Ornamentals
17
I. Introduction 2 VI. Pruning 9

II. The Art of Designing with 2 A. The Basics 9
Woody Ornamentals B. Early Training of Deciduous 12
III. Which Woody Ornamentals to 3 and Broadleaf Evergreens
Plant and Where C. Early Training of Coniferous 14
Trees and Shrubs
IV. Getting Started with 6
Woody Ornamentals D. Pruning Mature Trees and Shrubs 16
A. Purchasing Woody Ornamentals 6 E. Renovation and Rejuvenation 19
Pruning
B. Genetic Adaptability 7
C. Planting Woody Ornamentals 7 VII. Protecting Trees and Shrubs 21
During Construction
V. Maintenance of 7
A. Construction Damage 21
Woody Ornamentals
A. The First Season 7 VIII. Woody Ornamentals for Idaho 22
B. Irrigation of Woody Plants 8 A. Choices 22
C. Mulching Woody Ornamentals 9 B. Idaho Conditions 22
D. Symbiotic Relationships 9 C. Woody Ornamentals for Idaho 22
E. Fertilizing Trees and Shrubs 9 Further Reading 30

17 - 1
Chapter 17
Woody Ornamentals
JoAnn Robbins and Kevin Laughlin
Kevin Laughlin, Extension Educator, Ada County, Boise
I. Introduction are natural, single-stemmed beauties, reach-

ing only 5 feet at maturity. Some weeping
Woody ornamental plants are perennials with
forms, if grown on their own rootstocks,
stiff woody stems. They are loosely classified as
would creep across the ground. So,
trees, shrubs, or vines.
crabapples can be large shrubs, tiny trees, or
A. Trees usually have a single trunk and can even vines! Thus, use the tree, shrub, or
grow to impressive heights. The tallest trees vine classification only in a general sense.
are the California redwoods (Sequoia
sempervirens), which grow to 350 feet or II. The Art of Designing with
more. Trees can develop—or be pruned to Woody Ornamentals
grow— several trunks. If a mature single- or
multi-trunk woody plant is less than about Woody ornamentals form much of the structure
20 feet tall, it is not considered to be a tree. in landscape design and contribute to a pleasing
B. Shrubs are less than 20 feet tall at maturity composition. They define the skyline and become
and have multiple trunks. Standards, which the structural element dividing space. Landscap-
are shrubs trained to grow with a single ers must carefully consider choices and initial
trunk, may serve as small trees in the land- placement. Established trees and shrubs cannot be
scape, but because they had to be trained moved simply. Within the principles of design
this way, they are still considered to be (see Chapter 15), woody ornamentals serve the
shrubs. Woody shrubs may spread by under- following purposes:
ground roots or rhizomes. Very short woody A. Balance—Tree and shrub placement,
shrubs make good ground covers. whether symmetrical or asymmetrical, cre-
C. Vines may climb, trail, creep, or even re- ates equilibrium in the landscape. Trees and
main erect with some support to their stems. shrubs provide the coordinating composi-
Woody vines may root at various places tion for other elements contributed by annu-
along their stems, wherever they come in als, perennials, and garden features such as
good contact with the ground and have the fences and decks.
proper growing conditions. Climbing vines B. Movement—The repetition or alternation of
such as ivy may attach to supports with shrubs and trees can carry the eye through-
small aerial roots. Grapes can climb by out the landscape. The rhythm created is an
winding slender stems called tendrils around underlying theme of the landscape. Increas-
objects. ing heights of shrubs and trees draws the
Some plants will perplex the expert horti- eye skyward.
culturist and the Master Gardener by defy- C. Harmony—Trees and shrubs serve as a
ing classification with the above system. dominant feature or accent in a landscape,
Crabapples are a good example. Some insist thus contributing to the harmony of the de-
on growing with multiple stems, yet are sign. Repetition of structural elements such
greater than 15 feet tall at maturity. Others as woody ornamentals helps to tie the land-

17 - 2
scape together. The interconnectedness of a b. Screening and barriers: Windbreaks,
low woody ground cover under trees or of a shelterbelts, woody plant borders, and
line of shrubs or trees provides a continuity screens are all made up of rows of
that creates harmony in the landscape. woody plants of various shapes and
sizes. They reduce wind velocity, cap-
III. Which Woody Ornamentals ture snow, stop erosion, and shelter
to Plant and Where wildlife. Besides providing beauty,
A. Plant Selection—Of the many factors to they provide protection from unsightly
consider in choosing plants, two are most views, disturbing sounds, dust, and, to
important. some extent, they modify atmospheric
pollutants. The right sequence of
1. Size: During most of its life span, will the
plant be of a size suitable for the loca- Table. 1. Plant uses and characteristics and site
tion? characteristics to consider when selecting
2. Site suitability: Is the plant adapted to woody ornamentals.
grow where it will be planted? Plant uses:
B. Plant function, color, texture, shape, bloom Attract birds or other wildlife
date, rate of growth, and how well the plants Attract butterflies or hummingbirds
relate to other elements of the design are Bonsai
Borders
additional important considerations. In re- Container or patio plants
cent years, special uses (theme gardens or Edible parts or fruits
patios) or adaptations (natives, Xeriscape) Espalier
have played an increasingly important role Fast growth
in landscape planning and plant selection. Foundation plantings
Ground cover
See Table 1 for a summary of plant charac-
Native plants
teristics and uses and site considerations. Rock gardens
See Chapter 15 for planning guidelines. Screen or windbreak
C. The following considerations apply specifi- Shade
cally to woody ornamentals. Variety of specimens
Vines for fences or trellises
1. Function—Woody ornamentals should be Vines to cling to stone or brick
chosen with a specific function in mind, Understory for woodland setting
which may be as simple as providing Weeping form
shade. Some functions are: Site characteristics:
a. Firescapes: Landscaping for fire pre- Acid soil
vention, or “firescaping,” is particu- Alkaline soil
larly important for suburban and rural Arid sites
Dry or sandy soil
locations in dry areas near hillsides
Heavy clay soils
and in narrow canyons surrounded by Saline soil
thick stands of trees and brushy open Shady areas
spaces. Homeowners should clear Low maintenance areas
brush from within 30 to 400 feet of Wet sites
dwellings and outbuildings. Select Windy areas
woody plants that resist fire or that do Plant characteristics:
not have high levels of oil or resin. Colored summer foliage
Plants should have foliage with high Columnar, pyramidal, or globe shape
moisture content or low brush and lit- Decorative fruits and berries
Decorative or interesting bark
ter potential. Avoid designs that place Fragrant flowers
plants of different heights in the form Good fall color
of a “fire ladder.” Fire ladders provide Multiple trunks
a continuous fuel supply from the Ornamental seed pods
ground up to the plant canopy. Showy flowers

17 - 3
woody ornamentals reduces heavy ered first for conservation plantings
wind around the home, farmstead, and and ecosystem restoration. Natives not
park or recreation area while permit- only make sense due to their adapta-
ting breezes to enter. tion to existing climatic conditions, but
Screening and barriers consist of one also bring a rich diversity of texture
to eight rows of trees and shrubs. and color to home gardens. For natu-
Where space permits, several rows of ralized plantings, native species are
shrubs and trees of various sizes and often the best selection.
habits, both deciduous and evergreen, Keep in mind that even though the
can be used. To serve as a windbreak, plant may be native, it needs adequate
the plantings should be at right angles water, especially right after being
to prevailing winds. Where drifting planted. After plants are established,
snow is a problem, the home should be you can reduce watering for those that
at least 60 feet beyond the last row of thrive in the wild with little moisture.
the planting. Careful attention to the The goal is to duplicate in your yard
design of entries and exits of sites will the growing conditions of the plant’s
prevent snow or soils drifting into ac- natural habitat.
cess routes. Windbreaks must be care- When electing to use natives for your
fully tended to become effective and landscape, purchase them from a repu-
must be kept weeded, mulched, or cul- table nursery rather than collect them
tivated (see PNW 5, “Trees Against from the wild. Wild collection puts
the Wind,” for more information about pressure on wild plant communities
windbreaks). and introduces diseases and insects
c. Energy efficiency: Trees can reduce found in wild conditions to your yard.
utility bills and improve the comfort of The one exception to this rule is rescu-
your home. In summer, trees on the ing or salvaging plants that are facing
southern and western sides of struc- destruction by construction.
tures can block the hot sunlight, In order to have well-adapted native
thereby reducing the need for air con- plants, start with native plants propa-
ditioning. In winter, these same de- gated from plants growing as close to
ciduous trees, less their leaves, allow your garden as possible. This will also
the sun’s heating rays through to warm help prevent degradation of the gene
your house. Also, the blocking of cold pool of existing native plant popula-
winter winds by shelterbelts can re- tions in your area.
duce heating expenses, especially in 2. Growth characteristics—Growth charac-
homes with poor insulation or air teristics of woody ornamentals influence
leaks. the ability to fulfill a specific function in
d. Xeriscape: In a Xeriscape, plants are the landscape.
chosen that are drought-tolerant in or- a. Exposure: Select woody plants accord-
der to conserve water. With this ap- ing to the exposure they’ll be sub-
proach, all the plants in a given area jected to. Plants may be labeled (1)
must have the same water-use require- full sun, partial shade, or (2) partial
ments. sun, full shade, or (3) shade. Check the
e. Natives: Native plants are becoming genus and species in several references
increasingly popular in Idaho land- to gain a perspective on the range of
scapes. Native woody ornamentals of- exposures a plant can be grown in.
ten have lower water demands, fewer Some species can grow under many
pest problems, and lower fertilizer conditions, but specific cultivars may
needs than introduced ornamentals. fit only into one category.
Native plants should always be consid-

17 - 4
b. Growth rate: Woody plants are desig- e. Crown size and height: Knowing the
nated as slow, medium, or fast growers approximate size at maturity of trees,
in the nursery trade. The rate of shrubs, and groundcovers allows the
growth refers to the vertical increase landscaper to plant them where they
unless specified differently. Be sure to can develop to maturity. Plant descrip-
compare mature height listed on the tions generalize height and spread, or
retail tag with the height of plants ac- width of a plant, based on average
tually growing in your area. growing conditions. Mature height and
c. Growth habit: Woody ornamentals can spread is greatly influenced by the
grow prostrate, horizontal, or upright; length of the growing season, tempera-
they can be dwarf or standard in size. ture, light, water, soil type, fertility,
Growth shapes include round, globe, and other factors. This makes it impos-
vase-shaped, pyramidal, and columnar sible to predict the exact mature size of
(Fig. 1). Plant propagators select these a plant.
growth habits and plant shapes for ar- Trees, shrubs, and ground covers can
tistic, space-saving, or ornamental pur- be categorized by height into: large
poses. Some cultivars are selected for trees (50 feet and over); medium trees
weeping or contorted forms. (25 to 50 feet); small trees (under 25
d. Foliage density: Most coniferous ever- feet); large shrubs (8 feet and over);
greens and some deciduous trees and medium shrubs (5 to 8 feet); small
shrubs have very dense foliage; thus, shrubs (3 to 5 feet); very small shrubs
the shadows cast by them form dense (under 3 feet); tall ground covers (un-
shade, affecting growing conditions. der 2 feet); and short ground covers
Trees with dense foliage are very ef- (under 1 foot).
fective at blocking unpleasant views. f. Longevity: Short-lived trees and shrubs
Most deciduous trees create filtered are often quick growing and will give
shade, and distant views can be height and bulk in a short period of
glimpsed through their foliage. time. They may be susceptible to pests
and weather-related problems. Long-
lived species have strong trunks,
sturdy wide-crotched branches, and
tend to tolerate winter storms, pests,
and human damage.
g. Hardiness zones: Select plants adapted
Pyramidal Vase-shaped Weeping to your climatic zone. There are sev-
eral types of hardiness zone maps. The
most commonly used one is that devel-
oped by the USDA (see Fig. 1, Chap-
ter 15, page 15-3). Other maps include
the Arnold Arboretum Hardiness
Round Upright Columnar Zones, the Sunset Western Garden
Book Climate Zones, and the heat
zone map of the American Horticul-
tural Society.
Whichever map you use, the zone con-
Globe Conical Oval cept is a useful tool to give you an idea
of how well adapted a particular plant
is to your particular climate. When
Mound Feathery Spreading choosing woody ornamentals that will
be long lasting and have dominant fea-
Fig. 1. Plant shapes.

17 - 5
tures of your landscape, it is essential utility location, aspect, access, etc.) is cov-
to choose plants that will not be dam- ered in Chapter 15.
aged by an extreme climatic event. Be In choosing plants, introduced pests
conservative in your choice and plant (bronze birch borer, Dutch-elm disease,
woody ornamentals adapted to one etc.) must also be considered. In order to
zone colder than your zone. minimize maintenance and the need for
h. Salt tolerance: Salt accumulation plays pest control, selecting the right plant for
an important role in woody ornamental the existing conditions is essential. Even
performance. In arid regions, soluble
features such as dropped fruit, seed pods,
salts have accumulated at the depth to
or resulting seedlings must be considered.
which soil moisture soaks each season.
These salts can be brought to the sur-
IV. Getting Started with Woody
face with irrigation. If water sources
contain high levels of salt, woody or- Ornamentals
namentals can be injured. Salt used for During the planning stage, make sure to find out
winter ice removal on roads can also what species will grow in your locality and make
cause problems. a scale drawing of your site to provide a basic
Too much salt interferes with the plan that you can use and update. As trees and
plant’s ability to take up water, caus- shrubs are essential elements of this plan, choose
ing leaf burn and decline. Even salt- and buy them wisely and then plant them prop-
tolerant plants will not grow where salt erly so you can have years of pleasure.
levels are high. Plants native to a re- A. Purchasing Woody Ornamentals
gion have adapted to existing salt con- Plants can be purchased from local nurser-
ditions. ies, retail outlets that seasonally bring in
3. Ornamental characteristics—Ornamental wholesale nursery stock for resale, mail or-
characteristics of the plant such as flow- der companies, farmers’ markets, nursery
ering, fragrance, foliage color, foliage cooperatives, or at special plant sales spon-
texture, plant color, etc. must be consid- sored by service or gardening organizations.
ered by gardeners and landscapers during Select only vigorously growing plants that
the selection process (Table 1). are in good soil and are correctly labeled.
The style of the garden needs to be con- They should be well-maintained and insect,
sidered as well. Whether the garden is weed, and disease free. Check the graft
cottage, Mediterranean, tropical, oriental, unions on plants that require this type of
formal, artistic, avant-garde, rustic, natu- propagation. Beware of “good deals” at the
ralized, or native plays a key role in the end of the summer, for these plants may be
types of woody ornamentals selected. Fi- stressed or root bound.
nally, how the garden will be used and 1. Local nurseries—Local nursery operators
maintained should also guide design and know the planting dates of your area and
plant decisions. have experience with varieties suited to
Plants that accent, define boundaries, local needs and common problems. They
and/or are a special feature must be se- also have selected plants that are adapted
lected with specific goals in mind. Nu- to your climatic conditions or soils. In
merous landscaping books, computer many cases, local nursery operators are
programs, and publications can assist the willing to special-order plants not in
plant selection process (see Further Read- stock. In addition, they will generally
ing). More on arranging the form, shape, guarantee the plants they sell.
and space of woody ornamentals is cov- If you personally select your plants, have
ered in Chapter 15. your plan and plant list in hand when you
D. Site Considerations—Site analysis (climate, visit the nursery. Be open to new ideas
soil type, water availability, hardscapes, and plants offered by plant professionals.

17 - 6
If you are buying several plants, request a rubrum, is native from Florida to Canada.
volume discount. Trees grown from a southern seed source
2. Local retailers with nursery stock—Plants will be less hardy than those grown from a
purchased from discount, hardware, drug, northern source. The same might be said for
convenience, grocery, or produce stores plants grown on the East Coast and then
may not be appropriate for your land- planted in the West. This ability is often
scape. Prices are often lower due to vol- called plasticity among professional horti-
ume discounts, the species may not be culturists and should be considered in se-
well adapted to your area, and plant lecting woody ornamental plants.
maintenance may be lacking. C. Planting Woody Ornamentals
3. Mail order—Check over the catalogs The techniques required for successful
carefully to make sure the plants meet all transplanting of woody plants depend upon
the criteria in your planting plan. Mail the kind of plant; its age and size; whether it
order plants will be bare root or potted. is dormant or growing; its nutritional status;
Plant size may be small, but if shipped whether it is nursery grown, growing around
correctly and planted promptly, they gen- the home, or a native plant; the species
erally perform well in your yard or gar- adaptability to the selected site; and the site
den. When ordering over the phone or by conditions and climate of the area. For more
mail order, insist on the same quality as information on this topic, see Chapter 16.
from a local nursery. If you are not satis-
fied, return the item and request a refund. V. Maintenance of Woody Ornamentals
Most mail order nurseries guarantee the A. The First Season
plants they sell. The first year in a new site is critical for a
4. Special plant sales—Service organiza- woody ornamental. Survival is determined
tions, garden clubs, schools, or public by care and conditions, and a good start
agencies occasionally hold plant sales. helps a landscape planting fill in more
This is a great opportunity to obtain rare quickly.
or prized woody ornamentals from local 1. Water new plants to a depth of at least 2
sources. You may want to quarantine the feet at each irrigation. Soil type and
plants in a holding area before planting drainage will determine the frequency.
them into your garden to avoid introduc- Generally, irrigation will be required ev-
ing new pests into your landscape. ery 5 to 7 days. Soil should drain and dry
If offered plants by gardening friends that between waterings to allow adequate
don’t fit your landscape plan, are not oxygen in the root zone and to reduce the
healthy, or might become invasive, have possibility of root rot pathogen develop-
the courage to decline their offer. ment. New plants will wilt in saturated
B. Genetic Adaptability soil due to a lack of oxygen around the
The climatic zones where the plant material roots. Light, shallow watering does not
for propagation is collected influences the provide enough water to develop a wide,
ability of plants to adapt to new locations. deep, root system, and aids in the deposit
This genetic makeup allows plants to per- of harmful salts.
form well under one set of conditions and 2. Do not fertilize during the first season.
completely fail in others. Many plants are Excess fertilizer salts in the root zone
adapted across several climatic zones or damages the limited root system of a
hardiness categories. This hardiness is ge- newly planted plant. Plants need a season
netically determined. to establish a vigorous root system before
For native plants that are propagated from fertilizer pushes more foliage growth.
seeds, it is generally true that the more 3. Newly planted shrubs and trees may be
southern the seed source, the less hardy the protected from the wind by erecting a
plant. For example, the red maple, Acer barrier of burlap or other material or

17 - 7
wrapping. When wrapping, don’t use least 2 feet deep. The amount of water
plastic because it gets too hot under it. needed depends on the soil type; sandy
Bury small or horizontal plants in leaves soil holds less water than clay soil. As
or loose, unfinished compost after the with newly planted trees, avoid keeping
first frost. the root zone saturated in order to allow
The first winter in a new site for a woody proper root aeration. Avoid shallow, fre-
plant can spell life or death. Water less quent irrigation because this encourages
frequently in the fall (see section B4 be- shallow and limited root development.
low). 2. Irrigation methods—Flood irrigation is an
B. Irrigation of Woody Plants infrequent deep soaking. Accomplish the
Proper watering of woody ornamentals is same on a small scale by flooding the ba-
probably the most important aspect of plant sin around trees or shrubs using a bubbler
growth, beauty, and health. For more infor- hose attachment. This is the most effi-
mation on water management, see Chapter cient method of irrigation for isolated
6. plants.
1. Water requirement—The amount of water The most common method of irrigation is
needed by a woody plant is determined the sprinkler. Be sure to apply enough
by species, size, air temperature, air hu- water to soak the root zone of trees and
midity, light intensity, and wind move- shrubs. Enough water for the shallow
ment over the leaves. A hot, sunny, dry, roots of a lawn will not be enough for
windy day adds up to a lot of water for a trees and shrubs. Sprinkling the foliage
large tree. Many sites in Idaho have just of trees and shrubs can increase the po-
such conditions. tential for some diseases. Minimize this
by sprinkling early in the morning so the
The water-absorbing roots of trees occur
plant can dry off over the course of the
mostly in the top 12 to 18 inches of soil.
day.
Their distribution extends well beyond
the dripline (Fig. 2). Apply water over Drip irrigation systems are extremely ef-
the entire absorbing zone. Expand water- ficient and provide a slow source of wa-
holding basins around the base of plants ter that works better with heavy soil. Ap-
on a yearly basis to accommodate the ply water away from the trunk and in the
previous year’s growth. area of water-absorbing roots. Update
drip systems by adding more lines or
Irrigate to wet the soil to a depth of at
emitters as the plants grow to provide
enough water for the larger plant and root
system.
3. Drainage—If you have a poorly drained
area, select plants adapted to wet soil
conditions. In extreme cases, install drain
tiles before planting to carry excess water
away from the planting site. Improve sur-
face drainage by changing the grade or
trenching.
Root zone aeration can help prevent pud-
Dripline dling and runoff. If simple aeration (pok-
ing holes at regular intervals) doesn’t
work, drill holes 6 to 18 inches deep and
backfill them with sand or pea gravel.
This is called vertical mulching.
4. Winter water management—In climates
2 feet
Fig. 2. Dripline of deciduous tree. where winters are cold and the ground is

17 - 8
frozen, special care must be taken to The zone of soil around the root inhab-
make sure woody ornamentals enter the ited by the fungi, known as the rhizo-
winter completely dormant and yet have sphere, is more hospitable to nutrient ab-
an ample supply of sub-surface water to sorption by plant roots because of the as-
get through the winter. To accomplish sociation. Mycorrhizal fungi enhance the
this, gradually withhold water in late fall plant’s tolerance of environmental ex-
(after mid-September). This decelerates tremes and its resistance to or tolerance
growth and helps the plant enter a dor- of pathogens. Many of the “mushrooms”
mant state. Continue this drying for 4 to 6 seen in the landscape at some distance
weeks. from trees are fruiting bodies of mycor-
Sometime just before the first hard freeze rhizal fungi.
(October 15 to November 1), irrigate Commercial products are available that
thoroughly. Add enough water to fill the contain a mixture of fungus types to mix
entire root zone, and more, to capacity. with the soil when planting trees and
This stored moisture will be available to shrubs. These are new products and more
the plant roots beneath the frozen layer of research is needed to prove their value.
soil during the winter. Fall watering is Although mycorrhizal spores are found in
particularly important for evergreens due most soil, preliminary studies suggest
to the amount of water that needles and these commercial products may speed the
leaves can lose on a sunny winter day. establishment of a symbiotic relationship.
C. Mulching Woody Ornamentals 2. Nitrogen-fixing—On some woody plants,
The benefits of a mulched area around trees specific bacteria induce nitrogen-fixing
and shrubs are five-fold: (1) elimination of root nodules. Black locust, alder,
competition from weeds and grasses, (2) ceanothus, and Russian olive, for ex-
conservation of soil moisture, (3) modera- ample, are able to fix nitrogen to use in
tion of the soil temperature, (4) protection their own growth and for that of other
of trees from lawn mower and weed eater plants in the same area. This makes them
damage, and (5) growth of a more extensive able to grow on nitrogen-poor sites.
root system. E. Fertilizing Trees and Shrubs
1. How to mulch—The mulch layer should Woody ornamentals require the essential
be 2 to 3 inches in depth at least to the elements to function. Too much nitrogen
dripline of the tree. Don’t place mulch can promote excess growth that will only
against the plant trunk or stems because require more pruning and water and in-
of the possibility of crown rot. Permeable crease pests. On coniferous evergreens a
landscaping fabric beneath the mulch will “spurt” of growth in reaction to fertilizer
help control weeds. Do not use plastic as can create whorls of branches further apart
it will reduce water and air infiltration in at the top of the tree and tips of the
the root zone. branches, detracting from the symmetry of
Use of very fine or less permeable the tree. If a woody plant is healthy, show-
mulches, such as sawdust, encourages ing no nutrient deficiencies, and making sat-
shallow rooting. Good mulches include isfactory growth, it probably does not need
coarse compost, bark chips, rocks, or to be fertilized. (see CIS 1068, “Fertilizing
gravel. Landscape Trees,” for more information,
D. Symbiotic Relationships including rate recommendations).
Roots of many trees and shrubs form symbi- VI. Pruning
otic relationships with fungi or bacteria.
1. Mycorrhizae—Mycorrhizal fungi live A. The Basics
around and sometimes in the plant roots, In the home landscape, trees and shrubs
obtaining carbohydrates, vitamins, and usually have ample light and space, and
other organic compounds from the plant. they produce a lot of branches and grow to a

17 - 9
Probably the worst reason to prune is to
control the size of the plant. You cannot
make a large woody plant small! Such
Hedge shears
pruning is a temporary, expensive, and
damaging “fix.” The best solution is to
Lopping shears remove the too-large woody plant and
(tree and shrub) replace it with one whose mature size is
more suited to the growing space.
2. Timing—Do light pruning or removal of
dead wood at any time. On coniferous
evergreens, make heading cuts (see A3,
below) back to buds or light thinning cuts
at any time. The most common pruning
Pruning saws time is during winter, when the plants are
dormant. This results in vigorous spring
growth. Pruning coniferous evergreens
during the dormant season will maximize
regrowth, and cuts will be covered, mak-
ing the plant look more natural.
Grass shears Pruning shears
Prune plants that bloom on the current
season’s growth (new wood), such as Po-
tentilla sp., during the dormant period.
Fig. 3. Various types of pruning tools.
Wait until the coldest part of the winter
maximum size. Proper pruning shapes or has passed but before buds swell. Some
trains these plants into appropriate and plants such as maples, walnuts, birches,
beautiful forms, while maintaining and aug- and grapes may bleed when pruned just
menting their health and function. before or during sap flow. Though un-
Proper tools are essential for satisfactory sightly, this does no harm to the plant and
pruning (Fig. 3). The choice of which tool will stop as the season progresses.
to use depends largely on the size of Prune plants that bloom on wood from
branches to be pruned and the amount of the previous year, such as lilac and for-
pruning to be done. If possible, test a tool sythia, in the spring right after the flow-
before you buy it to ensure it suits your spe- ers fade. Winter pruning will decrease the
cific needs. As with most tools, higher qual- number of flowers the following spring.
ity often equates to higher cost. Pruning coniferous evergreens after the
1. Reasons for pruning—Training young annual flush of spring growth will main-
trees and shrubs to create attractive tain size and preserve atypical, or
shapes and a strong structure is always a clipped, forms. Pruning off part of the
good reason. Prune older plants to re- new growth while it is still growing will
move dead, diseased, hazardous, or un- reduce the length of new growth and en-
sightly branches. Pruning to maintain a courage branching.
central leader is sometimes necessary, as Summer pruning, done after spring
is removal of branches that interfere with growth has stopped, slows the develop-
activities and structures. Pruning can en- ment of a plant or branch. This is because
hance flowering and fruiting. It can also of reduced photosynthetic capacity from
open up a tree for less wind resistance fewer leaves, which reduces the amount
and better light penetration. Shrubs may of food manufactured and sent to the
need pruning to create a fuller look or to roots for their development and next
maintain a special shape or form such as year’s growth of the crown. Prune in the
in hedges. summer cautiously, as it can weaken the

17 - 10
tree or shrub to the point of death. branch not large enough to assume the
Late summer or fall is not a good time to terminal role. This type of cut induces
prune. Any new growth stimulated by branching and bushiness below the
late summer pruning will be susceptible cut. Heading cuts, which are com-
to frost damage and the threat of intro- monly used for fruit trees, are usually
ducing diseases is greater. not appropriate for ornamentals espe-
3. Pruning cuts—There are two basic prun- cially trees. Numerous vigorous up-
ing cuts: thinning and heading (Fig. 4). right shoots arise below the cut, espe-
cially on larger branches, altering the
a. A thinning cut removes a branch back
tree’s natural form.
to a lateral branch big enough to as-
sume the terminal role. The lateral c. “Topping” a tree is cutting all its major
branch should be at least half the size branches back with heading cuts deep
of the branch being removed. In other into the center of the tree. Cutting the
words, if a branch 6 inches in diameter top off a tree is NOT an acceptable
is being removed, thin it back to one pruning practice. Topping results in an
no less than 3 inches in diameter. ugly, deformed tree with weak
Branches thinned can be smaller, the branches. These trees often become
same size as, or at the most, twice the infected with decay organisms and are
size of the branch being thinned to. more susceptible to insects and dis-
eases. Within a few years, they are
This type of cut opens up a tree, re-
back to their original height because of
duces the weight of limbs, can reduce
bushy growth, but are ugly as well as
the overall height, evenly distributes
hazardous due to the weakly attached
the invigorated new growth, and helps
numerous branches.
retain the natural growth. Thinning
cuts are made at a point in the wood d. Cutting off the top of a coniferous tree
where wounds can heal. This is the will result in multiple leaders or a flat
preferred cut for ornamental trees. top—in any case, the natural shape of
Thinning cuts are also those on small the tree is destroyed. The older the ev-
branchlets made to a bud that will ergreen tree is at topping, the less
break and assume the terminal role. likely a lateral will become a new
leader. Although the tree may appear
b. A heading cut removes a branch to a
to be healthy, research has shown that
stub, to a small bud, or to a lateral
serious decay often develops at the
wound site. This decay moves down
the trunk, creating weakly attached lat-
eral branches and a hazardous tree.
4. Where to make the pruning cut—At the
base of branches there is a layer of cells
that is very important to plant health. If
Thining-out
the branch is broken off or dies, this layer
of cells fills with decay-blocking chemi-
cals such as terpenes and phenols and
forms a protective area that not only
keeps out decay, but facilitates healing.
The challenge for the person pruning off
the branch is to leave this layer of cells
intact so that it can do its work for the
tree.
Heading-back and regrowth
The branch collar indicates the location
Fig. 4. Thinning and heading are two types of pruning
of this layer of cells. This is a slightly
cuts.

17 - 11
swollen area where the branch attaches to such as ash and broadleaf evergreens such
the trunk. Sometimes plants have a as holly will grow to fill their allotted space.
branch bark ridge where the bark grows They will have few structural problems and
upward because of the internal branch tis- require minimal to no further pruning.
sue that separates the branch from the 1. Establishing the framework of trees—
trunk. Make pruning cuts just outside the Training should begin the tree’s second
branch bark ridge and/or collar. year. When cutting out branches, main-
5. How to make the pruning cut—Cut tain at least two-thirds of the plant as a
branches larger than about 2 inches with live crown, as overpruning can damage
an undercut three-step method to prevent and even kill a tree.
limb breakage and bark stripping (Fig. 5). Train to develop a central leader, strong
Cut part way through the branch at A. branches, a straight strong trunk, and a
Then cut completely through the branch good form.
at B. The final cut is made at C to D, just a. Central leader: The central leader
outside of the branch collar. Cut to pre- reaches higher than any other branch.
serve the branch collar and the bark ridge. A single leader is obvious, so it is easy
Do not cut at C to X. Avoid removing to thin the tree to maintain the domi-
branches over 6 inches in diameter, as nance of this branch. Sometimes, how-
bigger wounds do not heal quickly and ever, trees have many laterals that are
decay is more likely. Remember, the of similar length. In this case it is up to
branch you thin back to must not be you, the tree trainer, to choose the one
smaller than half the size of the one you with the best placement to be the
remove. leader, shortening the others into a
6. Wound dressings—Wound dressings and pleasing and appropriate form.
tree paints are cosmetic only. Research b. Branch strength: The object is to pro-
has shown that pruning paint or wound mote strong branches that will not re-
dressing does not protect cuts from in- quire expensive corrections later in the
sects or diseases or promote healing. In tree’s life. The ideal branch angle is
fact, some research suggests wound the 10 or 2 o’clock angle (Fig. 6).
dressings may actually inhibit the healing When crotch angles are very narrow,
process. bark can become “trapped” between
B. Early Training of Deciduous and Broadleaf the two branches as they grow. Where
Evergreens the bark is trapped, there is no struc-
By establishing early a good framework (or tural attachment; thus, the attachment
scaffolding) of branches, deciduous plants is weak.
Fig. 5. Proper methods of pruning cuts.

17 - 12
Encourage a critically placed small When choosing between rubbing
branch with a narrow crotch angle to branches, remove the most damaged
grow to a better angle by bracing it branch with the narrowest crotch
open with a stick placed between the angle.
branch and the trunk. Leave this brace Water sprouts and suckers can occur at
in place until, when removed, the the base or inside the crown. They are
branch stays at the wider angle (Fig. rapid growing, weakly attached shoots
7). Deciduous trees have narrow that should be removed as soon as pos-
crotch angles and develop bark inclu- sible. Rubbing them off (rather than
sions more often than coniferous trees. cutting) is possible when they are very
Remove rubbing branches, as they re- young and helps to keep them from re-
sult in wounds, decay, and notches. sprouting.
If a young tree is deformed by the
wind, it leans in the direction the wind
blows. To correct this lean and to pro-
mote a stronger tree, prune the leader
and laterals on the downwind side to
more upright branches. If done during
the summer, this will slow growth on
these branches.
c. Trunk strength: Develop a strong, well-
tapered trunk by keeping some
branches below the lowest permanent
branch on your young tree. Leave
these for 3 to 4 years in a shortened
Fig. 6. Ideal branch pruning angle is 10 or 2 o’clock. form. Don’t let them become large and
vigorous. Remember, they are only
protecting the young bark from sun
injury, and their wood adds taper and
strength to the trunk. They will not be
an ultimate part of the crown of the
tree. After 3 or 4 years, remove them a
few at a time over the next 2 to 3
years, beginning with the largest ones.
Staking of young trees may become
necessary if they have a small trunk
diameter in relation to the tree height.
Trunks grow strengthening “reaction
wood” when they move back and forth
in the wind; thus, be sure your tree is
free to move in the wind. Secure the
tree to stakes some distance from the
trunk with bands that will not damage
the trunk. Tie as low as possible to still
hold the tree upright on a calm day.
Remove this staking as soon as pos-
sible within one year (Fig. 8).
d. Good form: Train to create a tree that
has a pleasing shape with branches
Fig. 7. Brace a narrow-angle branch until trained to
growing in the right direction for the
grow at a wider angle.

17 - 13
space it is to occupy. Respect the natu- and inward-growing branches first.
ral growth habit of the tree when es- Eliminate any branches that grow in
tablishing an initial framework of opposition to the natural form of the
branches. The mature shape (round, tree. Thin any co-dominant branches
columnar, pyramidal, etc.) should be (those that grow out from a single
evident, even in a tree with only five point like a Y) to a single branch,
or six branches. keeping the one with the best crotch
Thin the laterals that compete for angle (Fig. 9).
space and light. They should be 12 to Keep in mind what the tree will look
18 inches apart on the main trunk on like when all these branches get longer
deciduous trees. Choose branches that and bigger in diameter. Direct them to
come off in different directions around an area where they can develop to ma-
the tree to create a balanced form and turity without pruning. Remember that
decrease competition for space and branches do not move upward as the
light. Be sure to remove any crossing tree grows in height. If you are hitting
your head on a 1-inch branch, in a few
years you will still be hitting your
head, but the branch will be 6 inches in
diameter! Prune out problem limbs
early.
2. Establishing the framework of shrubs and
vines—Some deciduous and broadleaf
evergreen shrubs grow large and have
I 12" permanent scaffolds. Examples are vibur-
12-18" min. nums and magnolias. Most coniferous
shrubs such as junipers have permanent
trunks and branches. Essentially, they are
Inexpensive For narrow For large trees. small trees with multiple trunks, so estab-
spaces. Springs in the guy
provide flexibility.
lish their framework as described earlier.
C. Early Training of Coniferous Trees and
Fig. 8. Three ways to stake a young tree.
Shrubs
Training conifers such as spruce, pine, and
juniper takes special consideration. Many
coniferous trees have pyramidal forms,
regular whorls of growth, and tall, straight
trunks. Conifers often develop multiple
leaders, so maintaining a single central
leader is important in order to have a prop-
erly shaped mature tree. Remove all but one
leader on coniferous evergreens with thin-
ning cuts. Other than this, coniferous plants
need little training—unless the goal is to
make a hedge or clipped shape. Train ran-
dom branching conifers early so they will
develop attractively to fill their allotted
space.
1. Buds and pruning effects—Some plants
have buds on older wood that, under nor-
Fig. 9. Trim co-dominate “Y” branches to a single mal conditions, do not grow, but if part of
branch. the plant dies or is pruned off, these la-

17 - 14
tent buds will grow. Conifers with latent the whorled types) and from lateral
buds on older wood, such as yew, can be points. They can be pruned more than
pruned more severely because these buds once during the growing season and will
will grow. But conifers without latent produce a flush a growth each time. Use
buds, such as pines and junipers, should either shearing or thinning cuts for prun-
not be cut down to old wood. Severe and ing random branched conifers. But re-
heading cuts will result in dead zones and member, don’t cut into the dead zone if
stumps. Conifers with and without latent the plant has no latent buds on old wood.
buds are in Table 2. Nothing will grow in the dead tangle of
2. Pruning cuts—Use thinning cuts when branches and the beauty of the plant will
pruning conifers. Thinning cuts are less be ruined.
noticeable and create an open, natural- 4. Conifers with whorled branching pat-
looking plant. Coniferous plants with terns, such as fur and spruce, make a
good latent buds, such as yews and hem- single flush of spring growth, so they will
locks, will respond to heading cuts. not tolerate frequent or severe pruning.
Strong, new foliage growth will result. Shorten or shear the new growth of these
Shearing, which is when all the small plants in the early spring as the plant is
branches are cut off to produce an even expanding. This will make the growth
shape, produces a lot of heading cuts. more dense and also restrict the size of
Shearing shapes plants and increases the plant (Fig. 10). You can also prune
branch density. Shearing without some these trees back to dormant buds after
thinning can cause the center of the plant new growth is finished or before growth
to die from lack of light, increasing dead begins in the spring (Fig. 11). Thin un-
zones. wanted branches to another branch at any
3. Pruning related to branching patterns— time of the year. Table 2 lists conifers
Random-branching conifers such as yew with whorled and random-branching pat-
or hemlock can grow both from tips (like terns.
Table. 2 Branching patterns and latent buds on coniferous plants.

Whorled branching pattern
Latent buds in old wood?
Yes No
Spruce (Picea spp.) Pine (Pinus spp.)
True fir (Abies spp.)
Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga
menziesii)
Random branching pattern

Latent buds in old wood?
Yes Some No
Hemlock (Tsuga spp.) True cedar (Cedrus spp.) Juniper (Juniperus spp.)
Yew (Taxus spp.) Larch (Larix spp.) False cypress (Chamaecyparis spp.)
Dawn redwood Arborvitae (Thuja spp.,
(Metasequioa glyptostroboides) Platycladus spp.)
Cryptomeria japonica Incense cedar (Calocedrus spp.)
Giant sequoia Staghorn cypress
(Sequioadendron gigantia) (Thujopsis dolobrata)
True cypress (Cupressus spp.)
Western red cedar (Thuja plicata)
*May be some on spur-like shoots or a few in older wood.

17 - 15
D. Pruning Mature Trees and Shrubs
As woody ornamentals grow, age, and ma-
ture they will require maintenance training
and pruning.
1. Damage and disease—Physical damage
often requires corrective pruning. Broken
or dead branches should be removed with Fig. 10. By shearing in the spring, new growth will be
a thinning cut, observing all the pruning dense and have restricted size.
techniques outlined earlier. Sometimes,
to maintain a good center of gravity, you
can thin or remove limbs opposite the
broken ones. After removing the broken
branch, carefully smooth any torn or
stripped bark and remove ragged edges of
dead or dying bark (Fig. 12). Take the
bark back to where it attaches to the tree.
Keep the wound as narrow as you can to
hasten wound closing.
If a pyramidal conifer loses its tip, help a
branch in the top whorl become the new
leader. Select the best and/or the longest,
and bend and tie this branch upward to a
pole securely fastened to the trunk. Fig. 11. Trim conifers before or after new growth in
Check ties frequently to make sure they spring.
are not cutting the bark and remove the
pole in 2 or 3 years (Fig. 13).
A plant struck by lightning may not be
damaged; except for removal of broken
branches, do nothing for 6 to 12 months.
It may take this long for damage to be-
come visible. If damaged, the tree will
decline due to an injured root system or
cambium.
2. Hazard trees and shrubs—A hazard plant
has a structural defect that may cause the
plant, or a portion of the plant, to fall on
someone or something. Careful inspec- Fig. 12. Carefully remove rugged edges of dead or
tion and a rational assessment of prob- dying bark.
lems determines what corrective measure
to take.
If the entire tree is dead or dying, remove
it. All dead branches are accidents wait-
ing to happen. Remove them. Prune off
weak spots on branches caused by rub-
bing. Forked (or co-dominant) trunks
may signal a weak tree. A sudden lean in
the entire tree is cause for action. Sudden
dieback of top limbs may indicate root
problems. Check for signs of internal de- Fig. 13. Select a new leader on a top-damaged conifer
cay by examining the plant for fruiting and tie it to a vertically secure pole.

17 - 16
bodies of fungi (conks) or disfiguration • Prune plants that flower on the mid-
(cankers). Conks at the base of the tree portions of their stems to maximize
can indicate root and trunk decay. production of 2- to 5-year-old
A tree that has been topped has an in- wood. Do this by removing 1/4 to
creased risk of internal decay due to the 1/6 of the oldest stems at or near the
large, unhealed wounds created by this ground each year. Make thinning
type of massive cutting. Examine these and heading cuts on the remaining
carefully, possibly using an increment stems as necessary.
borer or an electric drill equipped with a • Prune plants that flower at the ter-
1/8-inch bit to test for soundness of minal tips of their stems to maxi-
branches and trunks. mize production of terminal tips. Do
Be sure to call a certified, professional this by removing a few older canes
arborist if you suspect you are dealing and spindly new canes at or near
with a hazard tree. Hazardous conditions ground level. Head back vigorous
on plants need immediate care in order to canes to force branching and new
protect lives and property. tips where desired, and thin others
3. Pruning mature trees—Mature trees re- as needed.
quire little to no pruning if they have • Thinning cuts on deciduous and
been trained by proper pruning at plant- broadleaf evergreen shrubs preserve
ing and during the first few years of the shrub’s natural form. Direct
growth. If you have inherited an older growth by thinning back to a vigor-
tree with a poor shape or one previously ous side branch that points in the
topped, do remedial pruning following desired direction. Remove inner
the guidelines in the next section. growth to open up a dense shrub.
4. Pruning mature deciduous and broadleaf
Table. 3 Shrubs with continuous basal growth.
evergreen shrubs—The unique character-
istics of each type of shrub determines Plants flowering on mid portions of stems:
the pruning technique. When growing Barberry (Berberis spp.)
Beauty bush (Kolkwitzia amabilis)
shrubs for flowers or fruit, it is important
Brooms (Cytisus, Genista spp.)
to prune to encourage this feature. Cotoneaster spp.
Shrubs that have a permanent scaffold, Flowering quince (Chaenomeles spp.)
such as large viburnums and magnolias, Forsythia spp.
and those that do not produce any new Holly (Ilex spp.)
Honeysuckle (Lonicera spp.)
growth from the base are pruned like Kerria japonica
trees. These shrubs (like trees) produce Mock orange (Philadelphus spp.)
flowers and fruit at the tips of branches. Spiraea spp.
With any shrub, as with trees, keep the Plants flowering on terminal tips:
natural form in mind and prune to de- Azaleas, evergreen (Rhododendron spp.)
velop this form by removing stems and Dogwoods, shrubby (Cornus spp.)
branches that do not contribute to the de- Hydrangea spp.
sired shape. Lilac (Syringa spp.)
Magnolia spp., shrubby
a. Growth patterns and pruning: Observe Oregon grape (Mahonia spp.)
where the flowers are produced on a Photinia spp.
shrub in order to know how to prune it. Potentilla fruticosa
See Table 3 for a partial list of shrubs Privet (Ligustrum spp.)
that produce wood from at or near the Rhododendron spp. (and deciduous azaleas)
Serviceberry (Amelanchier spp.)
ground level throughout their lives Viburnum spp.
(continuous basal growth). Prune these
as follows: Carefully observe where flowers are produced on species
not listed.

17 - 17
Use thinning cuts to maintain the back of lower foliage due to inadequate
size of a shrub. light (Fig. 14). Do not prune hedge plants
• Heading cuts on deciduous and at planting or during the first year of
broadleaf evergreen shrubs stimu- growth. To renovate an old hedge see
late the development of shoots right section E.
below the cut, resulting in denser a. Informal hedge: To have an informal
growth. Make cuts where you want hedge, train and prune as with indi-
branching. Use heading cuts spar-
ingly unless you are shearing a for- Table. 4 Flowering shrubs.
mal hedge, topiary or other atypical
Examples of spring flowering shrubs:
shape. Heading cuts result in an un-
Azaleas, deciduous and evergreen (Rhododendron spp.)
desirable bushy or topped look. Barberry, deciduous and evergreen (Berberis spp.)
b. Flowering period and pruning: Ob- Beauty bush (Kolkwitzia amabilis)
serve when the flowers are produced Brooms (Cytisus, Genista spp.)
on a shrub to know when to prune it. Daphne spp.
Dogwood, shrubby (Cornus spp.)
See Table 4 for a partial list of spring
Flowering almond (Prunus triloba)
and summer flowering shrubs. Flowering plum (Prunus cistena)
Prune shrubs that bloom in the spring Flowering quince (Chaenomeles spp.)
right after flowering to maximize Forsythia spp.
bloom the next year. Prune shrubs that Heather (Erica spp.)
Honeysuckle (Lonicera spp.)
bloom in the summer in late winter or Kerria sp.
very early spring to maximize bloom Lilac (Syringa spp.)
and fruit. Mongolia (Magnolia spp.)
5. Pruning mature coniferous shrubs— It is Mountain laurel (Kalmia latifolia)
Oregon grape (Mahonia aquifolium)
very important to train coniferous shrubs
Pieris spp.
when they are young. Pruning needs to Pussy willow (Salix spp.)
begin as the plant approaches the desired Serviceberry (Amelanchier spp.)
size, not after they are oversized. See sec- Siberian pea shrub (Caragana arborescens)
tion C for information on growth pattern, Spiraea spp. (white flowering types)
bud distribution, and methods and timing Viburnum spp.
Weigela spp.
of pruning for the various types of conif- Witch hazel (Hamamelis spp.)
erous plants.
Examples of summer flowering shrubs:
6. Hedges—A hedge is a row of closely
Butterfly bush (Buddleia davidii)
spaced shrubs or trees, usually of one Cherry laurel (Prunus laurocerasus)
kind, grown informally as a row of natu- Chokeberry (Aronia arbutifolia )
ral-looking shrubs or formally with a lot Cotoneaster spp.
of training and shearing. Pruning cuts are Euonymus spp.
thinning and/or heading cuts to relatively Heather (Calluna spp.)
Heavenly bamboo (Nandina domestica)
small limbs. Train hedges to be wider at
Holly (Ilex spp.)
the base than at the top to prevent die- Hydrangea spp.
Mock orange (Philadelphus spp.)
Potentilla fruticosa
Yes Privet (Ligustrum spp.)
Pyracantha spp.
Roses, shrubby (Rosa spp.)
No
Rose of sharon (Hibiscus syriacus)
Spiraea spp. (pink flowering types)
St. John’s wort (Hypericum spp.)
Tamarix spp.
Fig. 14. Trim hedges to be wider at the bottom to Carefully observe when blooming occurs on species not
prevent dieback. listed.

17 - 18
vidual plants, striving to keep them For a looser, less formal effect, shear
similar in shape, density, and height. only once in midsummer. At each
You will need to pay special attention shearing, remove new growth to
to keeping the foliage dense from the within 1/2 inch of the previous shear-
ground up. ing, leaving only one to three new
With new deciduous and broadleaf ev- leaves and buds.
ergreen hedges, induce low, dense 7. Vines—Prune and train vines according
branching by heading back the entire to their growth habit. Vines that are natu-
plant as much as halfway down its ral clingers support themselves by aerial
growth the second year after planting roots (English ivy) or sucker pads (Bos-
in late winter or early spring. With ton ivy). These vines grow on walls and
new conifer hedges, in the second other supports. The twining vines, such
year, prune the tips of the new growth as honeysuckle, Virginia creeper, clema-
as, or just after, it elongates to increase tis, and wisteria, climb by curling or
branching. (Head yew and hemlock twining their leaf tendrils, leaf stalks, or
the same as deciduous and broadleaf stems on some kind of support system.
evergreen plants.) The scramblers and floppers, such as
After the second year, and in estab- roses, need to be tied to a support system.
lished hedges, make judicious heading a. Training: Any required support should
cuts interspersed with conservative be in place when planting the vine. Di-
thinning cuts to create the desired rect or train the branches of the vine in
shape and size. Do maintenance prun- the directions desired.
ing in late winter to early spring for b. Pruning: Treat vines the same as
maximum growth. For dwarfing, prune shrubs. Determine how to prune by
in midsummer. Remove an occasional where the flowers are produced and
branch at any time. when to prune by when flowering oc-
b. Formal hedge: To establish a formal curs (see sections D4a and b). Besides
hedge do not prune at planting or dur- encouraging flowering, fruiting, and
ing the first year of growth. During the new growth, reasons to prune vines
second year prune the same as for in- include removal of weak or diseased
formal hedges (see above). wood. Prune any vine with a perma-
In the third year, shear new shoots nent framework like you would a tree.
one-half to two-thirds of their length 8. Woody groundcovers—Low-growing
every time they grow 6 to 12 inches. woody shrubs and vines often serve as
Shear conifers whenever growth elon- ground covers. Prune these plants as
gates (will probably be less than 6 though they were flowering or non-flow-
inches long). Do not prune after mid- ering deciduous, broadleaf evergreen, or
summer. Continue this in successive evergreen shrubs.
years until the hedge reaches the de- E. Renovation and Rejuvenation Pruning
sired width. Then allow the hedge to Removal of large amounts of wood may be
grow more in height than width until it needed on older woody plants because they
reaches the desired height. Do this by have become too large or grown into ob-
shearing new growth on the sides structions, were pruned wrong at an earlier
shorter (and less frequently) than the time, have little flowering wood, lack vigor,
shoots on the top. or are unattractive. Renovation may also be
Prune all established, full-grown for- necessary on plants that have died back
mal hedges once after the season’s from winterkill or other damage.
growth ends. If you want a very formal Because of the danger of electrocution, if a
effect, you will need to shear more tree needing pruning is growing near a
than once during the growing season. power line, be sure to contact your power

17 - 19
company or hire a professional arborist. the stubbed branches. It is best to re-
Remember to remove any plant that is too move the tree if substantial amounts of
large for its growing space when correctly wood rot are found, or the tree is found
trained. Replace it with a plant of a more to be in poor health, or if it is impos-
appropriate mature size. sible to reconstruct a decent shape. Re-
1. Deciduous and broadleaf evergreen trees. place it with a recommended species
for the site and space.
a. Pruning untrained older trees: If you
have a tree that has never been pruned d. Directional pruning: If your tree was
and is seriously tangled and perhaps poorly placed initially and is now
damaged, approach pruning from the growing into an obstruction, such as
standpoint of “better late than never.” overhead powerlines, consider remov-
Follow the guidelines for pruning de- ing it and replacing it with a properly
ciduous and broadleaf evergreen trees placed or smaller tree. Trees properly
in section VI-B. Often removing all pruned under or beside obstructions
the dead and damaged wood, rubbing can continue to grow. This is direc-
branches, branches growing inward on tional pruning. It can result in V-
the tree, and those branches growing shaped or one-sided trees (Fig. 16).
outside of the natural shape of the tree Directional pruning is a better alterna-
are all that is necessary. That fact that tive than topping trees, since topped
a tree is older eliminates some pruning trees will eventually grow back into
possibilities; for example, establishing the obstruction.
a central leader or eliminating co- 2. Coniferous trees—Thinning cuts on co-
dominant branches may not be pos- niferous trees can be made from the top
sible. down and the inside out in order to re-
b. Drop crotching: This pruning tech- duce wind resistance, if necessary. Re-
nique allows the pruner to reduce the member to remove no more than one-
size of the tree without weakening the third of the crown at one time. Mature
structure or creating an eyesore by conifers need little to no other pruning.
thinning out the crown of a tree and
reducing its height and spread. Limbs
forming the perimeter of the tree are The tallest branches
pruned at their junction are cut back to a
large-diameter
with shorter, large-di- secondary branch
Perimeter limbs are
ameter side branches. pruned where they
so that a leader
remains.
This way a leader al- join large-diameter
side branches.
ways remains, and its
presence reduces latent
bud sprouting and the
bushy growth typical of head-
ing cuts. This method is often used by
utility companies when trees grow into
power lines (Fig. 15).
c. Topped trees: Trees that have been
topped or otherwise incorrectly pruned
to a new height can sometimes be re-
To thin the tree, some
shaped using thinning cuts and recom- branches are cut off
mended training techniques. This re- back to the main trunk.
quires removal of competing branches
to lessen the bushiness at the ends of Fig. 15. Drop crotching reduces the size of a tree
without weakening it.

17 - 20
3. Deciduous and broadleaf evergreen cept on younger twigs. To correct dam-
shrubs—Rejuvenate shrubs that exhibit age or remove dead branches, make the
continuous basal growth by heading back necessary corrective thinning cuts. Then
all stems to 3- to 5-inch stubs. prune new and young growth to increase
In shrubs with a permanent scaffold, reju- new foliage density (see section VI-C).
venate by thinning and heading back to
the basic limb framework. Boxwood, VII. Protecting Trees and Shrubs
American holly, and almost all rhododen- During Construction
drons have good buds back to 3- to 5- A. Construction Damage
year-old wood. Prune these severely. Cut Older trees contribute to the diversity of the
back to 2- to 3-year-old wood on other landscape and should be preserved during
species. Do this type of pruning in late construction if at all possible. Trees that
winter to early spring before the new should be removed include those in poor
growth begins. health, those that cannot withstand the nec-
Once you have new vigorous growth that essary changes in their environment (such
is about a foot long, be sure to selectively as shade-lovers suddenly exposed to full
thin to remove weak, poorly placed, and sun), those leaning over an existing or pro-
excessive growth. This is very important posed structure, and those that will be 5 feet
to producing an attractive, healthy shrub. or closer to a constructed building or utility
4. Coniferous shrubs—Rejuvenating mis- line.
shapen, broken or diseased coniferous Good pre-construction planning can often
shrubs is possible if the plant has good ensure that desirable trees can be left in the
latent buds on older wood. See Table 2, landscape. For instance, a flagstone walk
which describes branching patterns and rather than solid concrete or asphalt over a
latent buds. Severe heading cuts into old root system will allow aeration and water
wood will produce vigorous growth and penetration to the tree roots. Work with con-
much smaller shrubs. Later, be sure to tractors to designate areas for driving, park-
thin new growth to create a desirable ing, and materials storage. Stake out exact
open form (unless the plant is a sheared locations of trenches. If plants cannot re-
hedge or topiary). Do this type of pruning main where they are currently growing, con-
in late winter to early spring before the sider transplanting any that are small
new growth begins. enough or that can be dug with a tree spade.
Rejuvenation is not really possible on co- 1. Plant care during construction—Surround
niferous shrubs without latent buds ex- trees with a barrier that extends beyond
the dripline during construction. This will
keep heavy equipment from driving over
the roots and from running into the trees.
It will also keep chemical spills away
from the root system.
2. Soil compaction—Compaction seriously
limits the aeration and water penetration
to root systems. The best solution is to
keep all heavy traffic off of rooting
zones. When this is not possible, spread
several inches of wood chips or cover
root areas with steel bridges, mesh mat-
ting, exterior plywood, or planks. This
will help reduce compaction by spreading
Before directional pruning After directional pruning
out the weight of heavy equipment.
Fig. 16. Pruning can change the direction of a tree.

17 - 21
3. Cut roots—Severed roots can be very low. Northern Idaho has higher humidity
damaging to trees, reducing their water- and frequent cloud cover. Summer tempera-
and nutrient-absorbing capacity and tures in southern Idaho are into the 100s
sometimes affecting their stability in the during the summer, while northern Idaho
soil. Careful selection of routes for un- experiences cooler temperatures (70° to
derground utilities—detouring around 80°F). During the winter, dormant condi-
root systems when possible—can reduce tions, elevation, local microclimates, and
damage to roots. When that is impossible, temperature determine plant survival. Plants
tunneling, rather than trenching, is a good listed in garden publications from the east-
solution. To reduce damage on trees ern United States and lower coastal eleva-
close to structures, substitute posts and tions often do poorly in Idaho.
pillars for footers and walls that require a C. Woody Ornamentals for Idaho
trench. Table 5 lists some of the top woody orna-
4. Change in grade—Changes in grade can mentals for Idaho. These plants have per-
be avoided by using retaining walls to formed well or are deemed worthwhile for
maintain the original soil level over the trial in Idaho. Selections were made based
majority of the root zone. Also, tree wells on Idaho research and recommendations
or tree islands made as large as possible from Idaho horticultural professionals, ar-
can help maintain the original grade over borist associations, tree committees, urban
the root system and minimize cutting of foresters, and the Idaho nursery industry.
roots. When a grade is changed more This list is not all inclusive and does not list
than 6 inches, vertical mulching can help many other woody ornamentals that will
modify the effect of extra soil. grow in Idaho.
The following attributes are listed for the
VIII. Woody Ornamentals for Idaho plants:
Given the hundreds of plant species, botanical • Common name: The most widely ac-
varieties, and cultivars that can be grown in the cepted common name is given.
Intermountain West, it is a challenging task to • Scientific name: Since several plants may
select the right trees, shrubs, vines, and share the same common name, the scien-
groundcovers for your landscape. tific name is included for precise identifi-
A. Choices cation.
A limited selection of woody ornamental • Desirable cultivars (cultivated varieties)
plants suitable for Idaho is provided in this are listed.
chapter; however, there are many other • Height: Mature height varies with your
plant species and cultivars that may serve region in Idaho, microclimate, fertilizer
your needs. Table 5 suggests categories that practices, light source and intensity, and
can be used in selecting plants for different soil conditions. A range of heights is
purposes and growing conditions. Consult given for most woody ornamentals listed.
the Internet, CD-ROM disks, resource
• Bloom time: Approximate time of flow-
books, local nurseries, landscape architects,
ering.
your extension educator, and Further Read-
ing in this chapter. • Color: Refers to foliage color. Color for
listed cultivars may vary.
Use plant descriptions and photos to visual-
ize what will best meet your own and your • Light: Categorizes the plant into one or
site’s needs and preferences. Then, make a more light regimes: full sun is uninter-
list and seek quality plants from the best rupted sunlight through the full day; par-
sources. Be open to alternatives. tial shade is filtered sunlight through tree
leaves or a minimum of 6 to 8 hours per
B. Idaho Conditions
day; full shade indicates filtered sunlight
In southern Idaho, summer temperatures through a dense foliage canopy or less
and light intensity are high and humidity is

17 - 22
than 6 hours of sunlight each day. • Rate of growth: Refers to the vertical in-
• Use in landscape: Suggests planting loca- crease in growth unless specified differ-
tions as well as functions; for example, ently. Rate is influenced by numerous
street tree, Xeriscape©, windbreak, or na- variables such as soil, drainage, water
tive. It also indicates if irrigation is criti- light, and exposure. The designation
cal. “slow” means the plant grows 12 inches
• USDA zone: These ratings are based or less per year; “medium” indicates 13
upon the USDA plant hardiness zones for to 24 inches of growth per year; and
Idaho (see Fig. 1, Chapter 15, page 15-3) “fast” is 25 inches of new growth or
and upon reported preferences by region greater.
by Idaho plant professionals. Keep in • Wildlife rating: Provides a guideline of
mind that factors other than low tempera- reported attraction that wildlife have for
tures affect plant survival in a specific many of the woody ornamentals and
area, and USDA zones should be used damage they do.
only as a guideline. • Utility rating: When available, this rating
• Idaho zone: Indicates in which part of indicates whether this plant may be
Idaho this plant will perform best. planted under power lines.
• Growth habit: Provides a mental picture • Source: Reference that lists this plant.
of mature form or outline of the plant.
Table 5. Woody ornamentals for Idaho.
The following is a list of woody ornamental trees, shrubs, Idaho zone: 1 = northern Idaho; 2 = southwestern
groundcovers, and vines for Idaho Master Gardeners. By Idaho; 3 = eastern Idaho; All = whole state
learning the cultural, aesthetic, and climatic needs of Growth habit: P = pyramidal; V= vase shaped; W =
these plants, best management practices in their growth weeping; R = round; U = upright; C = columnar; G =
and selection can be implemented. Most communities globe; O = oval; M = mound; F = feathery; S =
and regions in Idaho have plant lists. In addition to this spreading
list please seek out these resources in building a woody
plant inventory. Several of the references at the end of Rate: F = fast growth; M = medium growth; S = slow
this section have excellent additional information for plant growth
selection. Wildlife rating:
The following key is used in this table: 1 = Protective—Rare damage
2 = Protective—Slight damage
Height: At maturity with a range for most plants 3 = Beneficial—Some damage
(spread for vines) 4 = Attractive—Severe damage
Bloom: Season of flowering (Sp = spring; Su = UR (utility rating):
summer; F = fall) _ = Recommended for planting under powerlines
Color: Predominant foliage color (Grn = green; Pur = ? = Questionable for planting under powerlines
purple; Yell = yellow; Gry = gray; Blu = blue; Wht = Ø = Not recommended under powerlines
white) $ = Extreme expense; NOT recommended under
Light: F = full sun; P = part sun; S = shade powerlines.
* = Not a concern under powerlines
Use in landscape: B = border; S = specimen; W =
windbreak; St= street tree; X = Xeriscape; I = irrigation; Source: The referenced sources that list these plants
N = native as growing in our region.
USDA zone: Idaho has USDA plant hardiness zones 3

through 6.

17 - 23
Table 5. (cont’d) Woody ornamentals for Idaho.
Idaho Wilf-
Common name Scientific name Height Bloom Color Light Use USDA zone Habit Rate life UR Source
Large deciduous trees—Over 50 feet

Ash, Green 'Fraxinus pennsylvanica' 50-60' - Grn F S,W,X 3-6 All U, S M 1 Ø 1,2,6
'Bergeson'
'Marshall'
'Patmore'
'Urbanite'
Ash, Raymond 'Fraxinus oxycarpa' 40-50' - Grn F S 5-6 1,2 O,U M 1 Ø 2
'Raymond'
Ash, White 'Fraxinus americana' 50-60' - Grn F St 4-6 1,2,3 O,U M 1 Ø 1,2
Autumn Applause®
Autumn Purple®
'Rosehill'
Skyline®
Aspen, Quaking 'Populus tremuloides' 30-50' - Grn.Gry F,P S,I 3 All S,U F 2 Ø 1
Beech, European 'Fagus sylvatica' 50-70' Sp Grn/Pur F,P S, 5-6 1,2 O,U S 2 Ø 2,6
'Asplenifolia'
'Riversii'
'Roseo-Marginata'
'Pendula'
Birch, River 'Betula nigra' 40-60' - Grn P,S S,N 4-6 1,2,3 O,U M 2 Ø 2
Heritage®
Coffeetree, 'Gymnocladus dioicus' 50-75' Sp Grn F S 4-6 1,2,3 U,O S 4 Ø 2
Kentucky 'Espresso'
Corktree, Amur 'Phellodendron amurense' 35-45' - Grn F S 4-6 1,2,3 U,V M 2 Ø 2
Macho®
Catalpa, Northern 'Catalpa speciosa' 50-70' Su Grn F,P S,X, 5-6 All I, U, F 3 Ø 1
Filbert, Turkish 'Corylus colurna' 40-50' - Grn F S,X, 5-6 1,2 P M 2 Ø 2
Hackberry 'Celtis occidentalis' 40-60' - Grn F S, W,X 4-6 All U,O S 3 Ø 1,2
Honeylocust 'Gleditsia triacanthos' 30-60' Sp Yell/Grn F S,W,X 5-6 All S, U M 3 Ø 1,2,5
Imperial®
'Moraine'
Shademaster®
Skyline®
Hornbeam, 'Carpinus betulus' 40-50' - Grn F,P S,St, 5-6 1,2 P,O S 2 Ø 2
European 'Fastigiata'
Horsechestnut 'Aesculus hippocastanum' 40-60' Sp Grn F,P S 4 All U,O M 3 Ø 1,2
'Baumannii'
Larch, European 'Larix decidua' 50-70' - Grn F S, W,B 3-6 All P M 2 $ 2,4
Linden, American 'Tilia americana' 40-60' Su Grn F,P S,I 3-6 All P,O M 1 Ø 2
'Redmond'
Legend®
Linden, Littleleaf 'Tillia cordata' 40-60' Su Grn F S 4-6 All P,O S 2 Ø 1
Chancellor®
'Glenleven'
'Greenspire'
Corinthian®
Linden, Silver 'Tilia tomentosa' 40-60' Su Grn/Wht F S 5-6 1,2 O,P M 3 Ø 2
Green Mountain®
'Sterling'
Locust, Black 'Robinia pseudoacacia' 40-50' Su Grn F B,W,X 3 All I,U F 4 $ 1
Maidenhair Tree 'Ginkgo biloba' 40-60' - Grn F S 4-6 1,2 P, I S 3 Ø 1,2
Princeton Sentry®
'Magyar'
'Autumn Gold'
Magnolia, 'Magnolia acuminata' 40-60' Sp Grn F,P S,I 4-6 1,2 O M 1 Ø 2
Cucumbertree
Maple, Red 'Acer X fremanii' 50-60' Sp Grn F,P S 4-8 All O M 2 Ø
Autumn Blaze®
Maple, Norway 'Acer platenoides' 40-50' Sp Grn F,P S, 4-6 All U,O M 2 Ø 1,2
'Columnare'
'Deborah'
Emerald Queen™

17 - 24
Idaho Wilf-
(cont’d) Large deciduous trees—Over 50 feet

Maple, Norway 'Royal Red'
(cont’d) 'Crimson King'
'Schwedler'
Maple, Sugar 'Acer saccharum' 50-70' - Grn P,S S 4-6 1,2 O,U S 3 Ø 2,4
Green Mountain®
'Legacy'
Oak, Bur 'Quercus macrocarpa' 70-80' - Grn F S,W,X 3-6 All O,U S 4 Ø 2
Oak, English 'Quercus robur' 50-70' - Grn F S, 5-6 All U,O,C, M 4 Ø 1,2,4
'Fastigiata'
Oak, Northern Red 'Quercus rubra' 50 -75' - Grn F,P S 5-6 1,2 U,O,C S 4 Ø 1
Oak, White 'Quercus alba' 50’- 80' - Grn/Gry F,P S, 4-6 All U,O S 4 Ø 1
Oak, Swamp White 'Quercus bicolor' 50-70' - Grn F,P S, 4-6 1,2,3 O,U M 4 $ 2
Pagodatree, 'Sophora japonica' 40-60' Su Grn F S 5-6 1,2 O,U M 1 Ø 2
Japanese
Persimmon, 'Diospyros virginiana' 30-50' Sp Grn F S 5-6 1,2 O S 3 Ø 2
Common
Poplars 'Populus' spp. 50’-80' - Grn/Gry F,P W,N,I 3 All O,U,S F 1 $ 1
Poplar, White 'Populus alba' 45’ -90' - Grn/Wht F,P S,B 3-6 All U,S .,F 1 $ 1
'Bolleana'
Poplar, Black 'Populus trichocarpa' 75-100' - Grn F S,N,I 4-6 All V F 1 $ 2
Sweetgum 'Liquidamber 50-60' - Grn F S,I 5-6 1,2 P,O M 2 Ø 1,2
styraciflua'
Sycamore 'Platanus x hybrida' 50-100' - Grn F,P S, 4-6 1,2 O M 3 $ 1
'London Planetree'
'Bloodgood'
Tree-of-Heaven 'Ailanthus altissima' 30-45' - Grn F S, 4 All U,I F 4 Ø 1
Tuliptree 'Liriodendron tulipifera' 65-90' Sp Grn F S,I 5-6 1,2 U,O M 3 $ 1
Walnut, Black 'Juglans nigra' 40-50' - Grn/Yel F S,W 4 All U,D M 3 $ 1
Willow 'Salix' spp. 40’-80' - Grn.Yel F,P S,I,N 3 All U,S,O, F 4 $ 1
'Tristis’ golden weeping'
'Tortusa’ corkscrew'
Yellowwood 'Cladrastis kentukea' 30-50' Sp Grn F,P S,I 5-6 1,2 O M 1 Ø 2
Large evergreen trees—Over 50 feet

Arborvitae, 'Thuja occidentalis' 30-50' - Grn F B,S 3-6 All P M 2 $ 2,4
Eastern 'Pyramidalis'
Bald cypress 'Taxodium distichum' 50-80' - Grn F S,I 5-6 1,2 P M 1 $ 2,4
Douglas-Fir 'Pseudotsuga 40-60' - Grn F,P S,N 4-6 All P M 1 $ 2,4
menziesii'
Fir, Subalpine 'Abies lasiocarpa' 40-50' - Blu/Grn P S,I,N 3-6 All U,C,P S 2 $ 1,
Fir, White 'Abies concolor' 50-70' - Gry/Grn F,P S,N 4-6 All P.U M 2 $ 2,4
Pine, Austrian 'Pinus nigra var. nigra' 50-60' - Grn F S,W 4-6 All U,P M 3 $ 1,2
Pine, Swiss Stone 'Pinus cembra' 30-40' - Grn F S 4-6 All P,C S 2 Ø 3,4
Pine Ponderosa 'Pinus ponderosa' 50-100' - Grn F S,W, 4-6 All U,P M 2 $ 1,2,4,5
N,B
Pine, Scots 'Pinus sylvestris' 50-80' - Grn F S,W,B 3-6 All U,P M 1 $ 1,2,4
St
Spruce, Colorado 'Picea pungens' 45-80' - Grn/Gry F S,W 3-6 All U,P S 2 $ 1,2,4
Spruce, 'Picea engelmannii' 80-100' - Grn F S,B 3 All U,.P S 1 $ 1,2,4
Engelmann
Spruce, Norway 'Picea abies' 50-70' - Grn F S,B 4-6 All U,P M/F 2 $ 1,2,4
Spruce, Serbian 'Picea omorika' 50-60' - Grn.Gry F,P S,B 4-6 All P,C S 2 $ 2,4
Spruce, White 'Picea glauca' 40-50' - Grn F,P S,W 3-6 All P M 2 $ 2,4
Medium deciduous trees—25 to 50 feet

Alder, Mountain 'Alnus tenuifolia' 20-40' Sp Grn F,P S,N,I 3-6 All O M 2 Ø 2
Apricot 'Prunus armeniaca' 15-25' Sp Grn F B, 4 All S,O M 4 ? 1
Cherry Plum 'Prunus cerasifera' 15-25' Sp Pur F S,B,St 4-6 1,2 U,O M 3 _ 1
'Newport'

17 - 25
Idaho Wilf-
(cont’d) Medium deciduous trees—25 to 50 feet

Cherry Plum 'Thundercloud'
(cont’d) 'Atropurpurea'
Cherry, Japanese 'Prunus serrulata' 20-25' Sp Grn F S, St,I 5-6 1,2 I,C,V F 3 _ 2,3
Flowering
Chokecherry 'Prunus virginiana' 15-30' Sp Grn F B,W 2-6 All S,O M 3 _
'Shubert'
Crabapple 'Malus' spp. 15-40' Sp Grn/Red F,P St 3-6 All S,U,C,OF 4 ? 1,2,3,4
'Prairifire'
'Donald Wyman'
'Indian Summer'
'Spring Snow'
'Strawberry Parfait'
'Red Jewel'
'Purple Prince'
'Adirondack'
Dogwood 'Cornus florida' 20-25' Sp Grn P B,S, 5-6 1,2 I,U S 2 ? 2,3
Dogwood,Kousa 'Cornus kousa' 15-25' Sp Grn P B.S 5-6 1,2 I,U S 2 ? 2
Dogwood, 'Cornus mas' 20-25' Sp Grn F B,S,St 4-6 All O M 3 ? 3
Corneliancherry
Eastern Redbud 'Cercis canadensis' 20-30' Sp Red/Grn F,P S,I 5-6 1,2 O M 2 ? 2,3
Filbert, Purple 'Corylus maxima 15-20' Sp Pur P B 5-6 1,2 R,P S 3 ? 3,4
Giant var. purpurea'
Goldenraintree 'Koelreuteria 30-40' Su Grn F S,X 5-6 1, 2 O F 1 Ø 2
paniculata'
Hawthorn, English 'Crataegus laevigata' 15-24' Sp Grn F,P St 3-6 All S,U,C,OM 3 ? 1,2
Hawthorn, Green 'Crataegus viridis' 25-35' Sp Grn F St,S,B 5-6 1,2 O, M 3 ? 2,3,
Hawthorn, Lavalle 'Crataegus x lavallei' 15-30' Sp Grn F B 4-6 1,2 O M 2 ? 1,2,4
Hawthorn, 'Crataegus phaenopryum' 20-30' Sp Grn F St,S,B 3-6 All O, M 3 ? 1,2,3
Washington
Hornbeam, 'Carpinus betulus' 20-40' - Grn F B,S,St 4-6 All U,P M 2 Ø 3
Columnar 'Columnaris'
Lilac, Japanese 'Syringa reticulata' 20-30' Sp Grn F S,St 4-6 1,2 O M 1 ? 2
Tree
Magnolia, Saucer 'Magnolia x soulangiana' 20-30' Sp Grn F,P S, I 5-6 1,2 P,O M 1 ? 2
Maple, Amur 'Acer ginnala' 15-20' Sp Grn F,P B,WB,S 3-6 All U,S, M 2 _ 1,2,3
Maple, Hedge 'Acer campestre' 25-35' - Grn F,P St,S, 5-6 1,2 O S 2 ? 2
Mountain Ash, 'Sorbus americana' 10-30' Sp Grn F B,S 3-6 All R,U,S F 3 Ø 4
American
Mountain Ash, 'Sorbus aucuparia' 25-50' Sp Grn P S 4-6 All R,U,S M 3 Ø 1
European
Olive, Russian 'Elaegnus angustifolia' 20-45' Sp Gry F S, W,X 4 All U,S,O M 4 $ 1,5
Pear, Callery 'Pyrus calleryana' 25-35' Sp Grn F St,S 5-6 1,2 O,P M 1 ? 2
'Redspire'
Aristocrat®
Plum, Blireiana 'Prunus x blireiana' 15-25' Sp Red/Pur F S, 5-6 1,2 O M 3 ? 2
Serviceberry 'Amelanchier x grandiflora' 20-25' Sp Grn F B 4-6 All I,O M 4 _ 3
Walnut, Persian 'Juglans regia' 40-50' Sp Grn F S 5-6 1,2,3 U,O S 4 Ø 1
Medium evergreen trees—25 to 50 feet

Juniper, Rocky 'Juniperus scopulorum' 20-40' - Gry/Grn F B,WB,N 3-6 All P,O,I S 2 ? 1,2,3
Mountain
Juniper, Utah 'Juniperus
osteosperma' 20-40' - Gry/Grn F B,WB,N 3 2,3,4 I,U, S 2 ? 1
Pine, Limber 'Pinus flexilis' 20-50' - Grn P S,N 3-6 All P,I S 1 Ø 1,2,4
Redcedar, Eastern 'Juniperus virginiana' 20-40' - Grn/Red F B, 4 1,2 G,U,I S 2 ? 1,2,3

17 - 26
Idaho Wilf-
Small deciduous trees—Under 25 feet

Chinese Fringe 'Chionanthus retusus' 8-20' Sp Grn F,P S,B,St. 5-6 1,2 O M 2 _ 3,4
Tree
Gamble Oak 'Quercus gambelii' 5-15' - Grn F,P S, 4-6 All S,U S 4 _ 5
Goldenchain Tree 'Laburnum x watereri' 12-15' Sp Grn F,P B,S,St 5-7 1,2 O,R M 2 ? 3,4
Magnolia, Star 'Magnolia stellata' 15-20' Sp Grn F,P S,I 4-6 1,2 S,O M 1 ? 2,3
Sumac, Smooth 'Rhus glabra' 10-15' Grn F B,S, N,X 3 All S,I,W, F 3 _ 1
Sumac, Staghorn 'Rhus typhina' 15-25' Su Grn F B,S,X, 3-6 All S,I, F 3 _ 2,3,5
Small evergreen trees—Under 25 feet

Arborvitae 'Thuja occidentalis' 15-25' - Grn F,P B 4 All C,G.U M 2 ? 1
'Globosa'
'Little Gem'
Hicks Yew Taxus x media 'Hicksii' 10-15' - Grn N B,I 4-6 1,2 CO, F 2 ? 3,4
Pine, Bristlecone 'Pinus aristata' 8-20' - Grn F S,B,I 4-6 All P S 1 ? 1,2,3,4
Pine, Mugo Pinus mugo 'Mugo' 15-25' - Grn F B,I 3-6 All P S 2 ? 2,4,5
Large shrubs—Over 8 feet

Cherry, Nanking 'Prunus tomentosa' 6-8' Sp Grn F,P B,W 3-6 All P,M F 3 ? 5
Chokeberry, Black 'Aronia melanocarpa' 10-15' Sp Grn F B,S 4-6 All G,M M 4 ? 4
Chokeberry, Purple
Fruited 'Aronia prunifolia' 10-15' Sp Grn F B,S 4-6 All G,P M 3 ? 4
Cranberrybush, 'Viburnum trilobum' 10-15' Sp Grn F B 2-7 All G F 4 ? 3,4
American
Firethorn 'Pyracantha coccinea' 10-15' Sp Grn F,P B,S 5-6 All I,P F 3 ? 5
Juniper, Common 'Juniperus communis' 5-10' - Gry/Grn F,P B,N 3-6 All I,M M 2 ? 5
Lilac, Common 'Syringa vulgaris' 8-15' Sp Grn F B,W 3-7 All P,G M 2 ? 4,5
Lilac, Villosa 'Syringa villosa' 8-15' Sp Grn F,P B,W 3-7 All P,G M 2 ?
Mock Orange 'Philadelphus lewisii' 5-10' Su Grn F,P,I S,B,N 4-6 All I,O F 2 * 5
Peashrub, Siberian 'Cargana arborescens' 15-20' Sp Grn F B,W 2-7 All P F 2 ? 3
Serviceberry, 'Amelanchier alnifolia' 8-15' Sp Grn F B,S 4-6 All P,O F 4 ? 4
Saskatoon
Serviceberry, 'Amelanchier 8-15' Sp Grn F,P B,S 4-6 All P,O F 4 ? 4
Shadblow canadensis'
Smoke Tree Cotinus coggyria 10-15' Sp Pur/Grn F B, 5-6 All O,P F 2 ? 2,3,4
'Purpureus'
Snowball, Viburnum opulus 10-15' Sp Grn F,P S,B 4-6 All P F 2 ? 5
Common 'Roseum'
Snowball, Fragrant 'Viburnum x 8-10' Sp Grn F,P S,B 4-6 All P F 2 ? 5
carlcephalum'
Spiraea, 'Spiraea prunifolia' 5-10' Sp Grn F B,S 5-6 All V F 2 * 8
Bridalwreath
Spiraea, Vanhoutte 'Spiraea x vanhouttei' 5-10' Sp Grn F B,S 4-6 All V F 2 * 8
Viburnum, 'Viburnum dentatum' 6-8' Sp/Su Grn F,P S,B 2-7 All P,G M 2 ? 4
Arrowood
Viburnum, Siebold 'Viburnum sieboldii' 15-20' Sp Grn F,P B,S 4-6 1,2 I,O F 4 ? 3
Yew, Hybrid 'Taxus x media' 4-15' Sp Grn P,S,I B 4-6 All C M 2 ? 5
Yucca 'Yucca flaccida' 4-7' Su Gry/Gre F S 4-6 All O M 2 * 5
Small shrubs—3 to 5 feet

Almond, Dwarf 'Prunus glandulosa' 4-6' Sp Grn F,P B 4-6 All M,S M 4 * 5
Flowering
Almond, Dwarf 'Prunus tenella' 4-5' Sp Grn F,P B 2-6 All M,S M 4 * 4
Russian
Barberry, Japanese 'Berberis thunbergii' 3-6' Sp Red/Gry F,P S,B 4-6 P,S M 3 * 5
Ceanothus, Fender 'Ceanothus fendleri' 1-2' Sp Gry/Gry F,P S,B,N,X 4-6 All S.P F 2 * 5
Cinquefoil, 'Potentilla fruitcosa' 1-4' Su Grn F B 2-6 All M M 1 * 4
Shrubby
Cotoneaster, Rock 'Cotoneaster 3-4' Sp Grn F,P B 4-6 1.2 M F 3 * 5
horizontalis'
17 - 27
Idaho Wilf-
(cont’d) Small shrubs—3 to 5 feet

Cotoneaster, 'Cotoneaster 3-4' Sp Grn F,P B 5-6 1,2 M F 3 * 4,5
Cranberry apiculatus'
Current, Alpine 'Ribes alpinum' 3-5' Sp Grn F,P S,B,N 3-6 All G,M F 3 * 5
Dogwood, 'Cornus sericea' 7-9' Sp Grn F,P B,W,N 2-6 All S,U F 3
Red Twig
Dogwood, Tatarian 'Cornus alba' 8-10' Sp Grn/Red F,P B,W 2-6 All S,U M * 4
Dwarf Burning Euonymus alatus
Bush 'Compactus' 3-6' Sp Grn F,P B,S 3-6 1,2 G,P F 3 * 4,5
Juniper, Chinese 'Juniperus chinensis' 2-10' Grn/Yel F B,S 4-6 All Various M,F 1 * 4
'Gold Coast'
'Mint Julep'
Oregon grape Mahonia aquifolium 3-6' Sp Red/Grn F S, 4-6 All S M 3 * 4,5
'Compactum'
Rhodendendron, 'Rhododendron' spp. 0.5-5' Sp Grn/Gry P B,S 4-6 1,2 U,M M,S 2 * 4
Azalea
Sandcherry, 'Prunus besseyi' 7-10' Grn/Gry F B,N 2-6 All M M 3 * 4
Western
Snowberry 'Symphoricarpos alba' 3-6' Sp Grn F,P N 3-6 All U,M M 4 * 4
Spruce, Dwarf Picea abies 2-4' - Grn/Gry F B,S 2-6 All Various S 1 * 4
Norway 'Nidiformis'
'Procumbens'
Sumac, Scented 'Rhus trilobata' 3-5' Sp Grn F N,X 3-6 All P,S M 3 * 8
'Lemonade Sumac'
'Skunkbush Sumac'
Ground Covers
Bunchberry 'Cornus canadensis' 6-9" Sp Grn P,S I,N 5-6 1,2 S M 3 * 8
Cotoneaster, 'Cotoneaster 8-12" Sp Grn F,P S, 4-6 All S M 2 * 5
Creeping adpressus'
Crowberry 'Vaccinium vitis-idaea' 12" Sp Grn P I 3-6 1,2 S S 3 * 8
Firethorn Pyracantha 'Gnome' 12-15" Su Grn F I 5-6 1,2,3 S M 3 * 8
Germander Teucrium chamaedrys 4-12" Su Grn F I 3-6 All S M 1 * 8
var. Prostratum
Honeysuckle, Halls Lonicera japonica 6-12" Sp Grn S I, 3-6 All S F 2 * 5
'Halliana'
Juniper, Creeping 'Juniperus squamata' 4-6" - Grn F N,X 5-6 1,2 S M 1 * 4
Juniper, Horizonal 'Juniperus horizontalis' 12-16" - Grn/Blu F,P S,N 3-6 All S M 2 * 4,5
Kinnickinnick 'Arctostaphylos 4-6" Sp Grn S,P N,X 3-6 1,3 S M 4 * 5
uva-ursi'
Mahonia 'Mahonia repens' 6-12" Sp Red/Grn S,P N,X 4-6 All S M 4 * 5
Paxistima,Canby 'Paxystima canbyi' 1-2' Sp Grn F,P B,N,I 4-6 All M M 1 * 4
Periwinkle 'Vinca minor' 4-6" Sp Grn S I 3-6 All S F 2 * 5
Silverwood 'Genista pilosa' 12-15" Su Grn F N 5-6 1,2 S F 1 * 8
Sun Rose 'Helianthemum 6-8" Su Grn/Gry F X 3-6 All S M 1 * 8
nummularium'
St. Johnswort 'Hypericum calycinum' 12-18" Su Grn F,S X 5-6 All S F 1 * 8
Spurge, Japanese Pachysandra terminalis 6-10" Su Grn P,S I 4-6 All S F 1 * 8
'Green Carpet'
Wintergreen 'Gaultheria 6" Su Grn P I 3-6 1,2 S M 4 * 8
procumbens'
'Gaultheria ovalifolia' 8" Su Grn P,S N 5-6 All S M 4 * 8
Vines
Akebia, Fiveleaf 'Akebia quinata' 15-20' Sp Grn All I 4-6 All S M 2 ? 8
Bittersweet 'Celastrus' spp. 10-40' Sp Grn F I 3-6 All S M 2 ? 8
Clematis Clematis' spp. 8-20' Sp,Su Grn P I 4-6 All Sp F 1 * 8
x Jackmanii F
‘Henryi’
‘Nelly Moser’

17 - 28
Idaho Wilf-
(cont’d) Vines
Clematis, 'Clematis armandii' 15-20’ Sp Grn P I 5-6 1,2 Sp F 1 * 8
Evergreen
Grape 'Vitis riparia' 10-15’ Su Grn P I 3-6 All S F 4 * 9
Honeysuckle, 'Lonicera japonica 10-15’ Sp Grn P I 4-6 All S F 1 ? 8
Japanese 'Halliana'
'Aureo-reticulata'
'Purpurea'
Honeysuckle 'Lonicera sempervirens' 10-15' Sp Grn P I 4-6 1,2 S F * 8
Trumpet
Hop 'Humulus lupulus' 15-30' Su Grn F I 3-6 All S F 1 ? 8
Hydrangea, 'Hydrangea anomala 8-15' Sp Grn P I 3-6 All S S 2 * 8
Climbing petiolaris'
Ivy, Boston 'Parthenocissus 20-50" Grn All I 4-6 All S F 2 ? 8
tricuspidata'
Ivy, English 'Hedera helix' 10-30' - Grn P,S I 4-6 All S F 1 ? 8
'Baltica'
'Bulgarica'
'Arborescens'
Kiwi, Hardy 'Actinidia arguta' 20-50' Sp Grn F I 4-6 All S F 3 * 8
'Issai'
'Ananasnaja'
'Hood River'
Rose 'Rosa' spp. 6-15' Sp,Su, Grn F,P I 3-6 All S M 3 * 8
'Blaze' F
'Royal Sunset'
'White Dawn'
Trumpetvine 'Campsis radicans' 10-40' Sp Grn F,P I 4-6 All S F 1 ? 8
Virginia Creeper 'Parthenocissus 10-50' Grn All I 3-6 All S F 2 ? 8
quinquefolia'
Winter Creeper 'Euonymus fortunei' 20-30' Sp Grn F,P X 3-6 All S F 2 * 8
'Canadale Gold'
'Coloratus'
'Emerald Gaiety'
Wisteria 'Wisteria' spp. 10-40' Sp Grn F,P I 5-6 All S F 1 ? 8
Resources
1. Stinton, D. A. 1983. Trees for Cities and Towns of the High Plains of Southern Idaho. Master Thesis in Forest Resources, University
of Idaho.
2. Churchillo, S., D. Desjarlais, B. Jorgenson, M. J. Marlow, and J. Stallsmith. 1995. Tree Selection Guide for Streets and Landscapes
Throughout Idaho. Urban Foresty Unit, Boise Parks & Recreation Department, Boise, ID.
3. Book of Trees: Tree Selection Guide. 1996. Washington Water Power Company, Spokane, WA.
4. Finnerty, T, S. Vore, J., Mcgee, J. D. Baughman. 1994. Landscaping and Utilities: Problems, Prevention and Plant Selection. CIS 991
University of Idaho AES, Moscow.
5. Bauer, M. E. 1996. Selecting and Maintaining Water Efficient Landscape Plants. Oregon State University Extension Service, Deschutes
County, OR.
6. Curchillo et.al.Tree Selection Guide, Lewiston Parks & Recreation Urban Forestry Program, Lewiston, ID.
7. Ries et. al. City of Hailey Tree Selection & Planting Guide.
8. Brenzel et.al. 1995. Sunset Western Garden Book, Sunset Publishing Corporation, Menlo Park, CA.
9. Evans G., and K. Laughlin. 1987. Ornamental Plants Tested for Use in Northern Montana. Montana State University, Agricultural
Experiment Station, Bozeman.

17 - 29
University of Idaho
Further Reading CIS 867 Cold Hardiness in Woody Landscape
Plants: Its Role in Winter Survival and
Books How to Maximize It (25¢)
Certification Program—Certified Arborists. 1991. CIS 1068 Fertilizing Landscape Trees ($1.00)
Edited by Ed Neely. International Society of PNW 496 Grafting and Budding Plants to
Arboriculture, Box 908, Urbana, IL. Propagate, Topwork, Repair ($2.50)
Bedker, P., J. Obrien, and M. Mielke. 1995. How to BUL 644 How to Prune Coniferous Evergreen
Prune Trees. USDA Forest Service Publication Trees ($1.50)
NAFR-01-95, pg. 17. BUL 819 How to Prune Deciduous Landscape
Dirr, M. A. 1998. Manual of Woody Landscape Trees ($2.00)
Plants, Fifth Edition, Stipes Publishing Co., CIS 1054 Low Input Landscaping ($1.00)
Champaign, IL.
PNW 500 Plant Materials for Landscaping ($2.50)
Dirr, M. A. 1996. Michael A. Dirr’s Photo Library
CIS 795 Roses: Buying and Planting (35¢)
of Woody Landscape Plants, PlantAmerica Inc.,
Milliken & Co., Locust Valley, NY. CIS 796 Roses: Care After Planting ($1.00)
Harris, Richard W. 1992. Arboriculture—Integrated CIS 794 Roses: Types, Selection, and
Management of Landscape Trees, Shrubs and Environmental Requirements (35¢)
Vines. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, PNW 5 Trees Against the Wind ($8.00)
NJ. To order University of Idaho publications, contact
Hightshoe, G. L., and H. D. Groe. 1998. North your county’s UI Extension office, or write Publica-
American Plantfile: A Visual Guide to Plant tions, University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho 83844-
2240, call (208) 885-7982, fax (208) 885-4648, or
Selection. McGraw-Hill Companies, New York,
email calspubs@uidaho.edu. Idaho residents add 6
NY.
percent sales tax.
Hightshoe, G. L. 1988. Native Trees, Shrubs and Vines You can also check, and in some cases download,
for Urban and Rural America. VanNostrand the online publication and video catalog on the UI
Reinhold Co., New York, NY. Educational Communications web site (http://
Kelly, J. K., and J. G. Hiller. 1995. The Hiller info.ag.uidaho.edu).
Gardeners Guide to Trees and Shrubs. The Readers
Web Sites
Digest Association, Inc., Pleasantville, NY.
Pacific Northwest Chapter, International Society of
Pruning Standards. 1988. Western Chapter,
Arboriculture. Available:
International Society of Arboriculture,
<http://www.teleport.com/~pm.wisa/>
W.l.C.I.S.A. Certification Committee, St.
Helena, CA. National Arbor Day Foundation. Available:
<http://www.arborday.org>
Booklets and Pamphlets Arnold Arboretum. Available:
Landscape Trees and Shrubs, Cir. 1280, Montana <http://www.arboretum.harvard.edu/main.htm>
State University, Bozeman, MT.
Map: American Horticultural Society Plant Heat
Pruning Standards for Woody Plants, 1993. A Zone Map by Marc Cathey. To order telephone
Guide: Compiled and edited by Harriet 800-777-7931 ($14.95)
Husemann for the City of Lewiston, ID.
Tree City USA Bulletins, 1988-92. The National Acknowledgment: The authors thank the
Arbor Day Foundation, Nebraska City, NB. National Arbor Day Foundation for providing
illustrations taken from Tree City USA Bulletins,
and the City of Lewiston for permission to use
Tables 2, 3, and 4.

17 - 30
Chapter
Herbaceous Ornamentals
18
I. Introduction 2 VI. Getting Started with Annuals 5

II. The Art of Design 2 A. Propagation 5
A. Color 2 B. Growing, Culture, and
B. Texture 3 Maintenance 6
C. Shape and Size 3 C. Description of Selected Annuals 9
III. What to Plant 3 VII. Getting Started with Biennials 10
A. Exposure 3 VIII. Getting Started with Perennials 10
B. Season of Flowering 3 A. The Purpose of a
C. Cut and Dried Flowers 3 Perennial Garden 11
D. Herbaceous Ornamentals B. Sexual Propagation by Seed 11
That Naturalize 4 C. Vegetative Propagation by
E. Special-Use Gardens 4 Division, Stem Cuttings, Root
Cuttings, Layering, Grafting, or
IV. How to Plant (Design) 4 Tissue Culture 12
A. Formal and Informal 4
D. Vegetative Propagation by
B. Beds and Borders 4 Specialized Stems and Roots 13
C. Plant Choice 4 E. Growing, Culture, and
V. Gardening in Containers 4 Maintenance 14
A. Containers 5 IX. A Selection of Perennials for Idaho 17
B. Soil 5 Further Reading 28
C. Planting 5
D. Watering 5
E. Maintenance 5

18 - 1
Chapter 18
Herbaceous Ornamentals
J. A. Robbins and W. M. Colt
M. Michael Colt, Extension Horticulturist Emeritus, Parma Research and Extension Center
I. Introduction white. A darker version of a hue is a shade,

a color made by combining a hue with
Herbaceous ornamentals comprise the nonwoody
black. A tone is made by combining various
portion of the garden landscape. These plants
amounts of black and white, or gray, with a
generally add color and interest to a basic land-
hue. The value of any color is the brightness
scape design and landscape structure. Whether
of that color compared to another. Pure yel-
that structure is a backdrop or basic design of
low has a greater value than pure blue.
trees and shrubs, or a purposeful laying out of
beds and other types of planting areas, the addi- The warm colors of yellow, red, and orange
tion of herbaceous ornamentals can enhance a will brighten cool, shady areas. These colors
landscape significantly. These plants are also for- are attention getting and can be used to the
giving because they are easier to dig and re- advantage at the back of a long bed to
arrange than most landscape trees and shrubs. shorten the perspective. The cool colors of
Learning to use herbaceous ornamentals to the violet and blue, by contrast, recede and are
best advantage is easy; simply follow the guide- good for close-up viewing. Cool colors are
lines outlined in this chapter. used to the advantage in lending a cooling
illusion to any overheated area such as a
II. The Art of Design concrete patio.
A. Color
Fig. 1. The color wheel.
Herbaceous ornamentals are generally
grown for their addition of color, through
their flowers and foliage, to the landscape. Red oraRed
d
Reolet ng
e
Understanding the impact of colors and how v i
to combine them can form a basis for use of
Or
t
ole
these versatile landscape plants (Fig. 1).

ang
Direct complement
on
Vi
arm
Several color schemes can be created in a

ch
single garden by planting early season

Yellow
adi
green
violet
blooming plants in one color scheme and

Blue
Tri
late-blooming plants in a different scheme.

An interesting overlap can occur in plans of
this type.
Ye
lue
llo
The primary colors are red, yellow, and

B
blue. Other colors are combinations of these o

en Yerang
primary colors. A pure color is a hue. A grelue llo e
lighter version of a hue is a tint, which is B Green w
accomplished by combining a hue with

18 - 2
Color schemes effectively used with herba- vision. Plants with tiny leaves and small
ceous ornamentals are: flowers lend a fine texture to the landscape,
1. Polychromatic—Uses all the colors and and tend to recede in your field of vision.
their tints, shades, and tones. This can Choose herbaceous ornamentals according
produce a carnival effect, and often re- to the textural “feel” you wish to attain. Of-
sults in some very pleasing color combi- ten a mix of all textures is most visually
nations. pleasing.
2. Monochromatic—Uses the various tints, C. Shape and Size
shades, and hues of only one color. Gar- Herbaceous ornamentals come in all sizes
dens using this color scheme are particu- and shapes. Size is comprised of height, or
larly dramatic. tallness, and spread, or the extent to which
3. Analogous—Uses adjacent colors on the the herbaceous ornamental covers the
color wheel such as blue, violet, and red. ground at maturity. A shape is the same as
Such a color scheme can be expanded by the habit or form of a plant. Some herba-
using the various tints and shades of each ceous ornamentals hug the ground, while
of the colors. others tower to 6 feet or more; others are
4. Complementary—Uses opposite colors on vines. Some are compact ball-shaped plants
the color wheel such as red and green, while others are open and upright. There are
orange and blue, and yellow and violet. herbaceous ornamentals perfect for any lo-
This type of color scheme is most effec- cation. Be sure to space plants far enough
tively used with pure hues (not tints or apart to allow room for each to develop to
shades) and creates a very bold effect. maturity.
This color scheme is not recommended
for the small garden.
III. What to Plant
5. Split Complementary—Uses a pure color A. Exposure
and a color from either side of its Herbaceous ornamentals can be adapted to
complementary counterpart. An example all types of sites from full sun to pure shade.
of this is starting with blue and combin- Choosing a plant according to the exposure
ing it with red or yellow, the colors bor- of the site ensures success with these plants.
dering orange on the color wheel. B. Season of Flowering
6. Triadic—Uses three colors that are equal Some herbaceous ornamentals are tolerant
distance from each other on the color of cool temperatures and bloom in early
wheel. This unusual idea is striking. spring. Others need warmer weather and
7. White—This color deserves a special bloom in the summer. Still others bloom in
comment. There have been many famous the fall. Choose the proper herbaceous orna-
gardens planted in white flowers alone. mental based on when color in a particular
There is a special appeal in the contrast area is most desirable.
of white against the green foliage of C. Cut and Dried Flowers
plants. White will give your garden a Some kinds of herbaceous ornamentals hold
well-planned and orderly look. It is the up better as cut flowers while others dry
last color to fade from sight as darkness beautifully. Choose herbaceous ornamentals
falls, so it is a good choice for “evening” that are adapted to fresh or dry display.
gardens. Cream and ivory flowers blend Special cutting gardens can be completely
well with all colors except yellow. harvested for flowers without concern for
B. Texture how the garden looks. However, plants
This is dictated by the density and size of valuable for cut flowers can usually be in-
individual leaves and flowers. Plants with corporated into the main garden.
large leaves and large bold flowers have a When cutting for air drying, choose flowers
coarse texture, tend to be dominant in a gar- just reaching maturity. Strip off the foliage,
den, and appear to advance to your field of and hang upside down in small bunches in a
18 - 3
dry, shady spot. Some flowers will dry well Herbaceous ornamentals can also be tucked
standing upright in a container. here and there in a shrub or perennial bed or
D. Herbaceous Ornamentals That Naturalize border to provide a spot of seasonal color.
Some herbaceous ornamentals, such as na- Avoid spots, however, where water-greedy
tive plants or wildflowers, reseed them- roots of trees and shrubs will interfere with
selves prolifically and eventually will natu- growth. In these spots, a container of herba-
ralize an area. Know which plants have this ceous ornamentals will provide better re-
tendency, and choose the proper annuals for sults.
naturalizing. Remember, any hybrid orna- C. Plant Choice
mentals that reseed will not come true-to- Materials will depend on the desired effect
type, and usually will produce an offspring and will be influenced by color scheme, sea-
of inferior plant quality. Seedlings of this son of flowering, texture, diversity, type of
type are not desirable. background plants, and available space.
E. Special-Use Gardens When designing the bed or border, remem-
Herbaceous ornamentals are used to create ber to place the lower growing plants to the
gardens with special qualities such as rock front so that they will be visible and not
gardens, bog gardens, prairie and meadow shaded out by taller types.
gardens, cottage gardens, cutting gardens, Since it is easier to place the tallest plants
fragrance gardens, herb gardens, or tradi- first, design the border from the back to the
tional herbaceous perennial gardens. front; the bed from the middle to the edge.
Design from fall to spring rather than spring
IV. How to Plant (Design) to fall. This ties in with the suggestion to
A. Formal and Informal design from the back to the front of the bor-
der and from the middle to the edge of the
Once you have decided where to plant her-
bed, since fall plants are often taller and
baceous ornamentals, decide on a design.
would logically be placed in the back of the
Formal designs are composed mostly of
border or the middle of the bed. Finally, be-
straight lines and symmetry. What appears
cause you read from left to right, design
on the right side of the garden is matched on
from left to right.
the left. A formal design is easy to lay out
and, because of its visual simplicity, is the Plant in clumps or drifts of plants using
best choice for a small lot. groups of the same species or cultivar.
When planting in groups of less than 10,
Informal gardens are composed of curved
plant odd rather than even numbers of the
flowing lines and a disregard for symmetry.
same plant. These design suggestions help
B. Beds and Borders avoid the “zoo” effect (a collection of one
Beds are large blocks of planted areas. The of everything) and will lead the eye through
bed requires a relatively large area around it the planting.
to look its best. If you have a large yard you
may have the perfect spot for a bed. V. Gardening in Containers
Borders run along the edges of shrub beds, Almost any annual can be grown in a con-
buildings, fences, walkways, and lawns. tainer. Plants that spread or cascade are suit-
They conserve space and soften the edges of able for the outer rim of regular containers and
whatever they border. for hanging baskets. If plants are mixed in a
As a general rule, the sum of the widths of container, all should have similar sun and wa-
the beds and borders should not exceed one- ter requirements. Containers and hanging bas-
third of the width of the yard. Also, indi- kets allow the gardener to provide spots of
vidual beds should be no more than five- color almost anywhere around the home
eighths to two-thirds as long as the long axis grounds.
of the yard.

18 - 4
A. Containers will germinate and grow in cooler soil. The
Choose a container with holes in the bottom plants will stand some freezing and thawing.
to drain the water. A tray underneath will Half-hardy annuals will take some cool, damp
catch any drainage. Avoid letting pots rest weather but will be killed by a frost. Tender
in standing water, as roots may begin to rot. annuals can take no cool weather at all. Some
Glazed clay pots and plastic containers do annuals will reseed depending on variety and
not breathe and will not need watering as climatic conditions.
often as clay. Darker colors absorb more Annuals serve many functions in the garden,
heat, which will warm the soil but cause but their primary use is for providing color.
more water loss. Therefore, light-colored They grow quickly and easily, are great for
containers may be the best choice for most cutting, and are generally inexpensive. Annu-
gardeners. als generally bloom for most of the season. An
B. Soil added bonus is the fragrance that some annuals
For containerized plants, purchase a com- bring to the garden. Annuals come in a variety
mercial potting mix that is a blend of peat, of sizes, shapes, and colors.
pearlite, and other components and contains A. Propagation
no soil. Mixes are blended to hold water and 1. Seeds—Come in mixtures and single cul-
nutrients and to drain well. Mix some slow tivars. Hybrid seeds are usually more ex-
release fertilizer with the mix, or liquid feed pensive but often produce spectacular
about every 2 weeks. Water containers well flowers. If you save your own seed, be
before applying liquid fertilizer. aware that most flowers, and especially
C. Planting hybrids, will not breed true-to-type.
Containers look best when packed with Seeds will lose their viability if stored for
plants. A planted container should look at- many years, so starting with fresh seed
tractive immediately after or within a few packaged for the growing year will get
weeks of planting. you off to the best start.
D. Watering Seeds that are started indoors or in a
greenhouse should be growing 4 to 6
Plants in containers require regular water-
weeks before you place them in the gar-
ing. Always water until the water runs out
den. The warm weather annuals should
of the drain holes. Water can run right
be transplanted outdoors after the danger
through very dry soil without actually wet-
of frost.
ting it. If you have doubts, tip the container
up to test that it has become much heavier The easiest way to begin annual plants is
with water. to plant the seeds directly where you
wish the plants to grow. The seedlings
E. Maintenance
can be thinned to achieve the desired
Herbaceous annuals make excellent long- density. Follow the seed package instruc-
flowering container plants. However, peren- tions for time and depth of planting.
nial container plants can be placed in the
2. Transplants—Plants from the garden cen-
garden after their limelight. If containerized
ter save you time and effort. They are,
perennials are not planted out in the garden,
however, more expensive than growing
place them in a cold frame or garage to pro-
your own. Some flowers such as petu-
tect their roots from freezing during the
nias, impatiens, and geraniums have very
winter.
small seeds, are slow to germinate, and
VI. Getting Started with Annuals seedlings take longer to reach transplant
size. They can be started indoors, but
An annual plant completes its life cycle in a they demand precise growing conditions
single year. Unless the plants reseed them- and vigilant care. It is easier to buy trans-
selves, new annuals need to be planted every plants for these types of plants.
season. Some hardy annuals have seeds that

18 - 5
Pick good plants. Make sure plants are even with the surrounding soil surface.
healthy and growing vigorously. Plants Recent research has shown that breaking
that have obviously dried out, have over- up the root ball of even the most pot-
grown their containers, or are yellow or bound of annuals only slows down their
leggy should be avoided because they development. Plant the roots as they
will bloom poorly and require constant come out of the container. Do not let the
watering. root ball dry out. Firm the soil around the
Slip plants out of their containers to roots and water well. Protect plants
check the roots. Look for a fine network against excessive sun, wind, or cold
of healthy roots supported by visible soil. while they are getting started. Inverted
Avoid plants with a mass of dense, white, pots or milk cartons, or row covers can
tangled roots. be used.
B. Growing, Culture, and Maintenance 3. Fertilizing—Dry or liquid fertilizers will
1. Soil preparation—A soil test is always a work for annuals. Nitrogen stimulates
good idea if there is any doubt about the leafy growth, while phosphorus and pot-
fertility or pH of the soil. Amend the soil ash promotes flowering, fruiting, and root
appropriately before planting to adjust growth. Fertilizers with a ratio of 1-1-1,
the acidity and provide the proper nutri- 1-2-1, or 1-2-2 are best for annuals. Re-
ents for growth. member that the numbers on the package
indicate both the ratio and the percentage
Amendments, such as compost, peat
of active ingredients per pound of nitro-
moss, and manure added to the soil will
gen-phosphorus-potassium.
increase organic matter, and thereby in-
crease water-holding capacity and soil Dry fertilizer amendments added at plant-
fertility. Covering the soil surface with a ing will last for about 6 weeks. Applica-
3-inch layer of amendment and digging it tion of dry fertilizers, followed by a wa-
into a 12-inch depth provides a good tering, or liquid fertilizer applied to damp
planting area. soil will maintain the quality of the plants
and blooms.
2. Planting—Seeds will germinate when the
soil is warmed to the proper temperature. 4. Watering—Young plants need more fre-
The exact temperature will depend on the quent watering until their roots get estab-
annual species being planted. lished. Sown seeds may need multiple
daytime watering. As plants become es-
After the soil is prepared, sprinkle the
tablished, gradually water less frequently.
seed either randomly or in rows with in-
Watering established plants will depend
dentations in the soil. Cover the seed with
on plant size, soil characteristics, and
loose, organically amended soil, so the
weather. During hot weather, large plants
soil will not crust over the seeds. Water
in sandy soil require frequent watering.
in with a light misting of water, and keep
Strive to keep the plants evenly moist. If
the soil evenly moist until germination
plants are allowed to dry out, they may
occurs. Be sure not to plant the seed any
be permanently stunted.
deeper than suggested on the seed pack-
age label. Overhead watering with sprinklers is a
common technique. However, some
Acclimate transplants before placing
flowers are more susceptible to disease if
them in the soil. Place them in a pro-
their leaves and flowers are constantly
tected space outdoors for several days,
wet. Overhead watering can also cause
and make sure the plant does not dry out.
taller plants to tip over.
At planting time, tap or tip the plants out
of their pots, and set them in a prepared Furrow watering is a common technique
hole large enough for the root ball to fit if planting is done in rows. Furrows must
comfortably. Set the plant in the hole, be tended so the water flows properly,
making sure the top of the root ball is and there must be a gentle slope from one

18 - 6
end to the other. Once plants get large, frost problems. After plants are well es-
the furrow system can be difficult to tablished, a second thinning will leave
maintain. plants with plenty of room to attain a ma-
Drip irrigation is the most efficient way ture growth. Properly spaced plants are
to deliver water. Use drip emitters or per- healthier and produce more blossoms.
forated tubing to deliver water directly 7. Pinching—Removing the terminal
where you want it. growth on young annual plants will help
Infrequent deep watering is better than make them bushier and more compact.
frequent light applications. Many annuals are now bred to be com-
5. Mulching—This helps annual plants con- pact and well branched. However, any
serve moisture and keeps the soil cooler. plant that has become too leggy or too
Be sure to apply the mulch after the soil tall will be improved by pinching. Ex-
has warmed in the spring, otherwise amples are petunias, geraniums, and
warming will be delayed. Mulches also many chrysanthemums.
help in weed control and provide an at- Pinching out the first blossoms that form
tractive appearance. Organic materials, on some plants will cause more overall
such as bark or sawdust, can be incorpo- bloom. Examples are marigolds and zin-
rated into the soil at the end of the season nias.
as an organic amendment. 8. Weeding—These rob annual plants of
Mulch materials must allow water to nutrients and water and make them look
move through. Organic materials must be unkempt. Weed problems can be reduced
loose and coarse. Remember that many by proper soil preparation and mulching
organic materials will draw nitrogen to immediately after transplanting. In direct-
the soil to aid in breakdown. These mate- seeded areas, apply mulch to retard weed
rials, when used as mulch, must be aug- growth after plants have been thinned.
mented with nitrogen fertilizer. Wood If weeds grow among annuals, hoe only
byproducts, such as bark chips and saw- deep enough to sever the weeds just be-
dust, as well as compost make good low the surface. This will avoid any dam-
mulch for annuals. Pine needles and grass age to the shallow feeder roots common
clippings can also be used. Spread grass to annuals. If weeds are large, pull them
clippings in one thin layer and allow by hand.
them to dry before adding another layer. 9. Deadheading and grooming—Removing
Landscape fabric can be spread over the the faded flowers, or deadheading, will
soil surface and covered with bark chips help keep the garden looking neat and
or other organic materials. The fabric will prolong bloom on most garden annu-
stops weed growth, but allows air and als. A plant that is ripening seeds pro-
water to penetrate the soil. duces less blossoms. Pinch off or cut
6. Thinning—Seedlings grown from di- spent flowers back to the next branch.
rectly planted seeds need to be thinned. Shearing the flower heads with pruning
This process is little more than pulling shears works well for smaller-flowered
out the excess seedlings to establish the plants. Be careful not to cut back too far.
proper spacing for the type of annual Remove less than one-third of the plant.
grown. Grooming annuals involves removing
If pulling will disrupt the roots of the re- dead leaves and thinning extra branches.
maining plants in the garden, clip off the Grooming keeps plants looking good and,
extras at the soil line with shears. Leav- by removing dead foliage before it can
ing more plants than necessary at this mold on the plant, keeps diseases from
first thinning will provide some plants to gaining a foothold.
be transplanted elsewhere and also allow Thinning the foliage keeps the air circu-
a margin of safety in case of disease or lating through the plants, keeps the plants

18 - 7
dry, and cuts down on diseases. Thinning ticidal soaps. Caterpillars can be con-
also allows light penetration to the inte- trolled with Bt spray. Earwigs can be
rior of the plant. Often insect pests, trapped in rolled newspapers and then
which otherwise might be overlooked, destroyed.
are discovered during the grooming. If chemical treatment becomes necessary,
10. Staking—Tall growing annuals such as make sure your pest is positively identi-
larkspur and tall marigolds need protec- fied and use a chemical appropriate for
tion from wind and rain or overhead its control. Always follow label direc-
sprinklers. Stakes help them grow tions.
straight and keep them from being 12. Diseases—Since annuals are only in the
knocked over. garden for one season, diseases are not as
Stakes can be made of wood, bamboo, or serious a problem as they are for perenni-
any similar material. To be less conspicu- als. The following diseases, however, can
ous, stakes should be small in diameter sometimes cause problems: the fungus
and about 6 inches shorter than the ma- diseases botrytis blight (gray mold),
ture plant to avoid being visible above damping-off fungus, powdery mildew
the plant. Secure the stems to the stakes and rust, and the virus diseases mosaic
with paper-covered wire, plastic ribbon, and aster yellows.
or other material that will not cut into the Moist conditions and splashing water fa-
stem, You also can support the plants vor and spread the fungus diseases rust,
with a framework of stakes and strings in powdery mildew, damping-off fungus,
crisscrossing patterns. Commercial sup- and botrytis blight. Spacing and groom-
port frameworks are available for herba- ing plants correctly to maintain a good
ceous annuals. airflow will help to prevent these dis-
Stake plants before they have a chance to eases. Sprinkler watering in the morning
fall over or begin to grow crooked. When so the foliage will dry during the day or
plants are about one-third of their mature drip irrigating so the foliage stays com-
size, begin staking. Place stakes or pletely dry will also help. Damping-off
frames close to the plant, but take care can be prevented by planting seeds after
not to damage the root system. Secure the the weather warms and not keeping the
plant stems to the stake or frame as it seeds and seedlings too wet.
grows taller. Botrytis gains a foothold in dead plant
11. Insects—Although ornamental annuals parts. Deadheading and grooming can
are generally pest-free, the following in- help to keep this disease out of annuals.
sects can sometimes cause problems: Insects such as aphids and leafhoppers
aphids, beetles, caterpillars, thrips, white spread the virus diseases mosaic and aster
flies, earwigs, and mites. yellows. Starting with virus-free plants
Annuals that are well maintained can and then excluding insect pests will de-
withstand most attacks by insects. Plants tour these diseases. No control is avail-
under water stress or those lacking plant able for the virus diseases. Plants must be
nutrients become more susceptible to in- pulled and destroyed. The fungus dis-
sect attack. Keeping annuals healthy and eases are controlled with fungicides.
growing is the first line of defense. Many Check the label of each chemical for the
insect pests are naturally controlled by organisms controlled and proper applica-
predator insects. Chemical sprays will tion methods.
destroy these predators and should be 13. Other pests—Slugs and snails are very
avoided. common and can chew small annuals
Insects, such as aphids, mites, thrips, and down to nothing. Handpick, trap, and de-
white flies, can be controlled with insec- stroy the pests, or use commercial baits.

18 - 8
C. Description of Selected Annuals These seed-grown plants will form tubers
1. Antirrhinum majus (Snapdragon)— that can be dug and stored over the win-
Available in many colors. Grows in full ter. To assure vigorous bloom, however,
sun. Height varies from 12 inches for replant each spring from seed. These
dwarf plants to 36 inches for the tall vari- showy plants will bloom profusely in the
eties. Plants can be directly seeded or first year.
transplanted in early spring. These plants 8. Ipomoea tricolor (Morning glory)—Col-
often reseed themselves under Idaho con- ors include blue, white, pink, red, choco-
ditions. late, crimson, lavender, and violet. Grows
2. Begonia semperflorens (Bedding bego- in full sun. This climbing plant will grow
nia)—Colors in shades of red and pink, to 10 feet, but some dwarf forms are
and white. Leaves are bright green or available that grow to 5 inches. This fast-
bronze-red and waxy looking. Grows in growing vine is attractive on trellises and
partial sun to shade. Height is 6 to 12 fences. Flowers on old varieties are open
inches at maturity. Seeds are slow to start only at night, but the newer varieties stay
and are best used as bedding plants or open most of the day. Several different
houseplants. species are available. Some will reseed.
3. Calendula officinalis (Pot marigold)— 9. Lathyrus odoratus (Sweet pea)—Comes
Flowers are white, cream, orange, yel- in pink, red, purple, lavender, white,
low, and apricot. Grows in full sun. Ma- cream, apricot, salmon, maroon, and
ture height is 12 to 30 inches. Sow seeds bicolors. Prefers full sun. Climbing types
directly in early spring. Flower petals are will grow to 5 feet while bush types grow
edible, and the flowers make long-lasting to 12 to 36 inches. Can be planted very
cut flowers. These plants are very easy to early. Keeping seed pods off plants will
grow and will reseed profusely. keep it blooming.
4. Callistephus chinensis (China aster)— 10. Limonium sinuatum (Statice)—Colors
Asters come in white, light yellow, pink, include blue, lavender, white, rose, yel-
red, blue, and lavender or purple. Grows low, apricot, and peach. Prefers full sun.
in full sun. Height varies from 6 to 30 Grows 10 to 48 inches tall. This plant is
inches. Sow seeds directly into garden in easily dried and is decorative in bou-
spring. These plants dislike being trans- quets. Various forms yield plants of dif-
planted. Many flower forms are available, fering heights. L. sinuatum has flowers in
and they all make excellent cut flowers. flat-topped clusters while L. suworowii
5. Centaurea sp. (Bachelor’s button)—Col- has curved spikes of bright rose or lilac
ors vary from blue, pink, rose, purple, flowers.
yellow, and white. Grows in full sun. 11. Lobelia erinus (Lobelia)—Colors include
Height is 12 to 36 inches tall. The differ- white, cream, rose, pink, purple, violet,
ent species have differing planting and and lavender. Grows in full sun to light
growth requirements. shade. Height is 4 to 6 inches. Lobelias
6. Cosmos sp. (Cosmos)—Colors are yel- are easy to establish as transplants. Flow-
low, orange, red, white, pink, and ers best when nights are cool. Attractive
bicolors. Grows in full sun to partial in front of other annuals and in containers
shade. Height is 2 to 7 feet. Easy-to-grow and hanging baskets.
plants make good backgrounds for other 12. Pelargonium sp. (Geranium)—Comes in
annuals. Several different species have shades of red, pink, orange, violet, white,
differing planting and growth require- and bicolors. Grows in full sun to partial
ments. These plants will reseed. shade, depending on variety. Height is 8
7. Dahlia sp. (Dahlia)—Comes in all colors to 36 inches. These popular annuals can
except blue. Requires full sun for at least be planted as rooted cuttings or as trans-
half the day. Height is 12 to 20 inches. plants in spring. Several different species

18 - 9
have differing growth habits. All make inches. Violas are easy to establish as
good houseplants. They can also be over- transplants are popular for containers,
wintered in a cool, unheated cellar. hanging baskets, and rock gardens. These
13. Petunia hybrida (Garden petunia)—Col- plants grow best in early spring through
ors available include shades of pink, red, early summer. Some varieties are more
salmon, coral, yellow, cream, blue, heat tolerant than others. The various
purple, white, and bicolors. Plants prefer species have various flower and growth
full sun. Height is 8 to 27 inches. They characteristics. They will bloom all sum-
are best started as transplants. The long mer in cool regions if plants are dead-
blooming period of petunias make them a headed but will need to be replaced in hot
popular annual. Flowers are single or summer climates.
double. The plants are adapted to a wide 18. Zinnia elegans (Garden zinnia)—Comes
range of soil and water conditions. They in shades of white, yellow, orange, red,
also make good cut flowers. pink, purple, and bicolors. Plants grow in
14. Portulaca grandiflora (Moss rose)—Col- full sun. Height is 6 to 36 inches. Zinnias
ors include white, cream, yellow, orange, are easily started from seed. These plants
red, and pink. Grows in full sun. Height grow easily and bloom through the heat
is 6 inches. Sow seeds directly or set out of summer and into late summer when
transplants. This favorite grows in sunny, most other annuals have finished. Avail-
dry areas where many other plant will not able in dwarf and tall growing varieties.
grow. Plants have a trailing habit, and the
leaves are succulent. Flowers are single VII. Getting Started with Biennials
or double and open in the sun and close Biennial plants complete their life cycle in 2
in late afternoon. These plants look good years. During the first year plants produce
in rock gardens, containers, and hanging leaves that are often close to the ground and
baskets. arranged circular in nature. This rosette of
15. Tagetes sp. (Marigold)—Colors available leaves overwinters, and the winter cold period
include white, off-white, yellow, orange, stimulates flowering during the second year.
and orange-red. Plants grow in full sun. The plants bloom and then die.
Height is 4 inches to 4 feet. They are eas- Biennial seeds can be planted in midsummer to
ily established from seed or as trans- produce plants that develop in the fall. The
plants. Marigolds bloom continuously plant will then bloom the next year. Popular
from early summer until frost. All are biennials are stock, foxglove, silver dollar, and
good as cut flowers. The many different hollyhock.
species have various flower forms and Culture of biennials is the same as for annuals
plant growth habits. except the plants remain for 2 years.
16. Tropaeolum majus (Nasturtium)—Colors
include cream, yellow, orange, red, and VIII. Getting Started with Perennials
pink. Plants grow in full sun. Height var- Historically, herbaceous perennials have al-
ies from 15 inches in the dwarf varieties ways been an important component of the or-
to 10 feet in the climbing types. They are namental garden, and recently there has been
easily established from seed, but plants an upsurge of interest across the United States
do not transplant well. Young leaves and in the culture of herbaceous perennials. De-
blossoms have a peppery flavor and are spite this renaissance, many gardeners are re-
edible. Blooms profusely throughout the luctant to try growing herbaceous perennials
summer until frost. because they still lack appreciation and knowl-
17. Viola sp. (Pansy)—Colors available in- edge about them.
clude white, yellow, orange, red, purple, Herbaceous perennials take the name herba-
blue, and bicolors. Plants grow in full sun ceous from the word herb, a seed-producing
or partial shade. Height of plants is 8 annual, biennial, or perennial that does not

18 - 10
produce woody stems. Herbaceous perennials A. The Purpose of a Perennial Garden
are termed perennial in that they take one or A perennial garden may have different pur-
more seasons to go from seed to seed, and then poses and fill many needs. The great En-
generally, but not necessarily, live for three or glish gardener, Gertrude Jekyll (1848-
more seasons. Some, such as columbine, may 1933), perhaps said it best when she
be short-lived, while others such as peony will penned:
outlast several generations of the same family “The first purpose of a garden is to give
in the same site without being divided or happiness and repose of mind, which is
moved. more often enjoyed in the contemplation
The tops of the plants, the flowers, the leaves, of the homely border…than in any of
and the stems of herbaceous perennials usually those great gardens where the flowers
die back to the ground with the first fall frost. lose their identity, and with it their hold
The hard, fleshy subterranean portions of the of the human heart, and have to take a
plant, the crown and roots, survive the winter lower rank as mere masses of color fill-
and resume growth in spring. Those herba- ing so many square yards of space.”
ceous perennials that survive the winter with Among the uses of a perennial garden might
little or no protection are termed hardy. Those be to:
herbaceous perennials that need some protec-
• Enhance those outdoor areas where you
tion to survive the winter outdoors are said to
will spend much of your time from spring
be half-hardy. Some herbaceous perennials
to fall.
must be lifted as tubers, rhizomes, or bulbs,
stored overwinter or placed in a greenhouse, • Create an attractive privacy screen.
and then be replanted in spring. These plants • Soften and make attractive a steep slope
are termed tender herbaceous perennials. by terracing it and planting herbaceous
Herbaceous perennials are available in an un- perennials.
limited variety of flowers, foliage colors, tex- • Create a bog garden where it is too wet
tures, forms, spreads, and height. As a group, for a lawn.
herbaceous perennials are the first plants to • Create an inviting entrance to your house.
bloom in the spring and the last to fail with the • Grow flowers for indoor or outdoor fra-
fall frosts. They seldom bloom more than a grance.
few days to several weeks as individuals, but • Integrate the other features of the land-
afford a continuity of bloom as a bed or bor- scape into a whole.
der. • Create a special place to exhibit your
Being herbaceous rather than woody, herba- skill at raising specimen plants.
ceous perennials have the capacity to bend in • Mask unattractive aspects of the yard
the breeze and lend interest and movement to a such as tool sheds, garbage cans, compost
static landscape. They have the advantage, un- bins, etc.
like trees and shrubs, of obtaining a definite
• Use a rocky outcropping as a rock garden
size each season, somewhere between a few
rather than trying to remove the rocks.
inches to 10 feet tall. Generally, herbaceous
perennials need division and no pruning. • Create a stunning view from inside the
house.
Herbaceous perennials vary in their environ-
mental preferences from wet to dry, fertile to • Add color, shape, and dimension to the
infertile, low to high pH, sandy to loam to clay small yard patches next to entrances,
soils, as well as shady to sunny sites. They also which will soften the hard features of the
vary widely in the amount of care they need. existing backdrop.
While there are no maintenance-free herba- B. Sexual Propagation by Seed
ceous perennials, there are many that require This method is advantageous because dis-
low maintenance. ease is not as easily carried over on the seed
as it may be through vegetative propagation.

18 - 11
To start herbaceous perennials from seed, habit when they are dug and divided. For
harvest the seed when it is ripe but before example, compact shallow-rooted plants
the spent flower heads self-sow. Keep in are divided by digging the entire clump
mind that seeds of many horticultural culti- and pulling it carefully apart into smaller
vars will not come true-to-type owing to its plants. Solid clumps of plants such as
hybrid parentage. To start perennials from daylilies, hosta, phlox, and Siberian iris
seed indoors, start them in midwinter to are divided by digging up the entire
early spring so some of them will bloom the clump and using two spading forks back-
first growing season. Seeds may be started to-back to pull the clump into sections. If
in a greenhouse or a sunny window but the center of the clump is deteriorated, it
most commonly are started under lights. must be discarded. If you wish to have a
C. Vegetative Propagation by Division, Stem small section of an existing clump for use
Cuttings, Root Cuttings, Layering, Grafting, elsewhere, use a sharp spade to dig a
or Tissue Culture healthy section away from the parent
Vegetative propagation guarantees that the clump without disturbing the parent clump.
offspring will be identical to the parent. Shallow-rooted ground covers such as
Usually it takes far less time to have a fully vinca and creeping phlox are divided
mature blooming herbaceous perennial anytime during the growing season by
when it is vegetatively propagated. digging them up and cutting them apart.
1. Division—This is the simplest and most Fibrous- to woody-rooted perennials such
certain way to propagate, control the size as lupine must be dug carefully, the soil
of, and rejuvenate herbaceous perennials. rinsed from the roots, and then the crown
Generally, perennials become larger each carefully divided with a sharp knife,
year and eventually begin to choke out making sure that each segment contains
other plants. Their outer edge thrives two to four strong tap root segments and
while the center of the clump suffers two to four eyes or shoots.
from competition for water, nutrients, 2. Tip or stem cuttings—These are rootless
root run, and sunlight. Often an ad- sections of plants that are placed in a
vanced-age clump looks like a doughnut rooting medium where they are induced
with a thriving outer ring and a dead cen- to develop adventitious roots. Cuttings
ter. Such a clump is a prime candidate for may also be taken from actively growing
division. Shasta daisies, chrysanthe- roots.
mums, and phlox are good examples of Tip or stem cuttings are propagated by
plants where this condition exists after 2 taking a terminal, 3- to 6-inch long firm
to 3 years. portion of a vigorous nonblooming shoot
The time to divide a perennial clump de- that includes several nodes. Spring is the
pends upon the particular perennial, the best time to take cuttings from herba-
time of year that the perennial blooms, ceous perennials that bloom in summer.
and the climate. In Zone 5 or colder, most Early summer is the best time to take cut-
division is done in the spring while the tings from those that bloom in spring or
perennials are still slightly dormant. Divi- fall.
sion is usually necessary only every 2 to Most perennials cuttings should begin to
4 years for most perennials. Some peren- develop roots in 1 to 2 weeks. Bottom
nials such as the chrysanthemum benefit heat will speed the rooting process but is
from being divided every year while oth- not necessary.
ers, such as the oriental poppy, are best Sometimes young, virtually rootless tufts
left undisturbed for as long as possible, or of shoots develop at the base of the pe-
never divided. rennials. These may be pulled away from
Different types of perennials are handled the parent plant and treated the same as
differently depending upon their growth any cutting.

18 - 12
3. Root cuttings—These cuttings are best beyond the facilities and capabilities of
made in early spring. While it is easiest the ordinary homeowner.
to take cuttings from perennials when D. Vegetative Propagation by Specialized
they are being lifted from the bed or bor- Stems and Roots
der, cuttings can also be taken from the These function primarily as food storage
parent plant by digging around the pe- organs and can also function in vegetative
riphery of the parent plant with a shovel. reproduction.
Fine-rooted plants, such as achillea, are 1. Bulbs—Tunicate bulbs have outer-bulb
propagated from root cuttings by scatter- scales that are dry and membranous and
ing 1- to 2-inch long sections of root are typical of the tulip, hyacinth, bulbous
horizontally on the surface of a 2- to 3- iris, and daffodil.
inch deep layer of moist soilless medium
Nontunicate, or scaly bulbs, are repre-
in a flat. Cover the pieces of root with 1/2
sented by the lily. These bulbs do not
inch of moist sifted, soilless mix.
have the dry covering, and the scales are
Fleshy-rooted perennials such as baby’s separate and attached to a basal plate.
breath, bleeding heart, peonies, and ori- Propagation is accomplished by periodi-
ental poppies are propagated by taking cally removing the small bulbs or offsets
1 1/2- to 2-inch long sections of roots, that grow off of the main bulb. This is
dusting the bottom end with a rooting usually done whenever the plants are
compound, and sticking the root cutting dug. Digging of these perennials is neces-
bottom end down in a 50-50 mixture of sary when the clumps become too
peat moss and sand in pots or deep flats, crowded and is done after the foliage has
with 1/4 inch of the cutting sticking died down naturally in the late summer or
above the rooting medium. For peonies, fall. Bulbs should be planted or replanted
take 3-inch long root cuttings and keep at that time. The small bulbs may need to
the medium moist but not wet. When the grow for several seasons before they are
cuttings begin to grow, treat them the large enough to flower. Lilies are propa-
same as any other seedlings. gated by removing some of the outer
4. Layering—This is an easy way to propa- scales of the mother bulb, planting them,
gate vine-type plants and ground covers. and allowing them to develop small bulbs.
Bend the supple stems, without severing 2. Corms—Gladiolus and crocus are typical
the stem from the parent plant, down to plants with corms. Gladiolus are
the soil into a shallow trench and cover semihardy to tender in Idaho and must be
several nodes with soil, or bend the stems stored overwinter in areas with severe
into pots of soil. winters. The corm is a swollen base of
Notching or wounding the area just be- the stem that is enclosed by dry, scaly
low a soil-covered node will encourage leaves. Propagation is accomplished by
rooting. Many upright plants can also be separating the small corms or cormels
rooted with this technique by carefully from the mother corms. Plant these small
bending their younger, more flexible corms shallowly and expect no flowers
stems downward to the ground. until they grow large enough, usually 1 or
5. Grafting—This is the joining of the top 2 years.
of one plant, the scion, to the bottom of 3. Tubers—These are a modified stem that
another plant, the stock. This technique is serves as a storage organ. Caladium is an
possible but rarely used in propagating example of a tuberous plant. Tubers can
perennials. be propagated by planting the whole
6. Tissue culture—Millions of disease-free structure or by cutting tubers into sec-
plants from a single small clump of api- tions, each containing one or more buds
cal cells in a single season can be gener- or “eyes.” This division is done shortly
ated from a tissue culture. This method is before planting.

18 - 13
4. Tuberous roots and stems—These thick- 2. Soil preparation—The best opportunity to
ened structures are botanically different tailor the soil needs of the perennial is the
from true tubers but are often called sim- first time it is prepared. Try to start soil
ply “tubers.” Tuberous roots are typical preparation long before planting the bed
of several types of perennials, including or border. Start in spring for a fall plant-
the dahlia. Propagation is done by sepa- ing and in fall for a spring planting. This
rating the tuberous roots, making sure will allow plenty of time for any organic
that each root has a section of the crown soil amendments and/or pH modifications
with a shoot bud. Divide in late winter or to take effect. To prepare the site for
spring, shortly before planting. Tuberous planting perennials:
roots are biennial, meaning the old root a. Clear all large debris from the site.
disintegrates in the second year after new Kill and remove all existing vegetation
tuberous roots are produced. from the site for composting. It may be
Tuberous stems include the tuberous be- necessary to re-treat the site to kill per-
gonia and cyclamen. These structures are sistent perennial weeds such as quack-
usually vertical in orientation and have grass.
vegetative buds on the upper end. These b. Spread 2 to 3 inches of organic matter
tuberous stems continue to grow larger such as well-decomposed compost,
and larger from year to year. Divide these aged manure, or peat moss over the
structures early in the spring, making surface of the soil before beginning to
sure each has a bud. work it. Rototill or spade the organic
5. Rhizomes—These specialized stem struc- matter into the soil to a depth of 8 to
tures grow horizontally on top of or just 12 inches. Add no more organic matter
below the soil surface. Rhizomatous iris than one-third of the final amended
and lily of the valley are two perennials soil volume. Do not work the soil
that can be propagated by their rhizomes. when it is wet. Organic matter incor-
Remove sections of shoots and roots early poration improves soil structure by
in the spring or in late summer or fall. providing the lignin that glues together
D. Growing, Culture, and Maintenance the soil particles. Improved soil struc-
1. Site selection—Because herbaceous pe- ture encourages water percolation and
rennials can be left in a given place for a retention, aeration, and root penetra-
long period of time, proper site selection tion. Spread an organic mulch over the
is critical. Most plants prefer a site that prepared bed or border. It is easier and
has a fertile, well-drained, organically tidier to spread the mulch before plant-
rich soil with a pH of 5.5 to 6.5. Good ing.
drainage is important, especially during c. Edge the bed or border in some fash-
the winter, and most soils will have to be ion. An edging will be attractive and
improved. The site should receive full will help reduce the encroachment of
sun or shade all day. Be sure to consider the lawn.
not only the present shade, but also the 3. Planting and transplanting—While bare-
future shade. Take into account the rooted perennials are best planted either
growth of your trees and shrubs as well spring or fall, container-grown perennials
as your neighbor’s. The site should be may be planted at any time during the
flat to only slightly sloped. It should be growing season, though it is more diffi-
out of the drying, stem-snapping wind cult during the drought months of July
but have enough breeze to provide the air and August. Freshly dug plants are best
circulation essential to minimize the slow transplanted in spring or fall but may be
foliage-drying conditions conducive to moved all summer if you are careful. Pe-
disease. rennials such as bearded iris, bleeding
heart, peonies, and oriental poppies are

18 - 14
best transplanted immediately after their g. Tamp the soil firmly around the root
brief dormant period after bloom. When system. Leave a berm to facilitate wa-
planting herbaceous perennials: tering. Water the newly planted peren-
a. Dig a hole two times the size of the nials with the starter solution. Label
root spread of bare root perennials and the plants or make a map of the garden
one and one-half times the size of the for future reference.
root ball of container-grown perennials. 4. Fertilizing—Perennials need steady, but
b. Soak the roots of bare root plants for light fertilizing first in late March to early
several minutes in a starter solution of April, right after the last of the mulch is
1 tablespoon of 16-12-10 or 20-20-20 removed and growth starts. Use a 5-10-5
water soluble fertilizer dissolved in 1 fertilizer at the rate of 2 pounds per 100
gallon of water. square feet of bed space. Fertilize two
c. Water the potted herbaceous perenni- more times at the same rate about 6
als with a starter solution before weeks apart. Fertilize a final time in very
knocking them out of the container. late summer for fall-blooming perennials.
Place your hand over the top of the pot If the perennial bed or border begins to
with your fingers grasping the main lag a bit in midsummer, use a water
stems, turn the pot upside down, and soluble foliar fertilizer as a boost. Foliar
tap the pot rim on the edge of a hard feeding should always be thought of as
surface or tap the bottom of the pot supplemental to, rather than as a substi-
sharply with a planting trowel. Re- tute for, granular fertilizers.
move fiber pots from perennials be-
cause often pots do not decompose. Be Note: Overfertilizing, especially with nitro-
sure to at least peel back the rim of gen, promotes vegetative growth at the
peat pots below soil level or the rim expense of flowering and increases the
will act as a wick, drying out the pot need of staking for support.
and the contained soil.
d. Some pot-bound plants may have to 5. Watering—Frequency is dictated by cli-
have the container cut away with mate and the presence of a mulch. Water
snips. Score the soil ball, making three early in the day to avoid going into the
to five vertical cuts into the soil ball, evening with wet, disease-susceptible fo-
top to bottom, with a sharp knife. The liage. Water thoroughly, to a depth of 8
depth of the cuts will vary from 1/2 to to 10 inches, to encourage deep root pen-
1 1/2 inches deep depending upon the etration. Soil should dry out a bit between
size of the soil ball. Tease some of the watering. Waterlogged soil will encour-
soil away from the top, sides, and bot- age root disease and excludes oxygen,
tom of the soil ball. resulting in shallow-rooted, drought-
prone, unstable plants.
e. Place the plant in the planting hole,
making sure that the crown of plant is 6. Mulching—Helps control weeds, reduces
at the same depth as it was previously water loss, moderates soil temperature
growing. changes, prevents mud splattering of foli-
age and flowers, helps preserve surface
f. Work some organic matter one-fourth
soil structure, and adds nutrients to the
to one-third by volume into the soil.
soil as the mulch biodegrades.
Place this mixture around the roots un-
til the hole is half full. Settle the soil Winter mulch can protect perennials from
around the root system by mucking it excessive cold temperatures and harmful
in with the starter solution. Finish fill- thawing on freezing cycles. Apply after
ing the hole with the soil-organic mat- the first cold weather has occurred and
ter mixture. after the soil has frozen. Cover crowns
with 2 to 6 inches of light, porous mulch.

18 - 15
Remove mulch in the spring or before wanted offspring of existing perennials
plant growth begins. may also be considered weeds since
Summer mulch can be applied after the many of them, especially those from hy-
soil warms up, about 4 to 6 weeks after brid parents, will not come true-to-type.
the last of the winter mulch is removed. Your first chore is to be able to distin-
Try to coordinate the placement of the guish weeds, even at the seedling stage,
summer mulch so that it follows one of from desirable perennials. Once so distin-
the fertilizations and weed-destroying guished, weeding can be done by hand,
cultivations. Apply between 1 to 2 inches with shallow cultivation, with herbicides,
of mulch. Be sure to keep the mulch or largely avoided by using mulches.
away from the crown of the herbaceous 10. Deadheading—Removal of spent blooms
perennial. or inflorescence improves the appearance
The best mulches to use are those that of the herbaceous perennials and prevents
biodegrade to the point that they can be the investment of energy in seed produc-
worked into the soil in late fall or early tion. It also encourages the plant to con-
spring. Mulches in this category include tinue blooming, and stimulates a second
compost, peat moss, or smaller-sized flush of weaker bloom in those plants
bark. such as delphinium and foxglove.
7. Thinning—Removing out some of the A few perennials such as sedum ‘Autumn
stems increases the potential size of the Joy’, Black-eyed-Susan, and ornamental
individual blooms produced by the plant. grasses should be allowed to retain their
For the most part, thinning is not neces- seed heads for their winter interest.
sary as it decreases the mass of the plant 11. Disbudding—The removal of all except
and may reduce the overall bloom impact the tip-most bud on each individual stem
of the plant. or branch of a multibranched stem pro-
8. Pinchin —Inhibits the natural legginess duces large flowers on each stem or
of many perennials such as chrysanthe- branch of that stem. Peonies are often
mums. Pinching the growing tips or disbudded in this fashion. The most spec-
shoots of the individual stems once in tacularly sized blooms can be achieved
May or June removes the inhibition of by taking a rooted cutting and limiting it
the shoot tip, producing multibranched to a single terminal bud on a single stem.
shoots. This produces a whole bouquet of One shortcoming of disbudding is that
smaller-than-usual individual blooms. the second flush of bloom, which occurs
The combined branched shoots give the after the terminal bud blooms and the ax-
entire plant a much greater overall illary buds develop, is lost. Some garden-
blooming mass despite the smaller indi- ers remove the terminal bud to obtain a
vidual blooms. Chrysanthemums are host of relatively large axillary blooms.
pinched every 3 to 4 weeks with the last 12. Staking—Giving a physical support to
pinch occurring about July 15. the individual stems or to the plant as a
Pinching also delays blooming. A soft whole is often necessary for those peren-
pinch, just the tip of the stem, does not nials with a natural tendency to fall over
delay flowering as long as a hard pinch, because of their height, habit, or weight
which removes several inches and several of blooms and foliage.
nodes from the stems. Pinching also de- Tall, single stems of perennials such as
creases the need to stake herbaceous pe- delphiniums, gladiolus, and hollyhocks
rennials as the plants are more compact. may require individual stakes for support.
9. Weeding—This is important because Select bamboo, plastic, or metal stakes
weeds compete for nutrients and water. that will be at least three-quarters as tall
Weeds may be grassy or broad leafed and as the individual stems they are to sup-
annual, biennial, or perennial. The un- port when firmly anchored in the soil.

18 - 16
Tie the stems to the stakes with a figure refuse harboring insects and disease
eight loop with one loop around the stake over winter.
and the other around the stem. This e. Keep weeds out of the bed or border
double loop acts as a spring giving the and the immediate area because they
stem a chance to sway in the breeze. The are a source of both insect and disease
loops can be made with paper-covered problems.
wire, floral tape, or other soft material. f. Know what the most likely common
Stake bushy, multistemmed, floppy pe- pests of your perennials are and then
rennials such as asters, chrysanthemums, monitor for them.
and coreopsis by pushing a ring of stakes g. Do not compost any diseased plants. If
into the soil at a point slightly to the inte- your compost pile reaches the 140°F to
rior of the perennial. Select stakes that 160°F, most disease organisms and
are 6 to 12 inches shorter than the ulti- insect eggs will be killed. However,
mate height of the plant. Weave a cats’ most piles never get this warm, espe-
cradle of support between the stakes with cially in the outside portion. Fungus
green yarn or floral tape. Start 1 foot organisms will spread along with com-
above the soil level and continue upward post.
at 1-foot intervals until the last cats’
h. When a problem is encountered, act
cradle is 8 to 12 inches below the top of
immediately without using pesticides
the stems.
if possible. Cut off diseased portions
Alternatively, push appropriate lengths of of the herbaceous perennial, or remove
multibranched tree or scrub prunings or seriously damaged plants entirely.
branched bamboo canes into the soil at Handpick large insects.
the fringes of the perennial. Let the inter-
14. Pesticide control—Consult with your
weaving branches supply most of the
county Extension educator for the most
support. Some twine or floral tape may
bio-rational pesticide to use for your par-
still be needed to contain the stems of the
ticular problem.
perennials.
Spot treat if possible. Use non-chemical,
Place very strong, multi-legged 18- to 20-
non-biological pesticides such as horti-
inch tall wire hoops around perennials
cultural oils and insecticidal soaps.
such as peonies and oriental poppies that
have very heavy blooms on supple stems. Use biological pesticides such as Bacillus
thuringiensis for caterpillars, or those
13. Insects and diseases—Practices to pre-
pesticides derived from natural sources
vent or reduce the chance of insect and
such as pyrethrum, rotenone, ryana, or
disease problems include:
sabadilla. When using any pesticide, fol-
a. Select insect and disease-resistant pe- low the label instructions for pest con-
rennials. trolled and for plants for which the
b. Give your perennials the very best chemical is labeled. Always apply at the
growing conditions possible from the labeled rate as instructed. Buy small
standpoint of soil, nutrition, watering, quantities of the pesticide to avoid dis-
spacing, sunlight, and air circulation. posal problems.
c. Grow a variety of plants. A monocul-
ture of a cultivar or of a few cultivars IX. A Selection of Perennials for Idaho
will be far more susceptible to insect Idaho growing conditions are difficult on
and disease problems. plants. During the summer, temperatures and
d. Remove spent flowers, dead leaves, light intensity are high and humidity is low.
and other plant litter during the grow- This combination causes some plants listed for
ing season when it can be a source of the eastern United States and lower coastal el-
infestation. Clean up the bed or border evations to perform poorly in Idaho. On the
thoroughly before winter to avoid any following pages, Table 1 lists perennials avail-

18 - 17
able through the Idaho nursery trade or by so that plants can be moved into more cor-
mail-order that have performed well or are rect locations in the future. A perennial
deemed worthwhile for trial in Idaho. garden can be arranged and rearranged like
A. Common Name—Lists several names that furniture in your home.
the perennial might be called. Cross-refer- D. Bloom Time —Gives you the chance to
encing is done through the text for conve- “orchestrate” and synchronize the bloom-
nience. For example, hollyhock is listed ing sequence. Use a sheet of paper to list
under alcea. Hollyhock is also found under and “orchestrate” your flower display.
the common name, which refers back to E. Flower Color—Refers to flower colors
alcea for more information. available in the nursery trade. It does not
B. Scientific Name—Since the common name necessarily refer back to the specific culti-
leaves a lot of guesswork, the scientific vars in the scientific name column.
name is included for clarity. Under the sci- F. Light Needed—Categorizes the plant into
entific name is a listing of cultivars (culti- one or more light regimes: full sun is unin-
vated varieties) that may be available in terrupted sunlight through the full day;
your local nursery. The cultivar name (e.g. partial shade is filtered sunlight through
‘Pink Star’) many times indicates flower tree leaves or a minimum of 6 to 8 hours of
color. sunlight per day; full shade indicates fil-
C. Height—Varies with fertilizer practices, tered sunlight through a dense foliage
placement with respect to light, soil condi- canopy or less than 6 hours of sunlight
tions, and plant vigor. A range of heights each day.
is given for most plants. Determining exact G. Landscape Use—Suggests planting loca-
heights will be the part of the joy of gar- tions as well as indoor uses such as cut
dening. Keep records of your discoveries flowers or dried flower arrangements.
Table 1. Perennials for Idaho.
Common name Scientific name Height Bloom time Flower color Light needed Landscape use
Achillea, dwarf A. tomentosa 8"-10" June-Aug Yellow Full sun Borders, ground cover
(Woolly Yarrow) German hybrids,
e.g., paprika
Achillea, tall Achillea spp. 2 1/2'-3' June-Aug Yellow Full sun Borders, cut flowers
(Fernleaf Yarrow) Partial shade dry flowers
Full shade
Aegopodium A. poidigrarua 8"-14" June-Aug White Full sun Ground cover,
(Bishops Goutweed) variegatum Partial shade will grow in poor soil
Full shade
Ajuga Ajuga spp. 6"-9" April-May Blue Full sun Ground cover, edging
‘Alba’ White Partial shade rock gardens,
‘Bronze Beauty’ Full shade beneath trees
‘Gaiety’
Alcea Alcea rosea 2'-9' June-Aug White Full sun Background borders,
(Hollyhock) (also Althea rosea) Yellow against fence or wall
‘Majorette’ Pink
‘Silver Puffs’ Lavender
‘Summer Carnival’ Red
’Chater’s Double Mixture’
Allium A. christophii 15"-24" Early summer Silvery-violet Full sun Herb gardens,
(Stars-of-Persia or edging vegetable plots,
Persian Onion) containers, edible foliage,
rockeries

18 - 18
Table 1. (cont’d)
Allium A. giganteum 3'-4' Early summer Pink-purple Full sun Herb gardens,
(Giant Onion) edging vegetable plots
Allium A. karataviense 8"-10" Late spring Lilac-pink Full sun Herb gardens,
(Turkestan Onion) edging vegetable plots
Allium A. moly 10"-14" Late spring Bright yellow Full sun- Herb gardens,
(Golden Garlic or Lily Leek) partial shade edging vegetable plots
Allium A. tuberosum 20" Late summer White Full sun- Herb gardens,
(Chinese Chive or Garlic Chive) partial shade edging vegetable plots
Allysum A. saxatile 9"-10" April-June Golden yellow Full sun Rock gardens, dry
(Basket of Gold) ‘Compacta’ walls, banks, fronts
(Gold Dust) of borders
Anchusa A. myosotis 6"-8" May-June Blue Full sun Borders, groupings
(Forget-Me-Not) Partial shade
Anemone A. blanda 3"-6" April-May Blue Full sun Rock gardens, perennial
(Greek Anemone) ‘Blue Star’ Pink Partial shade borders, naturalized
(Greek Windflower) ‘Bridesmaid’ Purple
‘White Splendor’ White
‘Pink Star’
Anthemis A. tinctoria 2'-3' June-Sept Yellow Full sun Perennial borders,
(Golden Chamomile) ‘E.C. Buxton’ cut flowers
(Golden Carguerite) ‘Kelwayi’
‘Moonlight’
Aquilegia A. hybrida 2'-3' May-June Blue Full sun Borders,
(Columbine) ‘Mckana Giant’ Pink Partial shade naturalized settings
‘Mrs. Scott Elliot’ Purple
‘Rose queen’ Red
‘Spring Song’ Yellow
White
Arabis A. caucasica 12" Late March White Full sun Rock gardens, dry stone
(Rock Cress) ‘Snow Cap’ May Rose-tinted walls, border, small area
‘Spring Charm’ ground cover
Arenaria Arenaria spp. 2"-6" May-June White Full sun Evergreen, ground
(Irish Moss) Partial shade cover, rock gardens,
(Sandwort) Full shade around stepping stones
Armeria A. maritima 6"-15" May-June Pink Full sun Edging, rock gardens,
(Sea Pink) ‘Brilliant’ White cut flowers
(Sea Thrift) ‘Laucheana’
‘Royal Rose’
Artemisia A. schmidtiana 8"-12" Foliage Full sun Perennial borders
(Wormwood) ‘Silver Mound’ plant Partial shade
(Angels Hair) ‘Pours Castle’
‘Silver Brocade’
Asclepias A. tuberosa 2'-3' June-Aug Orange Full sun Borders, dry flowers
(Butterfly Weed)
(Pleurisy Root)
Asperula A. odorata 8" May-July Pink Partial shade Ground cover,
(Sweet Woodruff) Blue rock gardens
White

18 - 19
Table 1. (cont’d)
Aster, short/dwarf Callistephus 4"-10" Spring Many Full sun Cut flowers,
(China Aster) chinensis Summer or fall bedding plants
(Annual Aster) ‘Pinocchio’
‘Dwarf Queen’
‘Color Carpet’
Aster, tall Aster spp. or 11/2'-3' Spring Many Full sun Cut flowers, borders
(New England Aster) Callistephus spp. or Summer or fall
(Stokes Aster) Stokesia spp.
Astilbe Astilbe x arendsii 2'-3' June-July Red Full sun Border plant
(False Spirea) ‘Deutschland’ Pink Partial shade
‘Fanal’ White
‘Red Sentinel’
Aubretia A. deltoidea 6' April-May Rose-lilac Full sun Rock gardens,
(False Rock Cress) ‘Bengale’ Purple Partial shade dry stone walls,
‘Purple Cascade’ Red edge of perennial borders
‘Red Cascade'
Baby’s breath (see Gypsophila)
Basket of gold (see Allysum)
Bellflower, Chinese or Japanese (see Platycodon)
Bellis Bellis perennis 4"-6" April-June White Full sun Edging, borders
(English Daisy) Pink Partial shade
Bergenia B. cordifolia 12"-15" April-May Pink Full sun Evergreen, rock gardens,
(Heartleaf Berfenia) White Partial shade stream banks, pools,
(Pig Squeak) perennial borders
Betonica Stachys byzantina 6"-12" July-Oct Full sun Front of borders,
(Lamb’s Ear) Partial shade ground cover,
(Woolly Betony) rock gardens
Bleeding Heart (see Dicentra)
Campanula C. carpatica 6"-12" June-Aug Blue-lilac Full sun Borders or rock gardens
(Carpathian ‘Blue Carpet’ White Partial shade
Harebell) ‘China Doll’ Purple
Campanula C. glomerata 1'-1 1/2' June-Aug White Full sun Borders, bedding
(Danesblood) Blue Partial shade between shrubs,
(Clustered Bellflower) Purple cut flowers
Campanula C. medium 2'-4' June-Aug White Full sun Borders, isolated
(Canterbury Bells) ‘Cup and Saucer’ Pink Partial shade clumps, balconies
Blue
Mauve
Campanula C. persicifolia 2'-3' June-Aug White Full sun Borders
(Peach Bells) Blue Partial shade
Canterbury Bells ( see Campanula medium)
Carnation ( see Dianthus caryophyllus)
Cerastium C. tomentosum 6" May-June White Full sun Evergreen, ground
(Snow-in-Summer) ‘Columnae’ cover, dry stone walls,
'Yoyo’ edging
Ceratostigma C. plumbaginoldes 8"-10" July-Sept Dark blue Full sun Rock gardens,
(Plumbago) Partial shade ground cover

18 - 20
Table 1. (cont’d)
Cheiranthus C. cheiri 9"-30" March-May White Full sun Balconies, terraces,
(Wallflower) Yellow mixed borders, flower
Brown beds, banks rockeries,
Red slopes
Pink
Purple
Chive (see Allium)
Chrysanthemum Chrysanthemum x 2'-4' June-Oct. White Full sun Cut flowers, borders
(Shasta Daisy) supermum Partial shade
‘Alaska’
‘Esther Read’
‘Little Miss muffet’
‘Marconi’
‘Snowcap’
Columbine (see Aquilegia)
Convallaria C. majalis 6"-12" May White Full sun Ground cover,
(Lily-of-the-Valley) Partial shade cut flowers
Coral Bells (See Heuchera)
Crocus Crocus spp. 2"-6" Early spring Golden yellow Full sun to Excellent for early color;
& hybrids Blue partial shade Large-flowered “Dutch
Lavender hybrids” bloom later than
Purple most spring-flowering
White types
Purple striped
Crocus Colchicum 4"-6" Early spring Lavender-pink Full sun to Foliage grows in spring,
(Autumn) autumnale Rose partial shade then dies, flowers appear
White in fall without foliage
Coreopsis C. lanceolata 2'-3' June-July Yellow Full sun Borders, cut flowers
(Tickseed) ‘Baby Sun’ Yellow chestnut
‘Brown Eyes’
‘Goldfink’
‘Mayfield Giant’
‘Sunburst’
C. rosea
C. verticillata
‘Moonbeam’
‘Zagreb’
Creepin Jennie (see Lysimachia)
Daffodil (see Narcissus)
Daisy, English (see Bellis)
Daisy, Gloriosa (see Rudbeckia)
Daisy, Painted (see Pyrethrum)
Daisy, Shasta (see Chrysanthemum)
Daylily (see Hemeracallis)
Delphinium D. elatum 3'-6' June-July Many Full sun Background accent,
(Larkspur) cut flowers

18 - 21
Table 1. (cont’d)
Dianthus D. barbatus 4"-6" May-Aug White Full sun Cut flowers, balconies,
Pink terraces, borders,
Scarlet rockeries, flower beds
Dianthus D. caryophyllus 1'-2' June-Aug White Full sun Cut flowers, flower beds,
(Carnation) ‘Chabaud’s Giant Improved’ Pink pot plants, borders
(Clove Pink) ‘Dwarf Fragrance Mixed’ Red
(Divine Flower) ‘Enfant de Nice Mixed’ Purple
‘Juliet’ Yellow
‘Oriental Hybric Mixed’ Apricot
‘Spotti’ Orange
‘Tiny Rubies’
Dianthus D. chinensis 6"-12" Summer-fall Red Full sun Edging, cut flowers
(Pinks) White Partial shade bedding
Pink
Dianthus D. deltoides 4"-12" May-Aug White Full sun Rock gardens, border
(Maiden Pink) ‘Brilliant’ Pink plants
(Meadow Pink) Red
(Spink)
Dicentra Dicentra spp. 2'-3' May-June Red and Partial shade Cut flowers, shaded
(Bleeding Heart) white borders
Digitalis D. purpurea 2'-5' May-July Purple and Full sun Borders, cut flowers
(Common Foxglove) ‘Leopard Foxglove’ White Partial shade
(Fairy Glove)
(Fingerflower)
(Purple Foxglove)
Doronicum D. cordatum 2' April-May Yellow Full sun Front or middle
‘Finesse’ Partial shade perennial borders,
‘Madam Mason’ cut flowers
Echinops E. exaltatus 3'-5' July-Sept Blue Full sun Cut and dried flowers
(Glove Thistle) ‘Tapglow Blue’ back of borders
Erigeron E. speciosus 1’-2’ June-July Blue Full sun Cut flowers,
(Gleabane) rock gardens, borders
Euphorbia E. myrsinites 8"-10" March-May Yellow Full sun Border plants,
cut flowers, rock gardens
Euphorbia E. polychroma 11/2' March-May Yellow Full sun Border plants,
(Cushion Spurge) (epithymoides) cut flowers
Festuca F. ovina glauca 6"-10" Full sun Edging, banks,
(Blue Fescue) Partial shade ground cover
Flax Linum flavum 1'-2' June-Aug Golden yellow Full sun Rock gardens
(Golden Flax)
Forget-Me-Not (see Anchusa)
Foxglove, Common (see Digitalis)
Fritillaria F. imperialis 2'-3' Spring Red Sun or A very showy
(Crown Imperial) Yellow light shade old-fashioned plant,
Orange but odor may be offensive

18 - 22
Table 1. (cont’d)
Fritillaria F. meleagris 8"-12" Spring Checkered Sun or Fragile appearance;
(Checkered Lily or purple light shade makes an interesting
Guinea-Hen Flower) White rock garden plant
Fritillaria F. persica 10"-30" Spring Maroon Full sun Flowers have a slight
(Persian Fritillary) Purple skunk odor
White
Gaillardia G. pulchella 1'-2' Summer Yellow Full sun Cut flowers,
(Indian Blanket) ‘Baby Cole’ Fall Orange window boxes, planters
Scarlet
Geranium Geranium spp. 1'-2' May-Sept Blue Full sun Rock gardens,
(Cranesbill) ‘Biokova’ Purple Partial shade perennial gardens
‘Johnson’s Blue’
Geum Geum spp. 2'-21/2' May-Aug Scarlet Full sun Groupings in perennial
Orange borders, cut flowers
Glory-of-the-Snow Chinonodoxa 3"-6" Early spring Blue Full sun Rock gardens, borders
luciliae Pale pink and edgings
White
Yellow
Gypsophila Gypsophila spp. 1'-3' June-July Rose Full sun Borders, dry flowers,
(Baby’s Breath) Purple rock gardens
White
Pink
Helianthemum H. nummularium 1' June-July Yellow Full sun Rock gardens, slopes
(RockRose) Rose and pockets, crazy
(Sun Rose) Red and crimson paving
White
Hemerocallis Hemerocallis spp. 2'-4' Spring Many Full sun Foundation plants,
(Daylily) Summer Partial shade borders
Fall
Hen-and-Chickens (see Sempervivum)
Heuchera H. sanguinea 1'-21/2' May-July Red Full sun Rockeries, borders
(Coral Bells) ‘Bressingham hybids’ Pink Partial shade
(Alum Root) ‘Charteuse’ White
‘Chatterbox’
‘June Bride’
’Matin Bells’
‘Pluie de Feu’ (Rain of fire)
‘White Cloud’
Hollyhock (see Alcea)
Hosta Hosta spp. 1'-2' July-Sept White Full sun Borders, rock gardens,
(Plantain Lily) Lavender Partial shade masses
Lilac Full shade
Hyacinth Muscari 6"-8" Early spring Blue Full sun to Multiplies rapidly,
(Armenian Grape) armeniacum partial shade excellent for edging or
indoor forcing, fragrant
Hyacinth Muscari botryoides 6"-8" Early spring Blue Full sun or Produces clusters of
(Grape Hyacinth) White partial shade tiny flowers, double
flowers hold color longer

18 - 23
Table 1. (cont’d)
Hypericum H. calycinum 1'-1 1/2' June-Sept Yellow Full sun Shady slopes, banks,
(Aaron’s Beard) Partial shade flowerbeds, borders,
(Rose of Sharon) ground cover
(St. John’s Wort)
Iberis I. sempervirens 6"-1' April-May White Full sun Rock gardens, edging
(Evergreen ‘Autumn Snow”
Candytuft) ‘Little Gem’
(Edging Candytuft) ‘Purity’
‘Snowflake’
‘Snowmantle’
Incarvillea Incarvillea spp. 1' June-July Red Full sun Perennial gardens,
(Hardy Gloxinia) Pink rock gardens
Iris 200+ species 4"-48" Spring to fall, Wide range Full sun Beyond flowers, leaves
(True-Bearded) and many cultivars most May to June, provide texture, contrast
(Siberian) some rebloom of colors and combinations
(Japanese)
Kniphofia K. uvaria 2'-4' May-Sept Red Full sun Borders, cut flowers
(Red-Hot Poker) Yellow
(TorchLlily)
(Tritoma)
(Poker Plant)
Lamb’s ear (see Betonica)
Lamium L. maculatum 1' April-Sept Purple-red Partial shade Shaded perennial borders,
(Spotted ‘White Nancy’ White Full shade rock gardens,
Dead Nettle) summer filler
Lavandula Lavandula spp. 1'-3' June-Sept Purple Full sun Borders, rockeries,
(Sweet Lavender) ‘Hidcote’ cut flowers, evergreen
‘Munstead’
Liatris Liatris spp. 1 1/2'-5' July-Oct White Full sun Cutting, drying, borders
(Gayfeather) ‘Kobold’ Purple Partial sun
(Blazing Star) Pink
Lily Genus Lilium has 2'-7' Wide range Full sun to Accent plants
(Asiatic Hybrids) 100+ species June to July partial shade
and many cultivars
Lily Genus Lilium has 2'-7' July Wide range Full sun to Accent plants
(Trumpets) 100+ species partial shade
and many cultivars
Lily Genus Lilium has 2'-7' July Wide range Full sun to Accent plants
(Surelians) 100+ species partial shade
and many cultivars
Lily Genus Lilium has 2'-7' July to Aug Wide range Full sun to Accent plants
(Oriental Hybrids) 100+ species partial shade
and many cultivars
Lily-of-the-Valley (see Convallaria)
Limonium L. sinatum 1 1/2'-2' June-Aug White Full sun Flowerbeds, borders,
(Sea Lavender) Yellow small clumps, rockeries,
(Statice) Blue cut and dried flowers
Red

18 - 24
Table 1. (cont’d)
Liriope Liriope spp. 10"-15" Aug-Sept Purple Full sun Evergreen, borders,
Partial shade perennial gardens,
Full shade rock gardens
Lupine L. polyphyllus 2 1/2'-5' May-July Blue Full sun Cut flowers, borders
(Lupin) George Russell hybrids Purple Partial shade
Reddish purple
Yellow
Lychnis L. chalcedonica 2’-3’ June-July Scarlet Full sun Small groupings in borders
(Maltese Cross)
(Jerusalem Cross)
Lysimachia L. nummularia 6"-8" June-Nov Yellow Full sun Shaded slopes and
(Creeping Jennie) Partial shade banks, walls, hanging
(Moneywort) Full shade baskets, bag gardens,
(Creeping Charlie) submerged aquarium plant
Maltese Cross ( see Lychnis)
Monarda M. fistulosa to 3' June-Aug Lilac Full sun Borders
(Wild Bergamot) ‘Gardenview Scarlet’ Purple Partial shade
White
Narcissus spp. & hybrids 3"-14" Early to Yellow Full sun or Borders, shrub beds, or
(Daffodil) midspring White light shade naturalized, good for cut
(Jonquil) Pink flowers
(Cups: yellow, white,
pink, orange, or nearly red)
Ostrich Fern (see Pteretis)
Pachysandra P. terminalis 6"-8" May White Partial shade Ground cover, slopes,
(Japanese ‘Variegata’ (Silver edge) Full shade level ground, beneath trees
Pachysandra)
Paeonia P. lactiflora 3' May-June Many Full sun Accent, cut flowers
(Peony) Partial shade
Papaver P. nudicaule 2'-4' May-June Many Full sun Borders, cut flowers
(Iceland Poppy) Partial shade
Papaver P. orientale 2'-4' May-June Many Full sun Borders, cut flowers
(Oriental Poppy)
Peony (see Paeonia)
Phlox, Creeping P. subulata 6"-10" April-June White Full sun Edging, bedding,
Pink Partial shade rock gardens
Salmon
Purple
Phlox, Tall P. paniculata 2'-3' July-Sept White Full sun Borders
(Summer Phlox) ‘Symons-Jeune’ Pink Partial shade
(Garden Phlox) Red
Blue
Purple
Physostegia P. virginiana 2'-3' July-Sept Rose- purple Full sun Cut flowers, back of
‘Bouquet Rose’ White wild flower gardens
‘Vivid’ Partial shade borders, informal
‘Summer Snow’ wildflower gardens

18 - 25
Table 1. (cont’d)
Platycodon P. grandiflorum 2' July-Sept Blue Full sun Cutting, rock gardens,
(Chinese Bellflower) 'Apoyama’ Pink Partial shade borders
(Balloon Flower) ‘Shell Pink’ White
(Japanese Bellflower)
Plumbago (see Ceratostigma)
Polemonium P. caeruleum 1 1/2' May-June Blue Full sun Rock gardens, foreground
(Jacob’s Ladder) ‘Blue Pearl’ Partial shade of perennial borders
Poppy, Iceland (see Papaver nudicaule)
Poppy, Oriental (see Papaver orientale)
Potentilla P. verna 4"-6" May-Oct Yellow Full sun Ground cover
Partial shade
Primrose, Primula x polyantha 6"-12" April-June Many Partial shade Shaded areas in
Polyanthus ‘Colossea Hybrids’ perennial borders,
‘Pacific Giants’ shaded streams
Pleretis P. modulosa 3'-4' Foliage Partial shade North exposures, under
(Ostrich Fern) Full shade trees or any place where
light is not abundant
Pyrethrum Pyrethrum spp. 1 1/2'-2' June-July Pink Full sun Rock gardens, borders,
(Painted Daisy) Red Partial shade naturalizing, cut flowers
White
Red-hot poker (see Knipofia)
Rudbeckia R. hirta pulcherrima 2-3'' July-Sept Golden yellow Full sun Cutting, background
(Gloriosa Daisy) ‘Gloriosa Daisy’ Brown Partial shade
(Rudbeckia x hybrida)
‘Gloriosa Double Daisy’
‘Gloriosa Irish Eyes’
‘Goldstrum’
‘Marmalade’
‘Rustic Colors’
Santolina S. chamaecy- 1' June Yellow Full sun Evergreen, rock gardens,
(Lavender Cotton) parissus low hedge, carpet bedding
Sapanaria S. officinalis 1' July-Sept Pink Full sun Wild gardens,
(Bouncing Bet) White Partial shade rough corners
(Soapwort)
Saxifraga Saxifraga spp. 3"-18" June-Aug Yellow Partial shade Rock gardens, borders,
White edging, potted plants
Red
Pink
Purple
Scabiosa S. caucasian 2' June-Sept Blue Full sun Borders, flowerbeds,
(Caucasian ‘Butterfly Blue’ White cut flowers
Scabious) ‘Pink Mist’ Mauve
(Pincushion Flower)
Sea lavender (see Limonium)

18 - 26
Table 1. (cont’d)
Sedum S. spectabile 1 1/2'-2' Aug-Oct Pink Full shade Rock gardens, borders
(Showy Stonecrop) 'Autumn Joy’ Red Partial shade
(Live Forever) ‘Brilliant’ White
‘Indian Chief’
‘Meteor’
‘Star Dust’
‘Variegatum’
Sedum Sedum spp. 6" Aug-Oct Red Full sun Rock gardens, borders
‘Dragon’s Blood’ Partial shade
Sempervivum S. tectorum 6"-30" July Purple-red Full sun Rock gardens, dry walls,
(Hen-and-Chickens) edging, front of perennial
(Old-Man-and-Woman) borders, carpet bedding,
(Houseleeks) containers
(St. Patrick’s Cabbage)
Snowdrop Galanthus nivalis 6"-9" Spring White Full sun Good for borders and
(Giant snowdrop) rock gardens
Snowdrop Galanthus nivalis 4"-6" Early spring White Partial shade One of the earliest spring
(Common Snowdrop) bulbs for rock gardens,
borders, naturalizing,
easy to grow, increases
rapidlly
Snow-in-Summer (see Cerastium)
Stachys (see Betonica)
Statice (see Armeria or Limonium)
Sweet Lavender (see Lavandula)
Sweet William (see Dianthus barbatus)
Teucrium T. canadense 6" June-July Rose Full sun Edging, rock gardens
(American Germander)
Teucrium T. chamaedrys 4"-12" June-July Purple Full sun Edging, rock gardens,
(Germander) hedges
Thymus T. serpyllum 3"-6" June-July Purple Full sun Rock gardens, herb
(Thyme) White gardens, stone walls
Red
Tradescantia T. virginiana 1 1/2'-2' June-Sept White Full sun Borders, foundations
(Virginia ‘Purple Dome’ Pink Partial shade
Spiderwort) Red
(Widow’s Tears)
Tritoma (see Kniphofia)
Trollius T. europaeus 1'-2' May-July Lemon Shade Borders
(Globe Flower) Orange
Tulip Tulipa spp. 3"-30" Spring All colors Full sun Variety of colors, shapes,
& hybrids except true blue blooming times for all uses,
may use annuals to cover
ground above bulbs in
summer

18 - 27
Table 1. (cont’d)
Valeriana V. officinalis 3'-5' June-July Pink Full sun Perennial gardens,
‘Rubra’ White Partial shade background
Red
Purple
Veronica Veronica spp. 1 1/2' June-Aug. Blue Full sun Borders, cut flowers,
‘Red Fox’ Pink rock gardens
‘Sunny Border Blue’ Red
White
Vinca Vinca minor 6"-8" March-May Blue-purple Partial shade Ground cover in
(Lesser Periwinkle) Full shade flower beds or rockeries,
(Myrtle) shrubberies
Wall Flower (see Cheiranthus)

Yarrow (see Achillea)
Hudak, J. 1993. Gardening with Perennials Month

Further Reading by Month. 2nd ed., revised and expanded. Timber
Press, Portland, OR.
Books Jelitto, L. 1990. Hardy Herbaceous Perennials. 3rd
A Catalog of New and Noteworthy Fruits. 1995. ed. The Gardener’s Handbook. Vol. 3. Timber
New York State Fruit Testing Cooperative Press, Portland, OR.
Association, Inc., Geneva, NY. Jones, C. 1990. Perennials: The Complete Guide to
A Guide to Herbaceous Perennial Gardens in the Perennials for Amateurs and Experts. Whitecap
United States. 1987. Perennial Plant Association, Books, Vancouver, BC.
Columbus, OH. Loewer, P. 1989. A Year of Flowers. Rodale Press,
Armitage, A. M. 1993. Allan Armitage on Emmaus, PA.
Perennials. Prentice Hall, New York. Lovejoy, A. 1991. Perennials: Toward Continuous
Bird, R. 1994. The Cultivation of Hardy Perennials. Bloom. New Voices in American Garden Writing.
Batsford, London. Capability’s Books, Deer Park, WI.
Bloom, A. 1991. Alan Bloom’s Hardy Perennials. McGourty, F. 1989. The Perennial Gardener.
Batsford, London. Houghton Mifflin, Boston.
Fell, D., and C. Heath. 1994. 550 Perennial Garden Murray, E., and D. Fell. 1989. Essential Annuals.
Ideas. Simon and Schuster, New York. Crescent Books, New York.
Gorkin, N. K. 1989. Perennials: A Nursery Source Phillips, E., and B. C. Colston. 1993. Rodale’s
Manual. Plants & Gardens, Vol. 44, No. 4; Illustrated Encyclopedia of Perennials. Rodale
Handbook No. 118. Brooklyn Botanic Garden, Press, Emmaus, PA.
Brooklyn. Phillips, R., and M. Rix. 1991. The Random House
Hansen, R., and F. Stahl. 1993. Perennials and Book of Perennials. 2 Vols. Random House, New
Their Garden Habitats. 4th ed. Portland, OR: York.
Timber Press. Proctor, R. 1990. Perennials: Enduring Classics for
Harper, P. 1990. Designing with Perennials. the Contemporary Garden. Harper and Row,
Macmillan, New York. New York.
Harper, P. 1985. Perennials: How to Select, Grow & Rice, G. 1995. Hardy Perennials. Viking, London.
Enjoy. HP Books, Tucson, AZ. Ruggiero, M., and Clausen, R. R. 1994. Perennial
Hobhouse, P. 1985. Color in Your Garden. Little, Gardening. 1st ed. The American Garden Guides.
Brown and Company, New York. Patheon Books, New York.
18 - 28
The Best of Fine Gardening: Perennials. 1993. Booklets and Pamphlets
Taunton Press, Newtown, CT.
University of Idaho
Thomas, G. S. 1990. Perennial Garden Plants or
PNW 550 Encouraging Beneficial Insects in Your
the Modern Florilegium: A Concise Account of
Garden ($1.00)
Herbaceous Plants, Including Bulbs, for General
Garden Use. 3rd edition, revised. Sagapress, with PNW 500 Plant Materials for Landscaping ($2.50)
Timber Press, Portland, OR. PNW 164 Propagating from Bulbs, Corms, Tubers,
Verey, R. 1990. The Art of Planting. Little, Brown, Rhizomes, and Tuberous Roots and
Boston. Stems (50¢)
Wilson, H. V. P. 1992. The New Perennials PNW 151 Propagating Herbaceous Plants
Preferred. Collier Books, New York. from Cuttings (50¢)
PNW 170 Propagating Plants from Seed ($2.50)
For More Information CIS 841 Seed Germination Test Methods
Hardy Plant Society of Oregon, P.O. Box 5090, for Home Use (25¢)
Oregon City, OR 97045 CIS 858 Using Bark and Sawdust for Mulches,
Northwest Perennial Alliance, P.O. Box 45574, Soil Amendments, and Potting Mixes
University Station, Seattle, WA 98145-0574. (35¢)
Perennial Plant Association, Attn: Dr. Steven M. CIS 1062 Starting a Home Lawn ($1.50)
Still, 3383 Schirtzinger Road, Hilliard, OH CIS 1063 Thatch Prevention and Control in Home
43026. Lawns ($1.00)
Perennial Study Group, Arboretum Foundation, PNW 299 Turfgrass Seedings: Recommendations
Washington Park Arboretum, University of for the Pacific Northwest (75¢)
Washington, Box 358010, Seattle, WA 98195- CIS 888 Weed Control in Lawns (50¢)
8010.
your county’s UI Extension office or write to:
Publications, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID
83844-2240, call (208) 885-7982, or email:
calspubs@uidaho.edu. Make checks payable to
Publications. Idaho residents add 6 percent sales
tax. Also check, and in some cases download, the
online publication and video catalog on the UI

18 - 29
18 - 30
Chapter
Vegetable Culture
19
I. The Vegetable Garden 2 XI. Transplants for the Garden 10

II. Planning Hints 2 A. Annual Plants 11
III. Locating the Garden 2 B. Perennial Plants 11
IV. Preparing the Soil 3 XII. Irrigating the Home Garden 12
A. Soil Testing 3 A. Plant Water Requirements 12
B. Soil Moisture 3 B. Irrigating Equipment 12
C. Fertilizing 4 C. Irrigating Techniques 12
V. Seed for the Garden 4 D. Irrigating with Grey Water 13
A. Choosing Vegetable Seed 4 XIII. Controlling Weeds in the Garden 13
B. Saving Your Own Vegetable Seed 4 A. Cultivation 13
C. Special Case Seeds 5 B. Mulching 14
D. Planting Vegetable Seeds 6 C. Close Spacing 14
VI. Starting Seed Indoors 6 D. Other Practices 14
A. Light 6 E. Herbicides 14
B. Media 6 XIV. Container Gardening 15
C. Containers 6 A. Containers 16
D. Starting the Seeds 6 B. Media 16
VII. Starting Seed Outdoors 7 C. Planting 16
D. Watering 16
VIII. Planting the Fall Garden 7
E. Fertilizing 17
IX. Planting Methods 8
F. General Care 17
A. Row Planting 8
G. Indoor Container Gardening 17
B. Broadcast Planting 8
XV. Preparing Perennial Vegetables
C. Hill Planting 8
for the Winter 17
X. Intensive Gardening Methods 8 A. Basic Preparations 17
A. Raised Bed 8 B. Stakes and Trellises 18
B. Vertical Gardening 9 C. Preparing Soil for Winter 18
C. Interplanting 9 D. Preparing the Cold Frame 18
D. Spacing 9
Further Reading 18
E. Succession or Relay Planting 10

19 - 1
Chapter 19
Vegetable Culture
G. F. Gardner
I. The Vegetable Garden area can be converted into usable garden

space? Empty ground may not mean available
When planning your garden, ask some basic
ground.
questions. Who will be doing the work? Will
the garden be a group project with family II. Planning Hints
members or friends? Will they work willingly
through the season to a fall harvest, or will you Plan the garden on paper first. Draw a map
be handling the hoe alone? Remember, a showing the arrangement and spacing of crops.
small, weed-free garden will produce more In your plan, place tall and trellised crops on
vegetables than a large, weedy mess. the north side of the garden so they won’t
What do you and your family like to eat? Al- shade the shorter vegetables. Group plants by
though the pictures in the garden catalog look length of growing period. Plant spring crops
delicious, there is no value in taking up gar- together so that later crops can be planted in
dening space with vegetables that no one eats. these areas when the early crops mature. Con-
Make a list of your family’s favorite vegetables, sider the length of harvest as well as time to
ranked in order of preference. This will serve maturity. Place perennial crops to the side of
as a useful guide in deciding how much of the garden where they will not be disturbed by
each vegetable to plant. Successive planting of annual tillage. If you wish to keep the garden
certain crops, such as beans, will give a longer growing all season, you may need a spring and
harvest period and increase your yield. List summer garden plan.
recommended varieties and planting dates. Order seeds by January or February. Some
How do you plan to use the produce from your plants may be started indoors as early as mid-
garden? If you plan to can, freeze, dry, or store February.
part of the produce, this will be a factor not
III. Locating the Garden
only in planning the size of the garden but also
in selecting the varieties to be grown. Some Vegetables grow best in a level area with
varieties have better storage quality than oth- loose, well-drained soil and need at least 6
ers. Take care in choosing the seeds, to make hours of sun (8 to 10 hours is ideal). These are
sure the varieties you select are adapted to some valuable tips:
your area and intended use. A few dollars 1. Avoid placing the garden in low spots, at
spent on buying adapted, quality seed will pay the base of a hill, or at the foot of a slope
off in high quality yielding vagetables. How bordered by a solid fence. These areas are
much space is available? That is, how much slow to warm up in the spring; frost settles
in these places, because cold air naturally
Acknowledgment drains to low areas. South-facing slopes are
warmer and less subject to damaging frosts.
The author compiled information for Chapters 19 2. Avoid windy locations. If you must plant in
and 20 from the Virginia, Utah, Oregon, and Wash- a windy spot, build or grow a windbreak.
ington Master Gardener handbooks and adapted it to 3. Avoid planting near trees and shrubs; they
Idaho conditions. compete for sunlight, nutrients, and water.
19 - 2
4. Choose a spot near your home so it is con- of various soil amendments can improve gar-
venient to work in the garden when you den soil and provide the best possible starting
have a few minutes. Locate the garden near ground for your crops.
a good and easily accessible supply of wa- Make basic nutrient and pH adjustments to the
ter. soil by adding fertilizers. In new garden spots,
5. Sites too near buildings may result in plants remove sod with a spade and use it to patch
that do not receive enough sunlight. Ob- your lawn or put it in a compost pile to decay.
serve shading patterns throughout the grow- Round Up can be used to kill the soil before its
ing season. If you have a shaded area you tillage.
wish to use anyway, plant shade-tolerant A. Soil Testing
crops. Increase effective light by providing Check soil fertility and pH by having your
reflective surfaces around plants. soil analyzed at least once every 3 years.
6. Avoid contaminated areas. Locations near Soil pH measures the degree of acidity or
busy roads are subject to airborne lead from alkalinity of the soil. Vegetables differ to
automobile exhaust that can contaminate some extent in their requirements, but
vegetables, especially leafy types. If you most garden crops will do well with a soil
must plant in a lead-prone area, try planting pH of 6.2 to 7.5. If soil pH is too high or
a hedge to trap lead in the air. Locations low, poor crop growth will result, largely
where lead-painted buildings once stood because of the effects of pH on the avail-
may have soil lead in toxic amounts. If you ability of nutrients to plants. A soil test
are unsure about your chosen location, will also provide a relative idea of the nu-
check the lead content by having the soil trient level in the soil.
tested or having leafy vegetable tissue ana- Soil test kits are available for checking
lyzed. Locations where water runoff from soil at home, but their quality and reliabil-
roads, sidewalks, and driveways enter the ity differ greatly. Soil samples may also
garden may contaminate the soil with salt, be sent to your local Extension office for
herbicides, and soil sterilant. testing. The Extension educator will mail
7. Use contour rows or terraces on sloped or results to you with recommendations for
hillside sites to avoid erosion. correcting any deficiencies. Private com-
8. Orient plants and rows for maximum sun- panies also do soil testing and, in many
light. Garden sites too near buildings may cases, give detailed reports and recom-
result in plants that do not receive enough mendations. In either case, tests cost ap-
sunlight. Observe shading patterns through- proximately $30 each. For best results,
out the growing season. If you have a carefully follow soil sample instructions.
shaded area you wish to use anyway, plant B. Soil Moisture
shade-tolerant crops. Increase effective light The addition of organic matter is the first
by providing reflective surfaces around step in improving moisture conditions in the
plants. garden. A relatively high level of humus in
9. Try not to plant related vegetables in exactly the soil, brought about by the addition and
the same location in the garden more than breakdown of organic matter, can improve
once in 3 years. Rotation prevents the this proportion. Humus helps clay particles
buildup of insects and disease. Use old to form aggregates, or large clumps or
plans as guides for rotating crops. groups of particles. This increases the size
of the soil pore space, allowing moisture to
IV. Preparing the Soil drain to lower levels as a reserve, instead of
The ideal vegetable garden soil is deep, friable puddling and running off the top of the soil.
(easy to cultivate), well-drained, and has a The moisture-holding capacity of sandy
high organic matter content. Proper soil prepa- soils is also improved by the addition of or-
ration provides the basis for good seed germi- ganic matter. Though most soil water in
nation and growth of garden crops. Careful use sandy soil is available, it drains so quickly

19 - 3
that plants are unable to reach water after a one way to make winter seem a little
rain. Humus in sandy soil give the water warmer.
something to cling to until it is needed by Choose seed from a dependable seed com-
plants. pany. Keep notes about the seeds you pur-
1. Mulching is a cultural practice that can chase: germination qualities, vigor of plants,
significantly decrease the amount of wa- and tendencies toward insects and disease.
ter that must be added to the soil. A 3- to From this information, you can determine
4-inch organic mulch can reduce water whether a seed company is meeting your
needs by as much as one-half by smoth- needs, and whether the varieties you have
ering weeds (which take up and transpire chosen are suitable for your area and gar-
moisture) and by reducing evaporation of dening style. For example, if powdery mil-
moisture directly from the soil surface. dew is a big problem for the squash family,
Organic mulches themselves hold some look for mildew-resistant varieties the next
water and increase the humidity level year.
around the plant that may stimulate dis- B. Saving Your Own Vegetable Seed
ease development. It may be necessary to This pleasurable activity offers a sense of
move the mulch a few inches away from self-sufficiency and it saves money. You
the plant stem. can maintain a vegetable variety that is not
2. During the summer, clear or black plastic available commercially. This helps perpetu-
mulch also conserves moisture and in- ate a broad genetic base of plant materials.
creases soil temperatures dramatically Breeders often search for old-time varieties
(clear plastic by 8°F and black plastic by when attempting to improve commercial
6°F) to the detriment of some plants and plants, since the “heirloom vegetables” of-
the benefit of others. ten have inbred disease and pest resistance
3. Shading and the use of windbreaks are or cold hardiness.
other moisture-conserving techniques. Participation in a seed-saver’s exchange can
Plants that wilt in very sunny areas can be rewarding. Your extra seeds can be
benefit from partial shade during the af- traded for unusual types not available
ternoon in summer. Small plants, in par- through other sources.
ticular, should be protected. Air moving Some considerations to keep in mind when
across a plant carries away the moisture saving seed include:
on the leaf surfaces, causing the plant to
1. Hybrid varieties do not produce seed that
need more water. In very windy areas,
is true to parents. Only open-pollinated
the roots often cannot keep up with tran-
varieties should be used for home seed
spiration demands, and plants wilt. In
production. Some seed dealers have re-
these areas, temporary or permanent
sponded to the increasing interest in seed
windbreaks can help tremendously.
saving by clearly marking open-polli-
C. Fertilizing nated varieties in their catalogs.
The amount of fertilizer to apply to a garden 2. There is the possibility of carrying seed-
depends on the natural fertility of the soil, borne diseases into the next year’s crop.
the amount of organic matter present, the Many commercially grown seeds are pro-
type of fertilizer used, and the crop being duced in dry areas to reduce fungal, viral,
grown. The best way to determine fertilizer and bacterial diseases that may be present
needs is to have the soil tested. in your region. Recognize and control
diseases that can be carried in seed.
V. Seed for the Garden
3. Consider the amount of time it takes to
A. Choosing Vegetable Seed dry seeds. Drying can be adversely af-
This is one of the most enjoyable gardening fected by frequent rains, humidity, and
pastimes. Thumbing through colorful cata- maturity.
logs and dreaming of the season’s harvest is

19 - 4
4. If you’ve ever saved squash seed during a harvested seed stalk further, shake off the
season in which you have more than one seeds, and store them in a cool, dry envi-
type of squash planted, you have prob- ronment in an envelope or small glass jar.
ably seen the abnormal results that may 3. Herb seeds—Herbs vary in the way their
be obtained from cross-pollination! seeds are produced. In general, allow
herb seeds to stay on the plants until they
Note: Some common self-pollinated annual are almost completely dry. Some seed
plants from which seed may be saved heads, such as dill, will shatter and drop
include lettuce, beans and peas, herbs, their seeds as soon as they are dry. Watch
and tomatoes. the early-ripening seeds. If they tend to
fall off, harvest the other seed heads be-
C. Special Case Seeds fore they get to that point, leaving several
When saving seed, be sure to mark the stor- inches of stem attached. Hang several
age containers clearly with permanent (pref- stems upside down; cover them with a
erably waterproof) ink, indicating the vari- paper bag to catch falling seed. Place
ety and date saved. Seeds will remain viable them in a warm, dry place until the dry-
for some time if properly stored (Table 1). ing is complete. Remove seeds from the
To test for germination, sprout seeds be- seed heads and store in envelopes or
tween moist paper towels. If germination is small glass jars. Some herb seeds, such as
low, either discard the seed or plant enough dill, celery, anise, cumin, coriander, and
extra to give the desired number of plants. others, are used for flavoring and are
1. Beans and peas—Allow seed pods to turn ready to use once dry.
brown on the plant. Harvest the pods, dry 4. Tomato seeds—Pick fruit from desirable
for 1 to 2 weeks, shell, and then store the plants when ripe. Cut the fruit and
seeds in a cool (below 50°F), dry envi- squeeze the pulp into a container. Add a
ronment in a paper bag. little water, then let the pulp ferment 2 to
2. Lettuce seed—Cut off seed stalks when 4 days at room temperature, stirring occa-
they are fluffy in appearance, just before sionally. When the seeds settle out, pour
all the seeds are completely dried. Seeds off the pulp and spread the seeds thinly,
will fall off the stalk and be lost if al- and dry thoroughly. Store in an envelope
lowed to mature on the plant. Dry the or glass jar in a cool, dry place.
Table 1. Viability of vegetable seeds.

Average years Average years Average years
seeds can seeds can seeds can
Vegetable be saved Vegetable be saved Vegetable be saved
Asparagus 3 Cress, water 5 Parsnip 1
Bean 3 Cucumber 5 Pea 3
Beet 4 Eggplant 5 Pepper 4
Broccoli 5 Endive 5 Pumpkin 4
Brussels sprouts 5 Kale 5 Radish 5
Cabbage 5 Kohlrabi 5 Rutabaga 5
Carrot 3 Leek 1 Spinach 5
Cauliflower 5 Lettuce 5 Squash 5
Celery 5 Muskmelon 5 Sweet corn 1
Chinese cabbage 5 Mustard 4 Tomato 4
Cabbage 5 Okra 2 Turnip 5
Collard 5 Onion 1 Watermelon 5
Corn 5 Parsley 2

19 - 5
D. Planting Vegetable Seeds fine sphagnum peat is excellent for starting
The depth to cover seeds when you plant seeds. Fertilizer, at half the normal strength,
them depends on factors such as the size of can be added to the mixture. Mix well be-
the seed, the type of soil you have, and the fore using.
season of the year. Soil can be sterilized in the oven by baking
As a general rule, vegetable and flower it at 220°F until the internal soil temperature
seeds should be covered about three times is 180°F. It should be held at that tempera-
their lateral diameter or width (not their ture for 30 minutes. This may be an odorous
length). However, there are exceptions. You process, but it works.
should read the packet directions. C. Containers
Some seeds require light for germination Many types of containers can be used to
and should not be covered at all. These in- start seeds.
structions apply to seeds planted both inside 1. Flats or other large containers can be
and outside. used. Plant in rows and grow seedlings
until they have one or two sets of true
VI. Starting Seed Indoors leaves, then transplant into other contain-
Starting seeds indoors for transplanting is an ers for growing to the size to transplant
important aspect of intensive gardening. To get outdoors.
the most from the garden plot, a new crop 2. Seedlings may also be started in pots, old
should be ready to take the place of the crop cans, cut-off milk cartons, margarine
being removed. Several weeks may be gained tubs, egg cartons, or other throwaways.
by having 6-inch transplants ready to go into The pop-out trays found at garden centers
vacated areas. Don’t forget to recondition the are easy to use and are reusable.
soil for the new plants. 3. Peat pots are nice, especially for large
A. Light seeds. Sow one or two large seeds di-
To start seeds indoors, it is important to rectly into each peat pot. Thin to one
have enough light. More homegrown seed- seedling per pot. Peat pots can be planted
lings are probably lost to this one factor directly in the garden, but do not allow
than to any other. the edges of the pot to stick out above the
Vegetable seedlings grown under low light soil. The edges will act as a wick and
conditions are likely to be leggy and weak. moisture will evaporate from this ex-
They fall over under their own weight after posed surface.
they are 3 to 4 inches tall. D. Starting the Seeds
If you do not have a sunny room or back Regardless of the type of container chosen,
porch with a southern exposure, you will fill it three-fourths full with seed-starting
need supplemental lights. A simple fluores- mixture and sow the seeds. Cover to the
cent shop light with one warm-white and specified depth and water the mix.
one cool-white bulb (or grow lights) will If your home is dry, it may help to cover the
suffice. containers with plastic wrap to maintain a
B. Media uniform moisture level since seeds and
It is easiest to use a mix containing peat to seedlings are extremely sensitive to drying
start seedlings, since garden soil contains out. However, seeds should not be kept
disease organisms that can be highly de- soaking wet since this condition is condu-
structive to small plants. cive to damping-off, a fungus disease
Garden soil high in clay should be condi- deadly to seedlings. Damping-off can be
tioned with compost or perlite to prevent prevented or diminished by sprinkling
excess moisture and/or shrinkage. Mix milled sphagnum moss, which contains a
your own soilless media if you prefer; 50 natural fungicide, on top of the soil.
percent vermiculite or perlite and 50 percent Another option for seedling production is to
use peat pellets or cubes. These are pre-
19 - 6
formed and require no added soil mix. Many Moisture can also be retained with a shallow
home gardeners make their own soil cubes mulch or by covering the row with a board un-
using low cost, homemade molds. The pel- til the seeds are up.
lets or cubes are soaked until thoroughly wet. Shading the area may be helpful to keep the
Then seeds are planted in the holes provided. soil cooler for seed germination, especially
The whole pellet or cube may be planted when planting cool weather crops such as on-
without disturbing the roots. The only disad- ions, peas, radishes, and lettuce in summer.
vantage to this method is the expense. Seed that requires a lower germination tem-
perature may benefit from being kept in the
VII. Starting Seed Outdoors refrigerator for 2 weeks before planting. These
Many seeds may be sown directly in the gar- seeds may also benefit from presprouting in-
den. If garden soil is quite sandy, or is easy to doors. Presprouting is a useful technique for
work because of the high content of organic planting in cold soils as well.
matter, seeds may be planted deeper. Young Handle seed carefully once sprouted to prevent
seedlings will emerge easily from a sandy or damaging new root tissue.
organic soil. Fast emergence can reduce the
chance of seedling disease.
Table 2. Plant production data chart.
If garden soil texture has a high silt and
Days to Optimal Weeks
clay content, the seeds should be covered emergence germination soil to grow
with only two to three times their diameter. Crop from seeding temperature range transplant size
In such soils, it may be helpful to apply a
(°F)
band of sand, fine compost, or vermiculite
4 inches wide and 1/4 inch deep along the Beans 5 to 10 65° to 85° *
row after seeds are planted. This will help Beets 7 to 10 50° to 85° *
retain soil moisture and reduce crusting, Broccoli 3 to 10 50° to 85° 5 to 7
then seedlings can easily push through the Cabbage 4 to 10 50° to 85° 5 to 7
soil surface. Carrots 12 to 18 50° to 85° *
A thin, clear plastic film may be used to Cauliflower 4 to 10 50° to 85° 5 to 7
cover the planted seeds. It will raise the soil
Celery 9 to 21 50° to 65° 10 to 12
temperatures and hold the moisture, speed-
ing up the germination process. The plastic Chard, Swiss 7 to 10 65° to 85° *
should be removed after germination starts Corn, sweet 5 to 10 65° to 85° *
to prevent burning of the new plants. Cucumber 6 to 10 65° to 85° 4
Soil temperature has an effect on the rate of Eggplant 6 to 10 65° to 85° 6 to 9
seed germination. In the spring, soil is often Lettuce 6 to 10 50° to 65° 3 to 5
cold, and seeds of some plants will rot be- Melons 6 to 8 65° to 85° 3 to 4
fore they have a chance to sprout. Table 2
Okra 7 to 10 65° to 85° *
lists optimum soil temperatures.
Onion 7 to 10 65° to 85° 8
VIII. Planting the Fall Garden Parsley 15 to 21 50° to 85° 8
When planting the fall garden in midsum- Peas 6 to 10 50° to 65° *

mer, the soil will be warm and dry. There- Peppers 9 to 14 65° to 85° 6 to 8
fore, cover the seeds six to eight times their Potatoes, sweet (slips) 50° to 65° *
diameter. A light organic mulch can keep Radish 3 to 6 50° to 65° *
soil cool and moist. It can be removed after Spinach 7 to 12 50° to 65° *
emergence. Deep planting can produce
Squash 4 to 6 65° to 85° 3 to
stress on emerging seedlings.
Tomato 6 to 12 65° to 85° 5 to 7
Seedlings may need to be watered each day
Turnip 4 to 8 50° to 65° *
with a sprinkler or a sprinkling can to pro-
mote germination. * Transplants not recommended

19 - 7
IX. Planting Methods low-ground growth patterns, and preferred
A. Row Planting growing season.
A string stretched between stakes or home- Using such techniques as raised beds, vertical
made row markers can provide a guide for gardening, interplanting, spacing and relay
straight rows. Use a hoe handle, a special planting you can develop a high-yielding in-
furrow hoe, or a grub hoe to make a furrow tensive garden.
of the appropriate depth for the seed being A. Raised Bed
planted. Sow seed thinly; it may help to mix This type of bed, also called the growing
very small seed with coarse sand to distrib- bed is the basic unit of an intensive garden.
ute the seeds more evenly. Draw soil over The raised bed allows the gardener to con-
the seed, removing stones and large clods. centrate soil preparation in small areas, re-
Firming soil over seeds improves the uptake sulting in effective use of soil amendments
of soil moisture and hastens germination. and creating an ideal environment for veg-
Water the seeds in to improve soil-to-seed etable growth. Beds are generally 3 to 4 feet
contact. When plants have grown 4 to 6 wide and as long as desired. The gardener
inches tall, thin according to seed packet works from either side of the bed, reducing
instructions. the incidence of compaction caused when
B. Broadcast Planting walking on the soil to work it.
Many crops can be sown in wide rows or Soil preparation is the key to successful in-
beds instead of in long, single rows. Crops tensive gardening. If your soil is not deep,
such as spinach, beans, peas, beets, lettuce, double-dig the beds for best results. Remove
and carrots are especially suited to this type the top 12 inches of soil from the bed. Insert
of culture. a spade or spading fork into the next 10 to
12 inches of soil and wiggle the handle back
Sow seed evenly over the area, then rake it
and forth to break up compacted layers. Do
in. Firm soil over the seeds. Thin young
this every 6 to 8 inches in the bed.
plants to allow room for growth.
Mix the topsoil with a generous amount of
C. Hill Planting
compost or manure, and return the mixture
Larger vegetables, such as melons, squash,
to the bed. It should be somewhat fluffy and
corn, and cucumbers, may be planted in
may be raised slightly. To create a true
hills. Soil is mounded to a foot or so in di-
raised bed, take topsoil from the neighbor-
ameter, at the recommended spacing. Plant
ing pathways and mix it in as well.
4 to 6 seeds per hill, firming the soil well.
Thin the seedlings to 3 to 5 plants per hill. To grow so closely together, plants must
have adequate nutrients and water. Provid-
X. Intensive Gardening Methods ing extra synthetic fertilizers and irrigation
will help, but there is no substitute for deep,
The purpose of an intensively grown garden is
fertile soil high in organic matter. Humus-
to harvest the most produce possible from a
rich soil holds extra nutrients; and existing
given space. More traditional gardens consist
elements locked in the soil are released by
of long, single rows of vegetables spaced
the actions of earthworms, microorganisms,
widely apart. Much of the garden area is taken
and acids present in a life-filled soil, making
by the space between the rows. An intensive
them available for plant use.
garden reduces wasted space to a minimum.
The intensive ideal is to have something grow- By nature, raised beds are a form of wide-
ing in every part of the garden at all times dur- bed gardening, a technique by which seeds
ing the growing season. and transplants are planted in wide bands of
several rows or broadcast in a wide strip.
A good intensive garden requires early, thor-
The goal of this technique is to space plants
ough planning to make the best use of time and
at equidistant from each other on all sides,
space in the garden. Interrelationships of plants
so that, at maturity, plant leaves touch. The
must be considered before planting. Evaluate
close planting saves space and reduces
nutrient needs, shade tolerance, above- and be-
moisture loss from surrounding soil.
19 - 8
B. Vertical Gardening flowers and Jerusalem artichokes on
The use of trellises, nets, strings, cages, or nearby plants).
poles to support growing plants constitutes c. Its preferred season.
vertical gardening. This technique is espe- d. Its light, nutrient, and moisture re-
cially suited, but not limited, to gardeners quirements.
with a small garden space. 2. Interplanting can be accomplished by al-
Vining and sprawling plants, such as cu- ternating rows within a bed (plant a row
cumbers, tomatoes, melons, and pole beans, of peppers next to a row of onion), by
are obvious candidates for this type of gar- mixing plants within a row, or by distrib-
dening. Some plants entwine themselves uting various species throughout the bed.
onto the support, while others need to be For the beginner, alternating rows may be
tied. Some varieties of squash, cucumbers, the easiest to manage.
and watermelons are bush type and are more 3. Long season (slow to mature) and short
suitable for intensive gardening. season (quick to mature) plants such as
A vertical planting will cast a shadow, so carrots and radishes, respectively, can be
beware of shading sun-loving crops. Take planted at the same time. The radishes are
advantage of the shade by planting shade- harvested before they begin to crowd the
tolerant crops near the vertical ones. carrots. Smaller plants can be planted
Plants grown vertically take up much less close to larger plants (e.g., radishes at the
space on the ground, and though the yield base of beans or broccoli). Shade-tolerant
per plant may be less, the yield per square species such as lettuce, spinach, and cel-
foot of garden space is much greater. ery can be planted in the shadow of taller
Because vertically growing plants are more crops. Heavy feeders, such as cabbage
exposed, they dry out faster and may need family crops, can be interplanted with
to be watered more frequently than if they less gluttonous plants.
were allowed to spread over the ground. 4. Interplanting can help keep insect and
This fast drying is also an advantage to disease problems under control. Pests are
those plants susceptible to fungus diseases. usually fairly crop specific, that is, they
A higher rate of fertilization may be needed prefer vegetables of one type or family.
for vertically growing plants, and soil Mixing families of plants helps break up
should be deep and well drained to allow large expanses of the pest-preferred crop,
roots to extend vertically rather than com- helping to contain early pest damage
plete with others at a shallow level. within a small area, and giving you a
C. Interplanting little more time to deal with the problem.
Growing two or more types of vegetables in
Note: Spraying for pests becomes more diffi-
the same place at the same time is known as
cult with the interplanting method.
interplanting. Proper planning is essential to
obtain high production and increased quality
D. Spacing
of the crops planted. Interplanting has been
practiced for thousands of years in Europe In this technique, individual plants are
and Japan but is just now gaining wide- closely spaced in a raised bed or inter-
spread support in this country. planted garden.
1. To successfully plan an interplanted gar- An equidistant spacing pattern calls for
den, consider these factors for each plant: plants to be the same distance from each
other within the bed. Plant so that the center
a. Length of the plant’s growth period, its
of one plant is the same distance from the
growth pattern (tall, short, below or
plants on all sides of it. In beds of more than
above ground).
two rows, this means that the rows should
b. Its possible negative effects on other be staggered so that plants in every other
plants (e.g., allelopathic effects of sun- row are between the plants in adjacent rows.

19 - 9
The distance recommended on the seed may be followed by more cool season
packet for plants within the row is the dis- plants, or even a winter crop.
tance from the center of one plant to the The new planting can be made before the
center of the next (Table 3). However, old one is removed. For instance, sweet corn
plants should not be crowded to the point may be planted in 2-week intervals for a
that disease causes problems or competition continuous harvest. This requires some care.
causes stunting. Crops planted early are likely to get a
This technique results in an efficient use of slower start because of low temperatures. In
space. The close spacing creates a nearly the case of corn, it can be disastrous to have
solid leaf canopy, acts as a living mulch, two varieties pollinating at the same time,
decreases water loss from bare ground, and because the quality of the kernels may be
minimizes weed problems. affected. For best results, give early planted
E. Succession or Relay Planting corn extra time to get started.
To obtain a succession of crops, plant some- Another way to achieve a lengthy harvest is
thing new in spots vacated by spent plants to plant different varieties of the same veg-
(such as planting corn after peas). etable at the same time (e.g., plant early sea-
Planting a spring, summer, and fall garden son, midseason, and late-season corn).
is another form of succession planting. Cool XI. Transplants for the Garden
season crops (broccoli, lettuce, peas) are
Most gardeners use transplants in the garden to
followed by warm season crops (beans, to-
give long season plants a chance to grow to
matoes, peppers). Where possible, these
maturity or just to lengthen the harvest season.
In short season areas, crops such as head let-
Table 3. Intensive spacing guide for vegetables.
tuce, broccoli, and celery may not reach their
Plant Spacing Plant Spacing prime harvest stage if not given those extra
weeks indoors to get a head start. Tomatoes
(inches) (inches)
would have a short harvest period if started
Asparagus 15 to 18 Leeks 3 to 6
from seed in the ground, and peppers and egg-
Beans, bush 4 to 6 Lettuce, head 10 to 12
plants might not produce at all unless they are
Beans, lima 4 to 6 Lettuce, leaf 4 to 6
grown from transplants. See Table 4 for a rat-
Beans, pole 6 to 12 Melons 18 to 24
ing of many vegetables and their tolerance for
Beets 2 to 4 Mustard 6 to 9
transplating.
Broccoli 12 to 18 Okra 12 to 18
Brussels sprouts 15 to 18 Onion 2 to 4 Table 4. Ease of transplanting vegetables.
Cabbage 15 to 18 Peas 2 to 4
Cannot be
Cabbage, Chinese 10 to 12 Peppers 12 to 15 successfully
Carrots 2 to 3 Potatoes 10 to 12 Easily survive Require care in transplanted by
Cauliflower 15 to 18 Pumpkins* 12 to 36 transplanting the operation usual methods
Cucumber 12 to 18 Radishes 2 to 3 Broccoli Beets Beans
Chard, Swiss 6 to 9 Rutabaga 4 to 6 Cabbage Carrots Peas
Collards* 12 to 15 Spinach 4 to 6 Cauliflower Celery Okra
Endive 15 to 18 Squash, summer* 18 to 24 Eggplant Chard
Eggplant 18 to 24 Squash, winter* 24 to 36 Lettuce Corn
Kale 15 to 18 Tomatoes 18 to 24 Chinese Cucumbers
Kohlrabi 6 to 9 Turnips 4 to 6 cabbage Melon
Note: To determine spacing for interplanting, add the inches for the Sweet potato Squash
two crops to be planted together, and divide the sum by two. slips
For example, if radishes are planted next to beans, add 2 Onion
inches + 4 inches = 6 inches, then divide 6 inches by 2 = 3 (tends to bolt)
inches. The radishes should be planted 3 inches from the
beans.
Tomatoes
Pepper
*Miniature varieties or trellising may increase value per square foot.

19 - 10
Because of the amount of time, attention, and the roots of transplants. Pour about a cup
need for controlled growing conditions, many of starter fertilizer solution in the hole
gardeners prefer to purchase plants for their around the plant. Use a half-strength so-
gardens. However, for a larger choice in vari- lution for that type of plant during the
eties and the control of plant production from normal growing season. Fish emulsion or
seed to harvest, others choose to start their diluted manure tea can also be used.
own. 7. For a few days after transplanting, protect
A. Annual Plants the plants from wind and sun by placing
Transplants of annual vegetables and flow- newspaper or cardboard on the south side
ers should be stocky, healthy, free from dis- of the plant, or by covering them with
ease and insects, and should have good jugs, baskets, or flower pots.
roots. Plants should not be too small or too 8. Water the plants once or twice during the
mature. next week. Overwatering can cause
1. Be sure plants have been hardened-off so damping-off.
that they will easily adapt to environmen- B. Perennial Plants
tal change. Avoid hardened plants that When buying small fruit plants and peren-
are woody and yellow. nial crowns (asparagus and rhubarb), order
2. Successful transplanting is achieved by early or buy from reliable local outlets.
interrupting plant growth as little as pos- It pays to do some research about perennial
sible, an advantage provided by peat pots plants. Determine the major diseases and
and peat pellets, neither of which have to insect pests and then buy resistant varieties.
be removed when transplanting. Investigate whether any plants are re-
3. Have garden soil prepared before trans- stricted. The Idaho Department of Agricul-
planting. All additives that require time ture in Boise may quarantine plants from
to break down, such as manures, sulfur, some areas of the country.
limestone, rock fertilizers, and green ma- 1. Select varieties that will do well in your
nures, should be incorporated several growing conditions. Check crowns for
weeks before planting. Quick-acting (hy- signs of viable buds. Avoid plants with
drated) lime for low pH soils, fertilizers, roots and stems that are brown or soggy
and well-decayed compost may be added black, which indicates poor storage or
just before planting. diseased stock. Inspect plants for signs of
4. Transplant on a shady day, in late after- insects. If you receive plants by mail that
noon, or in early evening to prevent or are not satisfactory, do not hesitate to
reduce wilting. Water the plants several send them back.
hours before transplanting. When using 2. Once you have the plants, keep the roots
bare root plants, such as sweet potato moist (but not soaking wet) by misting
slips, soak the roots thoroughly an hour occasionally, and do not allow them to
or two before setting them out in the gar- freeze or be exposed to high tempera-
den. They should not be allowed to dry tures. If it is necessary to keep the crowns
out completely at any time. for more than a few days, place them in
5. Handle plants carefully. Avoid disturbing cold storage (not freezing) or else heel
the roots or bruising the stems. into a trench of moist soil in a shaded lo-
6. Dig a hole large enough to hold the roots cation, then pack soil firmly against the
of the plants. Set vegetable plants slightly roots to eliminate any air pockets.
deeper than previously planted and at rec- 3. Transplant crowns according to direc-
ommended intervals. Tomatoes are an tions, digging holes large enough to give
exception. They will develop roots all the roots plenty of room to spread. Re-
along the stems, and you can plant deeply move any roots that are discolored or
enough to leave only two or three sets of dried out. Do not mix compost at the bot-
leaves exposed. Press soil firmly around tom of the hole as it may prevent water

19 - 11
from moving across a boundary of dis- about 2 to 2 1/2 inches of water available
similar materials. It can also inhibit root to plants per foot of depth.
elongation out of the planting hole, in- 3. All water in the soil may not be available
creasing the likelihood of drought and to plants, particularly if the soil is fine
heat stress. textured. Clay particles hold soil moisture
4. Once transplanted, shade the plants, and tightly. If, for example, there are 4 1/2
water when needed. Extra care at the be- inches of water per foot of fine-textured
ginning of their growth will result in pro- soil, there may be as little as 1 1/2 inches
ductive, healthy plants. available water for plants.
B. Irrigating Equipment
XII. Irrigating the Home Garden
The home gardener has several options for
During times when cultural practices simply
applying water to plants: a sprinkler water-
aren’t enough, that is when rainfall is sparse
ing can, a garden hose with a fan nozzle or
and the sun is hot, watering may benefit the
spray attachment, a portable lawn sprinkler,
garden with higher yields. Watering may save
a perforated plastic soaker hose, a drip or
the garden by aiding in seedling emergence;
trickle irrigation system, or a semiautomatic
reducing or increasing soil crusting; improving
drip system. Quality equipment will last for
germination and plant stand; reducing wilting
many years when properly cared for.
and stimulating growth in transplants; increas-
ing fruit size of tomato, cucumber, and melon; C. Irrigating Techniques
and maintaining uniform plant growth. When deciding on which type of watering
A. Plant Water Requirements equipment to use, consider the following
basic techniques for watering:
These may be lower in the early spring and
late fall when temperatures are low. Check 1. Adjust the flow or rate of water applica-
specifications for your soil temperature and tion to about 1/2 inch per hour. A faster
type to be sure of the necessary water rate will cause runoff, unless the soil has
amount. Keep a rain gauge near the garden exceptionally good drainage. To deter-
or check with the local weather bureau for mine the rate for a sprinkler, place small
rainfall amounts, then supplement rainfall tin cans at various places within the
with irrigation water if needed. sprinkler’s reach, and check the level of
water in the cans at 15-minute intervals.
1. A healthy plant is composed of 75 to 90
percent water, which is used for the 2. When using the oscillating type of lawn
plant’s vital functions, including photo- sprinklers, place the sprinkler on a plat-
synthesis, support (rigidity), and trans- form higher than the crop to prevent wa-
portation of nutrients and sugars to vari- ter from being diverted by plant leaves.
ous parts of the plant. During the first 2 Try to keep the watering pattern even by
weeks of growth, plants are becoming frequently moving the sprinkler, overlap-
established and must have water to build ping about one-half of each pattern.
their root systems. From April to Septem- 3. Avoid getting foliage wet in the evening,
ber, vegetable crops need about 1 inch of as you can encourage diseases. Morning
water per week in the form of rainwater, watering is preferred.
irrigation water, or both. 4. Place perforated plastic hoses or soaker
2. During dry periods, one thorough water- hoses with holes down along one side of
ing each week of 1 to 2 inches of mois- the crop row or underneath mulch, so that
ture (65 to 130 gallons per 100 square water is allowed to soak or seep into the
feet) is usually enough for most soils. soil slowly.
Soil should be wetted to a depth of 5 to 6 5. It is best to add enough water to soak the
inches each watering and not watered soil to a depth of 5 to 6 inches. It takes
again until the top few inches begin to approximately 2/3 gallon of water for
dry out. Average garden soil will store each square foot or 65 to 130 gallons for

19 - 12
100 square feet of garden area. This var- most gardeners soon learn. Weeds (some na-
ies with the nature of the soil. Frequent, tive and some introduced) are remarkably
light waterings encourages shallow root- adapted to conditions in the area where they
ing that causes plants to suffer more grow, usually much more so than the imported
quickly during drought periods, espe- cultured vegetables we prize so highly for
cially if mulches are not used. On the food. Many weeds that would otherwise not be
other hand, too much water, especially in growing in a lawn or natural area spring up as
poorly drained soils, can be as damaging if by magic when the soil is cultivated.
to plant growth as too little water. There are several ways to rid the garden of
6. Know the critical watering periods for most problem plants. Since mature weeds ex-
selected vegetables. You can reduce the tract large quantities of moisture and nutrients
amount of supplemental water you add, from the soil, it is more beneficial (and easier)
which can be important where water sup- to remove weeds when they are young and ten-
plies are limited. Water is most needed der.
during the first few weeks of develop- A. Cultivation
ment, immediately after transplanting, Hand pulling and digging weeds in small
and during development of edible storage gardens and raised beds works well. Hoeing
organs. is preferred in larger spaces. Manual pow-
7. In areas prone to repeated drought, look ered rotary cultivators do a good job on long
for drought-resistant varieties when buy- rows and pathways if the soil is not too wet
ing seed or plants. or dry and if the weeds are not too big.
D. Irrigating with Grey Water 1. A rotary tiller of appropriate size makes
If water supplies are short in your area, con- the work easy and fast, but it is not the
sider using grey water (water from house- most pleasant chore to get behind a
hold uses) on your vegetable garden. How- smoky, noisy engine on a hot summer
ever, a few rules should be observed: day. Manual and powered rotary cultiva-
1. Do not use “black water” (any water run tors are usually a poor choice of tool to
through the toilet) because of the possi- use to control weeds near vegetable
bility of contamination from fecal organ- plants since use may inspire vegetbles.
isms. Hand pulling or hoeing with a light touch
2. It is preferable not to use kitchen waste are best for removing weeds near veg-
water that contains grease or harsh clean- etable plants. Deep cultivation with any
ers, ammonia, bleach, softeners, or instrument is likely to damage roots or
nonbiodegradable detergents. stems of crop plants.
3. If using water from the bathtub or wash- 2. Turning under weeds, especially before
ing machine, use only mild, biodegrad- they flower, provides organic matter to
able soaps. Omit softeners and bleaches. the soil. Hand pulled weeds, except for
Allow wash and rinse water to mix, if rhizomatous grasses, may be laid on top
possible, to dilute the soap content. Never of the soil to dry out and will eventually
use a borax-containing product (such as have the same effect. If rain is predicted
washing soda) in water to be used on a in the area within a day or two, it is best
garden because of the danger of applying to collect the weeds and add them to the
plant-toxic levels of boron. compost pile. Rain will wash soil around
the roots and some weeds will survive. If
4. Apply grey water to the soil, but not to
weeds have started to go to seed, leaving
plant leaves.
them in the garden is not a good idea.
XIII. Controlling Weeds in the Garden 3. Composting may not destroy weed seeds
The old saying, “One year’s weed, seven if the pile doesn’t heat up enough after
years’ seed,” contains more truth than myth, as the weeds are added. Grasses that spread
by rhizomes or stolons also present a

19 - 13
problem if not completely dried up. In lowing techniques are still in the experimen-
these cases, despite their potential value tal stage for home gardeners. Try them in
as organic material, it is better to let the small sections of the garden to determine
trash collectors take these weeds. their effectiveness.
4. Reducing weed growth around the garden 1. One method is to plant a cover crop in
by mowing or other means will also help the fall, kill it with a herbicide in the
prevent the spread of weeds and seeds to spring, then plant vegetables in the dead
the garden area. sod after a recommended waiting period.
5. Cultivation is best done when the soil is However, there are no herbicides recom-
somewhat moist, but not wet. A day or mended for use in established home veg-
two after a rain or irrigation is the best etable gardens to kill emerged weeds at
time to cultivate. Working wet soil will the present time. Use of weed killers nor-
damage the structure, especially of fine- mally recommended for lawns or other
textured soils. When it is too dry, weeds areas is not advised, and until a safe her-
are difficult to pull and hoeing is also bicide is available for growing weeds,
hard. this type of no-till practice is unsafe for
6. If you have a choice, remember that the growing vegetables in the home garden.
work will be much more pleasant in the 2. Another method is the use of a living sod
cool temperatures of early morning or that is mowed regularly. This has many
late evening. of the benefits of no-till gardening and
B. Mulching does not necessitate the use of herbicides.
The living sod method is a good choice
If you have a reliable source of mulching
for raised beds, so that only the paths
materials you can reduce the need for weed-
need to be mowed.
ing. Thick layers of organic mulch will pre-
vent most annual seeds to poke through, and 3. The use of cover crops over several sea-
those that do are usually easily pulled. sons or years in a particularly weedy sec-
tion can also reduce weed problems. This
1. Mulching with black plastic is a good
method requires leaving the cover crop
choice for controlling weeds with runners.
section uncultivated, which reduces gar-
2. Use newspaper, old carpeting, or other dening space. Cover crops must also be
such materials, or sawdust or bark, as cut or harvested regularly, which can be
mulch materials for paths. These provide time-consuming and difficult without ap-
excellent weed suppression. propriate tools.
3. Uncomposted sawdust is not recom- 4. Investigate crop rotations thoroughly be-
mended for use next to plants. It has a fore using them to control weeds.
tendency to crust, and soil microbes re-
E. Herbicides
duce the amount of nitrogen available to
the vegetables. As mentioned before, herbicides may be
used in and around the home garden, but it
C. Close Spacing
can be risky business, if knowledgeable ap-
When spaced close to each other, estab- plications are not made. They should always
lished vegetable plants will shade the soil be used according to label instructions and
and prevent the growth of many weed seed- only for crops listed on the label. The wrong
lings. This is the effect achieved by a well- herbicide can destroy garden productivity
planned raised bed. The plants are spaced so for many years.
that the foliage of adjacent plants touches
1. Even when used properly, drift from her-
and forms a closed canopy at a mature
bicide sprays used on lawns or in areas
growth stage.
surrounding the garden can cause damage
D. Other Practices to vegetable plants. Spray on windless
Some gardeners are experimenting with days and erect barriers to protect plants if
various types of no-till gardening. The fol- necessary. Drift from preemergence her-

19 - 14
bicides does not damage growing plants fruits over a period of time, such as tomatoes
but may prevent seeds from germinating. and peppers, make the best use of space and
2. Be aware that treatment with an herbicide containers. Dwarf or miniature varieties often
for one type of weed may result in the mature and bear fruit early, but most do not
area being colonized by other weeds that produce as well overall as standard varieties.
are tolerant to the chemical. With increasing interest in container garden-
3. Finally, never use an herbicide in the ing, plant breeders and seed companies are
same sprayer used for insect and disease working on vegetables specifically bred for
control. Keep a separate sprayer for her- container culture. These varieties are not nec-
bicides. essarily miniature or dwarf and may produce
as well as standard types if properly cared for
XIV. Container Gardening (Table 5).
If you don’t have space for a vegetable garden, The amount of sunlight your container garden
or if your present site is too small, consider spot receives may determine which crops can
raising fresh, nutritious homegrown vegetables be grown. Generally, root crops and leaf crops
in containers. A window sill, patio, balcony, or can tolerate partial shade, but vegetables
doorstep can provide sufficient space for a pro- grown for their fruits generally need at least 5
ductive container garden. Problems with soil- hours of full, direct sunlight each day, and per-
borne diseases, nematodes, or poor soil can be form better with 8 to 10 hours. Available light
overcome by switching to container gardening. can be increased somewhat by providing re-
Grow vegetables that take up little space. Car- flective materials around the plants (e.g., alu-
rots, radishes and lettuce, or crops that bear minum foil, white-painted surfaces, marble
chips).
Table 5. Growing vegetables in containers.

Distance (inches)
Minimum Between Days from
Light container plants in seed to
Vegetable requirements1 size containers harvest Comments
Beans, bush FS 2 gallon 2 to 3 45 to 60 Several plantings at 2 to week

intervals
Beets FS/PS 1/2 gallon 2 to 3 50 to 60 Thin plants when 1 to 2 inches
tall
Carrots FS/PS 1 quart 2 to 3 65 to 80 Several plantings; 2 week
intervals
Cabbage FS/PS 5 gallon 12 to 18 65 to 120 Requires fertile soil
Chard, Swiss FS/PS 1/2 gallon 4 to 6 30 to 40 Harvest leaves
Cucumbers FS 5 gallon 14 to 18 70 to 80 Requires hot weather; vining
types need support
Eggplant FS 5 gallon 1 plant per 75 to 100 Requires fertile soil
Kale FS/PS 5 gallon 10 to 15 55 to 65 Harvest leaves
Lettuce, leaf PS 1/2 gallon 4 to 6 30 to 35 Harvest leaves
Mustard, greens PS 1/2 gallon 4 to 5 35 to 40 Several plantings; 2 to week
intervals
Onion, green FS/PS 1/2 gallon 2 to 3 70 to 100 Requires lots of moisture
Peppers, bell FS 2 gallon 1 plant per container 110 to 120 Requires lots of moisture
Squash, summer FS 5 gallon 1 plant per container 50 to 60 Plant only bush types
Tomatoes FS 5 gallon 1 plant per 55 to 100 Stake and prune or cage
Turnips FS/PS 3 gallon 2 to 3 30 to 60 Harvest leaves and roots
Note: Consult seed catalogs for varieties adapted to container culture.
1
FS = full sun; FS/PS = full sun, tolerates partial shade; PS = partial shade.

19 - 15
A. Containers Soil straight from the garden usually cannot
Possible containers for gardening are clay, be used in a container because it may be too
wood, plastic, and metal. Containers for light textured. Container medium must be
vegetable plants must be big enough to sup- porous in order to support plants, because
port plants when they are fully grown, must roots require both air and water.
hold soil without spilling, must have ad- Packaged potting soil available at local gar-
equate drainage, and must be free from con- den centers is relatively lightweight and
tamination (e.g., herbicide residue). makes a good container medium. Mixes
1. Consider using barrels, cutoff milk jugs, such as peat-like mix are generally too light
window boxes, and baskets lined with for container vegetable gardening. They do
plastic (with drainage holes punched in not offer enough support to plant roots.
them), or even pieces of drainage pipe or Soilless mixes are sterile and contain few
cement blocks. nutrients, so even though major fertilizers
2. If you are building a planting box out of are added, no trace elements are available
wood, you will find redwood and cedar to for good plant growth. Add soil or compost
be the most rot resistant, but bear in mind if you wish to use a soilless mix as a base.
that cedar trees are much more available For a large container garden, the expense of
than redwoods. Wood for use around prepackaged or soilless mixes may be quite
plants should never be treated with creo- high.
sote or pentachlorophenol (penta) wood C. Planting
preservatives. These may be toxic to Plant container crops at the same time as
plants and harmful to people as well. you would in planting a regular garden.
3. Some gardeners have built vertical plant- Fill a clean container to within 1/2 inch of
ers out of wood lattice lined with black the top with a slightly damp soil mixture.
plastic and then filled with a lightweight Peat moss in the mix will absorb water and
medium. Others build planters out of mix much more readily if soaked with warm
welded wire shaped into cylinders, lined water before putting the mix in the con-
with sphagnum moss, and filled with soil tainer.
mix. Depending on the size of your verti- 1. Sow the seeds or set transplants accord-
cal planter, 2-inch diameter perforated ing to instructions on the seed package.
plastic pipes may be needed inside to aid Put a label with the name, variety, and
watering. date of planting on or in each container.
4. Whatever type of container you use, be 2. After planting, gently soak the soil with
sure that there are holes in the bottom for water, being careful not to wash out or
drainage so that plant roots do not stand displace seeds.
in water. Most plants need containers at
3. Thin seedlings to obtain proper spacing
least 6 to 8 inches deep for adequate root-
when the plants have two or three leaves.
ing.
4. If cages, stakes, or other supports are
5. For ease of care, dollies or platforms with
needed, provide them when the plants are
wheels or casters can be used to move the
very small to avoid root damage later.
containers from place to place. This is
especially useful for apartment or bal- D. Watering
cony gardening so that plants can be Pay particular attention to watering con-
moved to get maximum use of available tainer plants. Because the volume of soil is
space and sunlight and to avoid destruc- relatively small, containers can dry out
tion from particularly nasty weather. quickly, especially on a concrete patio in
B. Media full sun. Daily or twice daily watering may
be necessary.
Uneless your garden has sandy loam or
sandy soil, a lightweight potting mix is 1. One sign of dry soil is wilting plants.
needed for container vegetable gardening. Check containers at least once a day, and

19 - 16
twice on hot, or windy days. Feel the soil 2. Protect plants from very high heat caused
to determine whether it is damp. by light reflecting from pavement. Move
2. Mulching and windbreaks can help re- them to a cool spot or shade them during
duce water requirements for containers. If severe rain, hail, or wind storms, and for
you must be away from the garden for protection from early fall frosts.
long periods of time, consider an auto- G. Indoor Container Gardening
matic drip emitter irrigation system. If you want fresh, homegrown vegetables
3. Apply water until it runs out the drainage over the winter, or if you don’t have an out-
holes. On an upstairs balcony, this may door space in which you can place contain-
mean neighbor problems, so make provi- ers, it is worth trying some indoor container
sions for drainage of water. Large trays gardening. Of course, you cannot have a full
filled with coarse marble chips work garden in the house, but a bright, sunny
nicely. The soil should never be soggy or window can be the site for growing fresh
have water standing on top of it. food all year.
4. Clay pots and other porous containers al- 1. Some small-fruited tomatoes and pep-
low additional evaporation from the sides pers, several types of lettuce, radishes,
of the pots and watering must be done Swiss chard, and many herbs are among
more often. If the soil appears to be get- the plants you can include in the indoor
ting excessively dry, group the containers garden.
together so that the foliage creates struc- 2. Plants dry out less quickly indoors than
tures that will allow air movement be- outdoors and also grow more slowly.
neath the pots and prevent direct contact They need less fertilizer and less water.
with the cement. To make watering easy, set the pots in
E. Fertilizing large trays with an inch or two of decora-
If you use a soil mix with fertilizer added, tive stones in them. Not only will this
then your plants will have enough nutrients prevent your having to move the plants in
for 8 to 10 weeks. If plants are grown longer order to water them, which may discour-
than this, add a water-soluble fertilizer, dry age you from watering when you should,
fertilizer (slow release), manure, or compost but it will also provide humidity. Humid-
at the recommended rate. Repeat every 2 to ity is a major requirement, especially dur-
3 weeks. An occasional dose of fish emul- ing winter when houses are warm and
sion or compost will add trace elements to dry.
the soil. 3. A sunny window, preferably south-fac-
Do not add more than the recommended rate ing, is essential for successful indoor
of any fertilizer, since this may cause fertil- vegetable growing. Fruiting vegetables
izer burn and kill the plants. Container such as tomatoes and peppers may also
plants do not have the buffering capacity of need supplemental light, such as a combi-
large volumes of soil and humus to protect nation warm-white/cool-white florescent
them from overfertilizing or overliming. fixture, during winter months. Insuffi-
Just because a little is good for the plants cient light results in tall, spindly plants
does not guarantee that a lot will be better. that often fail to flower and set fruit.
F. General Care XV. Preparing Perennial Vegetables
Vegetables grown in containers can be at- for the Winter
tacked by the various types of insects and
Late fall is the time to prepare perennial veg-
diseases that are common to any vegetable
etables for winter.
garden.
A. Basic Preparations
1. Plants should be periodically inspected
for the presence of foliage-feeding and Most will benefit from a top-dressing of ma-
fruit-feeding insects as well as the occur- nure or compost and a layer of mulch,
rence of diseases. which reduces damage from freezing and

19 - 17
thawing. Dead leaf stalks of perennial veg- composed plant material and beneficial
etables (asparagus and rhubarb) should be organisms, and is an excellent soil-
cut to the ground after their tops are killed builder.
by frost, though some people prefer to leave 4. Don’t overlook other sources of organic
asparagus stalks until late winter to hold material available during the fall. Leaves
snow over the bed. are abundant. Put some on the garden,
1. Don’t forget strawberry beds. Remove store some for next year’s mulch, and
weeds that you let grow when you were compost some. Leaves will mat if put on
too busy last summer. You can transplant in too thick a layer, and will not decom-
some of the runner plants if you carefully pose quickly. You can help leaves break
dig a good-sized ball of soil with the down more easily by running a lawn
roots. Mulch the bed well with a light mower back and forth over the pile. Add
material. one cup of ammonium nitrate per bushel
2. Raspberry plant’s expended floricanes of leaves.
should be removed immediately after 5. Sawdust and wood chips are easy to ob-
harvest. Top the primocanes when dor- tain from sawmills, and many farms and
mant, and thin in the spring. stables want to get rid of manure piles
B. Stakes and Trellises before winter sets in. By adding these
When tender crops have been harvested and materials in the fall, you give them plenty
overwintering crops cared for, pull up all of time to decompose and blend into the
stakes and trellises except those stakes that soil before planting time. If you don’t
clearly mark the sites of overwintering have enough organic material for the en-
plants. tire garden, try to cover those areas you
Clean stakes and trellises of plant and soil want to be especially rich for next
remnants. Hose them down and allow to summer’s crop.
dry. Tie stakes in bundles and stack for stor- D. Preparing the Cold Frame
age over the winter. If possible, roll up wire Unless you are lucky enough to live in a
trellises and tie them securely. Store these warm area where a cold frame will protect
items inside your attic, barn, or shed where vegetables all winter, you will need to clean
they are out of the way, and where rodents up the frame when all vegetables have been
and other animals cannot use them as winter harvested. Remove all remaining plant ma-
nests. terial and spread it on the cold frame soil.
C. Preparing Soil for Winter Thoroughly spade the plant refuse and any
Pull up all dead and unproductive plants and other organic material into the soil in the
place the residue on top of the soil to be cold frame.
tilled under or placed into the compost heap. Do not leave the top on the cold frame over
1. Remove any diseased or insect-infested the winter as the weight of snow may crack
plant material from the garden. This also or break the glass. Remove the top, wash it
removes diseases and insects that may thoroughly, and store it on its side in a pro-
reproduce next spring and add to your tected indoor area.
pest problems.
2. Another option is to burn infested plant Further Reading
material. Check laws in your area before
burning anything; you may need a per- Many University of Idaho publications about garden-
ing are available from your county’s UI Extension office.
mit. If you live near a wooded area, burn-
Also, you may write to Publications, University of Idaho,
ing may be too risky. In this case, haul
Moscow, ID 83844-2240, or call (208) 885-7982. You
the diseased material away. could also check, and in some cases download, the online
3. Cleaning up the garden also gives you the publication and video catalog on the UI Educational
chance to add compost to the garden. Communications web site (http://info.ag.uidaho.edu).
Compost contains highly nutritious, de-
19 - 18
Chapter
Vegetables
20
I. Beans, Snap 2
II. Beets 3
III. Broccoli 4
IV. Brussels Sprouts 5
V. Cabbage 7
VI. Cantaloupes 8
VII. Carrots 9
VIII. Cauliflower 10
IX. Cucumber 12
X. Eggplant 13
XI. Kohlrabi 14
XII. Lettuce 15
XIII. Onions 16
XIV. Peas 18
XV. Peppers 19
XVI. Pumpkin 20
XVII. Radish 21
XVIII. Summer Squash 22
XIX. Sweet Corn 24
XX. Swiss Chard 25
XXI. Tomatoes 26
XXII. Turnips 27
XXIII. Watermelon 29
XXIV. Winter Squash 30
Further Reading 31

20 - 1
Chapter 20
Vegetables
G. F. Gardner
I. Beans, Snap the top 7 to 8 inches of soil, destroy current

weed growth, and provide a granular soil
A. Food Value
bed for seeding. Overcultivation causes the
A pound of raw green bean pods broken soil to become powdery or to crust.
into 1- or 2-inch lengths yields about 3 2/3
E. Seed Time
cups of cooked beans. They are composed
of 90.1 percent water, 145 calories, 8.6 The best time to seed beans is after the last
grams of protein, 0.9 gram of fat, and 32.2 killing frost in the spring, when day tem-
grams of carbohydrates. perature is 65°F and the night is expected to
average above 55°F. Select early maturing
B. Description
varieties that ripen in 55 to 70 days.
Snap beans grown from the immature pod
F. Planting Specifications:
originated in Central America and were
widely distributed by the Indians, basically Seed per foot 6 to 8
as bush and pole beans. Bush beans ripen Row width 18 to 30 inches
earlier, but pole bean yields are higher. Germination 6 to 14 days
Seed depth 1 1/2 to 2 inches
C. Yield Per Person
Ounce per foot 0.13
It is estimated that each person will con- Plant spacing 2 to 4 inches
sume 6 to 12 pounds of garden fresh beans
G. Planting Suggestions
and 12 to 14 pounds of canned or frozen
beans per year. Each foot of row space Beans need a warm soil to grow and good
planted to beans produces an average of spacing for sunlight. Some gardeners are
0.35 to 0.5 pound of snap beans. A 20- to tempted to soak their seeds before planting.
30-foot row of beans produces enough This practice injures many of the bean vari-
beans for one person. eties, and could result in poor germination
and diseased, weak plants.
D. Seedbed
H. Fertilizer
Beans do best on sandy loam soil that
warms up early in the spring and has a soil Beans are a legume and can produce some
pH from 7.0 to 7.5 but can tolerate a soil pH of their own nitrogen (N) because of their N
near 8.0. Cultivate the soil for planting fixation ability. The seed may be inoculated
when the moisture in the soil allows the for- with rhizobium to stimulate additional fixa-
mation of a soil ball that crumbles into tion. To supplement this, add a preplant fer-
pieces under finger pressure. Cultivate to tilizer of 0.2 pound of N for each 100 square
mix crop residues and organic matter into feet. After the first heavy bloom and set of
pods, sidedress with 1 1/2 ounces of ammo-
nium sulfate.
Acknowledgment
The amount of fertilizer applied should be
The author compiled information for Chapters 19 based on a soil test report from the Univer-
and 20 from the Virginia, Utah, Oregon, and Wash- sity of Idaho Analytical Laboratory or a pri-
ington Master Gardener handbooks and adapted it to vate testing laboratory. Plants are easily
Idaho conditions. over- or under-fertilized.
20 - 2
I. Cultivation protein, 0.5 gram of fat, 23.7 grams of carbo-
Cultivate (shallow) when necessary to re- hydrates, and 145 calories.
move other plant competition. Deep cultiva- B. Description
tion close to the plants destroys much of the Beets are native to the Mediterranean area
root system and reduces yield and quality. of north Africa, Europe, and west Asia.
J. Watering They are cool weather biennials that are
Beans have a water stress point of 60 per- grown as annuals for their leaves and roots.
cent. When the percentage of water in soil The roots may be round, flat, or elongated.
drops below this level, the plant will start to They are usually red in color, but there are
dehydrate, and growth will be slowed down several golden varieties.
or stopped. To estimate water percentage, C. Yield Per Person
take a handful of soil at the 6-inch depth and On the average, each person consumes 7 to
squeeze it into a ball in your hand. If it 12 pounds of fresh beets during a growing
forms a ball and your hand feels like it has a season, and an additional 12.5 to 30 pounds
film of water on it, the soil moisture will be of canned and frozen beets. Each foot of
60 percent or higher. If the soil moisture is row space should produce approximately
below 60 percent, you will not feel the film 1.25 pounds of beets.
of water on your hand, and it is time to wa- D. Seedbed
ter again. Plant growth can suffer from too
Beets grow best in sandy loam and peat
much or too little water. The symptoms will
soils. Heavy clay soils can be improved by
be the same. As the percentage of soil mois-
the addition of organic matter. Seedbed
ture drops the oxygen level in the soil in-
preparation should start when the soil has
creases.
sufficient moisture to form a ball that
K. Insects crumbles into medium-sized fragments.
Lygus bugs, nitidulid beetles, aphids includ- Cultivate to mix crop residues and organic
ing the bean aphid, army worms and cut- matter into the top 7 to 8 inches of soil, de-
worms, grasshoppers, pea leaf weevil, corn stroy current weeds, and provide a small
maggot, slug, spider mites, cucumber granular-type bed for planting. Overculti-
beetles, and wireworms create problems in vated soil becomes powdery and has a ten-
beans. dency to crust. The ideal pH for beets is
L. Diseases from 6.0 to 7.5, although a pH value near
Common diseases include brown spot, curly 8.0 is acceptable.
top, halo blight, mosaics, necrosis, root rot, E. Seed Time
rust, sclerotinia disease, white mold, seed The best time to seed beets is 2 to 4 weeks
rot, and seedling blight. before the last killing frost in the spring
M. Harvesting when soil temperature is 50°F or above. Se-
Beans can be harvested when pods are 3 lect early maturing varieties that ripen in 55
inches long but before the seed is much to 65 days.
larger than the diameter of a pencil lead. F. Planting Specifications:
Harvest every 3 to 4 days to prevent over Ounce per foot 0.01
maturity. Frequent picking stimulates the Seed per foot 15 to 20
plants to produce new pods and helps to en- Row width 2 to 18 inches
sure a heavy harvest. Disturbing wet vines Germination 10 to 15 days
spreads rust and other diseases. Seed depth 1/2 to 1 inch
Plant spacing 2 to 3 inches
II. Beets Row spacing 12 inches
A. Food Value G. Planting Suggestions
A pound of raw, peeled, common red beets Beets need a cool soil to grow and good
consists of 90.9 percent water, 5.0 grams of spacing for sunlight. Their frost tolerance is

20 - 3
moderate. They are not harmed by spring M. Harvesting
and fall frosts, but their roots may become Beets can be harvested as soon as the roots
tough during hot weather. The seed of beets are large enough to use. Early thinning is
is actually a dried fruit or seed ball contain- critical for beets to develop large, tender
ing several tiny true seeds. Heat, drought, or roots. Leave 2 inches between plants. The
crusting of the soil surface interferes with tops of beets removed during thinning can
seed germination and emergence. Make suc- be used for “greens.” Beets are ready to be
cessive plantings 3 weeks apart to ensure a pulled up for their roots 8 to 9 weeks after
continuous supply of young beets. seeds are sown. Roots are most tender when
H. Fertilizer less than 2 inches across. Harvest for stor-
Preplant fertilizer is a recommended 0.2 age before roots become woody. Pull the
pound of N for each 100 square feet. No beet and cut off the tops, but leave 1 to 1 1/2
sidedressing is required. The amount of fer- inches of top above the crown. To see if
tilizer applied should be based on a soil test roots are ready for use, push the soil away
report from the University of Idaho Analyti- from the top of the beet and check its size.
cal Laboratory or a private testing labora-
tory. Plants may be over- or under-fertil-
III. Broccoli
ized. A. Food Value
I. Cultivation A pound of broccoli stalks (head or bud
Use shallow cultivation when necessary to clusters, stem, and leaves) consists of 89.1
remove other plant competition. Deep culti- percent water, 16.3 grams of protein, 1.4
vation close to the plants destroys much of grams of fat, 26.8 grams of carbohydrates,
the root system and reduces yield and quality. and 145 calories.
J. Watering B. Description
Beets have a water stress point of 50 per- Broccoli is a member of the cabbage family
cent. When the percentage of water in soil with similar requirements and problems. It
drops below this level, the plants will start was developed in southern Europe and
to dehydrate, and growth will be slowed brought to America by immigrants. The
down or stopped. To estimate the water per- plant has a loose flower head on a tall,
centage take a handful of soil at the 6-inch green, branching stalk. The flower heads are
depth and squeeze it into a ball in your formed both terminally and laterally. The
hand. If it forms a ball but feels dry, the soil plant may grow to 3 to 5 feet tall.
moisture will be 50 percent or higher. If the C. Yield Per Person
soil moisture is below 50 percent, the ball It is estimated that each person consumes 3
will be fragile and break apart with slight to 5 pounds of fresh broccoli during a grow-
pressure, and it is time to water again. Plant ing season and an additional 5 to 6 pounds
growth can suffer from too much or too little of frozen broccoli each year. Each foot of
water. The symptoms will be the same. Plants row space produces about 0.75 pound of
need water, oxygen, and nutrients to grow. broccoli.
K. Insects D. Seedbed
Alfalfa looper, army worm, cutworms, flea Broccoli will grow in most soils from sand
beetles, two-spotted mite, variegated cut- to clay. Seedbed preparation should start
worm, zebra caterpillar, and nematodes are when the soil has sufficient moisture to
common beet pests. form a ball that crumbles into medium-sized
L. Diseases fragments. Cultivate mix crop residues and
Disease problems include boron deficiency, organic matter into the top 7 to 8 inches of
curly top, damping-off, downy mildew, and soil, destroy weed growth, and provide a
leaf spot. small granular-type bed for transplanting.
Overcultivated soil becomes powdery and

20 - 4
has a tendency to crust. The ideal pH for a ball in your hand. If it forms a ball and
broccoli is from 6.0 to 7.0, but values near your hand feels like it has a film of water on
8.0 are acceptable. it, the soil moisture will be 60 percent or
E. Seed Time higher. If the soil moisture is below 60 per-
The best time to seed broccoli is 6 to 8 cent, you will not feel the film of water on
weeks before transplanting when soil tem- your hand, and it is time to water again.
perature is 50°F or above. The variety Plant growth can suffer from too much or
should have an early maturity date and be too little water. The symptoms will be the
suitable for weather conditions in the area same. As the percentage of soil moisture
planted. The maturity date should be 60 to drops, the oxygen level in the soil increases.
80 days after transplanting. Plant in contain- Plants need water, oxygen, and nutrients to
ers inside for early crops and transplant after grow.
last frost. K. Insects
F. Planting Specifications: Aphids, cabbage maggots, cabbage worm,
Seed per foot 3 to 4 cabbage looper, diamond back moth, flea
Row width 24 to 30 inches beetles, spider mites, and wireworms are
Germination 3 to 10 days common broccoli pests.
Seed depth 1/2 inch L. Diseases
Plant spacing 20 to 24 inches Diseases include bacterial soft rot, club root,
G. Planting Suggestions and downy mildew.
Broccoli needs a cool soil to grow and good M. Harvesting
spacing for sunlight. If transplants are pur- Broccoli should be harvested when the cen-
chased, they should be stocky and from 4 to ter head is 4 to 6 inches across, but before
6 inches tall. the buds separate or open. Lateral buds will
H. Fertilizer develop into smaller heads after the terminal
A preplant fertilizer of 0.2 pound of N for head is removed. When a head is ready for
each 100 square feet is recommended. Three use, cut the stem 3 inches below the flower
weeks after transplanting, sidedress with buds.
1 1/2 ounces of ammonium sulfate (south-
ern Idaho) or ammonium nitrate (northern IV. Brussels Sprouts
Idaho) per 10 feet of row. The amount of A. Food Value
fertilizer applied should be based on a soil A pound of Brussels sprouts consists of 85.2
test report from the University of Idaho percent water, 22.2 grams of protein, 1.8
Analytical Laboratory or a private testing grams of fat, 37.6 grams of carbohydrates,
laboratory. Plants may be over- or under- and 204 calories.
fertilized. B. Description
I. Cultivation Brussels sprouts originated in Europe, the
Use shallow cultivation when necessary to principal location being Brussels, Belgium.
remove other plant competition. Deep culti- They resemble small cabbages but require a
vation close to the plants destroys much of the longer growing season. Each plant grows to
root system and reduces yield and quality. about 2 1/2 feet tall, bearing small cabbage
J. Watering like buds along its stem. Each stem may
Broccoli has a water stress point of 60 per- bear as many as 100 1- to 2-inch ball-like
cent. When the percentage of water in soil sprouts.
drops below this level, the plant will start to C. Yield Per Person
dehydrate and growth will be slowed down On the average, each person eats from 1.5 to
or stopped. The percentage of water in the 3.75 pounds of fresh Brussels sprouts during
soil can be estimated by taking a handful of a growing season and uses an additional
soil at the 6-inch depth and squeezing it into 3.75 to 6 pounds of canned or frozen sprouts

20 - 5
during the year. Each foot of row space pro- row. The amount of fertilizer applied should
duces about 0.5 pound of Brussels sprouts. be based on a soil test report from the Uni-
From 3.5 to 8.5 feet of row space per person versity of Idaho Analytical Laboratory or a
should be planted for fresh use during the private testing laboratory. Plants may be
growing season and an additional 3.5 to 14 over- or under-fertilized.
feet for canning or freezing. H. Cultivation
D. Seedbed When necessary, cultivation should be shal-
Brussels sprouts are adaptable to different low to remove other plant competition.
soils as long as the soils are fertile, have Deep cultivation close to the plants will de-
good texture, and are moist. Brussels stroy much of the root system and reduce
sprouts mature less rapidly than cabbage. yield and quality. Hilling soil up around the
Seedbed preparation should start when the main stem of the cabbage may stimulate
soil has sufficient moisture to form a mud early heading.
ball that you can crumble into medium- I. Watering
sized fragments. Cultivation should mix Brussels sprouts have a stress point of 55
crop residues and organic matter in the top 7 percent. When the percent of water in soil
to 8 inches of soil, destroy current weed drops below this level, the plant will start to
growth, and provide a small granular-type dehydrate, and growth will be slowed down
bed for transplanting. Overcultivated soil or stopped. The percent of water in the soil
becomes powdery and has a tendency to can be estimated by taking a handful of soil
crust. The ideal pH for Brussels sprouts is at the 6-inch depth and squeezing it into a
from 6.0 to 7.5; they do well in Idaho’s soil, ball in your hand. If it forms a ball and your
which ranges from 7.0 to 8.0. hand feels like it is moist but does not leave
E. Seed Time a film of water on it, the soil moisture will
The best time to plant Brussels sprouts seed be 55 percent or above. If the soil moisture
in containers is 4 to 6 weeks before trans- is below 55 percent, the moisture will not be
planting in the garden, when soil tempera- felt on your hand, and it is time to water
ture is 40°F or above. Seed planted in the again.
garden for later maturing plants should be Plant growth can suffer from too much or
inserted into the soil as soon as the soil can too little water. The symptoms will be the
be cultivated, 6 to 8 weeks before the last same. As the percentage of soil moisture
killing frost. The variety of Brussels sprouts drops the oxygen level in the soil increases.
planted should have an early maturity date Plants need water, oxygen, and nutrients to
and be suited for weather conditions in the grow.
area planted. The maturity date should be 80 J. Insects
to 90 days after transplanting.
Aphids, flea beetles, cabbage looper, garden
F. Planting specifications— symphylans, slugs, thrips, and cauliflower
Seed per foot 3 to 4 head maggot are common pests.
Row width 24 to 30 inches K. Diseases
Germination 3 to 10 days
Brussels sprouts diseases are minimal in
Seed depth 1/4 to 1/2 inch
Idaho but may include bacterial soft rot,
Planting space 18 to 24 inches
blackleg, club rot, and sprout rot.
G. Fertilizer
L. Harvesting
Brussels sprouts require good fertility and
Remove lower leaves as sprouts start to en-
moisture. A preplant fertilizer of 0.2 pound
large. Harvest sprouts as they become solid
of N for each 100 square feet is recom-
at about 1 to 2 inches in diameter. The low-
mended. When the plants are one-third
est sprouts will mature first. To speed up
grown, sidedress with 1 1/2 ounces of am-
sprout maturity pinch off the tip of each
monium sulfate in high pH soils or ammo-
plant in late August or early September,
nium nitrate in low pH soils per 10 feet of
20 - 6
however, this may reduce the total yield of E. Seed Time
the plant by as much as one third. Break the The best time to plant cabbage seed is 5 to 7
sprouts from the stalk. The tastiest sprouts weeks before transplanting in containers.
will be those that mature after the first fall Large cabbage transplants may produce
frost. seed stalks if subjected to 3 to 4 weeks of
M. Storage 40° to 50°F weather. To help prevent this
When night temperatures drop to 20°F on a problem, plant out transplants when the
regular basis, dig up the plants with a little stem is about the size of a pencil lead when
soil remaining around the roots. Put them soil temperature is 50°F or higher. Seeds
into a deep cold frame or in an unheated planted in the garden for later maturing
dark garage. They will continue to grow un- plants should be inserted into the soil as
til all the sprouts mature. soon as the soil can be cultivated, 6 to 8
weeks before the last killing frost. Select
V. Cabbage cabbage varieties suited to weather condi-
A. Food Value tions in the area planted. Maturity dates
should be 65 to 95 days after transplanting.
A pound of cabbage consists of 92.4 percent
water, 5.9 grams of protein, 0.9 gram of fat, F. Planting Specifications:
24.5 grams of carbohydrates, and an aver- Seed per foot 8 to 10
age of 109 calories. Row width 24 to 30 inches
B. Description Germination 4 to 10 days
Seed depth 1/4 to 1/2 inch
Cabbage ranks as one of the most important
homegrown crops. It may be globular, flat,
or flowery and green, red, or purple. It was G. Fertilizer
developed from wild leafy nonheading A preplant fertilizer of 0.2 pound of N for
plants native to Europe. each 100 square feet is recommended.
C. Yield Per Person When the plants are one-third grown,
sidedress with 1 1/2 ounces of ammonium
On the average each person eats 4 to 5
sulfate in alkaline soils and ammonium ni-
pounds of fresh cabbage during a growing
trate in acid soils per 10 feet of row. The
season, and an additional 6 to 12 pounds of
amount of fertilizer applied should be based
canned or frozen cabbage during the year.
on a soil test report from the University of
Each foot of row space produces about 1.5
Idaho Analytical Laboratory or a private
pounds of cabbage. Plant 5 to 6 feet of row
testing laboratory. Plants may be over- or
space per person for fresh use during the
under-fertilized.
growing season and an additional 7.5 to 15
feet for canning. H. Cultivation
D. Seedbed Cultivation should be shallow, when neces-
sary, to remove other plant competition.
Cabbage is adaptable to different soils as
Deep cultivation close to the plants will de-
long as they are fertile, have good texture,
stroy much of the root system and reduce
and are moist. Start seedbed preparation
yield and quality. Hilling soil up around the
when the soil has enough moisture to form a
main stem of the cabbage may stimulate
mud ball that will crumble into medium-
early heading.
sized fragments. Mix crop residues and or-
ganic matter into the top 7 to 8 inches of I. Watering
soil, destroy current weed growth, and pro- Cabbages have a water stress point of 55
vide a small granular-type bed for trans- percent. When the percent of water in soil
planting. Overcultivated soil is powdery and drops below this level, the plant will start to
has a tendency to crust. The ideal pH for dehydrate, and growth will be slowed down
cabbage growth is 6.0 to 7.5, and they do well or stopped. To estimate water percentage,
in Idaho soil, which ranges from 7.0 to 8.0. take a handful of soil at the 6-inch depth and

20 - 7
squeeze it into a ball in your hand. If it gram of fat, 34.0 grams of carbohydrates,
forms a ball and your hand feels like it is and an average of 136 calories.
damp but does not have a film of water on B. Description
it, the soil moisture will be 55 percent or Cantaloupes are native to India. The plants
above. If the soil moisture is below 55 per- have separate male and female flowers on
cent, the dampness of water will not be felt the same vine and are cross-pollinated. They
on your hand, and it is time to water again. do not cross-pollinate with cucumbers,
Plant growth can suffer from too much or gourds, watermelons, squash, or pumpkins.
too little water. The symptoms will be the Cantaloupes may develop a bitter flavor be-
same. As the percentage of soil moisture drops cause of cloudy weather, excessively high
the oxygen level in the soil increases. Plants temperatures, or too much or too little water
need water, oxygen, and nutrients to grow. during the ripening period. They need a lot
J. Insects of heat and a long growing season to ma-
Aphids, flea beetles, cabbage looper, blister ture.
beetles, diamond back moth, wireworms, C. Yield Per Person
and the imported cabbage worm are com- Each person eats about 8 to 10 cantaloupes
mon cabbage pests. during the growing season. Each foot of row
K. Diseases space produces about 1 pound of canta-
Cabbage diseases, minimal in Idaho, may loupe, and 8 to 10 feet of row will supply
include bacterial soft rot, blackleg, club rot, one person.
damping off and wire stem, downy mildew, D. Seedbed
drop or watery soft rot, leaf spot, and oedema. Cantaloupes are adapted to most soils but
L. Harvesting grow best in a fertile mellow soil with large
Cabbage is ready to harvest 50 to 65 days amounts of compost. Seedbed preparation
after transplanting. The heads should be should start when the soil has sufficient
solid but must be picked before they crack. moisture to form a mud ball that will
Soft heads have poor quality. Heads may crumble into medium-sized fragments. Mix
split during hot weather if there is an over crop residues and organic matter into the top
supply of water. Reducing irrigation or 7 to 8 inches of soil, destroy current weed
twisting the mature heads part of the way growth, and provide a small granular-type
around to sever half the roots will allow ma- bed for transplanting. Overcultivated soil
ture cabbage to stay in the garden longer becomes powdery and has a tendency to
without losing quality. Plants harvested crust. The ideal pH for cantaloupe growth is
early in the summer and left with as many from 6.0 to 7.5, but the fruit does well in
leaves as possible will often develop small Idaho soil, which ranges from 7.0 to 8.0.
heads on the stem next to the base of the E. Seed Time
leaves. These heads are edible and should The best time to transplant cantaloupes in
be picked when firm. Idaho is 3 weeks after the last killing frost.
M. Storage When transplanting, soil temperature should
Cabbage freeze at about 30°F. For storage, be 65°F or above, and night temperature
place mature cabbages in a pit, trench, or should average above 55°F. Select varieties
outdoor cellar. The temperature should be as that ripen in 75 to 85 days after transplanting.
near 32°F as possible but at least 40°F or F. Planting Specifications:
below. Humidity should be high. Stored Seed per foot 1
cabbages will last into early winter. Ounce per foot 0.05
Row width 60 to 72 inches
VI. Cantaloupes Germination 3 to 5 days
A. Food Value Seed depth 1 inch
A pound of raw cantaloupe consists of 91.2 Plant spacing 36 to 72 inches
percent water, 3.2 grams of protein, 0.5
20 - 8
G. Planting Suggestions M. Harvesting
Cantaloupes need warm soil to grow and Cantaloupes must ripen on the vine for
good spacing for sunlight to ensure high maximum quality. Ripe fruit forms an ab-
sugar content and flavor. If transplants are scission layer, and the stem loosens from
used, they should be stocky. Soils should be the fruit. When the stem is nearly loose, the
well drained and contain large amounts of cantaloupe is said to be at the full slip stage.
compost or well-rotted manure. Clear plas- Softening of the blossom end, a change in
tic mulch can be used around the plants to color of the base of the pedicel from green
warm the soil. to waxy, and a strong cantaloupe smell are
H. Fertilizer indications of ripeness. Cantaloupe har-
A preplant fertilizer of 0.2 pound of N for vested before the full slip stage do not in-
each 100 square feet is recommended. One crease in sugar after picking.
week after blossoming begins, sidedress VII. Carrots
with 1 1/2 ounces of ammonium sulfate per
10 feet of row. The amount of fertilizer ap- A. Food Value
plied should be based on a soil test report Carrots are a good source of vitamins A, B,
from the University of Idaho Analytical B2, and C, sugar, and iron. A pound of car-
Laboratory or a private testing laboratory. rots consists of 88.2 percent water, 5.0
Plants may be over- or under-fertilized. grams of protein, 0.9 gram of fat, 44.0
I. Cultivation grams of carbohydrates, and an average of
Cultivate no more than 1 inch deep to con- 191 calories.
trol weeds. B. Description
J. Watering Carrots are related to the wild flower Queen
Cantaloupes have a water stress point of 60 Anne’s Lace. They have bright green feath-
percent. When the percent of water in soil ering foliage 10 to 12 inches tall and de-
drops below this level, the plant will start to velop an orange yellow root.
dehydrate, and growth will be slowed down C. Yield Per Person
or stopped. The percent of water in the soil Each person eats about 5 to 10 pounds of
can be estimated by taking a handful of soil fresh carrots and an additional 10 to 15
at the 6-inch depth and squeezing it into a pounds of canned or frozen carrots per year.
ball in your hand. If it forms a ball and your Each foot of row space should produce
hand feels like it has a film of water on it, about 1 pound of carrots.
the soil moisture will be 60 percent or D. Seedbed
above. If the soil moisture is below 60 per- Carrots grow best in sandy loam and peat
cent, the film of water will not be felt on soils. Heavy clay soils can be improved by
your hand and it is time to water again. the addition of organic matter. If you apply
Plant growth can suffer from too much or manure, do so sparingly and use only well-
too little water. The symptoms will be the rotted manure to avoid rough, branching
same. As the percentage of soil moisture carrots. Seedbed preparation should start
drops the oxygen level in the soil increases. when the soil has sufficient moisture to
Plants need water, oxygen, and nutrients to form a mud ball that will crumble into me-
grow. dium-sized fragments. Cultivation should
K. Insects mix crop residues and organic matter in the
Aphids, cucumber beetle, and squash bug top 7 to 8 inches of soil. It should destroy
are common pests. current weed growth and provide a small
L. Diseases granular-type bed for transplanting. Over-
cultivated soil becomes powdery and has a
Diseases include Fusarium wilt, leaf blight,
tendency to crust. The ideal pH for carrot
and powdery mildew.
growth is from 6.0 to 7.0, but it does well in
Idaho soil, which ranges from 7.0 to 8.0.
20 - 9
E. Seed Time I. Cultivation
Plant carrots after the last killing frost in the Cultivation should be shallow, when neces-
spring when soil temperature is 40°F or sary, to remove other plant competition.
above. Their frost tolerance is moderate. Deep cultivation close to the plants will de-
Low temperature carrots grow long and stroy much of the root system and reduce
have pointed tips. High temperature carrots yield and quality.
have blunt tips. For an extended harvest, J. Watering
you can continue planting throughout the Carrots have a water stress point of 55 per-
summer until about 70 days before the last cent. When the percent of water in soil
expected frost. Most varieties mature in 60 drops below this level, the plants will start
to 70 days. to dehydrate, and growth will be slowed
F. Planting Specifications: down or stopped. The percent of water in
Ounce per foot 0.02 the soil can be estimated by taking a handful
Seed per foot 15 to 20 of soil at the 6-inch depth and squeezing it
Row width 14 to 24 inches into a ball in your hand. If it forms a ball,
Germination 10 to 17 days and your hand feels damp, but does not have
Seed depth 1/2 inch a film of water on it, the soil moisture will
Plant spacing 1 to 2 inches be 55 percent or above. If the soil moisture
G. Planting Suggestions is below 55 percent, the dampness will not
Carrots prefer warm soil and need good be felt on your hand, and it is time to water.
spacing for proper root development. A salt Plant growth can suffer from too much or
or pepper shaker can be used to scatter too little water. The symptoms will be the
seeds in the row. For small gardens, try same. As the percentage of soil moisture
growing carrots in raised beds at least 12 drops, the oxygen level in the soil increases.
inches deep. A mixture of one-fifth garden Plants need water, oxygen, and nutrients to
soil, two-fifths sand, and two-fifths compost grow.
or peat moss works well. Carrot seedlings K. Insects
are tiny. Some gardeners mix a few radish The following insects may cause problems:
seeds with the carrot seeds so they can see aphids, carrot rust fly, garden symphylan,
the row. wireworm, six-spotted leafhopper, and slug.
To prevent the soil from forming a crust that L. Diseases
would inhibit the seedling’s growth, cover Diseases include aster yellows, cottony soft
the seeds with a light layer of compost, rot, damping-off, leaf spot, deaf blight, mot-
(sifted) grass clippings, and sawdust of ver- ley dwarf virus, phytophthora root rot, and
miculite. A film of clear plastic over the nematode soft rot.
seedbed will speed up germination by
M. Harvesting
warming the soil, prevent crusting, and keep
the soil moist. Remove the plastic as soon as Carrots can be harvested as soon as the
the seedlings emerge. Thin seedlings to 2 roots are the size of your little finger. Har-
inches apart. vest carrots before they become woody.
H. Fertilizer N. Storage
A preplant fertilizer of 0.2 pound of N for Carrots can be stored throughout the fall and
each 100 square feet is recommended. No winter in a pit, storage cellar, or covered
sidedressing is required. The amount of fer- row. Storage temperature should be as near
tilizer applied should be based on a soil test 32°F as possible. Humidity should be high.
report from the University of Idaho Analyti-
VIII. Cauliflower
cal Laboratory or a private testing labora-
tory. Excessive N causes carrots to split into A. Food Value
forks in the top half. A pound of cauliflower with head and 4 to 6
inches of stem consists of 91 percent water,
20 - 10
23.2 grams of protein, 1.7 grams of fat, 44.7 F. Planting Specifications:
grams of carbohydrates, and an average of Seed per foot 3 to 4 per hill
232 calories. Row width 30 to 36 inches
B. Description Germination 4 to 10 days
The most delicate member of the cabbage Seed depth 1/2 inch
family, cauliflower has similar requirements Plant spacing 18 to 20 inches
and problems. It was developed in southern G. Planting Suggestions
Europe and is grown for its flower buds, Cauliflower needs cool soil and good spac-
which are clustered together in a head or ing. If transplants are used they should be
curd. It may be difficult to grow because it stocky and from 4 to 6 inches tall. Trans-
requires cool temperatures, constant mois- plant about the same time as the last killing
ture, and frequent fertilizing. Cauliflower frost.
does not head up well in hot weather and is H. Fertilizer
less tolerant of cold temperatures than cab-
A preplant fertilizer of 0.2 pound of N for
bage. It grows about 2 feet high and has
each 100 square feet is recommended.
blue green leaves.
When the plants are grown, sidedress with
C. Yield Per Person 1 1/2 ounces of ammonium sulfate in high
It is estimated that each person eats from 3 pH areas or ammonium nitrate in low pH
to 5 pounds of fresh cauliflower and 8 to 12 areas per 10 feet of row. The amount of fer-
pounds of canned or frozen cauliflower each tilizer applied should be based on a soil test
year. Each foot of row space produces about report from the University of Idaho Analyti-
1 pound of cauliflower. cal Laboratory or a private testing labora-
D. Seedbed tory. Plants may be over- or under-fertil-
Cauliflower grows in most soils from sand ized.
to clay. Seedbed preparation should start I. Cultivation
when the soil has sufficient moisture to Cultivation should be shallow, when neces-
form a mud ball that will crumble into me- sary, to remove other plant competition.
dium-sized fragments. Cultivation should Deep cultivation close to the plants will de-
mix crop residues and organic matter in the stroy much of the root system and reduce
top 7 to 8 inches of soil. It should destroy yield and quality. Hill the soil up around
current weed growth and provide a small, each plant.
granular bed for transplanting. Overcultivated J. Watering
soil becomes powdery and has a tendency to
Cauliflower has a water stress point of 60
crust. The ideal pH for cauliflower is from
percent. When the percent of water in soil
6.0 to 7.5. It is a plant that does well in
drops below this level, the plant will start to
Idaho’s soil, which ranges from 7.0 to 8.0.
dehydrate, and growth will be slowed down
E. Seed Time or stopped. The percent inches of water in
The best time to seed cauliflower is 6 to 8 the soil can be estimated by taking a handful
weeks before transplanting when soil tem- of soil at the 6-inch depth and squeezing it
perature is 50°F or above. The variety of into a ball in your hand. If it forms a ball,
cauliflower planted should have an early and your hand feels like it has a film of wa-
maturity date and should be developed for ter on it, the soil moisture will be 60 percent
weather conditions in the area planted. Ma- or above. If the soil moisture is below 60
turity date should be 60 to 80 days after percent, a film of water will not be felt on
transplanting. For transplants, start seeds your hand, and it will be time to water
indoors 5 to 7 weeks before the last ex- again.
pected frost. Seed directly into the garden as Plant growth can suffer from too much or
early as 4 weeks before the last expected too little water. The symptoms will be the
frost. Allow 50 to 85 days for maturity, de- same. As the percentage of soil moisture
pending upon variety. drops, the oxygen level in the soil increases.
20 - 11
K. Insects will crumble into medium-sized fragments.
Aphids, cabbage maggot, cauliflower head Cultivation should mix crop residues and
maggot, diamond back moth, flea beetles, organic matter in the top 7 to 8 inches of
spider mites, and wireworms are common soil. It should destroy current weed growth
pests. and provide a small granular-type bed for
L. Diseases transplanting. Overcultivated soil becomes
powdery and has a tendency to crust. The
Diseases include bacterial soft rot, club root,
ideal pH for cucumber growth is from 5.5 to
downy mildew, blackleg, black rot, damp-
7.0, but it does well in Idaho soil, which
ing-off, wirestem drop or watery soft rot,
ranges from 7.0 to 8.0.
leaf spot, and oedema.
E. Seed Time
M. Harvesting
The best time to seed cucumbers in Idaho is
To prevent discolored heads, tie the plant
3 weeks before transplanting when soil tem-
leaves above the head to shade it when the
perature is 65°F or above and night tem-
head reaches golf ball size. Cut the head 4
perature is expected to average above 55°F.
to 6 days later. Make your decision based on
The variety of cucumbers planted should
the temperature, but be sure to cut it before
have an early maturity date and should be
the curd starts to separate. Leave 4 to 6
developed for weather conditions in the area
inches of stem with the head.
planted. Maturity date should be 55 to 65
N. Storage days after transplanting. Cucumbers may be
Cauliflower freezes at 30°F. Store in a cellar seeded directly into the soil. They are killed
with a temperature as near 32°F as possible. by very light frosts. Cucumbers love warm
Humidity should be moderately high. Stored soil, and the use of plastic mulches is com-
under ideal conditions, cauliflower may last mon.
up to 6 to 8 weeks. F. Planting Specifications:
IX. Cucumber Seed per foot 6 to 8
Ounce per foot 0.05
A. Food Value Row width 75 to 72 inches
A pound of raw, whole cucumbers with Germination 6 to 10 days
skins consist of 95.7 percent water, 2.7 Seed depth 1 inch
grams of protein, 0.5 gram of fat, 14.5 Planting spacing 12 to 24 inches
grams of carbohydrates, and provide an G. Planting Suggestions
average of 64 calories.
Cucumbers need a warm soil to grow and
B. Description good spacing for sunlight. If transplants are
Native to Asia and Africa, cucumbers do purchased, they should be stocky.
not cross-pollinate with muskmelons or wa- H. Fertilizer
ter melons, and the flavor of cucumbers is
not affected by the pollen from these plants.
each 100 square feet is recommended. One
C. Yield Per Person week after blossoming begins, sidedress
It is estimated that each person eats from 2.5 with 1 1/2 ounces of ammonium sulfate in
to 4 pounds of cucumbers per year, requir- high pH soils or ammonium nitrate in low
ing a row of cucumbers 2 to 3 feet long. pH soils. The amount of fertilizer applied
Each foot of row space should produce about should be based on a soil test report from
0.8 pound of cucumbers. the University of Idaho Analytical Labora-
D. Seedbed tory or a private testing laboratory. Plants
Cucumbers grow in most soils, but they may be over- or under-fertilized.
grow best in a fertile soil with 5 percent or I. Cultivation
more organic matter content. Seedbed When necessary, cultivation should be shal-
preparation should start when the soil has low to remove other plant competition.
sufficient moisture to form a mud ball that Deep cultivation close to the plants will de-
20 - 12
stroy much of the root system and reduce of protein, 0.9 gram of fat, 18.6 grams of
yield and quality. If it becomes necessary to carbohydrates, and an average of 86 calo-
cultivate, penetrate the soil no deeper than 1 ries.
inch. B. Description
J. Watering Native to India, eggplants grow from 2 to 3
Cucumbers have a water stress point of 60 feet tall. The fruit is generally large and
percent. When the percent of water in soil purple or white in color, with smooth, shiny
drops below this level, the plant will start to skin. The seeds are embedded in the flesh.
dehydrate, and growth will be slowed down C. Yield Per Person
or stopped. The percent of water in the soil Each person eats about 3 to 5 pounds during
can be estimated by taking a handful of soil a growing season and will use 2 to 3 pounds
at the 6-inch depth and squeezing it into a for canning, storage, or freezing. This will
ball in your hand. If it forms a ball and your require a row of eggplants 6 to 10 feet long.
hand feels like it has a film of water on it, Each foot of row space should produce
the soil moisture will be 60 percent or about 1 pound of fruit.
above. If the soil moisture is below 60 per-
D. Seedbed
cent, the film of water will not be felt on
your hand, and it is time to water again. Eggplants grow in fertile, sandy loam soil.
Seedbed preparation should start when the
Plant growth can suffer from too much or
soil has sufficient moisture to form a mud
too little water. The symptoms will be the
ball that will crumble into medium-sized
same. As the percentage of soil moisture
fragments. Cultivation should mix crop resi-
drops, the oxygen level in the soil increases.
dues and organic matter in the top 7 to 8
Plants need water, oxygen, and nutrients to
inches of soil. It should destroy current
grow.
weed growth and provide a small granular-
K. Insects type bed for transplanting. Overcultivated
The following insects may cause problems: soil becomes powdery and has a tendency to
aphids, cucumber beetle, cabbage looper, crust. The ideal pH for eggplant growth is
thrips, slugs, spider mites, garden from 5.5 to 6.4, but it does well in Idaho
symphylans, and wireworms. soil, which ranges from 7.0 to 8.0.
L. Diseases E. Seed Time
Diseases include Alternaria leaf spot, angu- Plant seeds in containers 10 weeks before
lar leaf spot, bacterial wilt, curly top mo- transplanting in soil with a 65°F tempera-
saic, powdery mildew, root knot, nematode ture or above. The variety should have an
root rot, scab, and white mold. early maturity date and should be developed
M. Harvesting for weather conditions in the area planted.
Cucumbers may be harvested any time after The maturity date should be 75 to 95 days
they have reached the desired size, but be after transplanting.
sure to do so before the cucumbers turn yel- F. Planting Specifications:
low and the seeds become hard. For slicing, Seed per foot 6 to 8
the fruits should be 6 to 10 inches long. Row width 24 to 36 inches
Harvest when 2 1/2 to 6 inches in length for Germination 8 to 12 days
pickles. Cucumbers are of the highest qual- Seed depth 1/4 to 1/2 inch
ity when they are dark green in color, firm, Plant spacing 18 to 24 inches
and crisp. G. Planting Suggestions
X. Eggplant Eggplants need a warm soil to grow and
good spacing for sunlight. If transplants are
A. Food Value purchased, they should be stocky and from
A pound of cooked (boiled) drained egg- 4 to 6 inches tall. A plastic mulch can be
plant contains 94.3 percent water, 4.5 grams used to increase soil temperatures.

20 - 13
H. Fertilizer XI. Kohlrabi
A preplant fertilizer of 0.2 pound of N for A. Food Value
A pound of kohlrabi contains of 92.2 per-
When the first fruits set, sidedress with
cent water, 7.7 grams of protein, 0.5 gram
1 1/2 ounces of ammonium sulfate in high
of fat, 24.0 grams of carbohydrates, and will
pH areas or ammonium nitrate in low pH
provide an average of 109 calories.
areas. The amount of fertilizer applied
should be based on a soil test report from B. Description
the University of Idaho Analytical Labora- Developed in northern Europe, kohlrabi is a
tory or a private testing laboratory. Plants member of the cabbage family with similar
may be over-fertilized. requirements and problems. The edible por-
I. Cultivation tion is an above-ground enlargement resem-
bling a mild turnip in shape and flavor. An
Cultivation should be shallow, when neces-
excellent raw addition to relish dishes, it
also may be boiled, stuffed, or baked.
Deep cultivation close to the plants will de-
stroy much of the root system and reduce C. Yield Per Person
yield and quality. Each person will eat from 2 to 4 pounds of
J. Watering fresh kohlrabi a season, and 4 to 8 pounds
for canning or freezing. A foot of row space
Eggplants have a water stress point of 65
produces about 0.75 pound of kohlrabi.
percent. When the percent of water in soil
drops below this level, the plant will start to D. Seedbed
dehydrate, and growth will be slowed down Kohlrabi grows in most soils from sand to
or stopped. The percent inches of water in clay. Seedbed preparation should start when
the soil can be estimated by taking a handful the soil has sufficient moisture to form a
of soil at the 6-inch depth and squeezing it mud ball that will crumble into medium-
into a ball in your hand. If it forms a ball sized fragments. Cultivation should mix
and your hand feels like it has a film of wa- crop residues and organic matter in the top 7
ter on it, the soil moisture will be 65 per- to 8 inches of soil. It should destroy current
cent, the film of water will not be felt on weed growth and provide a small, granular-
your hand, and it is time to water again. type bed for transplanting. Overcultivated
Plant growth can suffer from too much or soil becomes powdery and has a tendency to
too little water. Symptoms will be the same. crust. The ideal pH for kohlrabi is from 6.0
As the percentage of soil moisture drops, to 7.5, and the plants do well in Idaho soil,
the oxygen level in the soil increases. Plants which ranges from 7.0 to 8.0.
need water, oxygen, and nutrients to grow. E. Seed Time
K. Insects—The following insects may cause Seed kohlrabi in container 6 weeks before
problems: aphids, Colorado potato beetle, transplanting in soil with 65°F or above. The
spider mites, western potato flea beetle, and variety should have an early maturity date
wireworms. and should be developed for weather condi-
L. Diseases—Common diseases include an- tions in the area planted. The maturity date
thracnose, cercospora leaf spot, root rot fun- should be 60 to 70 days after transplanting.
gus, and verticillium wilt. F. Planting Specifications:
M. Harvesting Seed per foot 8 to 12
Eggplant can be harvested any time after the Row width 18 to 24 inches
fruits reach egg size, but be sure to do so Germination 3 to 10 days
before the fruit reaches full maturity and the Seed depth 1/2 inch
seeds harden. The quality of young fruit is Plant spacing 18 to 24 inches
better than older fruit. Leave a short stem on G. Planting Suggestions
the fruit when harvesting. The stems are Kohlrabi needs a cool soil to grow and good
woody, so harvest with pruning shears. spacing for sunlight. If transplants are pur-
20 - 14
chased, they should be stocky, from 4 to 6 XII. Lettuce
inches tall.
A. Food Value
H. Fertilizer
A pound of lettuce contains 95.1 percent
A preplant fertilizer of 0.2 pound of N for water, 5.4 grams of protein, 0.9 gram of fat,
each 100 square feet is recommended. 11.3 grams of carbohydrates, and will pro-
When the plants are one-third grown, vide an average of 64 calories.
sidedress with 1 1/2 ounces of ammonium
B. Description
sulfate in high pH areas or ammonium ni-
trate in low pH areas per 10 feet of row. The Lettuce is the most extensively grown and
amount of fertilizer applied should be based important of all salad crops. Common let-
on a soil test report from the University of tuce comes in three types: head, leaf, and
Idaho Analytical Laboratory or a private butterhead. It is native to Mediterranean and
testing laboratory. Plants may be over- or Near East. It grows best at low temperatures
under-fertilized. and is sensitive to high temperatures.
I. Cultivation C. Yield Per Person
Cultivation should be shallow, when neces- Each person will eat about 4 to 5 pounds of
sary, to remove other plant competition. fresh lettuce during a growing season. Each
Deep cultivation close to the plants will de- foot of row space should produce about 0.5
stroy much of the root system and reduce pound of lettuce. About 10 feet of row space
yield and quality. per person should be planted for fresh use
during the growing season.
J. Watering
D. Seedbed
Kohlrabi has a water stress point of 50 per-
cent. When the percent of water in soil Lettuce is adaptable to different soils as
drops below this level, the plant will start to long as they are fertile, of good texture, and
dehydrate, and growth will be slowed down moist. The plants grow quickly. Seedbed
or stopped. The percent of water in the soil preparation should start when the soil has
can be estimated by taking a handful of soil sufficient moisture to form a mud ball that
at the 6-inch depth and squeezing it into a will crumble into medium-sized fragments.
ball in your hand. If it forms a ball and feels Cultivation should mix crop residues and
damp, but fails to leave a film of water on organic matter in the top 7 to 8 inches of
your hand, the soil moisture will be 50 per- soil. It should destroy current weed growth
cent or above. If the soil moisture is below and provide a small, granular-type bed for
50 percent, the film of water will not feel transplanting. Overcultivated soil becomes
damp, and it is time to water again. powdery and has a tendency to crust. The
ideal pH for lettuce growth is from 6.0 to
7.0, but lettuce does well in Idaho soil,
too little water. Symptoms will be the same.
which ranges from 7.0 to 8.0.
As the percentage of soil moisture drops the
oxygen level in the soil increases. Plants E. Seed Time
need water, oxygen, and nutrients to grow. The best time to seed lettuce is 4 to 6 weeks
K. Insects before transplanting when soil temperature
is 50°F or above. Transplant lettuce into the
The following insects may cause problems:
garden when it is 2 to 3 inches tall and night
aphids, flea beetles, cabbage looper, and
temperature is 25°F or above. For garden-
wireworms.
planted lettuce, plant as soon as the ground
L. Harvesting can be worked and 6 to 8 weeks before the
Kohlrabi is ready to harvest 50 to 60 days last killing frost. To spread out the lettuce
after transplanting. It has the best flavor season, make subsequent plantings every 2
when it is 2 to 4 inches in size, and the flesh weeks. Early plantings should be placed
is still tender. The leaves of the young plant where they get full sunlight, and later
may be used like spinach. plantings in partial shade for hot summer

20 - 15
growth. The variety should have an early beetles, wireworms, cutworms, army
maturity date and should be developed for worms, and slugs.
weather conditions in the area planted. The L. Diseases
maturity date should be 55 to 80 days after Lettuce diseases include anthracnose, aster
transplanting. yellows, big vein virus, bottom rot fungus,
F. Planting Specifications: downy mildew, drop or watery soft rot, mo-
Seed per foot 4 to 8 saic, and red rib.
Row width 18 to 24 inches M. Harvesting
Germination 4 to 8 days Lettuce thinnings can be used for early sal-
Seed depth 1/4 to 1/2 inch ads. The lettuce heads should be solid but
Plant space, leaf 6 to 12 inches not overly mature when harvested. Butter-
Plant space, head 8 to 15 inches head lettuce can be harvested as soon as the
G. Planting Suggestions heads form. Leaf lettuce can be harvested
Lettuce needs light to germinate and may any time before it sends up seed stalks.
not germinate at temperatures of 80°F or
above. During hot weather, lettuce bolts, XIII. Onions
produces seed stakes, and develops internal A. Food Value
tip scorching and a bitter taste. A pound of onions contains 89.4 percent
H. Fertilizer water, 7.8 grams of protein, 0.9 gram of fat,
A preplant fertilizer of 0.2 pound of N for 37.2 grams of carbohydrates, and an aver-
each 100 square feet is recommended. age of 16.3 calories.
When the plants are 4 weeks old, sidedress B. Description
with 1 1/2 ounces of ammonium sulfate per Onions are native to North America. They
10 feet of row. The amount of fertilizer ap- are cold hardy and adaptable to Idaho.
plied should be based on a soil test report There are more than 300 species of onions
from the University of Idaho Analytical in the world. In Idaho, onions are grown as
Laboratory or a private testing laboratory. green onions for table use and bulbs for
Plants may be over- or under-fertilized. storage. The bulbs for harvest come in yel-
I. Cultivation low, white, and red. They may be round,
Lettuce must be thinned to produce good flat, or long.
plants. For head lettuce, thin to 12 to 15 C. Yield Per Person
inches between plants. For leaf lettuce, thin Each person will eat about 3 to 5 pounds of
to 4 to 6 inches between plants in the first onions during a growing season and another
thinning and 6 to 12 inches in the final thin- 30 to 50 pounds per person may be desired
ning. Cultivation should be shallow to re- for storage. Each foot of row space should
move other plant competition. Deep cultiva- produce about 0.74 pound of onions. Plant
tion close to the plants will destroy much of from 3 to 5 feet of row per person for use
the root system and reduce yield and quality. during the growing season and an additional
Lettuce has a shallow, meager root system. 30 to 50 feet for storage.
J. Watering D. Seedbed
Lettuce has a shallow root system, and the Onions grow well in a wide range of soils
plant requires frequent watering to support and climates, but they develop best in a
rapid leaf development. Too much water on loose, crumbly soil with high fertility. Seed-
heavy soils may lead to leaf scorch and dis- bed preparation should start when the soil
ease. Don’t wet the foliage any more than has sufficient moisture to form a mud ball
necessary when watering. that will crumble into medium-sized frag-
K. Insects ments. Cultivation should mix crop residues
The following insects may create problems: and organic matter in the top 7 to 8 inches
aphids, flea beetles, looper, cucumber of soil. It should destroy current weed

20 - 16
growth and provide a small, granular-type Deep cultivation close to the plants will de-
bed for transplanting. Overcultivated soil stroy much of the root system and reduce
becomes powdery and has a tendency to yield and quality. Onions have a shallow
crust. The ideal pH for onion growth is from root system and cannot compete with
5.5 to 7.0, but onions do well in Idaho soil, weeds.
which ranges from 7.0 to 8.0. J. Watering
E. Seed Time Onions have a water stress point of 70 per-
The best time to seed onions is 6 to 8 weeks cent. When the percent of water in soil
before the last killing frost in the spring drops below this level, the plant will start to
when soil temperature is 50°F or above. The dehydrate, and growth will be slowed down
variety of onion planted should have an or stopped. The percent of water in the soil
early maturity date and should be developed can be estimated by taking a handful of soil
for weather conditions in the area planted. at the 6-inch depth and squeezing it into a
The maturity dates should be 95 to 120 days ball in your hand. If it forms a hard ball and
for sets, and 95 to 120 days for plants (trans- your hand feels like it has a film of water on
plant to maturity and seed, 100 to 165 days). it, and the soil is sticky, the soil moisture
F. Planting Specifications: will be 70 percent or above. If the soil mois-
Ounce per foot 0.02 ture is below 70 percent, the film of water
Seed per foot 10 to 15 will not be felt on your hand, and it is time
Row width 12 to 14 inches to water again.
Germination 7 to 12 days Plant growth can suffer from too much or
Seed depth 1/2 inch too little water. The symptoms will be the
Sets depth 2 to 3 inches same. As the percentage of soil moisture
Plant space 3 to 4 inches drops, the oxygen level in the soil increases.
G. Planting Suggestions Plants need water, oxygen, and nutrients to
grow.
Onion sets should be separated into two
sizes: sets smaller than 3/4-inch and 3/4- inch K. Insects
and above. The large sets are used for green The following insects may create problems:
onions, as they frequently form seed stalks brown wheat mite, onion thrips, onion mag-
instead of a bulb. The smaller sets are used got, pea leaf miner, and wireworms.
for mature dry bulbs. Seeds for mature dry L. Diseases
bulbs should be sown indoors and trans- Disease problems include basal rot, downy
planted into your garden. mildew, neck rot, pink rot, purple blotch,
H. Fertilizer smut, and white rot.
Preplant fertilizer of 0.2 pound of N for M. Harvesting
each 100 square feet worked into the top 2 Green bunch onions can be harvested as
inches of soil is recommended. Fertilizers soon as desired. Thinnings from bulb onions
should be applied to the soil before seeding. can be used as green onions. Bulb onion
Sidedress with 1 1/2 ounces of ammonium maturity is determined by softening of the
sulfate in high pH areas and ammonium ni- neck tissues, falling over of the tops, and
trate in low pH areas per 10 feet of row. Do dying of the roots. At maturity bulbs enlarge
so when onions are 12 inches tall or the rapidly and are ready for harvest when two-
bulbs begin to form. The amount of fertil- thirds of the top has fallen over or after a
izer applied should be based on a soil test light frost in Idaho’s short growing season.
report from the University of Idaho Analyti- If the onions are slow to mature, it may be
cal Laboratory or a private testing labora- necessary to bend the tops over to speed up
tory. Plants may be over- or under-fertilized. the maturity process before heavy frosts.
I. Cultivation Onions should then be pulled and, if the
Cultivation should be shallow, when neces- weather permits, left in the garden until tops
sary, to remove other plant competition. and outer scales are completely dry. The
20 - 17
tops can be spread over the bulbs to prevent E. Seed Time
sunburn. After the bulbs are cured they Plant peas as soon as the ground can be
should be topped. worked in the spring, about 6 to 8 weeks
N. Storage before the last killing frost. Soil temperature
With a freezing point of 30°F, you should for planting should be 50°F or above. Peas
store onions as near 32°F as possible in any are a cool climate crop, and their quality is
cool dry (humidity, 70 percent) place. They greatly influenced by cool soil and air tem-
keep well through the fall and winter in a perature. It is suggested that planting suc-
cool dry cellar or attic. cessions should be arranged at 10-day inter-
vals to spread harvest over a longer period
XIV. Peas of time.
A. Food Value F. Planting Specifications:
A pound of English peas contains 78.0 per- Seed per foot 6 or 7
cent water, 381 calories, 28.6 grams of pro- Row width 18 to 30 inches
tein, 1.8 grams of fat, and 65.3 grams of car- Germination 6 to 15 days
bohydrates. A pound of edible podded peas Ounce per foot 0.16
contains 84.8 percent water, 259 calories, Seed depth 2 inches
15.4 grams of protein, 1.4 grams of fat, and Plant spacing 3 inches
47.2 grams of carbohydrates. G. Planting Suggestions
B. Description Some gardeners make a double planting of
Garden peas originated in eastern Europe peas in each row with approximately a
and western Asia. They are one of the earli- 6-inch space between the plantings.
est vegetables picked in the spring. Peas are H. Fertilizer
classified smooth or wrinkled according to This plant is a legume and is able to draw N
how the seed looks when dry. The wrinkled from the air. Excessive N can cause the plants
seed is normally the sweetest. to produce large vines, but fewer peas are pro-
C. Yield Per Person duced. It is suggested that 0.2 pound of N be
It is recommended that 15 to 20 feet of row broadcasted over a 100 square foot area. The
space be planted per person for fresh use amount of fertilizer applied should be based
during the garden season and an additional on a soil test report from the University of
40 to 60 feet for storage and canning. About Idaho Analytical Laboratory or a private soil
0.28 pound of English peas is produced per testing laboratory.
foot of row space. Each person consumes I. Cultivation
about 4 pounds of fresh and about 10 Cultivation should be conducted only when
pounds of frozen and canned peas. necessary to remove other plant competi-
D. Seedbed tion. Pea roots are easily damaged by hoe-
Soil types for pea production range from a ing and shallow cultivation.
light sandy loam for early pea harvest to a J. Watering
heavy clay soil for later or main harvest Peas have a water stress point of 50 percent.
crop. The ideal pH for pea production is 6.0 When the percent of water in soil drops be-
to 7.5. The soil should be well drained and low this level, the plant will start to dehy-
moderately fertile. Cultivate the soil when drate, and growth will be slowed down or
the soil moisture will allow formation of a stopped. The percent of water in the soil can
mud ball that will crumble into pieces under be estimated by taking a handful of soil at
finger pressure. It should mix crop residue the 6-inch depth and squeezing it into a ball
and organic matter in the top 7 to 8 inches in your hand. If it forms a ball and your
of soil, destroy current weed growth, and hand feels moist without a film of water on
provide a granular-type bed for seeding. it, the soil moisture will be 50 percent or
Overcultivated soil becomes powdery and above. If the soil moisture is below 50 per-
has a tendency to crust. cent, the moist condition will not be felt on
20 - 18
your hand, and it will be time to water dues and organic matter in the top 7 to 8
again. Plant growth can suffer from too inches of soil. It should destroy current
much or too little water. The symptoms will weed growth and provide a small, granular-
be the same. type bed for transplanting. Overcultivated
K. Insects soil becomes powdery and has a tendency to
The following insects may cause problems: crust. The ideal pH for pepper growth is
looper, cutworms, army worms, grasshop- from 5.5 to 7.0, but the pepper does well in
pers, pea aphids, pea leaf weevil, pea moth, Idaho soil, which ranges from 7.0 to 8.0.
pea weevil, and wireworms. E. Seed Time
L. Diseases The best time to seed peppers is 6 to 8
Diseases that may be a problem include bac- weeks before transplanting when soil tem-
terial blight, basal stem rot, downy mildew, perature is 65°F or above. The variety of
enation mosaic virus, leaf and pod blight, peppers planted should have an early matu-
root rots, seed rot, damping off, seed borne rity date and should be developed for
mosaic virus, viruses, and wilt. weather conditions in the area planted. The
maturity date should be 60 to 80 days after
M. Harvesting
transplanting.
English peas can be harvested when pods
are nearly full but before pods begin to
wrinkle. Edible podded peas should be har- Seed per foot 6 to 8
vested while the pods are still flat and the Row width 24 to 36 inches
peas are hardly discernible. These peas need Germination 10 to 20 days
to be picked every other day to prevent over Seed depth 1/4 inch
maturity. If they do become over mature the Plant spacing 14 to 18 inches
pea seed inside can be eaten. Pick peas from G. Planting Suggestions
the vine during the cool part of the day. Peppers need a warm soil to grow and good
N. Storage spacing for sunlight. If transplants are pur-
Edible podded peas can be stored 10 days in chased, they should be stocky, from 4 to 6
plastic bags in the refrigerator without a loss inches tall.
of quality. H. Fertilizer
XV. Peppers each 100 square feet is recommended.
A. Food Value When the first fruits set, sidedress with
A pound of immature, sweet, green, raw 1 1/2 ounces of ammonium sulfate for high
peppers contain 93.4 percent water, 5.4 pH soils and ammonium nitrate for low pH
grams of protein, 0.9 gram of fat, 21.8 soils. The amount of fertilizer applied
grams of carbohydrates, and provides an should be based on a soil test report from
average of 100 calories. the University of Idaho Analytical Labora-
tory or a private testing laboratory. Plants
B. Description
may be over- or under-fertilized.
Peppers are native to the warmer parts of
I. Cultivation
America and were cultivated more than
2,000 years ago. They are classified as Cultivation should be shallow, when neces-
sweet, mild, or hot, and are excellent for sal- sary, to remove other plant competition.
ads, seasoning in other foods and for baking. Deep cultivation close to the plants will de-
stroy much of the root system and reduce
D. Seedbed
yield and quality.
Peppers grow best in a sandy loam soil.
J. Watering
Seedbed preparation should start when the
soil has sufficient moisture to form a mud Peppers have a water stress point of 60 per-
ball that will crumble into medium-sized cent. When the percent of water in soil
fragments. Cultivation should mix crop resi- drops below this level, the plant will start to

20 - 19
dehydrate and growth will be slowed down hot, growing season. They do not cross with
or stopped. The percent of water in the soil cucumbers, or watermelon, but will cross
can be estimated by taking a handful of soil with plants of the same species. Their flesh
at the 6-inch depth and squeezing it into a is coarse but can be baked, pureed, or used
ball in your hand. If it forms a ball and your to thicken soups.
hand feels like it has a film of water on it, C. Yield Per Person
the moisture will be 60 percent or above. If Each person will eat about 3 to 6 pounds of
the soil moisture is below 60 percent, the pumpkin during a growing season and use 3
film of water will not be felt on your hand, to 6 pounds for canning, freezing, or stor-
and it is time to water again. age. This will require a row of pumpkins 2
Plant growth can suffer from too much or to 3 feet long for garden use and 2 to 3 feet
too little water. The symptoms will be the for storage, canning, or freezing. Each foot
same. As the percentage of soil moisture of row space should produce about 1 pound
drops the oxygen level in the soil increases. of pumpkin.
Plants need water, oxygen, and nutrients to D. Seedbed
grow.
Pumpkins are adapted to most soils, but
K. Insects they grow best in a fertile soil rich in hu-
The following insects may cause problems: mus. Seedbed preparation should start when
green peach aphid, garden symphylan, flea the soil has sufficient moisture to form a
beetles, spider mites, and wireworms. mud ball that will crumble into medium-
L. Diseases sized fragments. Cultivation should mix
Pepper diseases include alfalfa mosaic virus, crop residues and organic matter in the top 7
tomato ring spot virus, anthracnose, to 8 inches of soil. It should destroy current
cercospora leaf spot, common mosaic, root weed growth and provide a small, granular-
rot, and verticillium wilt. type bed for transplanting. Overcultivated
M. Harvesting soil becomes powdery and has a tendency to
crust. The ideal pH for pumpkin growth is
Peppers can be harvested at any time after
from 5.5 to 7.0, but the pumpkin does well
they are large enough to use. Bell types usu-
in Idaho soil. Pumpkins grow best in full
ally are harvested when they are 3 to 4
sunlight, but they will do equally well in
inches long. When picking peppers, cut
light shade. For huge exhibition pumpkins,
them from the plant rather than pulling them
allow one fruit to develop per vine and wa-
off. The branches are extremely brittle and
ter heavily.
will break easily if pulled.
E. Seed Time
N. Storage
Seed pumpkins in Idaho 3 weeks before
The freezing point of peppers is 30°F. Store
transplanting when soil temperature is 65°F
in unheated basement or room at 45° to
or above. They also may be seeded directly
50°F. Humidity should be moderately high.
into the garden soil when the soil tempera-
Storage may be 2 to 3 weeks.
ture is 65°F or above. The pumpkin variety
XVI. Pumpkin planted should have an early maturity date
and be developed for weather conditions in
A. Food Value the area planted. The maturity date should
A pound of pumpkin contains 90.2 percent be 70 to 110 days after transplanting. Pump-
water, 4.5 grams of protein, 1.4 grams of kins are killed by very light frosts. Pump-
fat, 35.8 grams of protein, 35.8 grams of kins love warm soil. The use of plastic
carbohydrates, and an average of 150 calories. mulches is common.
B. Description F. Planting Specifications:
Pumpkins are native to America. They are Seed per foot 2
sensitive to frost but tolerant of cool moist Ounce per foot 0.5
environments. They need a warm but not a Row width 72 to 120 inches
20 - 20
Germination 6 to 10 days L. Diseases
Seed depth 1 to 1 1/2 inches Disease problems include aster yellows,
Plant spacing 40 to 60 inches root rot, and storage rot.
G. Planting Suggestions M. Harvesting
Pumpkins need a warm soil to grow but not Pumpkins can be harvested any time after
extremely hot days. They are sensitive to their rinds are hard and their skins turn gold
frost. in color. Harvest before they are injured by
H. Fertilizer hard frost. Some types have the best quality
A preplant fertilizer of 0.2 pound of N for if they are harvested after their vines are
each 100 square feet is recommended. One killed by frost. When pumpkins are cut from
week after blossoming begins, sidedress the vine, leave 3 or 4 inches of stem at-
with 1 1/2 ounces of ammonium sulfate if tached to the fruit. Pumpkins without stems
the soil pH is high or ammonium nitrate if it do not store well.
is low. The amount of fertilizer applied N. Storage
should be based on a soil test report from Cure pumpkins after a light frost kills the
the University of Idaho Analytical Labora- vines or by cutting the stems and allowing
tory or a private testing laboratory. Plants them to lie in the garden for a week to 10
may be over- or under-fertilized. days. Pumpkins can cure inside a house for
I. Cultivation the same period at 75°F. They may then be
Cultivation should be shallow, when neces- stored in a home cellar or basement at an
sary, to remove other plant competition. average temperature of 55°F with a moder-
Deep cultivation close to the plants will de- ately high humidity. High quality cured
stroy much of the root system and reduce pumpkins will store in good condition
yield and quality. If it becomes necessary to through the fall and early winter months.
cultivate, penetrate the soil no deeper than 1
inch. XVII. Radish
J. Watering A. Food Value
Pumpkin roots are shallow. Their water A pound of radishes contains 94.5 percent
stress point is 60 percent. When the percent water, 4.5 grams of protein, 0.5 gram of fat,
of water in soil drops below this level, the 15.3 grams of carbohydrates, and 77 calories.
plant will start to dehydrate, and growth will B. Description
be slowed down or stopped. The percent of Radishes are native to Europe and Asia.
water in the soil can be estimated by taking They are cold hardy but will not withstand
a handful of soil at the 6-inch depth and high heat. During hot weather the roots be-
squeezing it into a ball in your hand. If it come pungent, and the plants produce seed
forms a ball and your hand feels like it has a stalks.
film of water on it the soil moisture will be C. Yield Per Person
60 percent or above. If soil moisture is below
It is estimated that each person will eat from
60 percent, the film of water will not be felt
2 to 3 pounds of radishes during a growing
on your hand, and it is time to water again.
season. Each foot of row space should pro-
Plant growth can suffer from too much or duce approximately 0.67 pound of radishes.
too little water. The symptoms will be the Plant about 3 to 5 feet of row per person.
D. Seedbed
drops the oxygen level in the soil increases.
Plants need water, oxygen, and nutrients to Radishes grow best in sandy loam and peat
grow. soils. Heavy clay soils can be improved by
the addition of organic matter. Seedbed
K. Insects
preparation should start when the soil has
The following insects may create problems: sufficient moisture to form a mud ball that
aphids, cucumber beetle, slugs, spider mites, will crumble into medium-sized fragments.
and squash bugs.
20 - 21
Cultivation should mix crop residues and Deep cultivation close to the plants will de-
organic matter in the top 7 to 8 inches soil. stroy much of the root system and reduce
It should destroy current weed growth and yield and quality.
provide a small granular-type bed for trans- J. Watering
planting. Overcultivated soil becomes pow- Radishes have a water stress point of 60
dery and has a tendency to crust. The ideal percent. When the percent of water in soil
pH for radish growth is from 6.0 to 7.0, but drops below this level, the plant will start to
radishes do well in Idaho soil, which ranges dehydrate, and growth will be slowed down
from 7.0 to 8.0. or stopped. The percent of water in the soil
E. Seed Time can be estimated by taking a handful of soil
The best time to seed radishes is 6 to 8 at the 6-inch depth and squeezing it into a
weeks before the last killing frost in the ball in your hand. If it forms a ball and your
spring when soil temperature is 50°F or hand feels like it has a film of water on it,
above. The variety planted should have an the soil moisture will be 60 percent or
early maturity date and be developed for above. If the soil moisture is below 60 per-
weather conditions in the area planted. cent, the film of water will not be felt on
Maturity date should be 20 to 50 days. your hand, and it is time to water again.
F. Planting Specifications: Plant growth can suffer from too much or
Ounce per foot 0.02 too little water. Symptoms will be the same.
Seed per foot 14 to 16 As the percentage of soil moisture drops,
Row width 6 to 12 inches the oxygen level in the soil increases. Plants
Germination 3 to 10 days need water, oxygen, and nutrients to grow.
Seed depth 1/2 inch K. Insects
G. Planting Suggestions The following insects may cause problems:
Radishes need a cool soil to grow in and cabbage aphid, turnip aphid, cabbage mag-
good spacing for sunlight. Their frost toler- got, cutworms, army worms, black cut-
ance is good. Make successive plantings ev- worms, diamond back moth, flea beetles,
ery 10 to 14 days, beginning in the spring as and wireworms.
soon as the soil can be worked and a month L. Diseases
before frost in the fall. Radishes can be Radish disease problems include black rot.
mixed with carrot, beet, and parsnips to M. Harvesting
mark the row of these vegetables that grow Radishes can be harvested as soon as the
slower. roots reach edible size (1 to 2 inch) and be-
H. Fertilizer fore becoming tough and pithy. They nor-
A preplant fertilizer of 0.2 pound of N for mally mature in 20 to 30 days.
each 100 square feet is recommended. Fer- N. Storage
tilizers should be applied to the soil before Storage life of radishes is limited to 5 to 6
seeding to ensure its availability to plants days in the refrigerator if stored in plastic
during the short growing season. Over-fer- bags with holes punched for air circulation
tilization can result in excessive top growth space. Remove tops at 1/2 inch from radish
with no root enlargement. The amount of and clean root before storage.
fertilizer applied should be based on a soil
test report from the University of Idaho XVIII. Summer Squash
Analytical Laboratory or a private testing
A. Food Value
laboratory. Plants may be over- or under-
fertilized. A pound of immature raw summer squash
contains 94.0 percent water, 5 grams of pro-
I. Cultivation
tein, 0.05 gram of fat, 19.1 grams of carbo-
Cultivation should be shallow, when neces- hydrates, and 81 calories.

20 - 22
B. Description Seed depth 1 inch
Summer squash are native to Central Plant spacing 6 to 24 inches
American and were used extensively by In- G. Planting Suggestions
dians for food. Summer squash have whitish Summer squash needs a warm soil to grow
or yellow flesh and are picked in the sum- and good spacing for sunlight. If transplants
mer while immature. They may be vining, are purchased, they should be stocky. Bees
semivining, or bush types. Squash will are needed for pollination.
cross-pollinate with other squash, pumpkin, H. Fertilizer
or gourds within the same species, but don’t
cross-pollinate with cucumbers or water-
melon. They grow well in Idaho.
When the plant begins to spread out,
C. Yield Per Person sidedress with 1 1/2 ounces of ammonium
It is estimated that each person will eat from sulfate for high pH soils and ammonium ni-
6 to 9 pounds of squash during a growing trate for low pH soils. The amount of fertil-
season and need an additional 6 to 9 pounds izer applied should be based on a soil test
for storage, canning, or freezing. This will report from the University of Idaho Analyti-
require a row of squash 4 to 6 feet long. cal Laboratory or a private testing labora-
Each foot of row space should produce tory.
about 1.5 pounds of summer squash. I. Cultivation
D. Seedbed Cultivation should be shallow, when neces-
Summer squash grow best on fertile, well- sary, to remove other plant competition.
drained soil, well supplied with organic Deep cultivation close to the plants will de-
matter. Seedbed preparation should start stroy much of the root system and reduce
when the soil has sufficient moisture to yield and quality.
form a mud ball that will crumble into me- J. Watering
dium-sized fragments. Cultivation should
Summer squashes have a water stress point
mix crop residues and organic matter in the
of 65 percent. When the percent of water in
top 7 to 8 inches of soil. It should destroy
soil drops below this level, the plant will
current weed growth and provide a small
start to dehydrate, and growth will be
granular-type bed for transplanting. Over-
slowed down or stopped. The percent of wa-
cultivated soil becomes powdery and has a
ter in the soil can be estimated by taking a
tendency to crust. The ideal pH for summer
handful of soil at the 6-inch depth and
squash growth is 6.0 to 7.5, but it does well
squeezing it into a ball in your hand. If it
in Idaho soil, which ranges from 7.0 to 8.0.
forms a ball and your hand feels like it has a
E. Seed Time heavy film of water on it, the soil moisture
The best time to seed summer squash in a will be 65 percent or above. If the soil mois-
container is 3 to 4 weeks before transplant- ture is below 65 percent, the film of water
ing. Seed direct into soil or transplant when will not be felt on your hand, and it will be
temperature is 65°F or above. The variety of time to water again.
squash planted should have an early matu- Plant growth can suffer from too much or
rity date and be developed for weather con- too little water. The symptoms will be the
ditions in the area planted. Maturity date same. As the percentage of soil moisture
should be 50 to 60 days after transplanting. drops, the oxygen level in the soil increases.
Sow squash outdoors when night tempera- Plants need water, oxygen, and nutrients to
ture no longer falls below 55°F. grow.
F. Planting Specifications: K. Insects
Seed per foot 4 to 6 The following insects may create problems:
Row width 26 to 60 inches bean aphid, melon aphid, potato aphid,
Germination 3 to 12 days nitidulid beetles, squash bug, and wireworms.

20 - 23
L. Diseases does well in Idaho soils, which have a pH of
Diseases include aster yellows, black rot, 7.0 to 8.0.
curly top, and root rot. E. Seed Time
M. Harvesting The best time to seed corn is in May when
Summer squash can be harvested any time soil temperature is 50°F or above and air
the fruits reach a desired size but before the temperature averages 65°F or above. Corn is
squash forms hard seed or rinds. Break fruit a tender crop and should be planted after the
from the vine, leaving a piece of stem with last frost. The warmer the temperature, the
the fruit. faster the corn grows and matures. The vari-
ety planted should have an early maturity
XIX. Sweet Corn date and be developed for weather condi-
A. Food Value tions in the area planted.
A pound of raw, white, or yellow sweet F. Planting Specifications:
corn consists of about 45 percent cob and 55 Seed per foot 4 to 6 inches
percent edible. The kernels contain about Row width 30 to 36 inches
72.7 percent water and provide an average Germination 6 to 10 days
of 240 calories, 8.7 grams of protein, 2.5 Ounce per foot 0.16
grams of fat, and 55.1 grams of carbohy- Seed depth 1 1/2 to 2 1/2 inches
drates. Plant space 10 to 12 inches
B. Description G. Planting Suggestions
Corn is an annual grass, native to the Sweet corn needs a warm soil and good
Americas and differing from other types of spacing for sunlight. It is wind-pollinated so
corn by the retention of large amounts of plants should be in 3 or more short rows,
sugar in the kernels during the milk stage of rather than one long row. Varieties should
maturity. Its skin is slightly thinner than be separated because cross-pollination be-
other types. Kernel color ranges from white tween low-sugar plants and high-sugar
to yellow. There are about 2,000 sweet corn plants reduces the sweetness of the high-
varieties in existence. sugar corn.
C. Yield Per Person H. Fertilizer
It is estimated that each person will require Corn has a high N requirement. The princi-
from 10 to 15 feet of plants in a row for pal application of N and other fertilizers
fresh use and an additional 30 to 50 feet for should be broadcast before planting with, if
storage, canning, or freezing. Each foot of necessary, a sidedressing 3 inches from the
row space should produce about 0.3 pound plant at the corn four-leaf stage. The amount
of corn. of fertilizer applied should be based on a
D. Seedbed soil test report from the University of Idaho
Analytical Laboratory or a private soil test-
Soil texture can vary for sweet corn produc-
ing laboratory. Plants stunted by a lack of
tion. A sandy loam is best, but corn can be
nutrients seldom recover or produce up to
grown in clay or loam soils also. The soil
their potential.
cultivation should be conducted when the
moisture in the soil will allow formation of I. Cultivation
a mud ball that will crumble into pieces un- Cultivation should be shallow, when neces-
der finger pressure. Cultivation should mix sary, to remove other plant competition.
crop residues and organic matter in the top 7 Deep cultivation will destroy much of the
to 8 inches of soil, destroy current weed root system and reduce yield and quality.
growth, and provide a granular-type bed for The number of suckers a sweet corn plant
seeding. Overcultivated soil becomes pow- produces depends on the variety of the corn.
dery and has a tendency to crust. The ideal Suckers should not be removed. Their re-
pH for corn growth is from 6.0 to 7.0, but it moval does not increase yields but may re-
duce them.
20 - 24
J. Watering B. Description
Corn has a water stress point of 60 percent. Chard is native of the Mediterranean area. It
When the percent of water in soil drops be- is a relative of the beet and is grown for its
low this level, the plant will start to dehy- tender vitamin rich leaves. The leaves and
drate and growth will be slowed down or petioles are cooked to provide a pot herb
stopped. The percent of water in the soil can similar to spinach.
be estimated by taking a handful of soil at C. Yield Per Person
the 6-inch depth and squeezing it into a ball It is estimated that each person will eat from
in your hand. If it forms a ball and your 1.5 to 3 pounds of fresh chard during a
hand feels like it has a film of water on it, growing season and will use an additional 3
the soil moisture will be 60 percent or to 4.5 pounds for canning or freezing. Each
above. If the soil moisture is below 60 per- foot of row space should produce about 0.85
cent, the film of water will not be felt on pound of chard. From 2 to 4 feet of row
your hand, and it is time to water again. space per person should be planted for fresh
Plant growth can suffer from too much or too use during the growing season and an addi-
little water. Symptoms will be the same. tional 4 to 6 feet for canning or freezing.
K. Insects D. Seedbed
The following insects may be a problem in Chard is widely adapted to different soils as
sweet corn: corn ear worm, cutworm, army long as they are rich, of good texture, and
worm, wireworm, root worm, slug, aphids, well drained. Seedbed preparation should
spider mites, earwigs, and cucumber beetles. start when the soil has sufficient moisture to
L. Diseases form a mud ball that will crumble into me-
Root stock, ear rot, maize dwarf mosaic, dium-sized fragments. Cultivation should
seed rot, seedling blight, and smut are com- mix crop residues and organic matter in the
mon diseases of corn. top 7 to 8 inches of soil, destroy current
M. Harvesting weed growth, and provide a small granular-
Depending on temperatures, sweet corn type bed for transplanting. Overcultivated
generally ripens in 22 to 24 days after soil becomes powdery and has a tendency to
silking. For eating, the silks are brown, and crust. The ideal pH for chard growth is from
the ear fills the husk. The liquid squeezed 6.0 to 7.5, and it does well in Idaho soil,
from a ripe kernel is milky; from an imma- which is 7.0 to 8.0.
ture kernel it is watery; and from an E. Seed Time
overmature kernel, solid or creamy. Prime The best time to seed chard is as soon as the
eating quality lasts about 4 to 5 days before soil can be cultivated in the spring, 2 to 4
the sugar starts to turn to starch. Pick corn weeks before the last killing frost. Minimum
when the sugar is at its maximum. Canning soil temperature for planting is 50°F or
corn can be picked when it is in the cream above. The variety of chard planted should
stage. Sweet corn loses quality quickly after have an early maturity date and be devel-
picking, especially at high temperatures. oped for weather conditions in the area
Process as soon as possible after harvesting. planted. Maturity date should be 55 to 65
Pull cobs from the stocks with a downward days after planting.
motion and a twist to the side. F. Planting Specifications:
N. Storage Seed per foot 6 to 10
Refrigerate at 35° to 40°F for 2 to 3 days. Row width 18 to 24 inches
XX. Swiss Chard Seed depth 1 inch
A. Food Value Plant spacing 4 to 8 inches
A pound of chard contains about 3.7 percent G. Planting Suggestions
water, 8.2 grams of protein, 0.9 gram of fat, Chard can be planted in the garden or in a
15.0 grams of carbohydrates, and 82 calories. greenhouse for later transplanting.
20 - 25
H. Fertilizer N. Storage
A preplant fertilizer of 0.2 pound of N for Before the first hard freeze, plants can be
each 100 square feet is recommended. transplanted into containers. Store the con-
When the plants are one-third grown, tainerized plants in a cool place, and water
sidedress with 1 1/2 ounces of ammonium lightly to prevent wilting. Leaves can be
sulfate per 10 feet of row. Amount of fertil- harvested into the winter months.
izer applied should be based on a soil test
report from the University of Idaho Analyti- XXI. Tomatoes
cal Laboratory or a private testing labora- A. Food Value
tory. Plants may be over- or under-fertilized. A pound of tomatoes contains about 93.5
I. Cultivation percent water, 4.5 grams of protein, 0.8
Cultivation should be shallow, when neces- gram of fat, and 19.4 grams of carbohy-
sary, to remove other plant competition. drates. The fruits are high in vitamin A, B1,
Deep cultivation close to the plants will de- B2, and C, and provide an average of 91
stroy much of the root system and reduce calories per pound.
yield and quality. B. Description
J. Watering Tomatoes are native to the Andes Moun-
Chard has a water stress point of 55 percent. tains in South America. They are a warm
When the percent of water in soil drops be- season crop and rank second in popularity
low this level, the plant will start to dehy- among the vegetable crops grown in the
drate, and growth will be slowed down or United States. They are classified according
stopped. The percent of water in the soil can to their growth patterns into three groups:
be estimated by taking a handful of soil at Determinant, semideterminant, and
the 6-inch depth and squeezing it into a ball indeterminant. Determinant plant vines
in your hand. If it forms a ball, and your grow 12 to 18 inches long, and stop fruiting
hand feels like it has a film of water on it, when the vines stop growing. Semideter-
the soil moisture will be 55 percent or minant plants are similar but grow 18 to 24
above. If the soil moisture is below 55 per- inches. The vines of indeterminant plants
cent, the soil will not feel moist on your continue to grow and fruit is set indefinitely.
hand, and it is time to water again. C. Yield Per Person
Plant growth can suffer from too much or Tomatoes grow best in a fertile, sandy, well-
too little water. Symptoms will be the same. drained, loam soil. Seedbed preparation
As the percentage of soil moisture drops, should start when the soil has sufficient
the oxygen level in the soil increases. Plants moisture to form a mud ball that will
need water, oxygen, and nutrients to grow. crumble into medium-sized fragments. Cul-
K. Insects tivation should mix crop residues and or-
The following insects may cause problems: ganic matter in the top 7 to 8 inches of soil.
aphids, blister beetles, looper, lygus bugs, It should destroy current weed growth and
cutworms, serpentine leaf miner, western provide a small granular-type bed for trans-
spotted cucumber beetles, and wireworms. planting. Overcultivated soil becomes pow-
L. Diseases dery and has a tendency to crust. The pH for
Top virus is the main chard disease. tomato growth is from 5.5 to 7.5, but it does
well in Idaho soil, which ranges from 7.0 to
M. Harvesting
8.0.
Chard can be harvested throughout an entire
E. Seed Time
3-month growing season. Plants removed at
thinning time can be used in salads. Cut The best time to seed tomatoes is 6 to 8
outer leaves first about 1 inch from the soil weeks before transplanting when soil tem-
surface with a sharp knife. Care should be perature is 65°F or above. The variety of
taken to ensure the new inner stems and tomatoes planted should have an early ma-
growing point are not damaged. turity date and be developed for weather
20 - 26
conditions in the area planted. Maturity date dehydrate and growth will be slowed down
should be 60 to 80 days after transplanting. or stopped. The percent of water in the soil
Two or three different varieties can be can be estimated by taking a handful of soil
planted to obtain ripening at different times. at the 6-inch depth and squeezing it into a
One series of plants could be early bearers ball in your hand. If it forms a ball and your
and another series that mature later could be hand feels like it has a film of water on it,
used for the main crop. the soil moisture will be 65 percent or
F. Planting Specifications: above. If the soil moisture is below 65 per-
Seed per foot Use transplants cent, the film of water will not be felt on
Row width 36 to 60 inches your hand, and it will be time to water again.
Germination 6 to 14 days Plant growth can suffer from too much or
Seed depth 1/4 to 1/2 inch too little water. Symptoms will be the same.
Plant spacing 18 to 36 inches As the percentage of soil moisture drops,
G. Planting Suggestions the oxygen level in the soil increases. Plants
need water, oxygen, and nutrients to grow.
Tomatoes need a warm soil to grow and
good spacing for sunlight. If transplants are K. Insects
purchased, they should be stocky and from The following insects may cause problems:
4 to 6 inches tall. If you plan to grow your green peach aphid, garden symphylan, flea
own transplants, seed in your greenhouse or beetles, spider mites, wireworms, and to-
house 5 to 7 weeks before transplanting. Put mato horn worm.
plants in the garden 10 days after the last L. Diseases
expected killing frost. Hot caps or other pro- Tomato diseases include anthracnose, yel-
tection devices may allow earlier transplant- low aster, bacterial canker, blossom end rot,
ing. Tomatoes normally do not set fruit be- curly top, early blight, fruit rot, late blight,
low 58°F or above 85°F and must have 6 or leaf mold mosaic, root-rot nematode, spot-
more hours each day of direct sunlight. ted wilt virus (tip blight), streak, and wilt.
Transplants should not have fruit on them M. Harvesting
when planted out as the fruit will stunt the
For best flavor tomato fruits should be har-
plants’ growth and development.
vested when they are fully ripe and firm.
H. Fertilizer The best ripening temperature is 65°F. To-
A preplant fertilizer of 0.2 pound of N for matoes will ripen to high quality indoors if
each 100 square feet is recommended. picked as the red color first shows. Remove
When the first fruits set, sidedress with stems from harvested tomatoes.
1 1/2 ounces of ammonium sulfate for high N. Storage
pH soils and ammonium nitrate for low pH
The freezing point of tomatoes is 30°F.
soils. The amount of fertilizer applied
Store in unheated basement or room tem-
should be based on a soil test report from
perature of from 55° to 70°F. Humidity
the University of Idaho Analytical Labora-
should be moderately low. Tomatoes may
tory or a private testing laboratory. Plants
be stored for 4 to 6 weeks. For fall storage,
may be over- or under-fertilized.
pick all green fruit that is nearly full size
I. Cultivation and wrap individually in newspaper and
Cultivation should be shallow, when neces- store at 50° to 60°F. They will ripen slowly
sary, to remove other plant competition. providing a longer eating season. Green
Deep cultivation close to the plants will de- fruit will ripen more quickly when enclosed
stroy much of the root system and reduce in a bag or box with an apple or banana.
yield and quality.
J. Watering XXII. Turnips
Tomatoes have a water stress point of 65 A. Food Value
percent. When the percent of water in soil A pound of turnips contains about 93.6 per-
drops below this level, the plant will start to cent water, 3.6 grams of protein, 0.9 gram
20 - 27
of fat, 22.2 grams of carbohydrates, and 104 gested that successive plantings be made
calories. every 10 to 14 days beginning in spring as
B. Description soon as the soil can be worked and before the
Turnips are native to western Asia. They are daytime temperature is expected to average
cold hardy but will not withstand heat, and 80°F or above. Turnips can be mixed with
during hot weather roots become bitter and seed for carrots, beets, and parsnips to mark
pithy. Turnips are grown for their tender, the row of these vegetables that grow slower.
crisp roots, but the leaves or greens of tur- H. Fertilizer
nips are also good cooked. A preplant fertilizer of 0.2 pound of N for
C. Yield Per Person each 100 square feet is recommended.
It is estimated that each person will eat from Sidedress the plants with 1.5 ounces of am-
3 to 6 pounds of turnips during a growing monium sulfate for high pH soils or ammo-
season. Each foot of row space should pro- nium nitrate for low pH soils per 10 feet of
duce approximately 0.5 to 1 pound of turnips. row when plants are about one-third grown.
Plant from 5 to 10 feet of row per person. Over fertilization can result in excessive top
growth with no root enlargement. The
D. Seedbed
amount of fertilizer applied should be based
Turnips grow best in sandy loam and peat on a soil test report from the University of
soils. Heavy clay soils can be improved by Idaho Analytical Laboratory or a private
the addition of organic matter. Seedbed testing laboratory. Plants may be over- or
preparation should start when the soil has under-fertilized.
sufficient moisture to form a mud ball that
I. Cultivation
will crumble into medium-sized fragments.
Cultivation should mix crop residues and Cultivation should be shallow, when neces-
organic matter in the top 7 to 8 inches of sary, to remove other plant competition.
soil. It should destroy current weed growth Deep cultivation close to the plants will de-
and provide a small granular-type bed for stroy much of the root system and reduce
transplanting. Overcultivated soil becomes yield and quality. Thin by leaving 1 to 2
powdery and has a tendency to crust. The inches between plants. Plants removed dur-
ideal pH for turnip growth is 5.5 to 7.0, but ing thinning can be eaten.
it does well in Idaho soil, which ranges from J. Watering
7.0 to 8.0. Turnips have a water stress point of 60 per-
E. Seed Time cent. When the percent of water in soil
The best time to seed turnips is 6 to 8 weeks drops below this level, the plant will start to
before the last killing frost in the spring dehydrate, and growth will be slowed down
when soil temperature is 50°F or above. The or stopped. The percent of water in the soil
variety planted should have an early matu- can be estimated by taking a handful of soil
rity date and be developed for weather con- at the 6-inch depth and squeezing it into a
ditions in the area planted. Maturity date ball in your hand. If it forms a ball, and your
should be 45 to 60 days. hand feels like it has a film of water on it,
the soil moisture will be 60 percent or
above. If the soil moisture is below 60 per-
Ounce per foot 0.01 cent, the film of water will not be felt on
Seed per foot 10 to 15 your hand, and it is time to water again.
too little water. The symptoms will be the
Seed depth 1/2 inch
Plant space 4 to 6 inches
drops, the oxygen level in the soil increases.
K. Insects
Turnips need a cool soil to grow in. They
The following insects may cause problems:
have excellent frost tolerance. It is sug-
cabbage aphid, turnip aphid, cabbage root
20 - 28
maggot, cutworms, army worms, black cut- crumble into medium-sized fragments. Cul-
worms, diamond back moth, flea beetles, tivation should mix crop residues and or-
and wireworms. ganic matter in the top 7 to 8 inches of soil.
L. Diseases It should destroy current weed growth and
Turnip disease problems include black root provide a small, granular-type bed for trans-
rot, club root, and powdery mildew. planting. Overcultivated soil becomes pow-
dery and has a tendency to crust. The ideal
M. Harvesting
pH for watermelon growth is from 6.0 to
Turnips can be harvested as soon as the 7.5, but it does well in Idaho soil, which
roots reach edible size (2 to 3 inches) and ranges from 7.0 to 8.0.
before becoming bitter and pithy. They nor-
E. Seed Time
mally mature in 45 to 60 days. Pull or cut
off tops above the crown. The best time to seed watermelons in Idaho
is 3 weeks after the last killing frost. When
N. Storage
transplanting, the soil temperature should be
Storage life of turnips can be extended into 65°F or above. The variety of watermelons
the fall and winter by leaving them in the planted should have an early maturity date
ground and covering them with a mulch to and be developed for weather conditions in
prevent them from freezing in the ground. the area planted. The maturity date should
For pit storage the temperature should be as be 80 to 100 days after transplanting.
near 32°F as possible under moist air condi-
tions.
Seed per foot 2 to 3
XXIII. Watermelon Ounce per foot 0.05
A. Food Value
A pound of raw watermelon contains 92.6 Seed depth 1 inch
percent water, 2.3 grams of protein, 0.9 Plant spacing 12 to 24 inches
gram of fat, 29.0 grams of carbohydrates,
and 118 calories.
Watermelons need a warm soil to grow and
B. Description
good spacing for sunlight for high sugar
Watermelons are a native of Africa. The content and flavor. If transplants are pur-
plants have separate male and female flow- chased, they should be stocky.
ers on the same vine and are cross-polli-
H. Fertilizer
nated. They do not cross-pollinate with cu-
cumbers, squash, or pumpkins. Watermelon A preplant fertilizer of 0.2 pound of N for
are difficult to grow in many parts of Idaho. each 100 square feet is recommended. One
They need high temperatures and a long week after blossoming begins, sidedress
growing season. with 1 1/2 ounces of ammonium sulfate for
pH soils or ammonium nitrate for low pH
C. Yield Per Person
soils per 10 feet of row. The amount of fer-
It is estimated that each person will eat from tilizer applied should be based on a soil test
3 to 6 pounds of watermelon during a grow- report from the University of Idaho Analyti-
ing season. This will require a row of mel- cal Laboratory or a private testing labora-
ons 6 to 12 feet long. Each foot of row tory. Plants may be over- or under-fertilized.
space should produce about 0.5 pound of
I. Cultivation
watermelons.
Cultivation should be shallow, when neces-
D. Seedbed
Watermelons are adapted to most soils but Deep cultivation close to the plants will de-
grow best in a fertile, light, sandy soil with stroy much of the root system and reduce
large amounts of compost. Seedbed prepara- yield and quality. If it becomes necessary to
tion should start when the soil has sufficient cultivate, penetrate the soil no deeper than 1
moisture to form a mud ball that will inch.
20 - 29
J. Watering types: vining, semivining, and bush. Squash
Watermelons have a water stress point of 65 will cross-pollinate with other squash,
percent. When the percent of water in soil pumpkins, and gourds within the same spe-
drops below this level, the plant will start to cies. They have separate male and female
dehydrate, and growth will be slowed down flowers on the same plant. The fruits, which
or stopped. The percent of water in the soil vary widely in shape and color, may be
can be estimated by taking a handful of soil baked, boiled, or used for pie filling.
at the 6-inch depth and squeezing it into a C. Yield Per Person
ball in your hand. If it forms a ball, and your Each person will eat about 6 to 9 pounds of
hand feels like it has a film of water on it, squash during a growing season and need 6
the soil moisture will be 65 percent or to 9 pounds for canning or freezing. This
above. If the soil moisture is below 65 per- will require a row of squash 12 to 18 feet
cent, the film of water will not be felt on long. Each foot of row space produces about
your hand, and it is time to water again. 1 pound of squash.
Plant growth can suffer from too much or D. Seedbed
too little water. The symptoms will be the Squash is adapted to most soils but grows
same. As the percentage of soil moisture best in a fertile soil rich in humus. Seedbed
drops, the oxygen level in the soil increases. preparation should start when the soil has
Plants need water, oxygen, and nutrients to sufficient moisture to form a mud ball that
grow. will crumble into medium-sized fragments.
K. Insects Cultivation should mix crop residues and
The following insects may cause problems: organic matter in the top 7 to 8 inches of
aphids, cucumber beetle, cabbage looper, soil. It should destroy current weed growth
spider mites, and wireworms. and provide a small, granular type bed for
L. Diseases transplanting. Overcultivated soil becomes
Diseases include curly top, leaf spot, and wilt. powdery and has a tendency to crust. The
ideal pH for squash growth is 6.0 to 7.5.
M. Harvesting
Squash does well in Idaho soil, which
Watermelon is ripe when the vine tendril ranges from 7.0 to 8.0.
next to the fruit yellows and dries, when the
E. Seed Time
underside of the melon next to the ground
takes on a yellow tinge, and when thumping The time to seed squash in Idaho is 3 weeks
with a finger causes a dull rather than a before transplanting when soil temperature
sharp sound. Cut the melon off the vine, is 65°F. The variety of squash planted should
leaving a short stem on the fruit. Pulling the have an early maturity date and be developed
stem from the fruit may damage the fruit. for weather conditions in the area planted.
Most melon cultivates form an abscission Maturity date should be 85 to 120 days after
layer at maturity, and the stem loosens from transplanting. Squash may also be seeded
the fruit. When the stem is nearly loose the directly into the soil 2 to 3 weeks after the
melon is said to be at the full slip stage. last killing frost. Squash thrives in warm soil,
and the use of plastic mulches is common.
XXIV. Winter Squash F. Planting Specifications:
A. Food Value Seed per foot 1 to 2
A pound of cooked winter squash contains Ounce per foot 0.05
about 81.4 percent water, 8.2 grams of pro- Row width 72 to 120 inches
tein, 1.8 grams of fat, 69.9 grams of carbo- Germination 6 to 10 days
hydrates, and 286 calories. Seed depth 1 inch
B. Description
Winter squash is native to America and was
grown by the Indians. There are three main Squash needs a warm soil to grow in, but
not an extremely hot growing season.
20 - 30
Squash tolerates partial shade and is some- M. Harvesting
times interplanted with corn. Harvest winter squash when fully mature.
H. Fertilizer Indications of maturity are a hard rind and a
A preplant fertilizer of 0.2 pound of N for solid exterior coloring. The acorn types are
each 100 square feet is recommended. One harvested when a yellow, orange color has
week after blossoming begins, sidedress developed on the fruit where it is in contact
with 1 1/2 ounces of ammonium sulfate for with the soil. In Idaho, the growing season
high pH soils or ammonium nitrate for low is short at best, and most winter squash are
pH soils. The amount of fertilizer applied harvested when the vine has been killed by
should be based on a soil test report from frost but before a hard frost. To harvest, cut
the University of Idaho Analytical Labora- the stem with a knife 2 inches from the fruit.
tory or a private testing laboratory. Plants Let the squash cure in the sun for 1 or more
may be over- or under-fertilized. weeks or cure inside house at a temperature
I. Cultivation of 75°F for 1 week or more before storage.
Cultivation should be shallow, when neces- N. Storage
sary, to remove other plant competition. When cured, store in a home cellar or base-
Deep cultivation close to the plants will de- ment at 55°F. The humidity should be mod-
stroy much of the root system and reduce erately low. Properly cured and stored
yield and quality. If it becomes necessary to squash should remain in good condition
cultivate, penetrate the soil no deeper than throughout the winter.
1 inch. Squash plants provide good ground
cover and will shade out most weeds as they Further Reading
mature.
J. Watering
Winter squash has a water stress point of 60
percent. When the percent of water in soil CIS 292 Blossom-End Rot of Tomatoes (25¢)
drops below this level, the plant will start to CIS 1041 Conduct Your Own Garden Research ($2.00)
dehydrate, and growth will be slowed down CIS 803 Growing Asparagus (35¢)
or stopped. The percent of water in the soil CIS 660 Growing Beets, Carrots, Radishes and Other
can be estimated by taking a handful of soil Root Crops (50¢)
at the 6-inch depth and squeezing it into a CIS 661 Growing Cole Crops (25¢)
ball in your hand. If it forms a ball and your CIS 756 Growing Cucumbers (35¢)
hand feels like it has a film of water on it, CIS 686 Growing Garlic (25¢)
the soil moisture will be 60 percent or CIS 691 Growing Lettuce, Spinach, and Swiss Chard
above. If the soil moisture is below 60 per- (35¢)
cent, the film of water will not be felt on CIS 1077 Growing Mushrooms Commercially—
your hand, and it is time to water again. Risks and Opportunities ($1.50)
Plant growth can suffer from too much to CIS 723 Growing Squash and Pumpkin (35¢)
little water. The symptoms will be the same. CIS 800 Growing Vegetable Seedlings for
As the percentage of soil moisture drops, Transplanting (35¢)
the oxygen level in the soil increases. Plants PNW 495 Grow Your Own: Beans and Peas ($1.00)
need water, oxygen, and nutrients to grow. CIS 993 Management of Vegetable Diseases in Home
K. Insects Gardens (50¢)
The following insects may cause problems: BUL 775 Planning an Idaho Vegetable Garden ($4.00)
aphids, cucumber beetle, slugs, spider mites, CIS 1000 Potato Production in the Home Garden
wireworms, and squash bugs. ($1.00)
L. Diseases PNW 497 Short-Season Vegetable Gardening ($2.00)
Squash diseases include aster yellows, black CIS 1079 Small Farm Herb Production—Is It for You?
($1.50)
rot, curly top virus, root rot, and storage
rots.
20 - 31
CIS 910 Sweet Corn Production for the Small-Market
Grower and Home Gardener (50¢)
CIS 667 Tomatoes for the Home Garden ($1.00)
your county’s UI Extension office or write to: Publica-
tions, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID 83844-2240, call
(208) 885-7982, or email: calspubs@uidaho.edu. Make
checks payable to Publications. Idaho residents add 6
percent sales tax. Also check, and in some cases down-
load, the online publication and video catalog on the UI

20 - 32
Chapter
Fruit Trees
21
I.
Introduction 2
II.
Site Selection 2
III.
Fruit and Nut Cultivars for Idaho 3
IV.
Types of Tree Fruits 3
A. Pome Fruits (Apples and Pears) 3
B. Stone Fruits 4
C. Nuts 4
V. Rootstock 5
A. Apples 5
B. Pears 5
C. Stone Fruits 5
VI. Cultural Practices and Problems 5
A. Planting 5
B. Training and Pruning 6
C. Water Management (Irrigation) 7
D. Fertilization 7
E. Insect and Disease Control 8
F. Rodent and Deer Damage 9
G. Vegetative Management Due to
Weed and Herbicide Injury 9
H. Preventing Winter Injury 9
I. Cropping Problems 10
Further Reading 11

21 - 1
Chapter 21
Fruit Trees
W. M. Colt and E. Fallahi
W. Michael Colt, Extension Horticulturist Emeriti, and Esmaeil Fallahi,
Tree Fruit Physiologist, Parma Research and Extension Center
I. Introduction Table 1. Usual order of bloom in fruit trees.
Growing fruit can be an important part of Earliest Apricots

home gardening, but it demands a year-round Japanese plums
Peaches
and year-to-year commitment by the gardener.
Oriental pears
In addition to the personal satisfaction and en- Italian plums
joyment of tree ripened fruits, fruit trees have Cherries
considerable landscape value. Properly cared Pears
for, they are attractive in form and display
Latest Apples
beautiful flowers in the spring. If judiciously
placed, they can enhance a well-designed land-
scape. produce a crop only once every 5 years be-
cause of early spring frosts. Small fruit may
II. Site Selection fall off soon after a killing frost. Stone fruit,
An ideal location for fruit trees: such as peaches, may stay on the tree until
A. Is Without Frost Pockets—A gentle slope mid to late June, and then drop. Diagnose
with good air drainage will work well. Plant for frost damage by cutting open the small
the trees three-quarters of the way down the fruit. If the ovules (the portion that becomes
hill. Cold air will drain down the hill and the seed) are brown, the fruit is dead.
will help limit frost damage in the spring B. Is in Full Sun—Fruit trees should be planted
(Fig. 1). Frost damage can occur any time well away from areas of shade such as large
from bloom to late spring. trees and buildings. Not only must the tree
Frost damage to blossoms is a likely prob- itself receive full sun, but it must also be
lem, particularyly with early blooming fruit properly pruned so that light can penetrate
trees (Table 1). For example, apricots may to the inner leaves. This is necessary in or-
der to maintain good flower production and
Fig. 1. Frost damage is best prevented by proper site
fruit set throughout the tree.
selection. Choose a gentle slope with good air C. Has Well-Drained But Not Droughty Soil—
drainage. A site with deep, fertile, sandy loam soil in-
creases the probability of successful tree
growth and fruit production. A site with
poor drainage increases the probability of
winter injury to fruit trees. A drainage prob-
lem, such as a perched water table, can be
lessened by breaking through the hard pan
layer in the soil. Stone fruits, particularly
peaches, do not tolerate “wet feet.”

21 - 2
III. Fruit and Nut Cultivars for Idaho Choose cultivars to grow at home that are
Once the decision is made to start a home or- not readily available in your local grocery
chard, a lot of thought must go into cultivar store, that you especially enjoy, and that
selection. Cultivars must be adapted to the cli- are best for your purpose.
mate and soils of your specific area, must pro- Less commonly grown cultivar sugges-
vide fruit at the desired time, and must be tions are:
suited to uses such as freezing, canning, and a. King: Large, waxy yellow with red
preserving. Select cultivars that will extend the striping. Crisp and sweet. Good for
harvest season from July through October. eating and baking.
Since some cultivars are easier to grow than b. Northern Spy: Large, red apple with
others, choose only the ones you, your family, tender, fine-grained flesh. One of the
and friends really appreciate so your horticul- finest for flavor. Stores well. The tree
tural efforts will be justified. In addition to lo- is slow to reach bearing age, and tends
cal expertise, “Western Fruit Berries & Nuts— to bear alternate years.
How to Select, Grow, and Enjoy,” is a good c. Spitzenberg: Medium, red with yellow
reference. Some cultivars can be ordered if you dots. Crisp, fine-grained flesh with a
give your local nursery enough notice. tangy, spicy flavor.
Note: Fruit and nut trees are propagated ei- d. Wealthy: Red-tinted white flesh and a
ther by grafting or budding to obtain deserved reputation for quality. Good
true-to-name trees. A seedling fruit cooking apple; satisfactory for fresh
tree cannot produce the same kind or use. It is a particularly good tree for
quality fruit as its parent and it comes colder areas. Tends to bear alternate
into production much later. years. Good pollinizer for other apples.
e. Winesap: Large, round, and with a
IV. Types of Tree Fruits lively flavor, these apples make good
desserts. An old-timer that remains a
The complexity of tree fruits can be simplified favorite. The trees are vigorous, and
for study by grouping tree fruits into two cat- are early, reliable bearers.
egories: pome fruits and stone fruits. Both
2. Pears will tolerate poor drainage and ne-
pome fruits—apples (Malus) and pears
glect better than other fruit trees. For best
(Pyrus)—share many cultural similarities and
vegetative growth and optimal fruit pro-
pest problems. The stone fruits (Prunus)—apri-
duction, pears should be planted in a
cots, cherries, nectarines, peaches, and
well-drained, deep soil and spaced about
plums—share cultural similarities.
16 to 18 feet apart.
A. Pome Fruits (Apples and Pears)
The major problem with pears is fire
1. Apple trees are among the most cold tol- blight, which primarily attacks young,
erant fruit trees, but climate adaptability vigorous wood. Treatment is to cut out
varies according to cultivar. In colder and destroy the blackened diseased wood.
areas of Idaho, it is best to plant mid-sea- Train and prune trees only to shape them,
son cultivars that will escape spring frosts limiting cuts to smaller branches as much
and ripen before extreme cold in the fall. as possible. Excessive pruning can stimu-
The best vegetative growth and optimal late vigorous, susceptible growth. Heavy
fruit production are obtained in well- rain during bloom as well as hail-inflicted
drained, deep soil . wounds will increase the chances of fire
Many apple cultivars require a second blight infections. To lessen the incidence
cultivar for cross-pollination by bees to of the disease, application of copper can
ensure adequate crops. Crab apples can be made during the delayed dormant
also cross-pollinate apple cultivars. stage. This will reduce the bacterial in-
Bloom times of the cultivars need to oculum levels on the surface of the tree.
overlap to ensure pollination.

21 - 3
Avoid the use of nitrogen fertilizer unless 3. Peaches and nectarines—Differ in their
trees show obvious signs of a deficiency. tolerance of cold or mild winters. Be sure
Excess nitrogen application promotes to select cultivars that are adapted to your
vigorous growth that will then be vulner- climate.
able to fire blight. Generally, there is a risk of damage
Cultivar suggestions include: where winter temperatures fall below
a. Bartlett: A standard commercial vari- -10° to -15°F. Trees planted on a hillside
ety, matures toward the end of summer where the coldest air drains to low-lying
and has excellent fresh eating as well areas or trees planted near large bodies of
as canning quality. water may tolerate areas otherwise too
b. Bosc: A fine-flavored dessert variety cold for them.
ripening after Bartlett. Reliance and Polly (Haven Polly) are
c. Clapps Favorite: Matures before considered some of the hardiest peach
Bartlett and is the earliest pear of good cultivars. Nectarines are more tender than
quality. peaches.
d. Seckel: A small gourmet pear with a Peaches and nectarines are generally self-
russet skin; a pickling as well as a des- fruitful, or self-pollinating.
sert pear. 4. Plums and prunes—The most popular
B. Stone Fruits cultivars are derived from either Euro-
pean or Japanese species. These cultivars
1. Apricots—Flower very early in spring;
can grow 15 to 20 feet high and about as
consequently, the occurrence of spring
wide. European varieties bloom late and
frost will affect fruit production. It may
are better adapted to areas with late frost
help to plant apricots on a northern expo-
or cool, rainy spring weather than are the
sure (but not in shade) to delay bloom,
early-blooming Japanese varieties. Many
but a safer course of action is to choose
plum and prune cultivars need another
later-blooming cultivars. Bloom and ma-
cultivar growing nearby for pollination.
turity dates vary, depending on area, cul-
tural practices, tree age, and season. The European-type plum, called the Ital-
ian prune, is a high yielder, requires no
2. Cherries—Do best in deep, well-drained
thinning, hangs on the tree, and ripens to
soil. Space sweet cherries about 30 feet
a taste treat that more than justifies its
apart. The trees may not fill that much
place in the home garden.
space, but the cherry fruits need sunlight
to ripen. C. Nuts
Most sweet cherry cultivars need an aid 1. Filberts or hazelnuts—These make an at-
in pollinating in order to produce fruit, so tractive, small tree for the garden. Spring
choose the second tree carefully. to fall, the roundish, ruffled-edged leaves
cast a pleasant spot of shade. Showy male
Black Tartarian, Corum, Republican,
catkins hang long and full on bare
Sam, and Van will pollinate any other
branches in winter. Female flowers are
cherry tree. Stella, Compact Stella, and
small and red in color. A crop of round or
Garden Bing are self-fertilizing and re-
oblong nuts comes as a bonus in the fall.
quire no second tree for pollination. Bing,
Lambert, and Royal Ann will not produce Plant trees in early spring in well-
fruit in any combination. drained, soil and plant at least two com-
patible cultivars for cross-pollination.
The most dependable cherries for colder
areas of Idaho are the sour type that are Filberts tend to sucker. If you wish to
self-fertilizing. Montmorency is the most maintain a single trunk, remove these
popular cultivar for the home garden as shoots three to four times a year. Filberts
well as being a leader in commercial sour can also be grown as a bush.
cherry production. Sour cherry trees may 2. The Persian (English) walnut—Should
be planted 20 feet apart. not be planted as a landscape tree except
21 - 4
on a large lot with deep soil. Established 1. The standard (seedling) rootstock is
trees take some drought, but deep, regular adaptable to most conditions. It has an
watering is required. Older trees need extensive root system and should be
pruning only to remove dead wood. Plant planted about 20 feet apart.
walnut trees 40 to 60 feet apart. Walnut 2. The semidwarf rootstock (MM-111,
flowers are susceptible to spring frosts. MM-106, and EM-7) make a tree one-
3. Almonds—Will survive in southwestern half to two-thirds the size of a standard
Idaho, but don’t produce annual crops tree.
because they bloom early in the spring 3. The dwarf rootstock (M-26 and EM-9)
and are usually killed by frost. make a tree one-third to one-half the size
of a standard tree. The more dwarfing the
V. Rootstock apple rootstock, the more support the tree
Fruit trees consist of two parts: a scion and a will require. When the tree is bearing a
rootstock. The scion, or fruiting cultivar, is the crop, dwarfing rootstock (M-9 and M-26)
most above-ground part of the tree. It is will need a stake to hold the tree up in the
grafted or budded onto a rootstock to form a wind. In general, the more dwarfing the
new tree (Fig. 2). This tree is the same cultivar rootstock, the faster the tree will bear. It
as the scion and will produce fruit of that culti- is important to allow sufficient vegetative
var. A wide range of rootstock, varying in size growth to fill the space before allowing
as well as other attributes, are available for the crop to slow vegetative growth.
apples. However, rootstock selections for other B. Pears
tree fruit are more limited. Pear cultivars are available on semidwarf or
Dwarfing rootstock is preferred since it pro- seedling rootstock. The seedling rootstock
duces a more compact fruit tree. It bears fruit are hardier than other rootstock, making
earlier in its life, is easier to prune and spray, larger but more manageable trees.
and is easier to harvest. C. Stone Fruits
A. Apples Nectarines, peaches, and apricots are grown
Apple tree growth may be manipulated to on seedling rootstock and form fruit on
three basic sizes: standard, semi-dwarf, and 1-year-old wood. It is easy to keep them the
dwarf. desired size by pruning and still have fruit
production on seedling stock. Cherry trees
produce large canopies. There is no such
Fig. 2. Parts of a fruit tree. thing as a true dwarf cherry. Semidwarf
trees on Mahaleb rootstock reduce tree size
a maximum of only 10 percent. Work is be-
ing done to develop a rootstock that will re-
duce size, but the end results are a few years
away.
VI. Cultural Practices and Problems

A. Planting
Fruit trees may be planted in the fall or
spring. Bare root trees are usually available
only in the spring. Planting early in the sea-
son before the roots dry out will ensure the
best success. With containerized trees, the
time of planting is less critical. Follow these
steps to plant a fruit tree:
1. Dig a planting pit with vertical sides and
make it large enough to accommodate the
21 - 5
root system without crowding. The pit The objective of pruning older trees is
should be a minimum of 2 to 3 feet deep either to open the trees to sunlight or to
and should allow at least a 6-inch clear- maintain fruiting by pruning back the
ance from the end of the roots. overhanging limbs in the upper part of
2. After removing all broken or damaged the tree, so that sunlight reaches the
roots, place the tree in the planting pit. lower and inner portions of the tree.
Spread the planting soil around the tree There are two types of pruning cuts:
and tamp to firm. Use planting soil that is a. Heading-back cut: This is an invigo-
as good or better than the soil in which rating cut that causes an increase in
the tree originally grew. Avoid using vegetative growth in the immediate
planting soil around the tree that is so dif- area of the cut. Because the hormonal
ferent from the native soil that water and gradient is destroyed, the growth of the
roots either do not penetrate the native lateral buds is no longer suppressed.
soil, or that water runs around the plant- b. Thinning-out cut: This type of cut re-
ing soil in the pit and into the native soil. moves shoots but does not stimulate
3. Pour water into the planting pit until the vigorous regrowth. Because the hor-
consistency of thick liquid is attained. monal gradient is not interrupted, veg-
Gently raise and lower the tree to allow etative growth continues. A thinning-
the soil to fill between the fibrous roots out cut can also be used on upright and
and to eliminate air pockets. Add water overhanging growth. This type of cut
and planting soil alternately until the pit will result in an increased flower bud
is filled to grade. production over the whole tree.
4. The tree should rest at the depth at which
it grew in the nursery, and the bud union Note: Excessive pruning, especially heading-
(the place where the tree was budded in back cuts, will delay fruiting in the
the nursery) should be about 6 inches early years and reduce fruiting on
above the soil level after planting. A col- older trees.
lar at the base of the tree, lighter in color
than the rest of the trunk, indicates the 3. Seasons of pruning—Trees can be pruned
original growing depth. any time after the leaves fall in autumn
and before bud break in the spring. Avoid
B. Training and Pruning
making large saw cuts (over 3 inches in
Both can influence apical dominance, or the diameter) until hazardous winter tem-
tendency for the apex (uppermost bud) to peratures are over. If you have only a few
grow more rapidly than the lower buds. trees, resist the temptation to prune your
Apical dominance is thought to be caused trees on the first non-subzero day that
by a hormonal stimulus produced by the seems warm enough to be doing some-
growing apex that suppresses the develop- thing outside. Some commercial peach
ment of lateral bud growth. Cuts on higher growers wait until bloom time to see
or lower parts of the tree will have differing what blossoms exist before they prune.
results in vegetative growth depending on
a. Winter (dormant) pruning: The dor-
the distance from the apex.
mant period is the most desirable time
1. Training—This is the process of giving to prune out broken, damaged, dis-
desirable structure to fruit trees from 1 to eased, and weak wood; to remove
4 years after planting. The objective of limbs crossing over other limbs; or to
training young trees is to establish the eliminate narrow angled crotches.
essential structure of the tree and to bring (Wide angled branch crotches of 45 to
the tree into bearing. 90 degrees are the strongest.)
2. Pruning—This is used to maintain the b. Summer pruning: Trees can be pruned
shape of trees 3 or 4 years after planting any time during the growing season.
as well as after trees are bearing fruit.

21 - 6
Pruning during this period decreases 3. Although fruit trees have deep root sys-
the shoot growth and, therefore, is a tems, most of the roots are concentrated
common practice where better control in the upper 2 feet of soil and extend out-
of shoot growth is desired. Rub off or ward slightly beyond the spread of the
pull off water sprouts and suckers that limbs.
shade the inner parts of the tree, fruits, 4. Oftentimes trees in lawns and under grass
and spurs. This should be done when sod are irrigated to maintain a good grass
shoots are 3 to 4 inches long and be- cover, but insufficient water is applied to
fore they become woody. Shoot re- the root zone of the tree. Tree roots do
moval by pulling at this stage damages not compete well with grass roots. To
adventitious buds at the base of the remedy this problem, clean out all grass
shoot, which limits regrowth. growing under the dripline of any fruit
tree.
Note: Pruning after the first of September or
before trees become dormant stimu- Note: High soil moisture levels or frequent
lates growth, making the trees more watering around the base of the trunk,
susceptible to winter injury during particularly in heavy soils, can result
early fall freezes. in the development of crown rot, a
fungal disease that attacks the roots
4. Pruning tips and kills the tree. Overwatering by it-
• Don’t leave stubs! Cut close to the self can also kill roots. Because oxy-
trunk at the branch collar. Cut back to gen is only partially soluble in water
a live branch or bud. and becomes depleted under water-
• Don’t paint wounds. Paint traps mois- logged conditions, the roots are as-
ture and encourages rot. Slant cuts so phyxiated. Root or crown damage
rain runs off. from excess moisture turns inner-bark
• Remember, the art of pruning comes tissue brown. Often, damage is not ap-
from knowing how and where to cut. parent for several months, especially if
C. Water Management (Irrigation) the excess moisture occurs in late fall
Soil moisture (e.g., not too much and not or early spring. Crown rot causes ear-
too little) is important in maintaining tree lier leaf color change in the fall.
vigor, productivity, and fruit size.
1. Drought or moisture stress alone rarely Note: Prunus species, including cherries,
kills healthy, well-established fruit trees. peaches, and nectarines, are most sus-
However, newly set trees with limited ceptible to death of feeder roots in
root systems or plants damaged by cold poorly drained soils. Pears, apples,
injury, diseases, or insects are more sus- plums, and most small fruits are more
ceptible to moisture stress. Occasionally, tolerant to temporary excess soil mois-
a prolonged drought results in extensive ture, but they can be severely injured
feeder-root death, which destroys large or weakened by extended periods of
trees. This is most severe in sandy soils very wet soil conditions.
with poor moisture-holding capacity.
D. Fertilization
2. Good soil drainage is important, espe-
cially in the spring. During the summer Nutritional deficiencies are not a direct
and early fall, the trees deplete the avail- cause of tree death unless excessive or im-
able soil moisture. Irrigation is usually proper fertilizing results in tree damage.
required! Poor drainage is common in Normally, it is not advisable to fertilize at
soils with a high clay content and dense, planting. Young tree roots are easily burned,
impervious subsoil, or in lowlands with a and the tree may die back or die completely.
high water table. After growth has begun, however, use a
complete fertilizer having essential nitrogen
21 - 7
Table 2. Recommended annual terminal growth of fruit lb AN needed 5/8 lb 0.625
trees. = = = 1.89 lb
%N 33% 0.33
Nonbearing trees
The amount of nitrogen to be applied is de-
Apple 24 to 36 inches
termined by the amount of growth in the
Pear 12 to 26 inches
previous year. If too little growth is oc-
Peach and other stone fruits 16 to 24 inches
curred, increase the nitrogen application. If
Bearing trees too much growth occurred, reduce the nitro-
Apple 12 to 14 inches gen application. Knowing how much nitro-
Pear 6 to 12 inches gen to apply requires accurate record keep-
Peach and other stone fruits 10 to 15 inches ing.
Where organic mulches are used, the
(N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) or amount of N fertilizer may be decreased as
(N-P-K) with 10 percent N (such as 10-6-4 the mulch begins to decay, releasing N. Fer-
or 10-10-10), particularly in the sandy soils. tilizing with manure is tricky because N and
salt levels vary depending on the age and
The amount of N to apply in late fall or
source of the manure.
early spring (preferably before bud break)
depends upon the type of tree fruit and its Other nutrients need to be applied according
productive status (Table 2). Much less than to the results of a leaf analysis. Zinc, iron,
these recommended growth rates will result and boron are micronutrients that are often
in reduced fruiting wood and a smaller crop deficient.
the following year. E. Insect and Disease Control
If you are just starting a fertilizer program, Success in growing fruit depends on effec-
1/8 pound of actual nitrogen should be soil tive control of insects and diseases, recogni-
applied to stone fruits for every inch of tion of the common diseases and insects,
trunk diameter (measured 1 foot above selection of effective pesticides, proper tim-
ground level). In the case of pome fruits ing of pesticide sprays, and thorough cover-
(apples and pears), 1/10 pound of actual ni- age of fruit and foliage with the spray mix-
trogen should be used for each inch of trunk ture.
diameter. 1. Organic control measures are available
The actual amount of N differs among prod- for some pests but, in general, their re-
ucts, and this difference must be taken into sults are mixed.
account when computing the amount of fer- 2. Commercial fruit growers, because of the
tilizer needed. For example, a 5-inch diam- size of their operations, can afford to buy
eter peach tree will need 5/8 pound of actual large equipment to effectively apply pes-
nitrogen (A.N.): ticides.
diameter x pounds A.N. required = 3. Home orchardists with a few fruit trees
5 x 1/8 = 5/8 lb (.625 lb) A.N. needed are at a disadvantage when it comes to
If ammonium sulfate 20-0-0 (20% N) is obtaining equipment that will do a satis-
used, 3 1/8 pound of fertilizer will be re- factory job of spraying fruit trees. In most
quired to provide the N needed for a 5-inch cases, they are restricted largely by the
peach tree: cost of hand-operated sprayers or those
operated by small electric or gasoline
lb AN needed 5/8 lb 0.625
= = = 3.125 lb motors. The capacity of these machines is
%N 20% 0.20 small, the pressure is low, and the energy
In the case of ammonium nitrate at 33 per- expended to do an effective job is consid-
cent N (33-0-0), a little over 1 7/8 pounds of erable. Yet the homeowner fights the
ammonium nitrate is needed for the same same pests, often on the same size trees,
5-inch diameter peach tree: as the commercial grower.

21 - 8
4. It has been shown repeatedly that failure ing shoots and buds of fruit trees can se-
of homeowners to adequately control verely stunt and weaken the plants. In the
pests on their fruit trees can generally be late summer and fall, buck deer often
attributed to not knowing what is causing break and kill young trees while rubbing
the damage or what could cause the dam- the velvet from their antlers. Tall fences
age, not applying enough material to or repeated use of approved repellents
cover the trees completely, not making may be required for adequate deer dam-
applications on time, and not continuing age control.
the spray program late enough into the 4. Moles can sometimes present problems
summer. by burrowing directly under trees. In this
case, roots dry out and tunnels are used
Note: Dormant sprays are an important step by mice who feed on the roots. Moles do
in controlling insects and diseases. not feed on tree roots.
However, there are different dormant
G. Vegetation Management Due to Weed and
sprays; some control only diseases,
Herbicide Injury
while others control only insects. Con-
sult the Pacific Northwest Insect Con- Weeds weaken fruit trees by competing for
trol Handbook and the Pacific North- soil moisture and nutrients. The wise combi-
west Plant Disease Control Handbook nation of cultivation and approved herbi-
for specific recommendations. cides helps reduce weed competition.
Improper or excessive herbicide use fre-
F. Rodent and Deer Damage quently causes fruit tree death. Contact-
Fruit trees are susceptible to mouse, gopher, action herbicides, when misused and al-
and deer damage. lowed to drift onto foliage or tender green
1. Mice—Eat the bark of the trunk and roots bark, can severely injure and ultimately kill
near the soil surface. Damage is easily the plant. Similarly, systemically absorbed
detected by removing soil from around herbicides for weeds can be lethal to fruit
the base of the tree and the larger roots plants when improperly sprayed.
near the surface. Bark completely re- Long term use of the same soil-residual her-
moved by gnawing rodents will girdle, bicide may eventually result in excessive
weaken, and finally kill the tree. As with soil accumulation, causing root injury, plant
other types of mechanical injury, plants weakening, or death.
weakened but not killed by rodents are Do not plant fruit trees on sites immediately
more susceptible to drought, cold injury, after corn or grain crops where a persistent
disease infections, and insect infestations. herbicide, such as atrazine, was used for
To reduce the hazard of mouse damage, weed control. Fallow the soil for one or two
clean out all grass and weeds in a 3- to growing seasons before planting fruit trees.
4-foot diameter circle around the trunk of This allows herbicide degradation and pre-
the tree. This rids the area of ground vents tree injury or death.
cover that might protect mice from preda- Herbicides are safe, effective tools for re-
tors. Wire guards, constructed from fine ducing weeds in fruit crop planting. To pre-
wire mesh and placed 1-inch deep in the vent herbicide damage or plant death, pay
soil, are effective around young trees. careful attention to label guidelines for ap-
2. Gophers—Are best controlled in the plication, apply the correct rates, and use
home garden by trapping. Poisoned baits only herbicides approved for specific fruit
are available for mouse and gopher con- crops.
trol. H. Preventing Winter Injury
3. Deer—May damage fruit trees planted Normally, vegetative growth stops about
near woods or other areas with adequate early August, and a terminal bud is set. Un-
deer cover. Deer feeding on young grow- usually warm fall temperatures and exces-

21 - 9
sive amounts of nitrogen may cause contin- bark tissues on southwestern trunk expo-
ued or renewed growth in the fall. These sures. This reduces cold resistance and
conditions may predispose trees to cold in- may result in injury because of extremely
jury; keep trees in moderately vigorous con- cold night temperatures. The bark dries,
dition before winter arrives. then splits, and finally wood-rotting fungi
1. Lethal winter injury occurs most fre- enter. This may seriously weaken or even
quently in the lower trunk, in the crown kill the tree. The problem is most severe
region, or in the roots near the soil sur- for young trees and smooth-bark trees
face. The tree will generally die shortly such as cherry and plum.
after growth begins in the spring, if the To protect a tree from sunscald, wrap the
damage has been severe enough to de- trunk with strips of burlap or a tree wrap
stroy the inner bark tissue. material; or paint the trunk with a white
Damaged inner bark is brown, while indoor latex paint, which will lower bark
healthy bark and cambium tissue are a temperature by reflecting light.
greenish yellow. Severe cold injury may I. Cropping Problems
result in split bark, however, the splits Biennial bearing (crop overproduction in
may later heal. one year and a need to rest the next year)
2. Sunscald, another type of injury, nor- confuses many home orchardists. This con-
mally occurs in late winter on the south dition will alternate until finally the tree will
to southwest side of the main trunk and produce fruit only every other year. To cor-
large branches. Bark, whether brown or rect or reduce this problem, annual thinning
gray, absorbs the sun’s rays in midafter- done when fruit is still small will allow the
noon and often warms up as much as tree to handle the crop and produce higher
20°F above the surrounding air tempera- quality fruit. Thinning is done by hand
ture. As a result, bright sunny days in late when the fruit is about 1/2 inch in diameter.
winter may activate the cambium and After thinning, the fruit should be spaced
Table 3. Why fruit trees don’t bear.
Symptoms Prevention strategy Possible causes
Trees 4 to 8 years old have Trees growing too vegetatively Spread or tie down branches;
never set fruit buds or bloomed pruning especially heading cuts reduce nitrogen; reduce dormant
Few fruit buds form Trees under stress (shade, Choose sunny, well-drained site;
“wet feet,” drought, lack of nutrients) fertilize and irrigate properly;
(same as above) Trees too vegetative Reduce nitrogen; reduce dormant

pruning; increase summer pruning
Fruit buds form only at tips Fruit buds were killed by low Choose site with good air drainage
temperatures during bud swell
Tree blooms, but all flower Frost killed open blossoms Choose site with good air drainage;
parts fall off when petals fall, choose late-blooming or
so few or no fruit sets frost-resistant cultivars
(same as above) Flowers were not adequately When choosing cultivars, be sure to
cross-pollinated include pollenizers; during spring
bloom, place flowering branches of
another cultivar in buckets of water in
the tree
Tree bears only every other year Heavy crop one year weakens Thin fruit 4 to 6 weeks after year,
(e.g., biennial bearing) tree, so few fruit buds form bloom when crop is heavy
for next year’s crop

21 - 10
approximately 6 inches between fruits. Do PNW 496 Grafting and Budding Plants to
not delay thinning. The later the thinning Propagate, Topwork, Repair ($2.50)
occurs, the smaller the fruit will be. BUL 820 Growing Apples for Local Markets in
Additional cropping problems, their pos- Cold Climates ($2.50)
sible causes, and prevention strategies are PNW 235 Growing Walnuts in the Pacific
found on Table 3. Northwest ($1.00)
CIS 866 Homeowner’s Guide to Fruit Tree
Fertilization (35¢)
Further Reading PNW 121 Nutrient Disorders in Tree Fruits (web
only)
Books
CIS 229 Peach Leaf Curl (25¢)
A Catalog of New & Noteworthy Fruits (annual).
1992. New York State Fruit Testing Cooperative CIS 898 Pears in the Home Garden (35¢)
Assn. Inc., Geneva, NY. CIS 752 Phytophthorn Collar-Rot of Orchard
All About Growing Fruits & Berries. 1982. Chevron Trees (50¢)
Chemical Corporation (Ortho Books), San Fran- PNW 400 Training and Pruning Your Home
cisco, CA. Orchard ($1.00)
Fitzgerald, T. J. 1984. Gardening in the Inland CIS 692 Weed Control in Tree Fruits (25¢)
Northwest, A Guide to Growing Vegetables, Ber- CIS 776 Why Home Fruit Trees Die (25¢)
ries, Grapes & Fruit Trees. Ye Galleon Press, To order University of Idaho publications,
Fairfield, WA. contact your county’s UI Extension office or write
Walheim, L., and R. L. Stebbins. 1981. Western to: Publications, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID
Fruit, Berries & Nuts—How to Select, Grow and 83844-2240, call (208) 885-7982, or email:
Enjoy. HP Books, Tuczon, AZ. calspubs@uidaho.edu. Make checks payable to
Westwood, M. N. 1978. Temperature-Zone Pomol- Publications. Idaho residents add 6 percent sales
ogy. Timber Press, San Francisco, CA. tax. Also check, and in some cases download, the
online publication catalog on the UI Educational
Booklets and Pamphlets Communications web site: (http:/
University of Idaho
CIS 729 Apple-and-thorn Skeletonizer (25¢) Washington State University
PNW 341 Choosing Pear Rootstocks for the EB1436 Apple Cultivars for Puget Sound
Pacific Northwest (50¢) ($8.00)
PNW 221 Cold Resistance of Stone Fruit Flower EB 665 Fruitfulness in Pome and Stone Fruits
Buds (50¢) (50¢)
CIS 726 Cytospora Canker Disease in Idaho To order Washington State University publica-
Orchards (25¢) tions, contact your county’s Cooperative Extension
CIS 812 Fusarium Root-rot of Orchard Trees office or write to Bulletin Office, Cooperative Ex-
(50¢) tension, Cooper Publications Building, Washington
State University, Pullman, WA 99164-5912.

21 - 11
21 - 12
Chapter
Small Fruits
22
I. Strawberries 2
II. Red Raspberries 5
III. Black and Purple Raspberries 9
IV. Trailing Berries (Blackberries) 9
V. Blueberries 10
VI. Hardy Kiwi 12
VII. Black Currants 13
VIII. Red and White Currants 13
IX. Gooseberries 14
X. Elderberries 16
XI. Grapes 16
Further Reading 19

22 - 1
Chapter 22
Small Fruits
J. A. Robbins
I. Strawberries B. Cultivars in Idaho (in order of ripening)

Strawberries are grown all over the United 1. Cultivars are June bearing in northern
States and perform well throughout the Pacific Idaho. Be sure to select cultivars that are
Northwest. adapted to northern growing conditions.
For southern Idaho, select cultivars that
A. Botanically, the strawberry is a member of
are also adapted to high summer tempera-
the rose family (Rosaceae). The fruit is the
tures.
swollen receptacle of the flower that bears
seeds (achenes) on its surface. A high per- a. Earliglow: Earliglow bears early in the
centage of these seeds must be fertile for the season and is resistant to many dis-
berry to form properly. Plants produce for 3 eases.
to 5 years before production declines, and b. Crimson King: The plants of this vari-
then they should be replaced. ety are very hardy and produce large
1. Strawberry varieties, except for everbear- fruit.
ing, are affected by daylength. Varieties c. Honeoye: Another very hardy variety
are regionally adapted by latitude. Buy with large, firm fruit.
plants locally if possible, and base your d. Sumas: Sumas have a high yield, but
purchases on regional recommendations. they are susceptible to fruit rot. They
2. The two main types of strawberries are grow large fruit.
June bearing and everbearing. June bear- e. Totem: These fruits are good fresh and
ing varieties set flower buds in the fall frozen. Totems are disease resistant.
and ripen fruit in June. Everbearing vari- f. Benton: This variety grows a medium-
eties have a spring and fall crop. sized fruit with a light inside color.
a. The older cultivars of everbearers are g. Shuksan: Shuksans are susceptible to
daylength sensitive and have a break virus. The fruit is excellent fresh and
in production between the spring and frozen.
fall crops. h. Sparkle: This variety produces a soft
b. The newer day neutral varieties set the fruit with an excellent flavor.
flower buds throughout the season for 2. Everbearing—Day neutral
a very long harvest period with no pro-
a. Fort Laramie: An everbearing plant,
duction break.
the Fort Laramie is very hardy and
c. Total season berry production from the productive.
everbearing cultivars tends to be lower
b. Quinault: Another everbearing plant,
than the June bearing and day neutral
the Quinault produces small berries,
types. The June bearing types produce
which are soft and have a good flavor.
the highest quality berries.

22 - 2
c. Tristar: The Tristar is day neutral and 3. Fertilization
productive; it bears relatively large a. Timing
fruit with a good flavor. i. It is important to fertilize and water
d. Tribute: A variety that is superior to June bearers in late summer to pro-
Quinault, day neutral, and later in the mote maximum fall growth and
season than Tristar, the Tribute has a flower bud formation.
firm fruit. ii. Spring fertilization results in ex-
C. Culture cessive formation of leaves and
1. Planting runners and in less fruit growth.
a. Well-drained soil is required. Heavier iii. Fertilize everbearers and day
soils should be molded to raised beds neutrals with small amounts several
for improved drainage. Strawberry times during the growing season.
pyramids and containers work well b. Amount
and give good yields in small spaces. i. Apply a total of 30 to 60 pounds of
Incorporation of organic matter ben- actual nitrogen per acre for all
efits both light (sandy) and heavy clay types of strawberries.
soils. Adjust pH to 5.5 to 6.5.
ii. June bearing types should be fertil-
b. Established weeds: Gardeners must ized in early August, if irrigation is
eradicate all perennial weeds before available; otherwise, fertilize in
planting. Use repeated fallow cultiva- mid-September without irrigation.
tion or heavy mulches.
iii. A balanced fertilizer such as 10-
c. Matted row culture: Most popular in 10-10 will supply ample phospho-
home gardens. Set plants 1 1/2 to 2 rus and potassium. Any deficien-
feet apart in rows 3 to 4 feet apart. cies should be diagnosed with a
Runners from initial planting are al- soil or plant tissue test.
lowed to fill in to form a solid plant-
4. Irrigation—Consistent watering is essen-
ing, until it reaches approximately one
tial when plants are first set and during
plant every 5 to 8 inches. Remove ex-
dry periods in spring and summer. Irri-
cess plants or runners. Plants at a
gate in the morning to reduce rot.
higher density will produce fewer and
lower quality berries. a. Critical irrigation periods: These occur
during harvest or in late August and
d. Hill culture: Plants remain as indi-
fall, when plant growth resumes and
vidual plants in the garden; remove all
the flower buds form for the following
runners. Space individual plants 15 to
year’s crop.
18 inches apart, and place them in
rows 2 1/2 to 3 feet apart. b. Efficient irrigation methods: Black
plastic or straw mulch and plastic-tube
2. Setting plants
drip irrigation systems (soakers) are
a. Plant in early spring or early fall. In highly adaptable to strawberry culture
areas where frost heaving is a problem, and water conservation. Strawberries
plant only in spring, or mulch fall absorb 90 percent of their water from
plantings to reduce heaving. If you the top foot of soil.
plant at any time other than early
5. Renewal (June bearers only)—After the
spring, irrigation is important. Plants
harvest early in July, June bearers will
are mostly available in stores in the
benefit from removal of the foliage,
spring.
which will allow you to rid the plants of
b. Use certified virus, disease, and insect- disease-infested foliage and will act as a
free stock when establishing a new stimulant to the plant for new, vigorous
planting to ensure that pests are not foliage.
introduced into the garden with plant-
ing stock.
22 - 3
a. Cut the foliage with a lawnmower set fungi and show a red discoloration
high or use hand tools. Be careful not of the stele. Symptoms are most
to damage the crowns. readily apparent early in the sea-
b. Rake leaves from the plot. son. They may be difficult to see
6. Cold protection later in the season. Not all the roots
of an infected plant will show
a. Winter protection: In colder areas,
symptoms.
strawberries will benefit from a mulch.
Coarse hay or straw may be placed ii. Control: Use certified plants. Plant
over the entire planting when the in disease-free soil. The soil needs
ground begins to freeze. The mulch to have good drainage. Earliglow,
should be removed from the plants in Sparkle, Tribute, Tristar, and To-
the spring. Weed-free mulch materials tem are resistant to this disease.
should be used. c. Viral diseases
b. Spring frosts: These often kill the early i. Symptoms: Viral diseases can
flowers. Sprinkle plants with water cause stunting, an unevenness in
during the coldest frosts (when tem- field or planting, as well as some
perature at ground level reaches 34°F). foliar symptoms, such as streaking,
Leave the water running until the tem- cupping, and yellowing.
perature is above 32°F, or cover plants ii. Control: Use certified planting
with a light mulch or a floating row stock. Control the aphid infestation,
protective fabric. as aphids are the primary vector of
D. Common Plant Problems—Diagnosis and disease.
Control d. Fruit rot/botrytis
1. Diseases i. Symptoms: Botrytis is evident in a
a. Verticillium wilt gray, fuzzy mold on fruit during
i. Symptoms: A soilborne fungi, ver- moist weather. Infections start at
ticillium wilt causes wilting and bloom. Fruit from the infected
death of older leaves in individual blossom rots as it ripens.
plants or groups of plants. Black ii. Control: Ensure good air circula-
lesions develop on petioles. New tion, remove infected fruit, and
roots may be short with blackened clean straw mulch so that fruit rests
tips. Plants may outgrow these on clean, dry surface. Use fungi-
symptoms. cide during wet springs. Apply fun-
ii. Control: Avoid planting strawber- gicide at 10 percent bloom. Repeat
ries in ground where potatoes, to- according to label directions.
matoes, strawberries, or other sus- e. Common leaf spot
ceptible crops have been planted. i. Symptoms: Leaf spot causes foli-
Eliminate infected plants and do age with dark red or purple spots,
not replant in spots. Rotate crops. that gradually becomes gray-white
b. Red Stele: Soilborne fungi with age. Fully developed spots are
i. Symptoms: Often there are no 1/8 inch in diameter and have a
symptoms the year of planting. whitish center with red margin. In-
During the first year of fruiting, fection occurs during moist
there may be dwarfing, reddening weather and is most severe during
of leaves, and wilting of older spring and fall. Crimson King is
leaves. Root tips may decay, caus- resistant.
ing “rat-tailed” appearance. The ii. Control: Fruit rot fungicide sprays
central core or vascular system of will keep this disease under con-
root (stele), may be clogged by trol. Removing foliage from June

22 - 4
bearers after harvest reduces inocu- with the lip of the container at soil
lum. level to attract and drown slugs.
f. Powdery mildew Check containers often.
i. Symptoms: Disease causes upward
curling of leaflet edges. Leaf un-
II. Red Raspberries
dersides become reddened and Red raspberries are grown as a commercial
coated with a grayish white fungus. crop in the Pacific Northwest. More than
Leaves later turn purplish red. To- 10,000 acres are planted in Washington,
tem and Benton strains are very tol- Oregon, and British Columbia. Raspberries
erant. Shuksan has moderate sus- can be expected to do well in most Idaho loca-
ceptibility. Fort Laramie is very tions, although severe freeze injury to canes
susceptible. will occur in many winters in southeastern
ii. Control: Destroy old infected Idaho.
leaves. A. Botanically, raspberries are members of the
2. Insects Rose family (Rosaceae) and belong to the
a. Root weevils genus Rubus, as do blackberries and other
caneberries. The plants are perennial, with
i. Damage: Larvae feed on root sys-
roots that live 40 years or more. Red rasp-
tems. Adults notch edges of leaves.
berries have stiff erect canes, which are usu-
ii. Control: Don’t use chemical con- ally covered with thorns. Canes are pro-
trol in the home garden. Collect duced freely from adventitious buds on the
adults at night on leaves and de- roots, and they generally live two seasons.
stroy.
1. Fruit is borne on lateral fruit spurs pro-
b. Aphids duced on 1-year-old canes. Fruiting canes
i. Damage: Can spread viruses. die after harvest; meanwhile, new canes
ii. Control: Hose off and use insecti- (primocanes) have been growing from
cidal soap sprays. the root system to be next year’s fruiting
c. Spider mites wood.
i. Damage: There is a stippled ap- 2. The raspberry is an aggregate composed
pearance to top part of leaves, of 75 to 125 drupelets that separate from
which leads to bleaching. Webbing the receptacle when ripe, producing a
and mites will be found on the un- hollow “berry.”
dersides of leaves. 3. Optimum production for red raspberries
ii. Control: See aphid control. is in areas with relatively cool summers,
d. Spittle bugs are small, yellow-green a rain-free harvest season, and a mild
insects similar to the leaf hopper in ap- winter with sufficient cold to satisfy
pearance. chilling requirements. However, care in
cultivar selection will sustain fruit in
i. Damage: Nymphs develop “spittle”
areas lacking in one or more of these con-
on plants.
ditions. Raspberries are one of the hardi-
ii. Control: Since this pest is not a est of cane fruits. Some cultivars will tol-
major one, there is no need to con- erate temperatures to -20°F without dam-
trol. age.
e. Slugs (mostly nocturnal): Many sizes 4. Red raspberries come in two types: Sum-
feed on foliage and fruit. mer bearing and fall bearing.
i. Damage: Slugs cause leaf damage, a. Summer bearing raspberry canes are
often in the leaf center. biennial, growing one year and pro-
ii. Control: Manually remove or use ducing the next.
slug bait around the perimeter of b. The fall bearing raspberry produces
the garden. Bury containers of beer canes that bear on the upper part of the
22 - 5
primocanes in the same growing sea- 2. Fall bearing
son. These canes, if left the second a. Amity: This variety harvests about a
year, will bear fruit on the lower por- week earlier than Heritage. It has a
tions. good size, flavor, and firmness.
i. Alternatively, the canes can be to- b Autumn Bliss: A early crop variety,
tally removed by mowing to the Autumn Bliss creates berries that have
ground after the fall crop is har- a large size and good flavor.
vested. When managed in this way, c. Heritage: The Heritage ripens late in
fall bearing raspberries will bear fall and produces heavy yields.
only the single crop in the fall.
d. Redwing: A soft fruit, resistant to high
ii. In Idaho locations with short grow- temperatures, this strain ripens earlier
ing seasons, fall bearing raspberries than Heritage.
may not ripen their crop. Trial
e. Ruby: Ruby bears a productive, large
plantings of these cultivars are rec-
fruit, which can produce when planted
ommended to ascertain their ripen-
with Amity.
ing characteristics.
f. Summit: While this plant has a better
B. Cultivars in Idaho
flavor than Heritage and is root rot re-
1. Summer bearing sistant, it produces a small fruit.
a. Boyne: Hardy in cold conditions, C. Culture
Boynes are good fresh and frozen.
1. Planting—Plant in raised mounds or
This variety is productive.
beds in heavier soil to improve drain-
b. Canby: Canbys produce a thornless age away from the crown of the plant.
plant. They are virus resistant and
a. Use certified stock, plants, or root cut-
aphid immune, but sensitive to root
tings.
rot. This variety is very productive,
and it is cold hardy through Zone 4. b. Spacing is generally 1 1/2 to 3 feet
apart in rows 6 to 8 feet apart. You
c. Haida: Though this variety is hardy
must ensure a recommended 4 foot
and has large, sweet, firm berries, it
minimum depth to winter water table
has short canes and is low in vigor.
to create optimum conditions for high
d. Latham: A popular variety, Lathams fertility and freedom from erosion.
are hardy and have a nice flavor.
c. Soil: Good drainage, high water-hold-
e. Newburgh: Newburghs are cold hardy, ing capacity, and adequate depth are
as well as resistant to root rot and mo- essential. Plants are highly susceptible
saic virus. to root rot. Heavy, poorly drained soil
f. Nootka: This variety is a firm, flavor- severely limits life expectancy of
ful, vigorous plant. plants. Irrigation is required on sandy
g. Nordic: Nordics are cold hardy, pro- or gravelly soils.
ductive, and resistant to fungal dis- 2. Established weeds—Gardeners must
eases and aphid feeding. eradicate all perennial weeds before
h. Skeena: A large, bright fruit, the planting. Use fallow cultivation or heavy
Skeena is hardy and root rot suscep- mulch.
tible. 3. Training—Place top wires at 4 1/2 to
i. Taylor: A long conic fruit, the Taylor 5 1/2 feet to support canes. You may also
has an excellent flavor and is produc- have another wire at 2 to 3 feet. Use one-,
tive. two-, or four-wire systems. Plants will be
j. Titan: The Titan produces a hardy, shorter in some climates (Fig. 1).
large fruit with a mild flavor. It is very 4. Hill culture—Maintain plants as indi-
productive and root rot susceptible. vidual hills (weeding is easier), or allow
to fill in as a solid row. Light distribution

22 - 6
is better when each individual cane is of or at fruit set. Apply a total of about 30
spaced along the wire separately. Canes pounds actual nitrogen per acre.
are bundled commercially for labor sav- 7. Weed control—Hand hoe weeds between
ings. Tie canes to top wire in fall or win- hills. Cultivate very shallowly.
ter as in Fig. 1. Tie in clumps or individu- a. Remove suckers between rows as they
ally along the wire. emerge.
5. Pruning—Top dormant canes 6 to 10 b. Cover crops between rows are effec-
inches above the wire in early spring to tive.
stimulate lateral branching. Canes are
c. Herbicides can be used to control
subject to dieback in a cold winter if they
weeds. Make sure they are registered
are pruned in the fall.
for use in raspberries.
a. Remove all fruiting canes after har-
8. Irrigation—Watering frequency will vary
vest, as that reduces insect and disease
with conditions. As a general rule, irri-
problems, helps in hardening off pro-
gate every 2 to 3 weeks before and after
cess, and simplifies weed control. Re-
harvest; then supplement with a weekly
move weak new canes or those with
irrigation during harvest.
small diameter.
9. Cold protection
b. Cut off canes close to soil line. Leave
all canes over 6 feet and the diameter a. Winter protection: Good snow cover
of your index finger (about 12 healthy or mulch will protect crowns. In severe
canes per hill, or in solid rows spaced areas, or with less hardy cultivars, pin
4 to 5 inches between canes). Keep canes to the ground and mulch over
rows no more than about 12 inches them.
wide. b. Spring frosts: See strawberries.
6. Fertilization—Test the soil to determine D. Common Plant Problems—Diagnosis and
plant needs. Broadcast apply in spring Control
over rows or split application with one- 1. Diseases
half applied at first growth in spring and a. Phytophthora root rots: A fungus dis-
the remaining one-half at the beginning ease caused by Phytophthors
erythroseptica.
i. Symptoms: The disease kills the
Fig. 1. Mature raspberry canes after spring pruning and tying to four-
wire trellis.
fine feeder roots, while the interior
of any larger roots becomes brown.
Suckering is reduced. New
primocanes wilt and leaves die.
Floricane leaves turn bright yellow
and brown and then die out. Fa-
vored by wet, heavy soils.
ii. Control: Use certified plants free of
disease. Plant on well-drained soils.
Increase drainage by using raised
beds.
b. Virus diseases
i. Symptoms: Viruses create stunting,
or delayed growth in the spring;
crumbly berries; ring spotting; and
a bright yellow mosaic on the
leaves.
A B C ii. Control: Plant certified stock; re-
Hill after spring heading. Hills with canes spread and tied. move infected plants.
22 - 7
c. Crown gall: Bacterial disease. which cause the death of the cane.
i. Symptoms: Dark “knobs or tu- ii. Control: Dig out infected plants by
mors” of growth appear at or below hand. Replant any new plantings in
soil line. Crown gall spreads prima- different area.
rily by pruning, when it enters new b. Spider mites
wounds on pruning shears. It also i. Damage: Their feeding reduces
can come in on infected planting plant vigor and causes leaves to
stock. brown and drop prematurely. When
ii. Control: Remove plants. pesticide use kills natural preda-
d. Fruit rot/botrytis (see strawberries) tors, the mites are often a problem.
e. Spur blight: A common fungal disease c. Cane borer
(Didymella applanta) in damper areas, i. Damage: These insects bore tun-
spur blight causes little damage in this nels in the upper portions of the
area. Buds on infected canes are more cane (Shepherd’s Crook).
susceptible to winter injury. ii. Control: Prune out any affected
i. Symptoms: Spur blight creates cane and destroy. Use no chemical
wedge-shaped necrotic lesions on control.
leaves, especially near base of d. Yellow jackets
cane. Infected leaves drop, leaving
i. Damage: Yellow jackets hide in
petiole attached to cane. Brown or
ripe fruit and feed on sugars. They
reddish-brown lesions appear
are a hazard to those working in the
around buds at base of petiole;
plants.
these lesions are usually limited to
one or two buds. Minute black fruit- ii. Control: Keep overripe fruit har-
ing bodies appear on lesion by fall. vested. Yellow jacket traps can be
ii. Control: Avoid overhead watering effective.
if possible. Remove and destroy 3. Other
infected canes. Thin canes appro- a. Crumbly berry
priately to allow for air movement. i. Damage: Crumbly berries may re-
Avoid excessive nitrogen fertilizer. veal a plant with a Boron defi-
f. Verticillium wilt (see strawberries) ciency. Soil testing is recom-
g. Anthracnose (see blackberries) mended. A virus disease may inter-
h. Yellow rust: Caused by a fungus, par- fere with flower functions, causing
ticularly following late spring rains. crumbly fruit. Poor pollination oc-
curring from lack of bees or from
i. Symptoms: Plants develop leaves
poor weather during flowering also
with yellow spotting, and later be-
causes crumbly fruits.
come dusty from the yellow spores.
Lower leaves yellow and drop, and ii. Control: Add boron, if necessary;
the crop is reduced. The fruit dies add bees to the field; and replace
before maturing. In the winter, in- plants with virus free stock.
fected leaves produce black spores b. Sunburn/high temperatures
at sites of infection. i. Damage: The fruit forms, but it
ii. Control: Good sanitation. Remove doesn’t ripen, or it ripens slowly.
sources of infection; cut old fruit- This problem is caused by excess
ing canes immediately after harvest ultraviolet rays or elevated tem-
and destroy. peratures.
2. Insects ii. Control: Shade the plants, espe-
a. Crown borer cially during high noon hours. Use
shadecloth or plant in the shade of
i. Damage: These insects bore tun-
other foliage or structures.
nels in lower portions of canes,
22 - 8
III. Black and Purple Raspberries A. Blackberries are the least hardy of the ber-
ries grown in Idaho. These plants can be in-
A. Purple raspberries are hybrids of red and
jured by temperatures between +5° and
black. The fruits resemble the red more than
-10°F. Boysenberries, Loganberries,
the black. Both have canes that will root at
Tayberries, Nectarberries, and
the tips and are propagated by tip layers.
Marionberries are all trailing berries.
1. Black raspberries are less cold hardy than
B. Cultivars In Idaho
red or purple types. Freeze injury will be-
gin at temperatures around -5°F. 1. Cherokee—The plant has an upright,
thorny, strong vigorous growth; it is
2. They are susceptible to virus diseases and
hardy to Zone 5 (-20° to -10°F).
anthracnose.
2. Chester—This variety has a semi-erect
3. Except for Royalty, the following culti-
plant that is productive and hardy to Zone
vars sucker poorly, so hill culture rather
5 (-20° to -10°F). In fact, the Chester is
than hedgerow is recommended.
the most hardy of the thornless type. It
B. Cultivars in Idaho produces large fruit late in the season.
1. Black raspberries 3. Darrow—A tall, semi-erect, variety, the
a. Allen: An early fruit with a concen- Darrow is the most cold hardy cultivated
trated ripening, this strain is hardy. blackberry.
b. Black Hawk: A late variety, Black 4. Hull—Another semi-erect variety, the
Hawk produces large, flavorful ber- Hull produces large fruit. The plant is
ries. A productive variety, it is very thornless, and its growth is vigorous.
hardy, to Zone 5 (-20° to -10°F). 5. Roseborough—An upright plant, the
c. Lowden: The Lowden is a cross be- Roseborough holds up under extreme
tween a purple and a black raspberry heat and dryness. It produces heavy crops
with an excellent flavor. The plant has and is hardy to Zone 5 (-20° to -10°F).
good disease resistance and is hardy. C. Culture
d. Munger: The fruit of the Munger has 1. The planting, fertilization, and soil re-
an excellent flavor. Mungers ripen in quirements are similar to those for red
midseason and are also hardy. raspberries.
2. Purple raspberries 2. Trellising systems—Long canes of trail-
a. Brandywine: A variety that produces ing and semi-erect varieties are generally
large fruit with a tart flavor, the “woven” on a two-wire trellis system as
Brandywine is very winter hardy, to in Fig. 2. Wires are 18 inches apart with
Zone 4 (-30° to -20°F). the top wire 5 feet from ground level.
b. Royalty: Royalty produces large fruit, Upright cultivars will not require trellising,
which is sweet when fully ripe. It is a or at most a single wire at 5 feet.
very productive variety and hardy to 3. Pruning—Remove fruiting canes after
Zone 4 (-30° to -20°F). This variety harvest. Weave new canes around top
ripens late. wire in fall or spring.
C. Culture (see Red Raspberries) D. Common Plant Problems—Diagnosis and
D. Common Plant Problems—Diagnosis and Control
Control (see Red Raspberries) 1. Diseases (see red raspberries)
a. Leaf and cane spot (Septoria leaf
IV. Trailing Berries (Blackberries)
spot): Fungal disease.
Trailing berries are in the same genus as rasp- i. Symptoms: Leaf spots vary from
berries (Rubus). Their fruit is similar to rasp- light to dark brown. They begin as
berries, but a white core or receptacle remains an 1/8 inch purple spot later turning
part of the fruit when picked. brown. Cane spots are larger and
may contain fruiting bodies

22 - 9
(spores). Spots girdle and kill cane. often called “huckleberries,” but are just dif-
The disease is promoted by canes ferent species of the cultivated blueberry.
overwintering on or near ground. A. Blueberry production in Idaho will be lim-
ii. Control: Remove fruiting canes af- ited to those sites with acidic soil (pH of 4.5
ter harvest. Provide good air circu- to 5.5).
lation. 1. In areas with alkaline soil, grow blueber-
b. Anthracnose: Overwinters on infected ries in raised beds or large containers
canes. with peat. The addition of ground sulfur,
i. Symptoms: Purple spots appear on 1 pound per 100 square feet in sandy soil
canes, then increase in size, and and 2 pounds per 100 square feet in clay
develop light gray centers with soil, will lower the pH approximately
brown-purple edges. Spots con- one point.
verge to form large irregular le- 2. Blueberry plants are attractive and can
sions. Canes may dry and crack. serve as ornamentals and fruit producers,
On leaves purple spots enlarge to as they tolerate partial shading better
form gray to white areas that drop than other berry crops.
out. Berries ripen prematurely and 3. Blueberries are self fertile but will have
are small and dry. higher yields with cross-pollination. The
ii. Control: Remove canes after har- plants are hardy.
vest. Leave no old stubs. Thin to B. Cultivars in Idaho (listed in order of ripen-
allow air circulation. ing dates).
2. Insects (see red raspberries) 1. Earliblue—This short plant variety flow-
ers very early.
V. Blueberries 2. Patriot—The Patriot is a very hardy
Blueberries, members of the Ericaceae or plant with large, firm fruit.
heath family, prefer a culture similar to 3. Northland—A hardy, spreading plant,
rhododendrons or azaleas. Wild blueberries are the Northland has a good flavor.
Fig. 2. Trellises for blackberries.
Erect plants on a one-wire trellis
Trailing plants on a two-wire trellis.

22 - 10
4. Bluecrop—A fruit with an excellent vegetative shoot is blackened in the
sweet flavor, this variety has a vigorous center and wilts and dies. The re-
plant. maining fruit becomes infected.
5. Blueray—Large, firm fruit. ii. Control: Remove and destroy all
6. Jersey—Fair flavor; late, vigorous plant. infected parts including fruit.
C. Culture Mulch thickly to bury any dropped
mummies. In early spring destroy
1. Established weeds—Eradicate all peren-
developing fruiting cups by cultiva-
nial weeds before planting. Use fallow
tion. Apply fungicide during bloom
cultivation or mulches.
according to label instructions.
2. Planting
b. Botrytis
a. Setting: Blueberries are set out as dor-
i. Symptoms: Twig dieback in wet
mant plants in late winter or potted
weather, invading blossoms, and
plants in spring or fall.
moving down shoots.
b. Soil: The root system is shallow, fi-
ii. Control: Apply fungicide early in
brous, and prefers soil with high or-
spring when growth begins. Re-
ganic matter and good water holding
peat, but do not make more than
capacity. Add organic matter to soil
four applications before harvest.
when planting; mix well with soil in
Follow label instructions. Prune out
and around planting hole. Mulch to
and destroy dead twigs.
protect the shallow root system from
temperature extremes and drying. 2. Insects
3. Pruning—Prune hard after planting to a. Aphids
stimulate new growth. For mature plants, i. Damage: Deform leaves, devitalize
remove older canes to ground or to strong plants, secrete honeydew.
lateral, retaining 1- to 3-year-old wood. ii. Control: Light infestations may be
4. Fertilization—The amount of fertilizer controlled by natural insect preda-
used depends on the rate of previous tors; use insecticidal soap.
growth. Apply light amounts three times b. Cherry fruitworm
in the growing season for optimal i. Damage: Larvae approximately 3/8
growth. Ammonium sulfate is a good ni- inch in size will bore into the ber-
trogen source to help acidify soil. ries.
5. Irrigation—Keep soil evenly moist. ii. Control: Insecticidal sprays before
Plants need adequate drainage. Drip irri- bloom or after, according to label
gation systems work well. Mulch up to 6 directions, for cherry fruitworm on
inches deep to conserve water. blueberries.
D. Common Plant Problems—Diagnosis and c. Leafrollers
Control i. Damage: Create webs and feed on
1. Diseases foliage and fruit.
a. Mummy berry: Fungus disease ii. Control: Bacillus thuringensis at
(Monilinia vacciniicorymbosi). any time.
i. Symptoms: Infected berries are d. Scale
reddish-buff or tan “mummies.” i. Damage: Weaken plant.
They fall to the ground, gray, shriv-
ii. Control: Prune off infested areas as
eled, and hard to overwinter. In
soon as observed.
spring as blueberry buds break,
fruiting cups grow from mummies 3. Birds—Can be a persistent problem. Net
on the soil and release infecting plants as the fruit colors. Secure the pe-
spores. Blossoms become infected rimeter of the net carefully. Use mylar
and turn brown and wither. New strips or balloons to scare away birds.

22 - 11
VI. Hardy Kiwi Fig. 3. Kiwi on trellis.
A. The botanical name of the hardy kiwi

fruit, also known as Siberian Goose-
berry, is Actinidia arguta. It is a mem-
ber of the Actinidiaceae family (not re-
lated to the common garden gooseber-
ries). Kiwi fruit is native to eastern Asia.
Chinese gooseberry (A. chinensis) is not C
hardy anywhere in Idaho, as fruit buds B A
are damaged by temperatures of 10° to
15°F.
1. The fruit is fuzzy and brown skinned,
approximately the size of a large
cherry. The flesh is green with edible
black seeds and has a unique “fruity”
flavor. Fruit is high in vitamin C and
stores well. A = 1-year wood B = 2-year wood C = 3-year wood
2. Kiwi is dioecious (Latin for two
houses), which means there are sepa-
rate male and female plants. One male 2. Training and trellising—The vines are
will pollinate six to eight female plants large and heavy so the Kiwi needs a
within 50 feet. Bloom periods between strong trellis system as in Fig. 3. The
male and female must match. Some vari- Kiwi is a perennial with a lifespan of 50
eties are self-fertile. to 60 years. Pressure-treated posts should
be 5 to 6 feet tall with another 3 feet be-
B. Cultivars in Idaho
low ground. Use high tensile 12 or 10
1. Seedlings—Many varieties are just listed gauge wire. A T-bar trellis with three to
as A. arguta, available in male or female five horizontal wires is recommended.
plants. Space the plants 10 to 15 feet apart in
2. Ananasnaja—A variety with a fuzzless row and 10 to 15 feet between rows.
skin, the Ananasnaja is very sweet and 3. Pruning
spicy. The Russian name means “pine-
a. Summer pruning: A must for Kiwis.
apple-like.”
Avoid shading of fruiting wood. Prune
3. Issai—Self-fertile, the Issai has fruit with new growth several times to 6 to 8
sweet flesh, often used as a fruit-produc- inches during the growing period.
ing pollinator. This variety is very pro-
b. Winter pruning: Prune during the dor-
ductive.
mant period. Start by developing well
4. Meader—A good pollinator for defined leaders or cordons which will
Ananasnaja, the Meader produces sweet be permanent. Set up an evenly spaced
fruit and ripens in late August. system of fruiting arms or laterals.
C. Culture i. Remove fruiting wood that is los-
1. Site ing vigor. Start with one-third re-
a. Hardiness: Dormant vines are hardy to moval each year.
-25° to -30°F and sensitive to late ii. Remove fruiting lateral after third
spring frosts. Avoid frost pockets. year.
b. Soil: Kiwi need well-drained soil, even iii. Shorten 1-year wood to two to four
soil moisture, and a sunny location buds. Allow second-year wood to
free from wind to protect fruit and fruit freely.
laterals from damage and drying.

22 - 12
4. Fertilization C. Culture
a. Young plants: Add balanced fertilizer 1. Soil—The currant will grow on a wide
split into two applications. variety of soils. The ideal pH is 6.5 with
b. Mature plants: Apply one-half to two- good water holding capacity. Currants
thirds of the balanced fertilizer at bud will tolerate poorly drained soils. Add
break; then apply the rest after the fruit organic matter to light soils.
is set. 2. Site—Plants bloom early so avoid frost
5. Harvesting—Plants take 3 to 4 years to pockets. Though the currant prefers a
bear; they reach full production in 7 to 8 sunny location, it will tolerate partial
years. Pick the fruit in late August to No- shade. Control all perennial weeds before
vember when it is firm-ripe (for best planting.
storage ability). Keep refrigerated. 3. Planting—Plant in late winter or early
D. Common Plant Problems—Diagnosis and spring. Space the plants 5 feet apart in
Control rows, with 6 feet between rows. Plants
1. Diseases—None. grow by stooling; plant 2 inches deeper
than in nursery. Cut all shoots to 2-inch
2. Insects—None.
stubs at planting. Plants root easily; use
VII. Black Currants prunings as cuttings.
A. The black currant, or Ribes nigrum, is a na- 4. Pruning—Prune annually, as black cur-
tive of central and eastern Europe. rants bear best on 1-year wood. Remove
1. The native plant grows in damp, woodsy all 3-year-old wood annually, as well as
places. A fully grown bush may reach 5 any older growth. Cut to strong young
to 6 feet in height and spread, and have shoot, or near base, or off completely.
an average yield of 10 to 12 pounds per Keep five or six canes each of 1- and
plant. 2-year-old wood.
2. There are many cultivars, mostly of Eu- 5. Irrigation and fertilization—The currant
ropean origin. Most are extremely hardy. likes even soil moisture. It will require
Black currants are partially self-fruitful, frequent irrigation in arid parts of the
but set a larger drop with another cultivar state. Currants are fairly heavy feeders,
nearby. Plant nonblister rust resistant cul- so apply balanced fertilizer in March and
tivars at least 1,000 feet and preferably 3/ more nitrogen in April.
4 mile from the nearest five-needle pine. 6. Weed control—These plants are shallow
B. Cultivars in Idaho rooted, so avoid deep cultivation. Saw-
dust mulch 4 inches thick is effective in
1. Black September—This variety produces
controlling weeds.
a large, firm fruit with a strong black cur-
rant flavor that is hardy to -30°F. The D. Common Plant Problems—Diagnosis and
plant is mildew resistant. Control (see Gooseberries)
2. Consort—The fruit of the Consort has a VIII. Red and White Currants
sweet, musky flavor, while the plant is
self-fruitful, resistant to white-pine blister A. Red currants, or Ribes rubrum and Ribes
rust, and hardy to -30°F. spicatum, are native to Europe. A full-
grown bush may be 5 to 6 feet in height and
3. Crusader—The Crusader needs a pollina-
spread. The fruit is smooth skinned and glis-
tor; it is rust resistant.
tening. Red currants are used for jelly, pies,
4. Jostaberry—This variety is a cross be- juice, and wine.
tween a black currant and a gooseberry. It
1. The white currant is a sport of the red
produces large fruit that is good fresh.
currant, and the culture is the same.
The vigorous plant is resistant to mildew
and white-pine blister rust and is cold 2. The plants are self-pollinating; the aver-
hardy. age yield of the mature plant is 8 to 10
pounds of fruit per plant.
22 - 13
B. Cultivars in Idaho 6. Weed control—As the plants are shallow
1. Red currants rooted, avoid deep cultivation.
a. Cherry: This variety has a high fruit 7. Harvesting—Pick as soon as the berries
quality, is hardy in Zone 3 (-40° to - are clear in color. Pick whole clusters to
30°F), and is productive. avoid injury to delicate fruit.
b. Minnesota 71: A vigorous plant, the D. Common Plant Problems—Diagnosis and
Minnesota 71 produces large fruit of Control (see Gooseberries)
good quality.
c. Red Lake: The Red Lake is productive
IX. Gooseberries
with a long growing season. It pro- A. Botanically, gooseberries are known as
duces early fruit. The dark red berries Ribes usa-crispa.
are widely grown. 1. They are self-pollinating and are a de-
2. White currants ciduous, thorny shrub.
a. White Imperial: An old, but vigorous 2. The mature plant has a height and spread
variety, the White Imperial produces of 5 feet, and produces 5 to 6 pounds of
very sweet medium to large fruit. fruit. It bears fruit like red currant at the
b. White Pearl: The White Pearl has a base of 1-year wood and on spurs of
pale yellow skin and large fruit. older wood.
C. Culture 3. Gooseberries are more tolerant of hot
1. Soil—Both white and red currants are weather than currants.
less tolerant of poorly-drained soils than B. Cultivars in Idaho
black currants. Ideal pH is 6.5. The plants 1. Captivators—This variety is winter hardy
need good water holding capacity; add and disease resistant. It produces a large
organic matter to light soils. 1-inch fruit that is pink to red when it is
2. Site—These plants bloom early, so avoid ripe and has an average flavor.
frost pockets. The flowers are hardier 2. Pixwell—A hardy, thornless plant, the
than black currants; you’ll find them use- Pixwell produces fruit with sweet, pink
ful for north-facing walls. If you want flesh.
full flavor in the fruit, then these plants 3. Poorman—A vigorous productive vari-
require a sunny location. Control all pe- ety, the Poorman has a highly flavored,
rennial weeds before planting. wine-red fruit. The plants are hardy.
3. Planting—Plant in late winter or early 4. Welcome—Welcomes are extremely pro-
spring. Space plants 5 feet apart in rows, ductive plants with medium to large,
with 5 feet between rows. Plant at the light-green fruits that have a sweet-tart
same depth as in nursery. flavor.
4. Pruning—Your objective is to create a C. Culture
goblet-shaped bush with 8 to 10 main 1. Soil—The top 18 inches of soil needs to
branches. Prune leaders to outward fac- be well drained. An ideal pH is 6.5.
ing-buds. Prune drooping branches to up- Gooseberries need good water holding
ward-facing buds. Fruit buds produced in capacity; add organic matter to light
clusters at base of 1-year wood or on soils.
short spurs on old wood. Maintain about 2. Site—Avoid frost pockets, as the plants
three canes each of 1-, 2-, and 3-year-old bloom early and blossoms can be dam-
wood. aged by spring frost. Gooseberries are
5. Irrigation and fertilization—These cur- tolerant of partial shade, though they do
rants like even soil moisture. Use mulch best in sunny site. Control all perennial
on light soils. The plants are fairly heavy weeds before planting; the thorny plant is
feeders, so apply balanced fertilizer in hard to weed around.
March at bud break.

22 - 14
3. Planting—Plant in late winter or early i. Symptoms: Small cuplike spots ap-
spring. Gooseberries are one of the first pear on the underside of leaves and
berry plants to leaf out. Space plants 5 produce orange yellow spores.
feet apart in rows, with 5 feet between ii. Control: Remove and destroy in-
rows. Plant at same depth as nursery. fected plants. Do not plant Ribes
4. Pruning—See red currants. near five-needle pines.
5. Irrigation and fertilization—The goose- 2. Insects
berry likes even soil moisture. Uneven or a. Currant fruit fly (gooseberry maggot).
heavy watering may cause fruit to split as i. Damage: The larvae enter the soil
it ripens. Use mulch on light soils. The in late June. They overwinter as
plants are fairly heavy feeders so apply pupae in brown cases the size of
balanced fertilizer in March at bud break. wheat grains. Flies emerge in April
6. Weed control—As the plants are shallow and lay eggs on the developing ber-
rooted, avoid deep cultivation. ries of either currants or gooseber-
7. Harvesting—Protect the plants from birds ries.
with netting. Pick as soon as the berries ii. Control: Use shallow cultivation
are good size, but while they are still under bushes during July and Au-
green (June or July). For dessert fruit thin gust , as this method helps expose
every other one. Use thinnings for cook- and kill pupae.
ing. b. Currant aphid
D. Common Plant Problems—Diagnosis and i. Damage: A small, yellow aphid
Control appears on new growth in the
1. Diseases spring. The aphid overwinters as
a. Anthracnose or leaf fungal disease: eggs on bark. It causes cupping and
Overwinters on dead leaves. red color on new leaves. Honeydew
i. Symptoms: The disease creates accumulates.
small leaf and fruit spots. By mid- ii. Control: Use water washes or in-
season there is a yellowing and secticidal soap.
dropping of leaves. c. Currant borer
ii. Control: Remove and destroy af- i. Damage: The adults are clear
fected leaves. Prune to open center winged with blue-black coloring
to allow air circulation. and yellow markings. The larvae
b. Powdery mildew: A fungal disease tunnel in the canes. Canes wilt in
that overwinters on twigs. summer and autumn.
i. Symptoms: The mildew can be ii. Control: Prune out and destroy in-
seen as a white, powdery growth on fected canes.
the surface of leaves, green shoots, d. Imported currantworm
and fruits. Infected plants are i. Damage: The larvae are 1/2 inch
stunted. long, greenish in color, while the
ii. Control: Prune to maintain an open immature have dark spots. They
plant with good air circulation. feed along leaf margin and may de-
c. White pine blister rust (fungal dis- foliate the plant when they become
ease): It is no longer illegal to cultivate numerous. Sawfly adults are black
Ribes in Idaho. (Too many wild Ribes with yellow markings.
combined with rust resistant pine culti- ii. Control: Use insecticide according
vars). Alternate the host to five-needle to label recommendations for
pines. Black currant is most suscep- currantworm on gooseberries.
tible.

22 - 15
e. Two-spotted spider mite ground each year. Prune out all wood
i. Damage: Adults are 1/5 inch long, more than 4 years old.
tan or greenish in color with two D. Common Plant Problems—Diagnosis and
spots on each side of the back. Control
They overwinter as adults on weeds 1. Diseases—None.
and debris near host plant. Feeding 2. Insects—None.
reduces plant vigor and causes stip-
pling on leaves. Webbing, when XI. Grapes
severe, may cause leaf drop.
A. Grapes account for one-fourth of all fruit
ii. Control: Insecticidal soap. production in the world. They are used for
wine and juice, preserves, and are eaten as
X. Elderberries
raisins or table fruit.
A. Elderberries belong to the genus Sambucus 1. Grape production in Idaho is limited by
and grow wild over much of the United cold winter temperatures and, in many
States and Canada. The blue or black variet- locations, short growing seasons.
ies are edible. The fruit, born in flat clusters,
2. All grapes in the Genus Vitis have vines
makes excellent jelly, jams, pies, and wine.
that are generally vigorous and deep
Most elderberries require cross-pollination,
rooted. Grape varieties are self-polli-
and all are hardy to Zone 4 (-30° to -20°F).
nated. Fruit is borne on current season’s
B. Cultivars in Idaho growth.
1. Adams—A strong plant with huge clus- B. Cultivars in Idaho
ters, this variety produces sweet fruit.
1. Types of grapes
2. Johns—This variety bears later than the
a. European (Vitis vinifera): European
Adams and produces best when it has
varieties produce a tight-skinned wine,
been cross-pollinated. It also has huge
raisin or table grape. Quality wine
clusters of large, sweet fruit.
types are made from them. Most vin-
3. Nova—Pollinate the Nova with the York. iferas require a mild winter such as
The plant produces large, sweet fruit. those in California or Arizona (hardy
4. York—This hardy, late plant produces the only to about 10°F). Thompson seed-
juicy, sweet fruit that is the largest fruit less falls in this group and will not be
of any elderberry. Pollinate the York with hardy in Idaho.
the Nova. b. American (Vitis labrusca): American
C. Culture varieties have a slip skin and a musty
1. Soil—The elderberry grows on about any or “foxy” flavor. The Concord is a
soil type, but prefers moist, well-drained, typical example. Some are quite winter
siltloam soils, neutral to slightly acidic. hardy.
2. Irrigation and fertilization—The plants c. French and American hybrids: These
need to stay evenly moist. Fertilize are crosses intended to combine the
lightly, as the root system is shallow. quality of European grapes with the
3. Weed control—Elderberries can be hardiness and disease resistance of
grown in sod. Mulch with 4 to 6 inches of American grapes.
sawdust to control weeds and conserve 2. Cultivars
moisture. a. Betas: This plant is a productive
4. Propagation—Plants are spread by sto- American blue-black variety with a
lons. Propagate with hardwood, green- tangy, wild grape flavor. It is good for
wood, or root-cuttings. jelly and juice and is hardy to -40°F.
5. Pruning—This vigorous plant requires b. Black Monukkas: While this grape is
pruning to control size and maintain pro- one of the hardiest of the European
ductivity. Cut a few main shoots to the plants, it still requires winter protec-
22 - 16
tion in many parts of Idaho. The fruit Rootstock may be necessary to tolerate
is large, reddish-black, and mostly some soils.
seedless. It is sweet and good fresh. c. Spacing: Depends on the vigor of cul-
c. Campbell’s Early (Island Belle): A tivar, soil, and training system used: 8
Concord type with early fruit, this va- feet for American grapes and 6 feet on
riety is good for juice. poor soils (sandy or gravelly) and 9
d. Concord: An American, blue-black feet plus for vigorous European
plant with a vigorous, hardy vine, this grapes.
variety is cold-resistant to -15°F. The d. Orientation: Maximize sunlight; plant
fruit has a distinctive flavor. on a south-facing slope; place rows
e. Fredonia (Early Concord): Another north to south.
American variety similar to the Con- 2. Irrigation—Required for most sites in
cord, though it bears fruit earlier, this Idaho.
plant is hardy to -40°F. 3. Fertilization
f. Himrod: An American variety with a a. General: Nitrogen fertilizers are detri-
golden yellow, seedless fruit, this mental to a fruit set. Most vines have
grape makes a good table grape. The over-vigor problems. Only very old or
Himrod is hardy to -15°F. stressed vines may require nitrogen
g. Interlakan Seedless: A sister of boost.
Himrod, the plant is similar, but more b. Potassium and phosphorus: Needs are
productive. It is hardy to -15°F, vigor- low. See Subsection D, “Common
ous, and disease resistant. Plant Problems: Diagnosis and Con-
h. Reliance: The Reliance produces a fine trol.”
quality, seedless grape that is pinkish- c. Micronutrient: Boron deficiencies are
red in color and has an excellent common. See Subsection D on com-
sweet, fruity flavor. This variety is dis- mon plant problems.
ease resistant and hardy to -34°F. 4. Training and pruning
i. Van Buren: An American Concord, a. Types
this sweet table grape is hardy to -
i. Cordon or spur pruned (Fig. 4):
20°F.
Permanent canes or cordons are
j. Worden: Another American Concord, trained on a wire 40 to 45 inches
except larger and darker, this variety is from ground. Spurs are established
good for juice and jelly and good along a cordon which bear fruiting
served fresh. Worden is disease resis- canes each year. A second wire,
tant and hardy to -50°F. placed at a height of 5 feet, is used
C. Culture to tie up fruiting canes in
1. Planting midseason.
a. Plants: Many plants are produced from ii. Cane-renewal system or Kniffen
dormant cuttings. Some cultivars are training (Fig. 5): Probably the best
budded or grafted onto disease, insect, system for the homeowner in
and nematode resistant rootstocks. Idaho. A strong trunk is developed
Rootstocks can modify vigor (increase up to the second wire with spurs
or decrease) and provide tolerance to a established at the trunk near the
wide range of soil conditions. wires. Two canes with 10 to 12
b. Soil: Grapes require a deep, well- buds are left as fruiting wood on
drained soil for their extensive root wires; two to four spurs are left on
system. Highest yields are on sandy the base of the cane to grow re-
loams. Grapes worldwide are planted newal wood.
on an extreme range of soil types.

22 - 17
Fig. 4. Bilateral cordon training on vertical trellis. Fig. 5. Two-wire vertical trellis Kniffin trained.
post diameter — 3 to 4" minimum

post diameter — #11 top foliage wire renewal tie
3 to 4" minimum spurs
2-bud cane
16"
36"
cordon arm cane bud
44"
arm
trunk
36"
trunk
b. Timing 24" severe disease for grapes in humid

24" i. Winter: Prune the grapevines dur- weather.
ing the dormant season before ii. Control: Regular spray/dust pro-
March. Root pressure builds in the grams of sulfur are essential. Use
spring and that leads to “bleeding” according to the label. Many rec-
of water from plants. This has little ommended American grape variet-
harmful effect on plants, but it is ies are resistant.
best to avoid this period. b. Botrytis mold: “Noble rot” for produc-
ii. Summer: Vigorous vines require ing a late harvest, sweet wine on many
summer maintenance. Yearly re- white wine varieties. Not desirable
moval of suckers from the base of most of the time.
the plant or on the trunk below the i. Symptoms: Early infections cause
first wire is needed. spotting on leaves, or infection
iii. Pinching or heading back: The cur- sites on cluster stems. Bunch rot
rent season’s canes will top the also occurs during the late season
wire and flop into the row. Head on ripening grapes.
back to keep plant upright and to ii. Control: Fungicide sprays accord-
prevent shading of clusters. ing to the label for botrytis on
iv. Leaf removal: On late season grapes.
grapes, remove leaves near clusters 2. Insects
to provide air circulation and to a. Caterpillars: Includes cutworms.
lessen the chances for the develop-
i. Symptoms: Feed on buds and
ment of bunch rot. Normally detri-
shoots.
mental to overall vine vigor due to
low sunlight. ii. Control: Pick off at night or use
Bacillus thurengiensis (B.T.).
D. Common Plant Problems—Diagnosis and
Control b. Scale
1. Diseases i. Symptoms: The scale may be
round to oblong depending on spe-
a. Powdery mildew
cies and may also have waxy ex-
i. Symptoms: This disease is the big cretions.
limiting factor to home production
of European grapes. It is the most
22 - 18
ii. Control: Apply insecticide accord- Fruit, Berry and Nut Inventory. ed. Kent Whealy.
ing to the label instructions for Seed Saver Publications, Decorah, IA.
scale on grapes. Jennings, D. L. Raspberries and Blackberries: Their
c. Leafhoppers Breeding, Diseases and Growth. Academic Press,
i. Symptoms: These torpedo-shaped Inc., San Diego, CA.
insects hold their wings in a Galletta, G., and D. Himelrick. Small Fruit Crop
rooflike position when at rest. They Management. West Nyack, Prentice Hall, New
cause leaf injury and secrete hon- York, NY.
eydew. Shoemaker, James S. Small Fruit Culture. AVI Pub-
ii. Control: Insecticidal soap sprays. lishing Co., Westport, CT.
3. Other Stebbins, Robert L., and Lance Walheim. Western
a. 2,4-D injury: Grapes are very suscep- Fruit Berries and Nuts. HP Books, Inc., Tucson,
tible to damage by 2,4-D. It has been AZ.
known to drift for miles and to affect Westwood, Melvin N. Temperate Zone Pomology.
plants. W. H. Freeman and Co., San Francisco, CA.
i. Symptoms: Terminal growth can
be misshapen; venation becomes Booklets and Pamphlets
parallel and fan-shaped; young USDA
leaves are thickened and distorted.
Farmers Bulletin No. 2165: Growing Raspberries.
ii. Control: Avoid 2,4-D use around
Farmers Bulletin No. 2236: Commercial Strawberry
grapes. Wait for plants to grow out
Growing in the Pacific Coast States.
of problem.
b. Boron deficiency
University of Idaho
i. Symptoms: There will be a light
set of fruit, while the flower clus- Small Fruits
ters will be affected with a “burn- EXT 739 Berry Varieties for Idaho ($2.00)
ing off.” Terminal shoots may die CIS 932 Blueberry Production: 1992 (50¢)
in early summer, or show leaf chlo- BUL 815 Growing Blueberries in the Inland
rosis. Some European grapes are Northwest & Intermountain West
particularly affected. ($3.00)
ii. Control: Soil or leaf analysis is rec- BUL 821 Growing Western Huckleberries ($2.50)
ommended and foliar sprays of PNW 215 Highbush Blueberry Production
soluble boron should be applied to ($16.50)
correct the deficiency.
CIS 628 Insects and Mites Destructive to Berries
c. Potassium deficiency (50¢)
i. Symptoms: Chlorosis of outer mar- CIS 815 Northern Idaho Fertilizer Guide:
gins of leaves will leave a dark Blueberries, Raspberries, Strawberries
green area (Christmas tree effect) (web only)
in the center of leaf and brown
CIS 979 Publications and Organizations
spots on the margins.
for Small Fruit Producers (50¢)
ii. Control: Apply potassium.
Strawberries
BUL 810 Growing Strawberries in the Inland
Further Reading Northwest & Intermountain West
($2.50)
Books CIs 931 Strawberry Production: Overview (50¢)
Childers, Norman F. Modern Fruit Science. Horti-
Raspberries
cultural Publications, Gainesville, FL.
CIS 341 Crumbly Fruit in Raspberries (25¢)

22 - 19
CIS 789 Diseases of Raspberries in Idaho (35¢) Washington State University
Raspberries (cont’d) Small Fruits
BUL 812 Growing Raspberries and Blackberries EB 0708 Small Fruits for Home Gardens (50¢).
in the Inland Northwest & EB 1015 Small Fruits and Berries: Insect Disease
Intermountain West ($2.50) Control for Home gardens (50¢).
CIS 960 Raspberry Production: Overview (50¢) EB 1082 Raspberry and Strawberry Root Rots in
CIS 847 Virus and Nematode Diseases of Home Gardens (50¢).
Raspberries (35¢) EB 1388 Small Fruit Pests: Biology, Diagnosis
and Management (50¢).
Grapes
CIS 790 Backyard Grapes ($1.00) Grapes
RES 162 Contribution of the Grape and Wine In- EB 0637 Trellising and Training Grapes for Pro-
dustry to Idaho’s Economy ($2.00) duction in Washington (50¢).
BUL 828 Economic Feasibility of Growing Wine EB 0775 Growing Grapes for Wine and Table in
Grapes in Idaho ($5.00) the Puget Sound Region (50¢).
CIS 1043 Selecting Grape Cultivars and Planting EB 1615 Critical Temperatures for Concord
Sites in Idaho ($1.00) Grapes (50¢).
Kiwifruit Blueberries
PNW 507 Growing Kiwifruit ($3.50) PNW 0215 Highbush Blueberry Production ($1.00).
To order University of Idaho publications, To order Washington State University publica-

contact your county’s UI Extension office or write tions, contact your county’s Cooperative Extension
to: Publications, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID office or write to Bulletin Office, Cooperative Ex-
83844-2240, call (208) 885-7982, or email: tension, Cooper Publications Building, Washington
calspubs@uidaho.edu. Make checks payable to State University, Pullman, WA 99164-5912.
Publications. Idaho residents add 6 percent sales
tax. Also check, and in some cases download, the Slides
online publication catalog on the UI Educational Small Fruits, 117 slides, Eugene Memmler, P.O.
Communications web site: (http:/ Box 94475, Pasadena, CA 91109

22 - 20
Chapter
Houseplants and Home Greenhouses
23
I. Environmental Conditions and V. Insect Pests 8

Requirements 2 A. Major Insect Pests 8
A. Plant Needs 2 B. Insect Control 8
B. Light 2 VI. Plant Diseases 9
C. Temperature 3 A. Common Diseases 9
D. Humidity 3 B. Disease Control 9
E. Irrigation 4 VII. Propagation 10
F. Fertilization 5 A. Clone 10
G. Salt Damage 5 B. Uniqueness 10
H. Overall Environmental Factors
VIII. Greenhouses 10
Affecting Plant Growth 6
A. Types of Greenhouses 11
II. Media, Containers, and Potting 6
B. Location and Orientation 11
A. Root Media 6
C. Design and Construction 11
B. Container Choice 6
IX. Small Beds for Growing Plants 15
C. Repotting Houseplants 7
A. Cold Frames 15
III. Controlling Size and Shape 7
B. Hotbeds 15
A. Phototropism 7
C. Cloches 15
B. Pinch 7
Further Reading 15
IV. Diagnosis of Problems 7
A. Be Observant 7

23 - 1
Chapter 23
Houseplants and
Home Greenhouses
J. A. Robbins
Houseplant—Any plant grown indoors, typically in c. An easy way to measure light is with a
a container. There are three groups of houseplants: 35mm camera with a built-in light
foliage, flowering, and cactus and succulents. meter. Set ASA = 100, aperture to f4.
Take reading of a white paper or board
I. Environmental Conditions and filling the camera’s viewfinder. Light
Requirements intensity is reciprocal of appropriate
shutter speed (e.g., 1/100 = 100 fc).
A. Plant Needs Hand held light meters designed for
Understanding plant needs and existing con- photography will accomplish the same
ditions helps you to be successful with task.
houseplants. All plants don’t have the same 3. At low light levels, most common
needs, and average home conditions are ba- houseplants are classified as long term
sically inhospitable for plants. Normally, perishable and should be replaced every
conditions are minimally appropriate for a 2 years or so.
few species. For success you have to be se-
4. Increasing light
lective and manipulate the environment.
a. Move your plants to a sunnier window
B. Light
with less overhang, less shading from
1. Lack of light is the major constraint to trees, and a southern exposure.
indoor plant growth.
b. Move your plants closer to the win-
2. Light intensity refers to the amount of dow.
light available at a particular site. It is
c. Provide reflected light to plants by us-
measured in foot-candles or lux (1 foot-
ing white walls and mirrors.
candle = 10.7 lux).
d. Provide artificial light (see section
a. 50 to 75 foot-candles (fc) are the mini-
“VIII-h” on greenhouse lighting).
mum necessary for plant growth.
i. Fluorescent bulbs provide low in-
b. Light is reduced by the reciprocal of
tensity light. For example a 40 watt
the square of the distance from the
bulb at a distance of 2 feet only
measured source. In other words, light
provides 50 fc of light.
levels diminish rapidly as you move
away from the window or the lighting ii. Incandescent lights are also low
fixture. For instance, if you measure intensity. A 60 watt bulb at a distance
the intensity of light 1 foot from a win- of 2 feet provides 17 fc of light.
dow at 100 fc the following applies: iii. High intensity lights such as mer-
i. 1 foot from window = 100 fc. cury vapor, sodium, and metallic
ii. 2 feet from window = 100/22 = 25 fc. halide provide significantly higher
iii. 3 feet from window = 100/32 = 11 fc. levels of light intensity.

23 - 2
iv. Most non-flowering foliage in winter) is much lower than the lowest
houseplants benefit from receiving range tolerable for good plant growth.
light 12 to 16 hours/day. 3. Methods to raise humidity.
5. Symptoms of light anomalies. a. Group your houseplants together to
a. Low light: Plants not receiving enough use the water vapor created by transpi-
light become weak, spindly, and have ration of other plants to increase the
long distances between nodes. Leaves humidity level.
turn yellow and drop, usually begin- b. A gravel tray beneath the houseplant
ning from the bottom of the plant. pot filled with water will provide extra
Growth ceases. Variegated plants re- humidity as the water evaporates. Be
vert to solid green. sure that the base of the pot sits on the
b. High light: Plants receiving too much top of the gravel and does not touch
light have leaves that are light colored. the water.
The old leaves curl under and develop c. Humidity can be increased around a
brown scorched spots or margins. New houseplant by misting. However, the
leaves are thickened. effect is very short in duration and
C. Temperature must be repeated frequently for any
1. Most indoor plants are of tropical origin beneficial effect.
and do not do well in cold temperatures. d. Place plants in areas of high humidity,
a. Most plants will tolerate a fairly broad such as the kitchen or bathroom.
range (55° to 85°F). e. Provide a double pot for your
b. Plants prefer 75°F days and 65°F houseplants. Place moist sphagnum
nights (in general, 10 degrees cooler at moss between the inner and outer pots
night than in day). to provide extra humidity.
2. The direction the window faces affects f. Increase the humidity level in the en-
temperature. South and west facing tire room with a humidifier.
windows receive more sun, so tend to 4. Methods to lower humidity.
be warmer than east and north facing a. Ventilate the area around the
windows. houseplant by opening doors and win-
3. Plants lose heat, or radiate, to anything dows and by using fans and air condi-
colder. Place sheets of newspaper be- tioners.
tween plants and windowpanes on b. Be sure not to over water plants or
frosty nights to avoid cold damage to have water standing in trays beneath
houseplants. pots for any length of time.
4. Symptoms of temperature anomalies. 5. Symptoms of humidity anomalies.
a. High temperatures: If a houseplant a. Low humidity: Plants growing under
is receiving too much heat the low humidity may develop brown leaf
leaves will turn yellow, wilt, drop, tips and yellow leaf margins. The plant
or scorch. may have stunted growth, or none at
b. Low temperatures: If temperatures all, and will display signs of bud and
are too low, leaves will curl up, leaf drop, shriveling, and wilting.
turn brown, and drop off. b. Excessive humidity: Too much humid-
D. Humidity ity will cause the plant to decay and
1. Most houseplants prefer a high relative rot. Its leaves and stems will darken,
humidity. However, many will adapt to be susceptible to bacterial and fungal
low levels of humidity. invasions, and show soft wilt.
2. Heating systems differ in drying air. Nor-
mal humidity inside buildings (especially

23 - 3
E. Irrigation ter in Idaho is often “hard.” Many soften-
Irrigation is the most important and most ing processes replace the calcium in the
abused cultural practice with houseplants. water with sodium that is damaging to
Water relations are much more critical for houseplants; thus, be sure to water
potted plants because of their limited root houseplants with water that has not been
space and the necessity for soil aeration. softened by this method. The amount of
1. Water requirements vary by plant species chlorine found in city water systems gen-
from constantly moist to mostly dry. You erally is not sufficient to cause problems
need to know individual plant require- with houseplants. Alkaline water makes
ments, which can be learned by consult- growing acid-loving plants such as aza-
ing a reliable reference. leas and gardenias difficult. Generous use
of acidic peat moss and acid-reacting fer-
2. Water use is dependent upon a number of
tilizers will help offset the alkaline con-
factors.
tent in the water.
a. Ratio of foliage to pot size: A large
4. All containers should have drainage.
plant in a small pot may need to be
Lack of drainage saturates the soil and
watered daily due to the large amount
excludes air from the roots. This condi-
of water lost and the small soil reservoir.
tion leads to root rot.
b. Potting media: Sandy potting soil will
5. Water temperature is important. Many
hold less water than soil with peat or
houseplants are tropical, and adding cold
other organic matter. Plants in a sandy
water to their roots can harm them. Afri-
mix will need to be watered more often.
can violet and other gesneriad leaves will
c. Temperature: If temperatures are high, be bleached by cold water. To avoid
houseplants transpire freely, and water problems, water your houseplants with
will evaporate rapidly from the soil barely warm or tepid water.
surface. Plants in warm conditions will
6. Methods to determine the relative amount
need to be watered more often.
of water in a pot include checking with a
d. Humidity: Plants in dry air will tran- finger one inch or so below soil surface
spire more and will need watering for moistness, comparing the “heft” or
more often than those in moist air. weight of the pot, or tapping the side of
e. Air movements: Plants located in a the pot and listening for a hollow sound.
breeze will transpire more and will re- The main thing is to check plants regularly.
quire more water.
f. Light: Plants that are photosynthesiz- Note: Inexpensive moisture meters actually
ing will be exchanging gasses through measure conductivity (salinity) of the
open stomates and will allow transpi- soil and are not reliable.
ration to occur. Plants in brighter light
areas, therefore, will require more wa- 7. The amount of water held and available
ter than those in dimly lit areas. is dependent upon media ingredients.
Peat moss, field soil, and vermiculite
g. Plant species: Some plants simply
hold the most. Sand, perlite, and pumice
need more water to grow and be
hold the least.
healthy than others.
8 Symptoms of water-related anomalies.
h. Container porosity: Clay and unglazed
ceramic pots “breathe” and will lose a. Not enough water: Foliage of broad-
water more quickly than glass, glazed leaved plants darkens and turns crisp;
ceramic, or plastic pots, so plants in the lower leaves will drop, and plants
clay and unglazed ceramic pots will gradually wilt. The leaves and stems of
need more water. succulent plants turn pale and shrivel.
3. Water quality varies, particularly in the b. Too much water (or insufficient drain-
amount of soluble salts present. Well wa- age): Leaves curl, wilt, blacken, and

23 - 4
drop. Corky scabs or protrusions form 7. Nutritional deficiencies
on the undersides of leaves or on a. Macronutrients
branches. The leaves and stems be- i. Nitrogen (N): Lack of N results in
come soft and the roots rot. a stunted plant with yellow leaves;
F. Fertilization older leaves fade first, then turn
1. Nutrients needed for plant growth are brown and die.
generally obtained from “real soil” that ii. Phosphorus (P): Lack of P results
your potting mix does not usually contain. in retarded growth. The plant re-
2. There is a limited supply available to mains a deep green leaf color until
houseplants because of the finite size of it turns purple or bronze (or
the pot. Also, the potting soil is usually mottled in light and dark tones).
“artificial” mix that contains little to no The symptoms are apparent in
nutrients. older leaves. Another symptom is
3. The best method is to provide a constant retarded flowering.
supply of nutrients at relatively low levels. iii. Potassium (K): Lack of K creates
a. Nutrients will be particularly impor- tip and marginal burn on lower
tant during periods of growth. leaves. These burns advance up the
b. Don’t over fertilize. You will get lanky plant. The leaves crinkle and turn
growth, fertilizer burn, and the possi- inward, and the plant stops growing.
bility of root damage. b. Micronutrients
c. During the winter months, when home i. Deficiencies in anything more than
temperatures are apt to be cooler and N, P, K, or iron are unusual. If the
days are short, decrease or eliminate addition of a balanced fertilizer
fertilization to give plants a short rest doesn’t cure deficient symptoms,
of 2 to 3 months. repot plant in new soil and resume
4. There are many types of fertilizers. It is a regular fertilizer schedule.
best to use a complete fertilizer that pro- ii. Iron (Fe): Leaves turn yellow,
vides nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, while veins remain green. The
and micronutrients such as iron. plant will have stunted growth and
a. No one type of fertilizer is better than curled leaves.
the others. Slow-release granules let iii. Excess chlorine (Cl): Too much
out a little fertilizer at each watering. chlorine causes thickened leaf tis-
Dry fertilizers or fertilizers that dis- sue, which becomes brittle. Great
solve in water can be applied. excesses of Cl burn and destroy
b. Organic forms such as fish emulsion plant roots.
will provide micronutrients and low G. Salt Damage
amounts of nitrogen. Fertilizer burn is Salt damage is a common problem in house
less likely with an organic source. plants, and steps must be taken to avoid it in
5. It is best to fertilize with soluble inor- order to have healthy plants.
ganic fertilizers when the soil is already 1. Salt build up is indicated by a crusty
wet. This way there is less of an uptake white substance coating the top of the
shock and, subsequently, less possibility soil or the rim of the pot.
of root damage and/or fertilizer burn. 2. Salt build up is caused by repeated fertil-
6. Fertilizer is not a cure-all; it will not izing, giving plants too little water at a
make a sick plant healthy. In fact, fertiliz- time, high salt concentrations in tap wa-
ing a plant with disease or other stress ter, and poor drainage in pots.
and, hence, forcing growth may be the 3. The symptoms of salt damage are easy to
final stress that kills it. spot.

23 - 5
a. Plants will not grow well. c. Container media needs to be able to
b. Leaf tip and marginal leaf burn are hold nutrients (have a high cation ex-
evident. Roots are burned and deterio- change capacity). Organic matter will
rated. You may also see thick, dwarfed help increase nutrient-holding capacity.
leaves with sunken breathing pores on d. The pH (acid balance) of the soil needs
leaf undersides. to be favorable for houseplant growth.
4. To avoid salt build up in pots: A pH range of 5.5 to 6.5 is best.
a. Do not water houseplants with water e. Container media must be free of dis-
softened by sodium salts eases and toxic substances.
b. Water plants with distilled water; it B. Container Choice
contains no salts or minerals. 1. No one container material is better than
c. Flush excess salts out of pots periodi- another, but each container type requires
cally (monthly) by watering heavily different management. All containers re-
and repeatedly until water pours out of quire drainage holes at the bottom.
the drainage holes. 2. Basic container materials.
d. Repot plant in new soil and new pot. a. Clay pots are attractive, and plants
e. Wash old pots well before reusing for grow well in them because they
houseplants. Soak clay pots in several breathe and allow air exchange
changes of clean water to flush out through their walls. As a result, they
salts absorbed by the clay. will dry out faster than other types of
H. Overall Environmental Factors Affecting pots, and plants will require more fre-
Plant Growth quent watering. They also tend to ac-
cumulate salts in their walls because of
1. Plants are living things. The keys to
the evaporation. These can be flushed
healthy houseplants are to minimize
out of empty pots by soaking them in
stress and provide a favorable environ-
several changes of clean water.
ment with minimal variation.
b. Plastic pots are readily available and
2. Don’t overcorrect. Don’t make up for
come in colors to complement your
underwatering with overwatering. Don’t
decor. They are impervious to water,
make up for lack of light by placing plant
and their walls do not breathe. Because
in direct sun. Shocks like this will not
of this, soil aeration of the media is
benefit growth.
particularly important. The soil will
II. Media, Containers, and Potting also hold the water longer, so less fre-
quent watering will be necessary.
A. Root Media
c. Fiber pots are inexpensive and rustic
1. Because of the physical limitations of the looking. They are porous and allow a
container, houseplants need specialized limited amount of air and water ex-
media. Do not use straight field soil. It change. The bottoms of these pots tend
lacks correct physical properties. It is best to break down and fall apart over time.
to buy a potting mix from a garden center.
d. Wooden pots are attractive but they
2. There are some important properties to con- tend to leak out of the cracks if not
sider when choosing a container media. lined with a plastic interior. When
a. Roots need air to grow, so the percent- lined, they essentially become a plastic
age of air-filled space for houseplant container.
soil needs to be 10 percent or more. 3. When using saucers, it’s best to lift the
b. Container media needs to hold enough pot above the saucer so that after irriga-
water to supply what the plant needs. tion the pot doesn’t sit in drained water.
Pure sand makes a poor container me- If it does sit in water, be sure the water is
dia, as the soil must hold water equal all taken up within an hour or two. Sitting
to 40 percent of volume or more.
23 - 6
in water for days at a time will cause the b. Replant the plant at the same level on
soil to be saturated, which will eventually the stem as in an old container.
kill a plant. Decorative containers that c. How often to repot depends upon the
hold the entire pot (jardinieres) can be plant’s rate of growth, root condition,
used and should be treated just like saucers. and media characteristics.
4. When reusing containers, be sure to clean 4. Terrariums typically have no drainage, so
them well to reduce any carryover of in- use activated charcoal at the bottom of
sects or diseases found in plant parts or the container and water less.
old soil clinging to the plants. Soaking
clay pots in fresh water for several days III. Controlling Size and Shape
will leach out any accumulated salts. A. Phototropism
Scrub other pots with a stiff brush and
Houseplants orient their leaves toward a
detergent, and rinse in a solution of bleach.
fixed light source. To keep a balanced
C. Repotting Houseplants shape, rotate plants frequently.
1. There should be a balance between top B. Pinch
growth and container size. Too small a
Frequently remove terminal growth such as
container will cause rapid water loss, and
vines and branching plants to keep them
too large a container will keep the soil
bushy and within bounds.
saturated and lead to root problems.
2. When potting, cover the drainage hole IV. Diagnosis of Problems
with old nylon stocking or pottery shard
to minimize soil loss when irrigating. Do A. Be Observant
not use gravel in the bottom as it only re- 1. In diagnosis the most difficult task is not
duces the effective pot size and does not to jump to conclusions. Don’t be abso-
help drainage. lute, even though the problem seems ob-
a. Do not press or tamp soil firmly in vious. This is particularly true if you are
pots as this reduces aeration. Rather, being guided by a description of a prob-
tap the filled pot on a table to settle lem without actually seeing the plant.
soil and remove air pockets. 2. Ninety-five percent of all problems with
b. Leave a 1-inch head space at the top of houseplants have to do with light, water,
pots for irrigation. humidity, and fertilization. Frequently,
the problem is a combination of these
c. Media containing peat moss that has
factors. Diseases are usually a result of
gotten bone dry may need to have the
some environmental stress.
moisture kneaded in before using it for
potting. If this isn’t done, penetration 3. Be methodical in your questioning. Ask
of the water in the repotted plant will step-by-step questions about plant care
be extremely slow until the peat ab- and conditions.
sorbs the water. In the meantime the 4. Learn to ask questions the right way. Not,
roots are completely dry. “Are you watering correctly?” Rather,
d. Water immediately after potting. It’s “How often do you water?” Get a quanti-
best to irrigate two times to be sure tative answer that will help you decide if
soil is settled well around the roots and the watering is correct.
that the media is completely wetted. 5. Look at the roots of the plant. Roots
3. Repot if compacted or salt-filled soil, should be healthy and growing.
poor drainage, soilborne insects, inad- 6. Symptoms overlap so brown tips on the
equate nutrition, and crowded roots. ends or edges of leaves are symptomatic
a. Move up only one pot size at a time. A of several problems. It is up to you to fer-
general rule is to make the internal size ret out what is causing them.
of the container about 1 inch larger all
around than the old pot.
23 - 7
V. Insect Pests fore dropping off. They can be seen, al-
though they look like moving dust unless
Watch for insects when you introduce new
viewed with a magnifying lens. They
plants to a home. Most insects are brought in
most often congregate on the undersides
with new plants and plants that have been out-
of leaves.
side in the summer. They also hitchhike in on
pots, equipment, and your clothes, shoes, and 6. Cyclamen mites—These microscopic vo-
person. racious feeders cause distorted, blotchy
bloom; stunted, twisted, or shriveled
Pests have preferences for certain plant spe-
stems; and leaves with stunted and com-
cies. Thus, some plants are more prone to in-
pact plant centers. Their presence is often
sect problems.
followed by the dropping off of flower
A. Major Insect Pests buds and streaky, purplish foliage. These
1. Aphids—These are soft bodied, small mites are difficult to eradicate. As their
round insects that mass around growing name implies they are a particular prob-
tips and tender tissue. Aphids suck plant lem in cyclamen, but also affect other
juices. Their invasion causes deformed houseplants.
and curled new leaves, buds, and flowers. 7. Leafminers—The larvae of fly, moth,
Some carry virus diseases and some spe- sawfly, or beetle leafminers eat leaf tis-
cies cause galls. They all secrete honey- sue between the upper and lower leaf sur-
dew, and this is sometimes the first faces causing slender, winding trails, tun-
symptom noticed. The honeydew attracts nels, and blisters on leaves.
ants who feed on it.
8. Fungus gnats—Light attracts these tiny
2. White fly—This small white winged fly black flies. The flies zig and zag in ir-
congregates on undersides of leaves. regular flight when disturbed before set-
Small immature crawlers, or larvae, suck tling back down on the soil surface. The
sap and secrete honeydew. Adults fly up eggs of fungus gnats hatch into threadlike
in a random pattern when disturbed and white maggots that burrow through the
resettle to the plant surface quickly. soil, embed themselves in root tissue, and
3. Scale—These are small, hard, immobile, eat small feeding roots, root hairs, and
disk-like insects. Scales suck plant juices. crowns of plants. The plants suffer from
Their presence causes leaves to develop root rot, slow weak top growth, and yel-
yellow spots, turn yellow, and drop off. lowing leaves. Root feeding produces
They also have a crawler stage that wounds that can permit entry of disease
moves about until it matures. This organisms.
crawler becomes the disk-like immobile B. Insect Control
adult that is obvious.
1. It is essential to quarantine all new plants
4. Mealy bugs—Mealy bugs are scale in- introduced into your home until you are
sects that are covered with layers of sure they are pest free.
white waxy substance. Mealy bugs look
2. Several effective nonchemical insect con-
like little cotton pieces. They suck sap,
trol methods are available.
resulting in stunted growth, wilting, defo-
liation, and eventual plant death. They a. Water: Keep all plant leaves clean by
also secrete honeydew. washing or spraying with water. This
is especially good for control of
5. Spider mites—Spider mites are tiny,
aphids. Putting the plant in the bathtub
eight-legged arachnids that proliferate
to give its leaves this shower works
rapidly in hot dry growing environments.
well.
They suck sap, causing pale blotches,
loss of color, and dry, rusty leaf textures. b. Soapy water (use specially formulated
The leaves tend to turn gray, yellow, or to insecticidal soaps): Sponge or spray
be smothered in fine, mealy cobwebs be- onto leaves. This works well on spider
mites and aphids.
23 - 8
c. Rubbing or denatured ethyl alcohol: VI. Plant Diseases
Use alcohol on a cotton ball, tissue, or
Diseases usually occur in plants that are
swab to remove insects such as scale
stressed by unfavorable environmental condi-
and mealy bugs. This works well on
tions. The most common stresses are high or
large, stiff leaves. Be sure to test first
low temperatures, overwatering, low light,
to make sure the alcohol will not dam-
overfertilizing, open wounds, air pollution, and
age the leaves, especially on soft, thin,
excessive humidity.
and fragile leaves. This is not practical
on something with tiny leaves, and you Parasitic organisms, bacteria, or fungi can
must be sure to repeat often for com- cause disease in houseplants.
plete control. A. Common Diseases
d. Yellow sticky boards: Insects are at- 1. Anthracnose—This fungus is character-
tracted to the yellow surface and be- ized by depressed leafy spots with dry
come tangled in the sticky goo on the centers. The entire end of the leaf may
surface. These are best used early turn dark tan with darker bars crisscross-
when infestations of flying insects are ing the leaf.
low. This is a good technique for white 2. Crown and stem rot—These fungal dis-
fly control. eases cause stems and bases of affected
e. Predators: These can be insects, nema- plants to turn soft and mushy to the
todes, or mites. Some of these are very touch.
specific. They are effective in reducing 3. Damping-off—This disease is caused by
pests, but may be difficult to keep on a soilborne fungus that attacks the lower
the plant and to maintain. portion of the seedling stems, which then
f. Replacement: If pest population is too collapses. The leaves turn inward and
high or complete control seems impos- look pinched. The seedling wilts and
sible, discard the plant and buy a new dies.
one. 4. Leaf spot—This disease creates yellow-
3. Chemical controls for insects are available. margined spots with dark brown or black
a. Use caution when using chemical in- damp or blistered centers. Bacterial or
secticides. Read the label thoroughly fungal invasions cause leaf spot.
and follow instructions carefully. Not 5. Mildews and molds—Black sooty mold
only are excessive rates or unlabeled on leaves appears as black coating and
applications unhealthy for you, but can be associated with honeydew se-
they may cause plant damage or creted by aphids, mealybugs, and scale.
phytoxicity. A white or grayish felt-like coating on
b. Use different chemicals for different foliage is mildew. It causes leaves to curl
problems or when one type stops and shrivel. A gray or white mold on the
working. soil surface can be fungus caused.
c. Be sure to use the chemical that will 6. Root rot—Root rot invades roots and di-
control the pest you have. minishes roots’ ability to absorb water.
This rot is fungus-caused. It damages
d. Understand the life cycles of pests and
new growth, which dies back. The entire
susceptible stages. If you must repeat
plant eventually wilts and dies.
applications, follow the timing pre-
cisely. B. Disease Control
e. Some pests have developed a resis- 1. Correct the environmental conditions that
tance to certain pesticides. If one is not are allowing the disease to thrive. For in-
effective, try another from a different stance many rots thrive in excess water.
chemical group. Do not increase dos- Treatment is to lower the humidity and
age. cut down on watering.

23 - 9
2. Pick off and destroy infected leaves and plied as a dry powder or a solution in
plant parts. Repot or replant in new media. which the cutting is dipped.
3. Apply fungicidal dusts or drenches as g. When placing cuttings in media, be
recommended, following label instruc- careful not to wipe off the hormone.
tions for the specific disease. h. When roots have grown on cuttings to
VII. Propagation where they are large enough to support
A. Clone the cutting, transplant quickly since
there is less transplant shock for small
Vegetative or asexual propagation produces
root systems.
a clone of the plant that you propagate from.
B. Uniqueness
1. This is the most common commercial
technique. It is fast and ensures genetic Seed or sexual propagation may produce an
consistency. It is also easy to do. individual similar to the mother plant. With
cross pollination, however, variation will
2. Propagate by using cuttings from the
occur, and the resulting seedlings will all be
stem, leaf, offsets, or stolons.
unique individuals.
3. Air layering can be done with many
1. With seed propagation you can produce
plants by scoring the stem, wrapping with
more plants. Plant breeders use this
damp sphagnum moss, and enclosing in a
method to produce new varieties using
plastic covering secured above and below
the variation produced by seedling varia-
by a loose tie.
tion.
4. Factors to consider when propagating
2. Some seeds need a presowing treatment
houseplants:
to break dormancy.
a. Be sure to start with vigorous, healthy
a. Stratification, or a moist cold treat-
plants.
ment, is needed for some.
b. Use sterile, well-aerated rooting me-
b. Scarification, or scratching or breaking
dia. Most packaged mixes are steril-
down the seed coat, is needed for
ized before packaging. Peat mixed
some.
with either perlite or vermiculite
makes a good rooting media. 3. Seeds from different species of plants
have different light and temperature re-
c. Pieces of plants cannot be under water
quirements.
stress while roots are forming. To
maintain a good water balance, re- 4. Be sure to use sterile media to avoid seed
move part of leaves on large-leafed rot and damping-off of seedlings.
plants, and raise humidity with enclo- 5. Transplant seedlings when they become
sure or mist. crowded. Be sure to lift plants by a leaf,
d. Cuttings and newly rooted plants need not by the tender stem or growing tip.
light for photosynthesis. However, cut-
VIII. Greenhouses
tings should not be in direct light un-
less they are under an automatic mist A home greenhouse is a satisfying addition for
system. Newly rooted plants should be the home gardener. Many plants will grow in
eased into high light situations gradu- greenhouses including annual bedding plants,
ally. forced bulbs, cacti and succulents, geraniums,
e. Bottom heat (heat at root zone) helps gloxinia, orchids, and tropical foliage plants.
plants to root. A temperature of 70° to You can grow vegetables and fruits such as
75°F with an air temperature of 60° to cucumbers, eggplant, lettuce, onions, peppers,
65°F is ideal. Use a heating cable or radishes, strawberries, and tomatoes in a
mat to provide bottom heat. greenhouse.
f. Use rooting hormones to stimulate root The various plants require different tempera-
initiation and growth. These are ap- tures and light conditions, so the size of the
greenhouse and its cooling and heating equip-

23 - 10
ment may restrict the greenhouse grower to C. Design and Construction
certain plants. Providing proper growing con- 1. Shapes—Many styles of greenhouses are
ditions is essential for successful greenhouse possible, such as Quonset, dome, gothic
gardening. arch, A-frame, slant-leg, gable roof, and
A. Types of Greenhouses tripenta. Plans, kits, or finished houses
1. Attached lean-to—Built against a build- are available from a variety of sources.
ing, this greenhouse uses the building’s 2. Frames
walls for one or more of its sides. Usu- a. Wood: Wood contributes to uniform
ally, the width is limited to a total of 7 to greenhouse temperature because it
12 feet. does not cool down quickly. Use a
2. Attached even-span—Similar to a free- wood resistant to decay, pressure
standing structure, this greenhouse is at- treated, or treated with non-toxic wa-
tached at one gable end to a house or ter-borne, salt-type preservative.
other structure. They are larger and more b. Steel: Provides a more solid structure
flexible than the lean-to type. than wood and lets more light into the
3. Attached window-mounted—This reach- greenhouse. You must paint steel
in unit replaces a window and is ideal for frames to prevent rust.
growing a few plants at low cost for heat- c. Aluminum alloy: Lightweight and
ing and cooling. strong, aluminum frames offer a high
4. Free-standing—Set apart to get the most degree of light reflectiveness and re-
sun, this type of greenhouse can be as quire little maintenance. They transmit
large or small as desired. With many heat readily, resulting in greater heat
shapes or frame types available, this type loss.
of greenhouse is the most costly to build d. Plastic: Light, strong, and readily
and maintain. available, plastic (especially PVC
B. Location and Orientation pipe) is good for hoop-house construc-
1. Light—Get the most light by placing the tion.
attached greenhouse on the south or 3. Covering materials
southeast side of the structure. The east a. Glass: Use extra strength or tempered
side is the second best location followed glass. Attractive, permanent, and ex-
by southwest and west. A north exposure pensive, it requires periodic
is the least desirable. Locate free-stand- recaulking. Leave construction to a
ing greenhouses where large trees, other manufacturer because glass is difficult
buildings, and obstructions will not shade to fabricate. A single layer has 90 per-
them. cent light transmission.
2. Shelter—Locate small greenhouses in a b. Plastics
sheltered area to reduce wind-related heat i. Rigid plastic: Resists breakage, is
losses. A windbreak or building located lightweight, and easy to install.
far enough away so as to not shade the Most degrade under sunlight.
greenhouse will provide shelter. Choose a
ii. Polyvinylchloride (PVC): Avail-
site that has access to electricity, water,
able in UV-treated form, PVC al-
and an energy source for heat.
lows 88 to 90 percent light trans-
3. Orientation—Once you have selected a mission. It is flexible, comes corru-
site, orient the greenhouse to make the gated or flat, and lasts 2 to 7 years.
most of the available light. An east-west
iii. Clear acrylic (Plexiglas, Perspex,
orientation (with the ridge of the house
Transpex, and Lucite): Half as
running east and west) is preferable, es-
heavy as glass, acrylic plastics re-
pecially during the winter when light is
sist impact and are flexible but ex-
most critical.
pensive. All but Lucite scratches.

23 - 11
Most types are available in double- d. Polyester
walled panels that will last 20 years i. Polyester films (Molar, Melinex,
and allow 90 to 95 percent light and Llumar): This stiff plastic film
transmission. tears easily when punctured and
iv. Polycarbonate: More flexible and degrades rapidly in the sun.
less expensive than acrylic, poly- ii. Acrylic laminated to polyester
carbonate plastic yellows and loses (Flexigard): Reduced UV radiation
transparency with age. breakdown and tearing gives this
v. Film plastic: Inexpensive, but tem- type of plastic a moderately long
porary, film plastic requires more life.
maintenance. Ultraviolet (UV) ra- e. Fiberglass
diation will destroy it if not treated i. Durable, attractive, and moderately
with a UV inhibitor. Use double priced, fiberglass is more resistant
layer to reduce heat loss. to impact than glass and much
c. Polyethylene lighter.
i. Regular polyethylene: Not recom- ii. Use UV-treated fiberglass because
mended because of its short life the untreated types will yellow
span (9 to 12 months). Stronger with age. If not treated with UV-
with increasing thickness, it usually resistant materials, the fibers be-
splits on the fold. Allows 85 to 88 come exposed or “fray.” Low
percent light transmission. maintenance, fiberglass lasts for a
ii. UV-treated polyethylene: Lasts 1 to year untreated and 15 to 20 years if
2 years. Use 4 to 6 mil thickness. UV treated.
Keep clean to increase winter light; iii. With a 75 to 90 percent light trans-
85 to 88 percent light transmission. mission, fiberglass is not recom-
iii. Co-polymer films (Monsanto 602): mended for plants with high light
An ethylene and vinyl acetate, co- requirements in areas with less than
polymer films are stronger with a 40 percent sunny days in the winter.
life of 2 years. Keep clean for an iv. Fiberglass comes corrugated or
85 to 88 percent light transmission. flat. It is flammable. Buy only clear
iv. Reinforced polyethylene: Contains (not colored) types of high grade
glass or acrylic fiber for additional fiberglass.
strength and a 2-year life span. 4. Benches
Keep clean for an 85 percent trans- a. Side benches: Because you access side
mission. benches from only one side, they
v. Reinforced UV-treated polyethyl- should be no wider than what you can
ene: Has similar characteristics to reach across (generally 2 to 3 feet).
reinforced polyethylene. Leave about 6 inches between the
vi. Vinyl films: Thicker (8 ml) types benches and the side walls for air-cir-
are hazy. Keep clean because they culation.
attract smog and dirt. This tears b. Center benches: Because you access
easily when punctured and will last center benches from both sides, they
for about 2 to 5 years. Allows 89 to can be as wide as 6 feet. Small green-
91 percent light transmission. houses may have room only for side
vii. Polyvinyl floride films (Tedlar benches.
PVF and Teflon FEP): An expen- c. Other types: Beds, shelves, and imagi-
sive type of film plastic that lasts 7 native types of benches are all possible
to 8 years with 92 percent light in a greenhouse. Tailor them to your
transmission. needs and plant requirements.

23 - 12
5. Walkways and flooring aluminum foil facing is even more
a. Walkways should be easy on the feet, effective. Wood turn knobs or mag-
well drained, and non-slippery. netic clips will hold the panels in
b. Use pea gravel, ready-mix concrete, place. They are more effective than
porous concrete, treated wood, brick thin blanket materials but are labor
on a sand bed, porous aggregate, or intensive to install and require a
stepping stones in any combination for larger storage space.
walkways and flooring. iv. An alternative is external blankets
6. Heating or insulation. They are more expen-
sive to build, however, because
a. Heating capacity will depend on size
they must be weather resistant.
of greenhouse, the type of covering,
Sleet and snow are difficult to re-
and the coldness of the external tem-
move, and the operator must go
perature and wind relative to the de-
outside to install them.
sired inside temperature. Attached
greenhouses often can use the home 7. Ventilation and cooling
heat source for warmth. i. Ventilation: Ventilation equipment
i. Conventional: You can use coal, will help control temperatures in all
electricity, gas, or oil heat sources. seasons. Hand-operated side or
You can use these sources to heat roof vents require constant supervi-
the air directly in a forced air sys- sion. Automatic ventilation is
tem or to heat water for a hot water simple to install and requires only
or steam system. Use an approved an electric motor, thermostat, and a
flue to vent gas, oil, and coal. Elec- pulley or gear system.
tricity is often too expensive to use. ii. Fans provide good ventilation. You
ii. Solar: By capturing the sun’s heat can use them alone or in combina-
in water, stone, concrete, or similar tion with other vents. Vent fans to
heat-absorbing material, you can draw in the outside air or to recir-
heat your greenhouse via radiation culate internal air. Fans in combi-
during non-sunny periods. You nation with a polyethylene duct
should combine solar heat with will help to distribute the air evenly
other methods such as double throughout the greenhouse.
walls, covers, and blankets to mini- iii. Exhaust fans will draw out the
mize heat loss from the greenhouse. heated air. Usually, you install
iii. Blankets and shutters: Movable them near the roof line to prevent
blankets and shutters can serve as drafts. Use in conjunction with a
nighttime insulation. They are only second vent such as a louvered
as effective as the operator who shutter that opens when the exhaust
must faithfully open and close fan starts. Place the vent at a lower
them. You can make these interior level so cool air moves across the
insulating systems from black or greenhouse, mixing with warmer
clear polyethylene film, aluminized air.
fabric, PVC laminate, spun-bonded
Note: Wire all fans to a thermostat set at the
polyester, foam-backed fiberglass
temperature desired before beginning
drapery material, woven and lofted
ventilation.
polyester, or clear plastic bubble
wrap. Fit them on tracks, rollers, or iv. Cooling: When the external air is
slides or secure with hooks. not cool enough to provide internal
Shutters are foam insulation boards cooling for the greenhouse, you
that you cut to fit between wall should use evaporative coolers or
studs and ceiling rafters. Foam with mist blowers to cool the air. Evapo-
23 - 13
rative cooling draws outside air iii. Day-neutral plants do not respond
through wet fiber pads that cool the to the variations in the light-dark
air and add some moisture to it. cycle.
v. Mist blowers use fans that blow iv. If you want flowering in certain
mist from a fine jet of water into plants, you need to provide the
the greenhouse. The mist cools the proper daylength. You do this by
air and provides needed humidity. extending the days with artificial
Control all cooling systems auto- light, or if the days are too long, by
matically with thermostats. shading the plants with an opaque
vi. Shading: Shading can reduce the black cloth supported on a frame.
need to ventilate and cool a green- v. Do not ever peek into the shaded
house because it curtails the area, however, as just a “flash” of
amount of radiation entering. Shad- light will destroy the long-night
ing also protects plants from the effect!
direct rays of the hot summer sun vi. To provide a longer day-length, the
and reduces light intensity. Often light intensity does not need to be
needed from June to August, you as high as it would be for proper
can provide shading by whitewash- growing conditions.
ing the greenhouse, attaching d. Artificial lights: You can use various
blinds or panels, or by covering the types of lamps in the greenhouse. A
house with shade or saran cloth. simple timer is ideal for turning the
8. Lighting lights on and off.
In the greenhouse, you may need to i. Incandescent: These lamps give off
supplement natural light, especially dur- red light and infrared radiation that
ing the long winter nights. Light controls becomes heat. They are not intense
most plant functions, so it is important to enough to supply light to plants
understand the needs of your plants. with a high light requirement. Light
a. Light quality: Plants use red and blue distribution is restricted.
portions of white light for various ii. Fluorescent: Fluorescent lamps
plant functions. It is important to have produce less heat, and different
red/orange light for germination, matu- types vary in their output in the
ration, and flower and seed production. red-blue areas. One cool-white and
Plants use blue/violet light for growth one warm-white bulb provide a
and leaf development. Artificial lights good spectrum for plant growth.
must supply the proper light spectra. iii. Mercury vapor, sodium, and metal-
b. Light intensity: Some plants require lic halide: These lamps provide
bright light to grow, while others pre- high intensity lighting. They are
fer shady (less intense light) areas. expensive and more suitable to
Light is measured in foot-candles or large-scale production.
lux (see section “I.B” on Light). e. Watering: In the home greenhouse, the
c. Light duration: A photoperiodic effect traditional watering method is a mist
is the response of a plant to the length or spray nozzle on a garden hose. The
of the light and dark periods. Flower- greenhouse gardener who is gone a lot
ing is the most dramatic effect associ- can install automatic systems, such as
ated with the length of exposure to mist nozzles, spaghetti tubes, or capil-
light. lary mats.
i. Short-day plants respond to a day- i. In some areas, water quality is a
length of less than 12 hours. concern. Water high in salts or high
ii. Long-day plants respond to a day- in alkalinity may need special treat-
length of longer than 12 hours. ment for greenhouse use.
23 - 14
IX. Small Beds for Growing Plants 1. Producing an entire crop under cover of a
cloche is practical wherever the weather
A. Cold Frames
is unreliable or predominantly cool.
A cold frame is a bottomless box with a re- Growing a crop in a cloche allows the
movable lid that you can prop open at various gardener to produce plants that otherwise
degrees. The lid consists of glass or other may not grow in the area. Cloches are
greenhouse covering material on a frame. suited to intensively managed gardens
1. Cold frames do not require artificial heat or and severe climates. The cloche provides
manure. They use the sun’s heat to warm a constant warm temperature and pre-
the soil during the day, and the heat’s radia- vents wind, rain, frost, and pest damage.
tion in the closed cold frame keeps the They may be only the size of a single
plants warm at night. plant or large enough to cover several.
2. During the day, control ventilation and heat- 2. Cloches can have a frame of some type to
ing by propping open the lid. support the covering material (use any
3. Use cold frames to plant seeds and produce greenhouse material or floating row
transplants for main season gardens and for cover). It may be necessary to use some
root cuttings. type of venting system to reduce the heat
B. Hotbeds that solar radiation produces. Construc-
You can convert cold frames to hotbeds simply tion and anchoring needs to be strong
by adding a heat source such as manure, elec- enough to withstand the wind conditions
tricity, steam, or hot-water pipes. Start seeds or of the area. Often cloches are designed to
force plants in hotbeds. last only 1 year.
1. The amount of extra heat needed depends
on available sun and the external tempera- Further Reading
tures. Soil-heating cable that provides 10 to
15 watts of electric heat per square foot is Books
ideal for most hotbeds. If the bed is in a Cathey, H. 1975. Selecting and Growing House-
sunny, well-sheltered location and the cli- plants. Home and Garden Bulletin No. 82,
mate is not too severe; 10 watts per square
USDA.
foot should be adequate.
Cathey, H. 1979. Indoor Gardening. Home and
2. Attach your heat source to a thermostat or
buy a heat cable with one to provide accu- Garden Bulletin No. 220, USDA.
rate temperature control in the 50° to 79°F Crockett, J. U. Flowering Houseplants. Time-Life
range. On very cold nights, cover the beds Books.
with extra insulating materials. Crockett, J. U. Foliage Houseplants. Time-Life
3. Adding manure that heats as it decomposes Books.
is an effective practice that has worked for Facts of Light About Indoor Gardening. Ortho
centuries. Modern gardeners, however, Books (paperback).
rarely use manure as a heat source.
Graff, Alfred. Exotica, Pictorial Cyclopedia of
C. Cloches
Exotic Plants. Roehrs Co., Inc., E. Rutherford, NJ.
Protecting plants by providing a cloche, or
miniature greenhouse, is standard practice for Graff, Alfred. Exotic Plant Manual. Roehrs Co.,
gardeners. The cloche offers only temporary Inc.
protection until the outside temperature is fa- Houseplants Indoors and Outdoors. Ortho Books
vorable enough to produce good growth. Hot (paperback).
caps, commercial “Walls of Water,” and 1-gal- How to Grow Houseplants. Sunset Book, Lane
lon plastic milk cartons with the bottom cut out Books (paperback).
are temporary structures that help moderate the
McDonald, E. Houseplants to Grow If You Have No
temperature around plants.
Sun. Popular Library (paperback).

23 - 15
McDonald, E. World Book of Houseplants. Popular Washington State University
Library (paperback). EB 0695 House Plant Pests ($1.00)
Reader’s Digest Success with Houseplants. Reader’s EB 1070 Potting Soil Mixtures
Digest Assn., Inc. EB 1354 Houseplants (50¢)
Webb, R. Insects and Related Pests of Houseplants.
To order Washington State University publica-
Home and Garden Bulletin No. 67, USDA.
tions, contact your county’s Cooperative Extension
Booklets and Pamphlets office or write to Bulletin Office, Cooperative
University of Idaho Extension, Cooper Publications Building, Washing-
ton State University, Pullman, WA 99164-5912.
PNW 171 Building Hobby Greenhouses (50¢)
PNW 151 Propagating Herbaceous Plants Alberta Agriculture
from Cuttings (50¢) Agdex 731-5 Hobby Greenhouses in Alberta
PNW 170 Propagating Plants from Seed ($2.50) ($14.00)
CIS 841 Seed Germination Test Methods To order, contact Alberta Agriculture, 7000 - 113
for Home Use (25¢) Street, Edmonton, Alberta T6H5T6
CIS 881 Success with Very Small Seeds (35¢) Videos
CIS 858 Using Bark and sawdust for Mulches, How to Grow Healthy Houseplants, VHS 457,
Soil Amendments, and Potting Mixes District III Extension Office, Twin Falls, ID.
(35¢) Foliage Plants for Interiors, WSU/UI Regional
To order University of Idaho publications, Media Collection, 1 (800) 999-1765.
contact your county’s UI Extension office or write
Indoor Plants, WSU/UI Regional Media Collection,
to: Publications, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID
1 (800) 999-1765.
83844-2240, call (208) 885-7982, or email:
calspubs@uidaho.edu. Make checks payable to Plant Propagation: From Seed to Tissue, WSU/UI
Publications. Idaho residents add 6 percent sales Regional Media Collection, 1 (800) 999-1765.
tax. Also check, and in some cases download, the Slide Sets
online publication catalog on the UI Educational
Communications web site: (http:/ Care and Culture of House Plants, ASHS 10, 80 sl.,
info.ag.uidaho.edu). F. Gouin, Eugene Memmler, P.O. Box 94475,
Pasadena, CA 91109.
Indoor Landscaping (House Plants), ASHS 1, 92 sl.,
Cochran, Eugene Memmler, P.O. Box 94475,
Pasadena, CA 91109.

23 - 16
Index
2,4-D, 12-7, 16-8 Annuals (cont’d) B

mulching, 18-7
A Bacillus thuringiensis, 10-3,
pinching, 18-7
18-17
Abiotic, 12-3, 12-6, 12-7 planting, 18-6
Bacteria, 7-2, 7-3, 12-5
Acaricides (also see Pesticides), propagation, 18-5
Bactericides, 12-10
8-2 seeds, 18-5
Baits (also see Pesticide
Acidic soil (also see pH), 4-4 slugs, 18-8
formulations), 8-4
Actinomycetes, 7-2, 7-3 snails, 18-8
Balled and burlapped (B&B),
Active ingredients (also see soil preparation, 18-6
6-4, 16-3
Pesticides), 8-4 staking, 18-8
Balsam woolly adelgid, 10-4
Adventitious roots, 2-10 tender, 18-5
Banvel, 12-7, 16-8
Aeration, 7-4, 12-6 thinning, 18-7
Bareroot plants (BR), 6-4, 16-3
Aerial roots, 2-10 transplants, 18-5
Bark, 2-7, 13-6
Aerobic, 7-2 to 7-4 vegetables, 19-11
Bats, 11-5
Aerosols (also see Pesticide watering, 18-6
Beans, snap, 20-2
formulations), 8-4 weeding, 18-7
Bees, 9-6
Agriculture, 2-2 Annuals for Idaho, 18-9, 18-10
Beetles, 9-4
Agronomy, 2-2 Anoplura, 9-4, 9-9
Beets, 20-3
Alkaline soil (also see pH), 4-4 Anther (also see Plant growth),
Beneficial predators, 9-2, 9-9,
Almonds (also see Fruit trees), 2-10
10-3
21-5 Anthracnose, 12-11, 22-10
Bentgrass, 14-4
Alternate leaves, 2-4 Ants, 9-6, 10-11
Berries
Ambimobile chemicals, 8-3 Aphids, 9-7, 10-7, 10-9, 18-8,
black raspberries, 22-9
Amendment (also see Compost), 22-5, 22-15, 23-8
blackberries, 22-9
7-14 APHIS (Agricultural Plant Health
blueberries, 22-10
Ammonium nitrate, 4-13 Inspection Service), 12-3
elderberries, 22-16
Ammonium sulfate, 4-13 Apical dominance, 21-6
gooseberries, 22-14
Anaerobic, 4-2, 7-2, 7-3, 7-12 Apple fire blight, 12-5, 12-11
purple raspberries, 22-9
Anchorage (also see Roots), 2-9 Apple-and-thorn skeletonizer,
red raspberries, 22-5
Angular blocky (also see Soils, 10-7
strawberries, 22-2
structure), 4-4 Apples, 21-3
Biennials, 2-4, 18-10
Anion, 4-5, 4-6 Apricots, 21-4
Billbugs, 14-18
Annelids, 10-7 Arachnida, 9-9, 10-12
Biocides, 12-10
Annuals, 2-4, 18-4, 18-5 Arthropoda, 11-8
Biological control, 10-3, 12-11
deadheading, 17-7, 17-8 Asexual propagation, 3-9
Biotic, 12-3, 12-5
diseases, 18-8 Asparagus beetle, 10-10
Birch leafminer, 10-6
fertilizing, 18-6 Aspect (also see Landscaping),
Birds as pests, 11-7
half-hardy, 18-5 15-4
Blackberries, 22-9
hardy, 18-5 Avicides, 11-7
Blackheart, 12-6
insects, 18-8 Awl-like leaves, 2-4
Blackleg, 12-11
Index, The Idaho Master Gardener Program Handbook
1
Blade, 2-4 Chemical sterilants, 13-9 Composting (cont’d)
Blight, 12-11 Chemigation, 12-10 anaerobic, 7-2, 7-3, 7-12
Blister mite, 10-7 Chem Trec (for pesticide spills), barrels and tumblers, 7-7
Blossom-end rot, 12-7 8-7 benefits, 7-14
Blueberries, 22-10 Cherries, 21-4 bins and ventilated
Boron, 4-9, 4-12, 22-19 Cherry fruit fly, 10-8 containers, 7-7, 7-16 to
deficiency, 4-12 Cherry fruitworm, 22-11 17-18
Botanicals (also see Insecticides), Chilopoda, 9-10, 10-11 browns, 7-5
8-3 Chipmunks, 11-3 carbon/nitrogen ratio, 7-5
Botany, 2-2 Chlorinated hydrocarbons, 8-3 curing, 7-15
Botrytis bunch rot, 22-4, 22-11 Chlorine, 4-9, 4-12 degradability, 7-5
Boxelder bug, 9-7, 10-12 deficiency, 4-12 greens, 7-5
Broccoli, 20-4 Chlorophyll, 2-6, 4-11 inoculants, 7-10
Brown rot, 12-11 Chlorosis, 4-11, 4-12, 12-6, knowing when ready, 7-12,
Browns and greens, 7-5 12-11, 16-7 7-13
Brussels sprouts, 20-5 Chucks, 11-3 layering, 7-10, 7-11
Buffalograss, 14-6 Cicadas, 9-7 location, 7-10
Bulbs, 18-13 Classification, plant managing a pile, 7-8, 7-10
Bundle scars, 2-4 by life cycle, 2-3 materials, 7-8, 7-9
Butterflies, 9-5 clone, 2-3 materials not to use, 7-8
Butterflying (also see Roots), cultivar, 2-3 methods, 7-7
16-4 family, 2-2 moisture, 7-4, 7-12
genus, 2-3 odor management, 7-12,
C nomenclature, 2-3 7-13
Cabbage, 20-7 species, 2-3 piles, 7-7
Cabbage looper, 10-10 Clay, 4-2 porosity, 7-4
Cabbage maggot, 10-10 Climate, 3-3 process, 7-2 to 7-6
Caladium, 18-13 Cloches, 23-15 quality, 7-15
Calcium 4-9, 4-11 Cloning (also see Plant growth), soil incorporation, 7-16
deficiency, 4-11 2-3, 3-9, 23-10 squeeze test, 7-4, 7-12
Cambium, 2-7 Cockroaches, 9-7, 10-11 temperature, 7-3, 7-6
Camel crickets, 9-7 Codling moth, 9-5, 10-7 time, 7-7
Cane borer, 22-8 Coldframes, 19-18, 23-15 troubleshooting, 7-12, 7-13
Cankers, 12-11 Cole crops, 20-4 to 20-8, 20-10 to turning, 7-4, 7-11
Cantaloupes, 20-8 20-12 using, 7-14, 7-15
Captan, 8-4 Coleoptera, 9-4, 9-5 volume, 7-10
Carbamates, 8-3 Collar rot, 12-10 weeds, 19-13
Carbon, 7-5 Collembola, 9-4, 9-9 worm, 7-17
Carbon dioxide, 7-2 Color, 15-6, 18-2, 18-3 Conduction (also see Roots), 2-9
Carbon/nitrogen ratio, 4-3, 7-5 Colorado potato beetle, 10-9 Conifers, 16-8, 17-11, 17-14
Carpenter ant, 10-11 Columnar (also see Soils, Contact exchange, 4-6
Carpet beetle, 10-10, 10-11 structure), 4-4 Container gardening, 18-4, 18-5,
Carrot rust fly, 10-10 Common blight, 12-9 23-6
Carrots, 20-9 Compaction (also see Soils), 4-7, container selection, 23-6,
Casoron, 16-8 16-5 18-5
Caterpillars, 9-5, 22-18 Companion crops, 10-3 drainage, 23-4
Cation, 4-5 Composting, 7-2 to 7-19 fertilizing, 23-5
Cats as pests, 11-7 additives, 7-9, 7-10 houseplants, 23-7
Cauliflower, 20-10, 20-11 aeration, 7-4, 7-12 indoor, 19-17
Cellulose, 7-3 aerobic, 7-2 to 7-4 maintenance, 18-5
Centipedes, 9-10, 10-11 alternatives, 7-16 media, 19-16

2
Container gardening (cont’d) Cuticle, 2-4, 2-5 Diseases (cont’d)
planting, 18-5 Cuttings, 3-9 to 3-12 disease resistant cultivars,
planting, vegetables, 19-16 Cutworms, 9-5, 10-8 12-10
reusing, 23-7 Cyclamen, 18-14 eradication, 12-9, 12-10
size determination, 23-7 Cyclamen mites, 23-8 exclusion of pathogen, 12-9
soil, 18-5 Cytospora canker, 12-11 general information, 12-2,
vegetables, 19-15 to 19-17 12-3
watering 18-5, 19-16, D integrated disease
19-17 Daconil 2787, 8-4 management, 12-11
Cooley spruce gall adelgid, 10-4 Dahlia, 18-9 lawns, 14-20
Copper, 4-9, 4-12, 21-3, Damping-off, 12-10, 12-11, 18-8 perennials, 18-17
deficiency, 4-12 Deadheading signs, 12-3
Corms, 18-13 annuals, 18-7 symptoms, 12-3
Corn smut, 12-5, 12-12 perennials, 18-16 terms, 12-11, 12-12
Corn, sweet, 20-24, 20-25 Decompose, 7-2 to 7-6 Disinfectant, 8-2
Cortex, 2-7, 2-8 Deer, 11-6, 21-9 Divisions
Coryneum blight, 12-12 Deficiency symptoms, 4-9 to of botany, 2-2
Cotoneaster webworm, 10-5 4-12 plant sciences, 2-2
Cotyledons (also see Plant Defoliation and defoliants, 8-2 Dodder, 12-6
growth), 2-13 Degradability (also see Dogs as pests, 11-7
Cover crops, 4-15, 11-9 Composting), 7-6 Dormancy, 3-4, 3-5
annual, 4-15 Dermaptera, 9-4 Dormancy (also see Plant
benefits, 4-15 Desiccation and desiccants, 8-2 physiology), 2-13, 2-14
Idaho, 4-16 Development of fruit, 2-12 Dormant oil, 16-8, 21-9
negative aspects, 4-15 Devil’s hair, 12-6 Drought, 16-6
perennial, 4-15 Diagnosing plant problems, 12-7 Dry flowable (DF) (also see
uses, 4-15 to 12-9 Pesticide formulations), 8-5
Crabgrass, 14-20 Diammonium phosphate, 4-14 Dusts (also see Pesticide
Crickets, 9-7, 9-8 Dichlobenil, 16-8 formulations), 8-4
Crocus, 18-13 Diffusion (see Nutrient mobility), Dwarf mistletoe, 12-6
Crop rotation, 10-3, 11-9, 12-9, 4-7
13-5 Diploda, 9-10 E
Crown borer, 22-8 Diptera, 9-4 to 9-6 Earthworms, 10-7, 11-10
Crown gall, 12-11, 22-8 Disbudding perennials, 18-16 Earwigs, 9-8, 10-9
Crown rot, 21-7, 23-9 Disease triangle, 12-4, 12-5 Edema, 12-6
Crumbly berry, 22-8 Diseases 12-2 to 12-14, 21-8 Eggplant, 20-13, 20-14
Crustacea, 9-10 annuals, 18-8 Elderberries, 22-16
Cucumber, 20-12, 20-13 biological control, 12-11 Elm leaf beetle, 10-5, 10-12
Cucurbits, 3-3, 20-12, 20-13, causal agents, 12-3 Elongation, zone of, 2-9
20-20, 20-21, 20-27 to caused by abiotic agents, Embryo (also see Plant growth),
20-31 12-6, 12-7 2-13
Cultivars, 2-3, 18-18 caused by biotic agents, Emulsifiable concentrates (EC),
Cultivation practices, 5-7, 5-8 12-5, 12-6 (also see Pesticide
Curly top, 12-11 chemical protectants, 12-10, formulations), 8-5
Currant aphid, 22-15 12-11 English walnut (also see Fruit
Currant borer, 22-15 concepts, 12-3 to 12-5 trees), 21-4
Currant fruit fly, 22-15 control, 12-9, 12-11 Entomology 9-2 to 9-10
Currants control of houseplant, 23-9, Environmental monitoring
black, 22-13 23-10 equipment, 5-6
red, 22-13, 22-14 definition, 12-3 Ephemeroptera, 9-9
white, 22-13, 22-14 diagnosis, 12-7 to 12-9 Epidemic, 12-11

3
Epidermis, 2-4 Frost, 3-3, 16-6, 21-2 Fumigation, 12-10, 12-11, 13-10
Equipment, horticultural 5-2 to Fruit leafrollers, 10-7 Fungi, 7-2, 7-3, 12-5
5-7 Fruit trees Fungicides, 8-2, 8-4, 12-11
Eradicants, 12-10 apical dominance, 21-6 Fungus gnat, 23-8
Etiolation, 12-6, 12-12 apple varieties, 21-3 Fusarium root rot, 12-9
bareroot trees, 21-5 Fusarium wilt, 12-9, 12-10
F biennial bearing, 21-10
Fairy ring fungus, 14-4, 14-20 container trees, 21-6 G
Fall gardening, 19-17, 19-18 cross-pollination, 21-3 Garden, 19-2 to 19-18
Fall webworm, 10-5 diagram of tree parts, 21-5 container gardening, 19-15,
Family, 2-2 disease control, 21-8, 21-9 19-16
Fertilize, 4-12 to 4-16 drainage, 21-7 controlling weeds, 19-13 to
annuals, 18-6 fertilizer, 21-8 19-15
calculations, 4-13 frost damage, 21-2 equipment 5-1 to 5-8
fruit trees, 21-7, 21-8, herbicides, 21-9, 21-10 intensive, 19-8 to 19-10
21-10 insect control, 21-8, 21-9 irrigation, 19-12, 19-13
fruits, small, 22-3, 22-7, planting, 21-5, 21-6 location, 19-2, 19-3
22-12 to 22-19 pome fruits, 21-3 methods, 19-8 to 19-10
houseplants, 23-5 pruning, 21-6, 21-7 planning, 19-2
inorganic, 7-9 rodent damage, 21-8 planting, 19-7
lawns, 14-11, 14-14 to rootstock, 21-5 preparing for winter, 19-17,
14-16 scion, 21-5 19-18
organic, 7-10 site selection, 21-2 seeds, 19-4 to 19-6
perennials, 18-15 soil amendment, 21-6 seeds, starting indoors, 19-6,
quantity formulas, 21-8 soil requirements, 21-2 19-7
slow release, 4-13 stone fruits, 21-4 seeds, starting outdoors,
terminology, 4-12, 4-13 sun requirements, 21-2 19-7
types, 4-13, 4-14 sunscald, 21-9, 21-10 soil preparation, 19-3, 19-4
vegetable gardens, 19-4 terminal growth chart, 21-8 transplants, 19-10, 19-11
vegetables, container, 19-17 troubleshooting chart, 21-10 Garden symphylan, 10-9
Fertilizer calculations, 4-13 watering, 21-7 Genus, 2-2, 2-3
Fescues, 14-4, 14-5 winter injury, 21-9, 21-10 Germination, 3-2 to 3-4
Fibrous roots, 2-9 Fruits test, 3-3
FIFRA (Federal Insecticide, apples, 21-3, 21-5 Gladiolus, 18-13
Fungicide, and Rodenticide apricots, 21-4 Glyphosate, 12-7, 14-4, 16-8
Act), 8-8 blackberries, 22-9, 22-10 Gnats, 9-5
Filament (also see Plant growth), blueberries, 22-10, 22-11 Gooseberries, 22-14 to 22-16
2-10 cherries, 21-4 Gophers, 11-4
Filberts (also see Fruit trees), currants, 22-13, 22-14 Grafting, 3-14 to 3-17, 16-6
21-4 elderberries, 22-16 Granular (also see Soils,
Fire blight, 12-10, 21-3, 21-4 gooseberries, 22-14 to structure), 4-4
Firebrats, 9-9 22-16 Granules (also see Pesticide
First-aid procedures, pesticide grapes, 22-16 to 22-19 formulations), 8-4
poisoning, 8-6 kiwi, 22-12, 22-13 Grapes, 22-16 to 22-19
Flea beetles, 10-9 nectarines, 21-4 Grass bug, 10-12
Fleshy fibrous roots, 2-9 peaches, 21-4 Grass weevils, 10-12
Flies, 9-5, 9-6, 10-11 pears, 21-3, 21-4 Grasshoppers, 9-7
Floriculture, 3-2 plums, 21-4 Greenhouse effect, 3-2
Flowers, 2-10 to 2-12 prunes, 21-4 Greenhouses
Foliar fertilizer, 17-15 raspberries, 22-5 to 22-10 benches, 23-12
Friable soil, 4-3 strawberries, 22-2 to 22-5 cloches, 23-15

4
Greenhouses (cont’d) Herbicides (cont’d) Humidity, 23-3
coldframes, 23-15 contact, 13-9 Humus, 7-2
cooling, 23-13, 23-14 damage, 16-7 Hybrid, 2-3
covering materials, 23-11, how herbicides work, 8-3 Hydrozone, 15-5
23-12 nonselective, 8-3, 13-9, Hymenoptera, 9-4, 9-6
design and construction, 14-19 Hyphae, 12-5
23-11 perennial, 8-3
flooring, 23-13 postemergent, 13-9 I
heating, 23-13 preemergent, 13-9, 14-19 Idaho soil, 4-5, 4-6
hotbeds, 23-15 residual effects, 21-9 Immobile chemicals, 8-3
light, 23-11 selective, 8-3, 13-9, 14-19 Imported currantworm, 22-15
lighting, 23-14 translocated, 13-9 Indian meal moth, 10-11
location, 23-11 types of chemicals, 8-3 Indigenous species, 15-7
orientation, 23-11 vegetable gardens, 19-14, Indoleacetic acid (IAA), 4-11
shading, 23-13, 23-14 19-15 Inert ingredients (also see
solar, 23-13 Herbs, 19-5 Pesticide), 8-4
types, 23-11 Hexapoda, 9-2 Inoculants, 7-10
ventilation, 23-13, 23-14 Homoptera, 9-4, 9-7 Inoculum, 12-4, 12-12
watering, 23-14 Hopperburn, 10-5 Insect management & control
Greens, 7-5, 7-6 Horticulture, 2-2, 3-2 to 3-5, 15-2 10-2 to 10-13, 21-8
Greenscape, 15-2 limitations, 3-2 to 3-4 biological, 10-3
Grey water, 19-13 propagation of plants, 3-2 chemical, 10-2, 10-3
Ground squirrels, 11-3 Host plant, 12-11 control, 10-4
Growth of plants Host range, 12-11 cultural, 10-3
leaves, 2-4 to 2-6 Hotbeds, 23-15 houseplants, 23-8
roots, 2-9, 2-10 Household pests, 10-11 to 10-13 integrated, 10-4
stems, 2-6 to 2-8 Houseplants, 23-2 to 23-16 interplanting, 19-9
Gypsum, 14-3 cloches, 23-15 mechanical, 10-2
coldframes, 23-15 non-chemical, 18-8, 23-8,
H containers, 23-6, 23-7 23-9
Halo blight, 12-9 definition, 23-2 quarantines, 10-4
Hantavirus, 11-2 diagnosis of problems, 23-7 Insecta, 9-2
Hard pan, 4-7 diseases, 23-9, 23-10 Insecticidal soaps
Hardening process, 3-9 drainage, 23-4 annuals, 18-8
Hardiness zones, 15-3 environmental factors, 23-6 houseplants, 23-8
Hardscape, 15-2, 15-5, 15-7 fertilizer, 23-5 perennials, 18-17
Harvesting greenhouses, 23-10 to 23-14 Insecticides, 8-2
equipment, 5-6 hotbeds, 23-15 botanicals, 8-3
Hazelnuts (also see Fruit trees), humidity, 23-3 classes, 8-3
21-4 insects, 23-8, 23-9 houseplants, 23-8
Heart rot, 16-5 light requirements, 23-2, how they work, 8-3, 8-4
Hemiptera, 9-4, 9-6 23-3 injury, 16-8
Herbaceous ornamentals, 18-2 to moisture meters, 23-4 preharvest interval, 10-2
18-30 phototropism, 23-7 timing of application, 8-3,
Herbicide application equipment, pinching, 23-7 8-4
13-10, 13-11 potting media, 23-6, 23-7 Insects
Herbicides, 8-2, 8-3, 13-10, propagation, 23-10 annuals, 18-8
14-18, 21-9 repotting, 23-7 beneficial, 9-2, 9-6, 10-3
annual, 8-2, 8-3 salt damage, 23-5, 23-6 classifications, 9-3
biennial, 8-2, 8-3 temperature, 23-3 development, 9-3
common (list), 16-8 watering, 23-4 identification of, 9-3, 9-4

5
Insects (cont’d) L Leaf problems (cont’d)
non-insect pests, 9-9, 9-10 high pH, 16-7
Landscape/Landscaping,15-2 to
orders of, 9-4 to 9-9 insecticide injury, 16-8
15-8
parts of (anatomy), 9-2, 9-3 nutrient deficiency, 16-7
balance, 15-5
perennials, 18-17 root injury, 16-6
color, 15-6
pollinators, 9-5, 9-6 salt damage, 16-7
constraints, 15-3
specific pests, 10-4 to vascular system injury, 16-7
creating a plan, 15-2 to 15-7
10-12 verticillium wilt, 16-7
definitions, 15-2
true bugs, 9-6, 9-7 Leaf roll, 12-11
design principles, 15-5,
Insurance Leafrollers, 22-11
15-6
liability, 1-4 Leaf scar, 2-8
goals, 15-3
workers’ compensation, 1-4 Leaf spot, 22-4
harmony, 15-6
Integrated control, 10-4, 12-11 Legumes, 20-2, 20-3, 20-18,
installation and renovation,
Intensive gardening, 19-8 to 20-19
15-7
19-10 Lenticel, 2-8
local ordinances, 15-4
Interfaces, 6-6, 16-3 Lepidoptera, 9-4, 9-5, 14-18
maintenance, 15-7, 15-8
Internode, 2-7 Lesion, 12-12
movement, 15-5
Interplanting, 19-9 Lettuce, 20-15, 20-16
plant arrangement, 15-6
Invertebrates, 11-8 to 11-10 Life cycles, 12-12
plant problems, 16-4 to 16-8
Ion, 4-5 annuals, 2-4
plant selection, 15-6, 15-7
Iron, 4-9, 4-11, 23-5 biennials, 2-4
planting, 16-3, 16-4
deficiency, 4-11 perennials, 2-4
site analysis, 15-3 to 15-5
Irrigation (also see Watering), Light
soil composition, 16-2
6-4, 6-5 germination, 3-2, 3-3
space, 15-6
containers, 6-7, 19-16, excessive, 23-3
texture, 15-6
19-17 houseplants, 23-2
use areas, 15-4, 15-5
equipment, 19-12 increasing light levels, 23-2
water considerations, 16-2,
fruits, small, 22-3, 22-7, intensity, 3-2, 12-6, 23-2
16-3
22-11, 22-13, 22-15 low, 23-3
water requirements, 6-6, 6-7
houseplants, 23-4 Lignin, 4-3, 7-3, 14-16
Lateral bud, 2-8
lawns, 6-5, 14-13, 14-14 Lily of the valley, 18-21
Lawn moths, 10-6
methods, 6-5 Lime, 7-9, 14-3
Lawns (also see Turfgrass), 14-2
shrubs & trees, 6-5, 21-7 Linear leaves, 2-5
to 14-20
techniques, 19-12 Lodge, 4-10
Layering
vegetables, 6-5, 19-12, Longest day of the year, 13-7
propagation, 3-12 to 3-14
19-13 Loopers, 9-5
compost, 7-11
Isolation, 12-12 Lygus bug, 9-7
LD50, 8-5
Isoptera, 9-4, 9-8
Leaching, 4-8 M
J Leaf and cane spot, 22-9, 22-10
Leaf curl, 12-11 Macroclimate, 15-3
Juniper webworm, 10-6 Leafcutting bees, 9-6 Macronutrients, 4-9 to 4-11,
Leafhoppers, 10-5, 22-19 23-5
K Macroorganism, 7-4
Leaflet, 2-4
Kentucky bluegrass, 14-5, 14-6 Leaf miners, 23-8 Magnesium, 4-9, 4-11, 12-7
Keying out insects, 9-3 Leaf, parts, types and positions, deficiency, 4-11
Kiwi, 22-12, 22-13 2-4, 2-5 Malathion, 16-8
Kniffen training (also see Leaf problems, 16-6 to 16-8 Mallophaga, 9-4, 9-9
Grapes), 22-17 chlorosis, 16-7 Manganese, 4-9, 4-11
Kohlrabi, 20-14, 20-15 drought, 16-6 deficiency, 4-11
frost/freeze damage, 16-6 Manure, 4-4, 7-5, 7-10
herbicide damage, 16-7 green, 4-15

6
Margin, 2-5 Moles, 21-9 Nonobligate parasites, 12-4
Marigolds, 10-3, 12-10 Molluscicides, 8-2 Nontunicate bulbs, 18-13
Mass flow (also see Nutrient Molybdenum, 4-9, 4-12 Noxious weeds
mobility), 4-6 deficiency, 4-12 definition, 13-12
Master Gardener program Monilinia vacciniicorymbosi, Idaho list, 13-13
application, 1-9 22-11 Nutrient mobility, 4-6
certification, 1-3 Monoammonium phosphate, Nutrients, 4-5 to 4-13
fees, 1-4 4-14 Nuts
mission, 1-2 Morphology, 2-2 almonds, 21-4
opportunity contract, 1-7 Mosaic, 12-12 English walnut, 21-4
position description, 1-4 Mosquitoes, 9-5, 9-6 filberts, 21-4
purpose, 1-3 Moth balls or flakes, 11-7 hazelnuts, 21-4
recommendations, 1-3 Moths, 9-5
training dates and location, Mourning cloak butterfly, 10-6 O
1-4 Mowing, 14-9, 14-11, 14-12 Obligate parasites, 12-4
use of title, 1-3 Mulch, 4-4, 7-15, 7-16, 13-6, Odonata, 9-9
volunteer commitment, 1-3 13-7, 14-9 Odor neutralizer (for skunk
Maturation, region of, 2-9 annuals, 18-7 spray), 11-7
MCPA, 16-8 effectiveness, 4-14 O.M. (organic matter), 4-2 to
MCPP, 16-8 inorganic, 4-14 4-4, 4-10, 6-4, 7-23
Mealy bugs, 23-8 organic, 4-14 Onion maggot, 10-10
Media, 19-6, 23-6 perennials, 18-15, 18-16 Onions, 20-16 to 20-18
soilless, 19-6 problems, 4-14 Opposite leaves, 2-4
Meristem, 2-9, 2-14, 2-15 summer, 4-14, 17-16 Organic
Mesophilic organisms, 7-3, 7-4 vegetable gardens, 19-4, mulch, 4-14
Metamorphosis 19-14 nutrients, 7-10
ant, 9-6 vegetables, fall, 19-17 Organism, 12-12
aphid, 9-7 winter, 4-14, 18-15 Organophosphates, 8-3
beetle, 9-5 Mummy berry, 22-11 Orthoptera, 9-4, 9-7
bug, 9-7 Mycelium, 12-5 Ovary (also see Plant growth),
earwig, 9-8 2-10
fly, 9-6 N Ovule (also see Plant growth),
grasshopper, 9-8 Naturalizing, 18-4 2-10
insects, 9-3 Necrosis, 12-12 Oxygen, 4-2, 7-3, 7-4, 7-12
moth, 9-5 Nectarines, 21-5
termite, 9-8 Needle drop, 10-4 P
Mice, 11-4, 21-9 Needle-like leaves, 2-4 Palmately compound leaves, 2-4
Microclimate, 6-2, 15-3 Nematicides, 8-2, 12-10 Palmately-lobed leaves, 2-4
Micronutrients, 4-9, 4-11, 23-5 Nematodes, 11-8, 11-9, 12-5, Parallel-veined leaves, 2-4
Microorganism, 7-2 to 7-4 12-6 Parasites, 12-4, 12-6, 12-12
Microscopic, 12-12 Neuroptera, 9-9 Parts of plants
Midges, 9-5, 9-6 Neutral soil (also see pH), 4-4 sexual, 2-10 to 2-14
Midrib, 2-4 Nicotine, 8-3 vegetative, 2-4 to 2-10
Mildews and molds, 23-9 Nightcrawlers, 10-7, 11-10 Pathogens, 12-3, 12-4, 12-9,
Miller moth, 10-8 Nitrate, 4-7, 4-13 12-12
Millipedes, 9-10, 10-11 Nitrogen, 4-9, 4-13 to 4-15, 7-5, Pathology, 12-2, 12-12
Minerals, 4-2, 7-3, 12-7 7-9, 7-14 PCO (exterminator), 10-11
Mites, 10-11 deficiency, 4-10 Pea leaf weevil, 10-9
Moisture, 7-4, 7-12, 18-5, 19-3, Node, 2-6, 2-7 Peach aphid, 10-9
19-4 Nomenclature, 2-3 Peach tree borer, 10-8
Molds, 12-5 Nonindigenous species, 15-7 Peach twig borer, 9-5, 10-8

7
Peaches, 21-4 Pericycle, 2-9 Phenoxy compounds, 16-8
Pear psylla, 10-7, 10-8 Permeability, 4-7 Phloem, 2-7 to 2-9
Pear slug, 9-6, 10-8 Pest strips (also see Pesticide Phloem mobile chemicals, 8-3
Pears, 21-3, 21-4 formulations), 8-4 Phosphate, 4-12, 4-13
Peas, 20-18, 20-19 Pesticides, 8-2 to 8-8, 18-17 Phosphorus, 4-9, 4-10, 4-13,
Peppers, 20-19, 20-20 active ingredients, 8-4 4-14
Perennials classifications, 8-5 deficiency, 4-10
bulbs, 18-13 contact, 8-4 Photoperiodism (also see Light
corns, 18-13 control methods, 8-2 relations), 23-14
cultivars, 18-18 disposal options, 8-7 Photosynthesis, 2-6, 4-11
deadheading, 18-16 exposure, 8-6 Phototropism, 23-7
disbudding, 18-16 first-aid, 8-6, 8-7 Phyla, 9-2
diseases, 18-17 formulations, 8-5, 8-6 Phytopathology, 12-2
fertilizing, 18-15 general use, 8-4 Phytophthora root rots, 22-7
grafting, 18-13 hazards, 8-5 to 8-7 Phytoplasmas, 12-5
half-hardy, 18-11 herbicides, 8-2, 8-3 Phytotoxicity, 12-7
hardy, 18-11 inert ingredients, 8-4 Picture-winged fly, 10-8
herbaceous, 18-10 insecticides, 8-3, 8-4 Pillbugs, 9-10
horticulture oils, 18-17 labels, 8-4 Pinching
insecticidal soaps, 18-17 law, 8-7, 8-8 annuals, 18-7
insects, 18-17 main objectives, 8-2 perennials, 18-16
layering, 18-13 poisoning, 8-6 Pinnately-lobed leaves, 2-4
pesticide control, 18-17 recommendations, 8-8 Pistil, 2-10, 2-11
pinching, 18-16 restricted use, 8-4 Pith, 2-7
planting, 18-14, 18-15 rinsate, 8-7 Plant growth
propagation by division, spills, 8-7 broadcasting, 3-6
18-12 storage, 8-7 cloning, 2-10
propagation by seed, 18-11, systemic, 8-4 development of fruit, 2-12
18-12 toxicity, 8-5 fertilization, 2-11
rhizomes, 18-14 Pests light, 3-2, 3-3
root cuttings, 18-13 birch, 10-6 reproduction, 2-10 to 2-14
selection for Idaho, 18-17 to birds, 11-7, 11-8 seeds, 3-2 to 3-8
18-28 cats, 11-7 sowing seeds, 3-6, 3-7
site selection, 18-14 dogs, 11-7 Plant management, 6-2 to 6-7
soil preparation, 18-14 garden, 10-8 to 10-10 Plant pathology, 2-2
staking, 18-16, 18-17 household, 10-10, 10-11 Plant physiology, 2-2
stem cuttings, 18-12 lawn, 10-6, 10-7 Plant problems, 16-4 to 16-8
summer mulch, 18-16 mammals, 11-5 to 11-7 Plant sciences, divisions of, 2-2
tender, 18-11 nematodes, 11-8, 11-9 Planting
thinning, 18-16 ornamental, 10-4 to 10-6 annuals, 18-6
tissue culture, 18-13 rodents, 11-3 to 11-5 apple trees, 21-3
transplanting, 18-14, 18-15 safety, 11-2 balled-and-burlapped
tuberous roots and stems, slugs, 11-9, 11-10 (B&B), 6-4, 16-3, 16-4
18-14 snails, 11-9, 11-10 bareroot, 6-4, 16-3, 18-15
tubers, 18-13 tree fruit, 10-7, 10-8 black currants, 22-13
types of, 2-4 Petal, 2-10 blueberries, 22-11
uses, 18-11 Petiole, 2-4 broadcast, 19-8
vegetables, 19-11, 19-17, pH, 4-4, 7-14, 16-7, 14-3 container plants, 6-4, 16-4,
19-18 correcting, 4-4 18-14, 18-15
watering, 18-15 lowering, 14-3 equipment, 5-2, 5-3,
winter mulch, 18-15 raising, 14-3 19-12

8
Planting (cont’d) Prismatic (also see Soils, Pure Live Seed, 14-7
fruit trees, 21-5, 21-6 structure), 4-4 Pyrethrum, 8-3
fruits, small 22-3 to 22-18 Propagation, 3-2 to 3-17, 18-5
hazelnut trees, 21-4 annuals, 18-5, 18-6 Q
hill, 19-8 asexual, 3-9 to 3-17 Quarantines, 12-3, 12-9
methods, 19-8 begonia, 18-14
pear trees, 21-3 bulbs, 18-13 R
potbound plants, 18-15 containers, 19-6 Rabbits, 11-4, 11-5
preparing plants, 18-15 corms, 18-13 Raccoons, 11-5, 11-6
preparing soil for winter, damping-off, 19-6 Rachis, 2-4
19-18 grafting, 18-13 Radicle, 2-13
raspberries, 22-6 layering, 18-13 Radish, 20-21, 20-22
red/white currants, 22-14 light, 19-6 Raised beds, 19-8
rows, 19-8 media, 19-6 Raspberries, black, 22-9
seeds, 3-5 to 3-7, 6-2 peat pellets and cubes, 19-6, Raspberries, purple, 22-9
site preparation, 16-3 19-11 Raspberries, red, 22-5, 22-8
strawberries, 22-3 rhizomes, 18-14 Rats, 11-4
walnut trees, 21-4, 21-5 root cuttings, 18-13 Red stele, 22-4
Platy (also see Soils, structure), seed (houseplants), 23-10 Repellents, 10-3, 11-8
4-4 sexual, by seed, 3-2 to 3-9, Resistance, 12-12
Plecoptera, 9-9 18-11, 18-12 Resistant crops, 10-3
PLS (Pure Live Seed), 14-7 sowing, 3-6 Respiration, 2-5, 4-11
Plums, 21-4 stem cuttings, 18-12 Rhizome, 2-7, 18-14
Pocket gophers, 11-4 thinning, 18-7 Ring rot, 12-9
Pollen grain, 2-11 tissue culture, 18-13 Rinsate, 8-8
Pollen tube, 2-11 tuberous roots and stems, Rock phosphate, 4-13
Pollination, 2-11 18-14 Rodenticides, 8-2, 11-3
fruit trees, 21-3, 21-4, 21-10 tubers, 18-13 Rodents, 11-3 to 11-5
Pollution, 12-6, 12-7 vegetable seeds, 19-6, 19-7 Roguing, 12-9
Pome fruits, 21-3 vegetative (houseplants), Root knot nematodes, 12-6
Porosity, 7-4 23-10 Roots
Postemergent herbicides, 13-9 vegetative, by division, adventitious, 2-10, 18-12
Potash, 4-9 18-12 aerial, 2-10
Potassium, 4-9, 4-10, 4-13, 4-14, Protectants, 12-10 butterflying, 16-4
23-5, 22-19 Prunes (also see Plums), 21-4 cap, 2-9
chloride, 4-14 Pruning changing soil grades, 16-5
deficiency, 4-10 fruit trees, 21-6, 21-7 compaction, 16-5
magnesium sulfate, 4-14 hazelnut trees, 21-4 function of, 2-9
nitrate, 4-14 heading back, 21-6 girdling, 16-4
sulfate, 4-14 improper, 16-6 hair, 2-9
Potato leaf roll virus, 12-10 pear trees, 21-3 kinds of, 2-9
Potbound (also see Roots), 16-4 seasons, 21-6 kinked, 16-4, 16-5
Potting media, 7-14, 7-15, small fruits, 22-7, 22-11 to knot, 12-12
23-6 22-18 meristematic zone, 2-9
Powdery mildew, 12-12, 22-5, technique, 21-7 potbound, 16-4
22-15, 22-18 thinning, 21-6 rot, 12-12, 16-5, 23-4
Preemergent herbicides, 13-9, Prunus species, 21-7 trenching, 16-5
14-18 Psocoptera, 9-4, 9-9 weevils, 10-5, 10-12, 22-5
Preharvest interval, 10-2 Psychrophilic organisms, 7-4 welling, 16-5
Primary roots, 2-9 Pumpkin, 20-20, 20-21 zone of elongation, 2-9
Princep, 16-8 storage, 20-21 zone of maturation, 2-9

9
Rootstock, 21-5 Silt, 4-2, 4-3 Soils (cont’d)
Rose aphid, 10-4, 10-5 Silverfish, 9-9 solarization, 12-10, 13-7
Rose mosaic, 12-5, 12-12 Simazine, 16-8 soluble salts, 4-8
Rotate crops, 13-5 Siphonaptera, 9-4 sterilants, 13-9
Rotenone, 8-3 Site analysis, 15-3, 15-4 structure, 4-2, 4-4, 14-2,
Roundup, 12-7, 16-8 Skunks, 11-6, 11-7 16-2
Russet ring, 12-6 Slugs, 11-9, 11-10, 18-8, 22-5 testing, 19-3
Rust, 12-12 Smut, 12-5, 12-12 texture, 4-2, 14-2
Ryegrass, perennial, 14-5, 14-6 Snails, 11-9, 11-10, 18-8 trenching, 16-5
Snow mold, 14-20 vegetable gardens, 19-3
S Sod, 14-9 to 14-11 water definitions, 16-2
Sage bug, 10-12 Sod webworm, 14-18 water holding capacity, 4-7
Salinity, 4-8, 4-10 Soil solarization, 12-10, 13-7 water movement, 16-2, 16-3
Salts Soil sterilization, 19-6 winterizing, 4-14, 19-18
damage, 16-7, 23-5, 23-6 Soil/water relationships, 4-7, 4-8 Soluble salts, 4-8
soluble, 4-8 Soilborne pathogens, 12-10 Sowbugs, 9-10
Sand, 4-2, 4-3 Soilless media, 19-6 Spider mites, 9-9, 22-5, 22-8
Sanitation, 10-3, 11-4, 11-9, Soils, 4-2 to 4-12, 12-6, 15-3 Spiders
12-12 acidic, 4-4, 12-16 Aggressive house, 9-10,
Saprophytes, 12-5, 12-12 alkaline, 4-4 10-12
Saturation, 4-8, 16-2 amendments, 4-4, 4-5, Black widow, 9-10, 10-12
Sawflies, 9-6 7-14, 17-6 Brown recluse, 9-10, 10-12
Sawtoothed grain beetle, 10-10 anaerobic, 4-2 Hobo, 9-10, 10-12
Scab, 12-12 changing grades, 16-5 Spindly, 10-5, 12-6
Scale, 9-7, 10-6, 22-11, 22-18, compaction, 4-7 Spittle bugs, 22-5
23-8 components, 4-2 Spores, 12-12, 22-8
Scale-like leaves, 2-4 composition, 16-2 Spotted asparagus beetle, 10-10
Scar of terminal bud, 2-8 correcting, 4-5 Spray drift, 14-17
Scarification, 2-13, 3-4 depth, 14-3 Sprayer calibration, 13-11, 13-12
Scion, 21-5 drainage problems, 16-3 Springtails, 9-9
Scorpions, 9-9 fall preparation, 19-18 Spruce aphids, 10-4
Secondary roots, 2-9 friable, 19-3 Spur blight, 22-8
Seed dormancy Idaho, 4-5, 4-6 Squash, summer, 20-22
scarification, 2-13 incorporation, 7-16 Squash, winter, 20-30
stratification, 2-14 interfaces, 6-6, 16-3 Squirrels, 11-3, 11-4
Seeding and planting tools, 5-5, ion exchange, 4-5 Staking
5-6 irrigation, 6-4, 14-9, 14-13, annuals, 18-8
Seeds 14-14, 14-20, 18-5, 18-6, trees, 16-4, 21-6
buying, 19-4 19-12, 19-13, 19-16, woody ornamentals, 17-14,
dormancy, 2-13 19-17, 21-7, 22-3 17-16
parts of, 2-13 leaching, 4-8 Stamen (also see Plant growth),
planting, 19-7, 19-8 minerals, 4-2 2-10
propagation, 3-2, 19-6, 19-7 moisture conservation, 19-3, Starlings, 11-8
saving, 19-4, 19-5 19-4 Stems, 2-6 to 2-8, 16-5, 16-6
starting, 19-6, 19-7 neutral, 4-4 Stigma (also see Plant growth),
viability, 19-5 pH, 4-4, 14-3 2-10
Sepal (also see Plant growth), plant nutrients, 4-9 Stink bug, 9-6
2-10 preparation, 17-6, 19-3, Stipules, 2-4
Shady areas, 14-5, 14-20 19-10, 19-11 Stolon, 2-7
Shot-hole, 12-12 preplant fertility, 14-3 Stomata, 2-4 to 2-6
Shrubs, 4-8, 6-7 soil/water relationships, 4-7 Stone fruits, 21-3, 21-4

10
Storage, 20-7, 20-8, 20-10, 20-12, Symptoms of plant problems Trellis, 19-18, 22-7, 22-10, 22-12
20-18 to 20-22, 20-25, 20-27, (cont’d) Triazines, 16-8
20-29, 20-31 spotting, 22-4, 22-7 to 22-9 Triforine, 8-4
Strangleweed, 12-6 stem problems, 16-5, 16-6, Triple superphosphate, 4-14
Stratification, 3-4, 3-5 23-3 Tuberous begonia, 18-14
Strawberries, 22-2 to 22-5 stem rot, 12-12 Tubers, 18-13
Style (also see Plant growth), 2-10 streaking, 22-4 Tunicate bulbs, 18-13
Subangular blocky (also see wart-like bumps, 12-6 Turfgrass, 14-2 to 14-20
Soils, structure), 4-4 wilting, 6-4, 12-6, 12-12, aeration, 14-16, 14-17
Succession planting, 19-10 16-6, 16-7, 22-4, 22-7 choosing, 14-4, 14-17
Sulfur, 4-11, 4-14, 8-4, 14-3 yellowing, 16-7, 16-8, 22-4, cool season grasses, 14-4,
deficiency, 4-11 22-8, 23-5 14-5, 14-16
Sunscald, 12-6, 16-5, 21-10 Systemics, 12-10, 12-12 crabgrass, 14-20
Surfactants, 8-3 cultivars for Idaho, 14-5
Susceptibility, 12-12 T diseases, 14-20
Swiss chard, 20-25, 20-26 Tactile repellent, 11-7 establishing, 14-7 to 14-12
Symbiotic nitrogen fixation, 17-9 Tap roots, 2-9 fertilizing, 14-11, 14-15,
Symphylan, garden, 9-10, 10-9 Taxonomy, 2-2 14-16, 14-20
Symptoms of plant problems, Temperature and growth of general, 14-2
4-10 to 4-12, 12-3 plants, 3-3, 6-2 herbicides, 14-17, 14-18
blackening, 16-6 Tensiometers, 5-6 insect control, 14-18
bleaching, 12-6, 22-5 Tent caterpillars, 10-6 insects, 14-21
blistering, 16-8 Terminal bud, 2-8 maintenance, 14-12, 14-15
cankers, 12-11, 16-5, 16-6 Termites, 9-8, 10-11 mowing, 14-9 to 14-12
chlorosis, 12-6, 12-7, 12-11, Thatch, 6-5, 6-6, 14-16, 14-17 mulching, 14-9
16-6 to 16-8 Thermophilic organisms, 7-3 overseeding, 14-9
cupping, 22-4 Thichoptera, 9-9 plugging, 14-11
curling, 12-11, 22-5 Thinning problems, 14-18 to 14-20
darkening, 12-11 annuals, 18-7 remove clippings, 14-13
dead tissue, 12-6, 12-11, perennials, 18-16 scalping, 14-12
12-12, 16-6 to 16-8, Thrips, 9-8 seeding, 14-7, 14-8
22-11 Thysanoptera, 9-4, 9-8 shady areas, 14-12, 14-20
distorted growth, 16-8, 22-4 Thysanura, 9-4, 9-9 site preparation, 14-4
drying, 12-12, 16-7 Ticks, 9-9, 9-10 sodding, 14-10
fruit rot, 22-4 Tillage, 13-5, 13-8 soil considerations, 14-2,
girdling, 16-4 Tillering, 14-12 14-3
holes, 12-12, 16-6 Tomato mosaic, 12-10 sunny areas, 14-12
lesions, 12-5, 12-6, 12-12, Tomatoes, 20-26, 20-27 thatch, 14-16, 14-17, 14-20
22-4, 22-8 Topdressing, 7-15, 14-17 topdressing, 14-17
mildew, 12-12, 22-5, 22-18, Topography, 15-4 turf renovation, 14-18
23-9 Toxicity, 8-5 vegetative planting, 14-11,
mold, 12-5, 22-18, 23-9 Transpiration, 2-4, 16-2 14-12
mottling, 12-6, 12-12 Transplants warm season grasses, 14-6
oozing, 16-5 annuals, 19-10, 19-11 watering, 6-4, 6-5, 14-9,
overgrowths, 16-6 vegetables, 19-10, 19-11 14-13, 14-14, 14-19
root damage, 12-5, 12-6, Trap crops, 10-3 weed control, 14-17, 14-18
12-12, 16-4, 16-5, 22-5, Tree stump removal, 13-12 when to sod, 14-10
22-7 Trees, 16-4, 16-6 when to sow, 14-8
scorching, 12-6, 16-6 heavy, wet soils, 4-8 Turnips, 20-27, 20-29
spindly, 12-6 parts of, 21-5 Two-spotted spider mite, 22-17
splits, 16-6 training, 21-5

11
U Vegetable gardens (cont’d) W
lead-prone areas, 19-3
Urea, 4-13 Walls of Water, 23-15
location, 19-2, 19-3
Walnut husk fly, 10-8, 10-12
V maximizing production,
Walnuts (also see Fruit trees),
19-8
Variety, 2-2 21-4, 21-5
mulching, 19-4, 19-14
Vascular bundle, 2-6 Wasps, 9-6, 10-12
no-till gardening, 19-14
Vascular cambium, 2-7 Water-soluble liquids (WS) (also
ordering seeds, 19-2, 19-4
Vascular pathogen, 12-12 see Pesticide formulations), 8-5
perennials, 19-11, 19-17,
Vector, 12-5, 12-12 Water/watering (also see
19-18
Vegetable crops Irrigation)
planning, 19-2
beans, snap, 20-2, 20-3 annuals, 18-6, 18-7
planting, 19-6 to 19-8
beets, 20-3, 20-4 black water, 19-13
planting methods, 19-7,
broccoli, 20-4, 20-5 capillary (available), 16-2
19-8
brussels sprouts, 20-5, 20-6 chlorine, 23-4
preparing for winter, 19-17,
cabbage, 20-7, 20-8 compacting and thatch, 6-5
19-18
cantaloupes, 20-8, 20-9 container gardening, 18-4,
raised beds, 19-8
carrots, 20-9, 20-10 18-5
relay planting, 19-10
cauliflower, 20-10 to 20-12 container plants, vegetables,
seed propagation, indoor,
corn, sweet, 20-24, 20-25 19-15 to 19-17
19-6
cucumber, 20-12, 20-13 containers, 6-4
seed propagation, outdoor,
eggplant, 20-13, 20-14 critical periods, vegetables,
19-7
kohlrabi, 20-14, 20-15 19-13
seeds, saving, 19-4, 19-5
lettuce, 20-15, 20-16 fruit trees, 21-7
seeds, selection, 19-4
onions, 20-16 to 20-18 gravitational, 16-2
seeds, viability, 19-5
peas, 20-18, 20-19 greenhouses, 23-10
soil preparation, 19-3, 19-11
peppers, 20-19, 20-20 grey water, 19-13
soil preparation, fall, 19-18
pumpkin, 20-20, 20-21 houseplants, 23-2
spacing, 19-9
radish, 20-21, 20-22 hygroscopic, 16-2
spacing guide, 19-10
squash, summer, 20-22 to interfaces, 6-6
succession planting, 19-10
20-24 intervals, 6-5
transplants, 19-10, 19-11
squash, winter, 20-30, 20-31 irrigation method, 6-6
use of grey water, 19-13
swiss chard, 20-25, 20-26 lawns, 6-5, 14-9, 14-11,
vertical gardening, 19-9,
tomatoes, 20-26 to 20-29 14-13, 14-14, 14-20
19-10
turnips, 20-27 to 20-29 movement, 16-2
watering, 19-12, 19-13
watermelon, 20-29, 20-30 penetration, 6-5
weeding, 19-13 to 19-15
Vegetable gardens perennials, 18-15
Vegetative planting
cold frames, 19-18 permeability, 4-7
plugging, 14-11
container gardening, 19-15 requirements, 6-4
sprigging, 14-11, 14-12
to 19-17 retention, 6-5
stolonizing, 14-12
cover crops, 19-14 saturation, 16-2
Vermicomposting, 7-17
crop rotation, 19-3 shrubs and trees, 6-4
Vertebrates, 11-3 to 11-8
fall planting, 19-7 soil type, 6-5
Vertical gardening, 19-9, 19-10
fertilizing, 19-4 time of day, 19-12
Verticillium wilt, 12-10, 12-12,
germination chart, 19-7 vegetable gardens, 19-12,
16-7, 22-4, 22-8
herbicides, 19-14 19-13
Verticutting, 14-17
indoor containers, 19-17 Watermelon, 20-29, 20-30
Virulent, 12-4, 12-12
intensive, 19-8 to 19-10 Weeds
Viruses, 12-5
interplanting, 19-9 annuals, 13-3
Voles, 11-3, 11-4
irrigation, 19-3, 19-12, biennials, 13-3
19-13 biological control, 13-5

12
Weeds (cont’d) Weeds (cont’d) Wood ash, 4-14, 7-9
chemical control, 13-8 to tree stump removal, 13-12 Woody plants, 2-4
13-10 vegetable gardens, 19-13, Woolly apple aphid, 10-7
cultivation, 19-13 19-14 Worm composting, 7-17
cultural control, 13-5, 13-6 Weevils, 9-4, 9-5
definition, 13-2 Welling, 16-5 X
herbicide application Wettable powders (WP) (also see Xylem, 2-7
equipment, 13-10, 13-11 Pesticide formulations), 8-5 Xylem mobile chemicals, 8-3
herbicides, 19-14 Wheatgrass, crested, 14-6
identification, 13-4 White ants, 9-8 Y
lawns, 14-17, 14-18 White fly, 23-8 Yellow-bellied sap suckers, 11-8
mechanical control, 13-7, White grub larvae, 14-18 Yellowjackets, 9-6, 10-12, 22-8
13-8 White pine blister rust, 22-15 Yellow rust, 22-8
mulch, 13-6, 13-7 White rot, 12-9
mulching, 19-14 Whorled leaves, 2-4 Z
noxious weeds, 13-12, Wilting, 12-10, 12-12, 22-4, 22-8 Zinc, 4-9, 4-11
13-13 WIN (Water insoluble nitrogen), deficiency, 4-11
perennials, 13-3 14-14 Zones, 6-3, 15-3
prevention, 13-4, 13-5 Winterizing, 19-18 Zoysiagrass, 14-6
sprayer calibration, 13-11, Wireworms, 9-5, 10-9
13-12 Witch’s broom, 4-12

13

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Gardening) Idaho Master Gardener Handbook (2005)

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The Idaho

Master Gardener Program

Robert R. Tripepi, Chair, Extension Horticulture Susan M. Bell, District II Representative,

Publisher: Educational Communications, University of Idaho

January 2005 Published by Educational Communications $50.00

The Idaho Master Gardener Program Handbook

Basics Vegetable Gardening (cont’d)

The Idaho Master Gardener Program Handbook

The Idaho Master Gardener Program Handbook

The Idaho Master Gardener Program Handbook

The Idaho Master Gardener Program Handbook

The Idaho Master Gardener Program Handbook

The Idaho Master Gardener Program Handbook

The Idaho Master Gardener Program Handbook

The Idaho Master Gardener Program Handbook

The Idaho Master Gardener Program Handbook

The Idaho Master Gardener Program Handbook

I. University of Idaho Extension 2

Chapter 1, The Idaho Master Gardener Program Handbook

Introduction and Policies

III. Volunteer Commitment VI. Use of Title

Chapter 1, The Idaho Master Gardener Program Handbook

Chapter 1, The Idaho Master Gardener Program Handbook

Chapter 1, The Idaho Master Gardener Program Handbook

Chapter 1, The Idaho Master Gardener Program Handbook

Idaho Master Gardener Program

Purpose of the Idaho Master Gardener Program

Brief Description of Idaho Master Gardener Responsibilities

Chapter 1, The Idaho Master Gardener Program Handbook

Idaho Master Gardener Program

Participants not able to complete 30 hours of volunteer service

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Chapter 1, The Idaho Master Gardener Program Handbook

What do you expect from this class?

I would like to take this class for Academic credit (+ fee)

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Hands-on Horticultural Service

My schedule is flexible. I can be available almost anytime with advance notice.

Plant Clinic Speaker’s Bureau

Garden Projects __________________________________

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Chapter 1, The Idaho Master Gardener Program Handbook

Codes: W= Caucasian N = Native American H = Hispanic B = Black HC = Handicapped A = Asian

Chapter 1, The Idaho Master Gardener Program Handbook

Idaho Master Gardener Program

Charlotte V. Eberlein, Director

Helping People Grow.

Chapter 1, The Idaho Master Gardener Program Handbook

I. Divisions of Plant Sciences 2

Chapter 2, The Idaho Master Gardener Program Handbook

I. Divisions of Plant Sciences III. Plant Classification

Chapter 2, The Idaho Master Gardener Program Handbook

Chapter 2, The Idaho Master Gardener Program Handbook

V. Plant Parts and Their Functions

Fig. 3. Leaf structure.

Fig. 4. Functions of the leaf. Fig. 5. Parts of the stem.

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