2 ep Bouin Appronch Featuring de Iniemt by Rurose and Ross ft ‘Based on slides trom the Computer Networking: The Data Link Layer Our goals: » Understand principles behind data lis Sharing a brosdeast channel: mukiple access. Link ayer addressing layer serviet » Incoreonnection of different LAN segments » Instantiation and implementation of various link layer technologiesLink Layer: Introduction Some terminology: » hosts and routers are nodes ink" » communication channels that ‘connect agjacent nodes along, ‘communication path are links wired tks wees inks » LANs encapsulates datagr data-link layer has responsibility of transferring datagram from one node to adjacent node over a link PS Peet Link layer: context > Datagram transferred by nsporasion anle different link protocols over different links: » eg. Ethernet on first link, frame rolay on intermediate links, 802.11 on last link » Each link protocol provides » trp from Princeton to Lausanne > limo:Princeson £0 JFK > plane: JFK ro Geneva era: Geneva to Lausanne » transport segment = ‘communication link inven vos mk aire serves aig wransporation mod tn cgay oxmay opie” Ter rococl » travel agent = routing sigortten potePhysical Media > physical link: “Transmitted data bit propagates across link. > guided media: signals propagate in solid media (e.g, copper, fiber). > unguided media: signals propagate freely (eg. radio bands). > The physical Layer defines the “representation” of bits. Its also provides protection by both detecting and correcting « bits (See. hove ie works). Physical Media (Examples) ‘Twisted Pair (TP) » Two insulated copper wires. May be shielded or not. Categocy 3 “Traditional phone wires. Supports 10-Mbps Ethernet. » Category 5 Suppores 100Mbps Ethernes ("Fast-Ethernet’)Physical Media (Examples) Coaxial cable } Two concentric shielded wires. » Baseband single channel on cable, » broadband: ‘multiple channel on cable, > common uses for 10-Mbps Ethernet and TV cables. ee Physical Media (Examples) Fiber <1 Glass fiber carrying light pulses. Single mode or mult ode > High poineeo-plne speed » Very low error rate (caused by low fibers attenuation), » Secured. > Common used for 100-Mbps Ethernet and 1000-Mbps Ethernet ("Gigabit Ethernet’)Physical Media (Examples) > Many more: Ratio bands (WI high bic error rte} + Microwave (Requires hosts in lighe of sight) » Satelite (very slow RTT). Link Layer Services + Recall chat we're actually considering the MAC layer inthe IEEE 802 model : F > ring rae suc) nf nan Ak Sala encapsulate datagram into frame, adding header trailer pra | Link Access (The protocly ‘Adres XING) p59.003\ 4 ——— rodees MAC" atresses used in frame headers co ident hosts B LaDy {ecu NIC) who ar part of the neorork Dilerent for Padres? ROW Ved » ChimelAcess 90 I EGO + Defines the set of rules which allows the hosts to use the (possibly pout jurd} shared) medium. BO oA paiays dae" pf fils Box! ina wa —saxty pot * ow const baled reer becren one edgar cro cue loan se > Rete donce renee fears ipa enero o os ae oer arto ees ror wtb torn es see a cles acboih eff ikon tans bran atne aot Sree ay beeen oss yh ee ‘Link Layer Services soragrom i a ink layer protocol reving a a | we f= a; cadepter adopter » link layer implemented in > receiving side “adaptor” (aka NIC) looks for errors, rdtlow » Ethernet card, PEMCI card control ete 802.11 card > exerats datagram, passes to » sending side: reving node eedncapauaces dacagram ina > adapter is semi-autonomous frame > link & physical layers adds error checking bits rt, flow control, ex.2 droekCost mH Wireless aug De eran pri Af Wer PGW aus ‘watr, vB ony» Iw ie Grsack cae: , | TADEmBES! Three types of “links”: » Broadcast! > eneREepaIE ee » Taso Bereta > PPP for dial-up access — "oceans ater an ot sanw@>| > Switched Neeworks! » We'll focus on Broadcast Swit hv asbnvy » ATM (used for WAN). media. (hy rwrad = ve Sxitdh & Gu/, Son : yon east [rte Multiple Access protocols » single shared broadcast channel » two or more simultaneous transmissions by nodes: interference collision if node receives owo or more signals at the same *ime~ Multiple ACcess (MAC) Protocol » distributed algorithm that determines how nodes share channel, i.e. determine when node can transmit % te by “communication about channel sharing must use channel itself Ty Ca €) D » no out-of-band channel for coordination) MP8 IGT wp bie as ayn = Bate noe fo Aw Pad {30 bp yp We + 4226 Sienath NPY op 62d LB. Human Analogy wu an XP ahh » Rules for ‘party conversation’: » "Give everyone a chance to speak" » "Don'e speak until you are spoken to. “Don't monopolize the conversation.” » "Raise your hand if you have a question." » "Don's incerrupe when someone is speaking.” » "Don't fall asleep when someane else is talking ARC boGr rgun)_ani]. ‘MAC Protocols measures, » Assume a shared medium with a channel rate of R [bpsec]- » Efficient When one node wants to transmit it ea send at rate R. » Fair ‘When N users want to transmit, each can send at average rate RIN. Decentralized No special node uses to coordinave transmission (no “leader") No synchronization of clocks or slots. Faule tolerant » Simple Should be very fast and implemented in NICs firmwarevin 4 Dy eye 2imGrd yl 5 ‘dr wh MAC Protocol Types A UN mona of) | \, Three broad classes: an(S 7k.) > Raine + Divide channel into smaller “pieces” (Time-Slots, Frequancy-Bands ‘or by code). » allocate piece to a nade for exclusive its use. abearsy aby » Random Access) pts nba] * Smear erin py WTAE ttang turns” Lr Nodes take turns, bue nodes wich more to send can take longer yy Di ‘urn, 930 Ot he + Mighe uses a leader to coordinate the turns “Ba | se DAG WD yor >t | Channel Partitioning MAC protocols: TDMA, “TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access) Antroduurkion > Access the channel in "rounds" Gam [funy > Each ston ges fed ength slo ng = packets rans ne) nach round Each dovealed aime Sct > Unused slots go idle Example: @-staton LAN, 1,34 have packtes, slots 2.56 ile (wor pe abe Hh we Com) Low mew ano é PU sap & Wor aw We wr wb & oh snip apary wr GH KG psrG Xo wie 6 i cS) (Iv J OH am) bm Bw yp wo Channel Partitioning MAC protocols: FDMA) FOMA (Frequency Division Mukiple Access) > Channel spectrum divided into frequency bands. > Each station assigned fixed irequency band > Unused transmission time in fraquancy band go ile > example: 6-station LAN, 1 hae packets, requency bands 25,6 idle 4 _————.. time e ——., 2 anes ‘TDM / FDM summary » FDM: Enables the division of a channel with capacity C bits per seconds to N sub-channels, each gets a different frequency range and capacity of C/N. > TDM:The division of channel to N sub-channels, each gets CIN capacity, by giving the entire channel to each of the N stations for I/N of the time. » > The division makes each sub channel less busy, but the overall waiting time is bigger by a factor of N compared to having one channel (Little theorem).COUR | Tenet Yu py wy lbp COMA Soa” Iw ayy yop Channel Partitioning MAC protocols: CDMA » Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) » used in several wireless broadcast channels (cellular, satellite, etc) standards » unique “code” assigned to each user; i.e., code set. partitioning » all users share same frequency, but each user has ‘own “chipping” sequence (i.e., code) to encode data encoded signal = (original data) X (chipping sequence) decoding: inner-product of encoded signal and chipping sequence allows multiple users to “coexist” and transmit simultaneously with minimal interference (if codes » ziare orthogonal”) ou yt 6G ' Random Access MAC Protocols \ 23h < — » From here on, we'll focus on Random Access MAC protocols. c - pk > When node has packet to send > Transact chanel da rate R 0 y Aran € > Noe prier coordination among nodes > Two or more transmitting nodes “> “collision”, { LARK 1322 | 5 Random access MAC protocol specifies: + How to det JIS 22 | exams ofandom es MAC proc Ry 7 ‘ALOHA calisions He slotted ALOHA. oP Mom) CSMAJCD (Ethernet). ( » CSMAICA (Wireless) igo *| es ale p ha bn p02 ww OW me 3p PI (yr Me sha e sali hh oily bor mbpan Or py wd san hie/ pop pe Lobe © boy 25frp wh @ Sp pe Se a ae + pug bs pri Aloha Protocol | > Invented at the '70s in Hawai. > Intended for Radio networks, but suitable for every network where the station can listen to the channel while broadcasting, and determine whether others also transmit. » Basic idea: every station may transmit when it wants to. If collision is detected between frames, back off and try again later. > IFtwo frames are broadcast at the same time on the channel, a collision occurs and the both need to retransmit. 39> j 68 23 O ply AWS D eySte! praby ork Aloha Protocol — » All hosts: ne }_ > Transmit on one frequency (f). Yo) prs » Receive on other frequency (fy). a vice yahy |» There ia central node which repeats whatever it receives from f; frequency on the other fy frequency. © vwnf~ BOD f, frequency ig frequency. . F22 v G a 29 By the central node used as a repeater 4 SY 5 99331, Collisions are detected by the hosts: i By Rew Plc Receiving corrupted data (host knows what should be pe ee 3 received) iL a5 lopu (oy J w| v a6Dy pie ly Arane a 4 by Peel aw nk 2 a A3 Aoysm pur = Ah Ph 8 Fran (ran) 1 a3 asp 0h Gr yr J 1 Aloha Protocol | os r Dae! |. Accept a new frame arrives ah yk 2. Transmit immediately and listen: : it oe paws Ifa collision occurred, wait a random time, and ph po sf repeat to stage 2. Otherwise, go back to stage | to handle a new frame. Se vw'red, AQ dyk) pwh ‘pd Same Swi) aD Ph saibaysy 230 hr G pe ° “Bh PWR a BIO KDR ew VW Hong io aut 89) (oa ARUYD BED BOP AMDO OAD Lwin Py pour yh Aloha Aloha Protocol pee abr » Simple. > Robust against failure of a host. 4 i yh Ae L}. » Distributed (excluding the central node, which uses as a bin % eRwa repeater), pr > High load implicates low utilization of the channel and high | AW" phy ofS, delays. WY DOE hp > % a) Po ww | Qe » pple Ru sok du ph spa Wise) _Ayaun) ryy + proka Bren 6a aa iy@baronet Le ps_sty Sopa wl Bod fpr A a sp & Alt ys BY I B® Me DOHC PI ase pow Bryn pate 2 Sp) ip Ae CACO) by OP an) Be Efficiency is the long-run vail py) % Aloha + efficiency | fraction of successful 7 ‘transmissions when there are Kp x) YH)| + Only 18%... many nodes, each with many a Bef frames to send » Suppose there are n stations, and the probability that a BY vy | station starts transmitting in a time unit is p. : prs) » Then:The probability that exactly one node transmits ina time unit is ae pry al “ie Bionaeae | ie, [Sento unis 3) 9 mpBa BUCA ole =| yan Ge og & wy] ., ae AYO) ps an) ADD KVr?R dy por) > Ah Efficiency is the long-run Aloha - efficiency _| fraction of successful ‘transmissions when there are > Only 18%... many nodes, each with many frames to send > Maximize the utilization function by differentiation yields maximum point at p= 1/(2v/-1) with utilization of 12e= 0.18. » Trivial improvement: Why be vulnerable for 2 time units? Synchronize, and use slotted time. May transmit only at integer times‘Slotted Aloha Assumptions Operation » all frames same size » when node obtains fresh frame, » time is divided into equal ie transmits in next slot size slots, time to transmit | > no collision, node can send frame new frame in next slot » nodes start to transmit » if collision, node retransmits frames only at beginning of frame in each subsequent slot slots with prob. p until success » nodes are synchronized » if 2 or more nodes eransmit in slot, all nodes detect collision Slotted Aloha’ wt 2 Gl no? vee? = os 8 2 8 2 2 Pe Pros Cons » single active node ean » collisions, wasting slots continuously transmit at > idle slots full rate of channel » nodes may be able to » highly decentralized: only detect collision in less than slots in nodes need to be time to transmit packet in syne » clock synchronization » simple rw Lo 15Slotted Aloha - efficiency | f : For max ficiency with N Efficiency is the long-run See fraction of successful slots neupiet when there are many nodes, |» For many nodes rake iit of each with many frames to send| —Np*(I-p')"as N goes so infin eves Le = 37 > Suppose Ni nades with many ifames to sendy each transmits in slot wath probability p > prob that node I as success in Sloe =a! > prob har any node has a A? best: channel ee used for useful transmissions 37%| of time! Aloha - Summary) > Very popular at the beginning of time » Very simple to handle, » Lots and lots of basic probabilities calculations for students! > Major problem: Nodes don't check what’ going on in the) channel, each acting on its own. No manners! 16on ey e BD hyoar nfo Pl A wpr xle pm ype w2rp or yO wb Af Feud "> 2301 ajo apr teers Py XYIM DE ppralnr a Ke om) ekg ~ apm asi) aud Co > Dy > — > ‘CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access) >» CSMA: listen before transmit: © co 3s Protocol: Listen to the channel If channel sensed idle, cransmit entire frame If channel sensed busy, defer transmission by. LPorsistentcsmas SHY Ay ‘Wait until channe! is quiet and transmit immediately. I collision occurs, wait a random time and liten again (go 0 I) > Non-PersistentCSMA: ” Qoy [BY ‘Wait a random time and listen again (go to 1) » They differ only by the treatment of 1* transmission, SMA human analogy: don't interrupt others! ‘ _CSMA/CD (Collision Detection) » collisi » human (CSMA/CD: carrier sensing, deferral as in COMA » When eransmitzing, ty to sense if there isa collision. » collisions detected within short time. » colliding transmissions aborzed, reducing channel wastage. ie) > easy sd LANs: measure signal strengths, compare transmitted, received signals. > difficule in wireless LANs: receiver shut off while transmitting the polite conversationalist4 we B yn pout We ps 2) You hb A alépoa_ tt ash ples B vbin Wl fip-& ATTY" ‘CSMA/CD Minimum Packet Size ag @) PROP Must detect a collision before finishing the ‘Must have! minimum packet length 2 2PROP foe bbl nv ys rs ‘Ethernet uses CSMA/CD » No slots > Before attempting a retransmission, adapter waits a random time, that is, random access » adapter doesn’ transmit if it senses that some other adapter is transmitting, that is, carrier sense transmitting adapter aborts when it senses that another adapter is transmitting, chat is, collision detection PVP yO P) ye 2 Wl a8n_dh 13 Joy &H ALyrn_199 Aqoh Cw) pS (M07 ap Wl Gata -i aul wi fimAbn Ky D_ 3) 95+ de wl Unreliable, connectionless service’ asp» » Connectionless: No handshaking between sending and ter 3 receiving adapter. owiQ, abo Ak > Unreliable: receiving adapter doesnt send acks or nacks to sending adapter Prins Fszeam of daaprans paseo network yr can ae a > apt wil be file ifap ung TCP > tera ap wl ee he et aw yh fd Br ph ye fn pane ‘ Ady : nh) - | Jat Sishal xahy f om @ Ethernet’s CSMA/CD (more) yy BRD Jam Signakmake sure all other Exponential Backof RO, ABS > transmitters are aware of > Goalt adapt retransmission callin: 48 bes sere a anwraol curren “Wr on peo Bic me. microsecfor 10Mops load nee me exe ib Ads sorb, fre wc ineiatowe —” er i Olicey eR SI2be vase PY : transmission tes i al ee } sriet on AWE ier] fete € Wika highly recommended) |” Pom (O1234, 01023) aby Lb» a vy fat sar Regn po By orl Woy » wma | Saw Stat -F ay gros Qord) sy! Lae) RAL Yeo? pwn 9802.3 CSMA/CD (Ethernet) Algorithm eee mee ‘wansmnie jamming signal (32 bit] Ethernet CSMA/CD algorithm Adaptor receives datagram 4. If adapter detects another from net layer & creates frame transmission while transmicting, ‘2.f adapter senses channel idle, it aborts and sends jam signal starts to transmit frame.tfit S.After aborting, adapter enters senses channel busy, waits until exponential backoff: after channel idle and then transmits the mth collision, adapter 3.If adapter transmits entire chooses a K at random from frame without detecting {0,1.2,...2-I}Adapter waits another transmission, the K°512 bit times and returns to adapter is done with frame ! Step 2 20Ethernet Minimum Packet Size Summary of MAC protocols > What do you do with a shared media? + Channel Partitioning, by time, frequency or code + Time Division, Frequency Division, Code Division » Random partitioning (dynamic), » ALOHA,S-ALOHA, CSMA, CSMAICD » carrier sensing: easy in some technologies (wire), hard in ‘others (wireless) » CSMAICD used in Ethernet » CSMA/CA used in 802.11 (Wireless). abt ey iP -) Don? oR ay mh oad vbgr wld 02 nt pre you LAN technologies Data link layer so far: } MAC protocols. The random protocol approach Next: LAN technologies » Addressing » Ethernet >» Hubs, bridges and swieches 0300 oot Fr pe yp AA pa AphI Bhd + CAC Fs Aed | MAC Addresses and ARP > 32-bit IP address: » MAC (or LAN or physical or Ethernet) address: hw syd © tAC raD_ph 6 Yalu yt 4 ab $B) wh Ceither-% ana) ve Bw 22( LAN Addresses and ARP) Each adapter on LAN has unique LAN address 1A 2F-28-T609-AD Brenden oeere= Wh adopter raairhe se23 p7-ra-2080 pe ceo 23.98 SWoret wh A gyre DOd_ komma wh ® f IPL AW ARP oy Aol Unukisg- 9 ML 72 v9 tod ef51 + yy aba) Gr (Ge shoe) G6") wo byw \P ‘ wt wn 2h prd YDpuy yi) Dow» Yaw UK | LAN Address (more) } MAC address allocation administered by IEEE. + manufacturer buys portion of MAC address space (to assure uniqueness) » Analogy: {@) MAC address: ke Social Security Number (b) IP address: ike postal address » MAC flataddress “> portability + can move LAN card from one LAN to another > IP hierarchical address NOT portable depends on IP subnet to which node is auached i spay” "fol vRy on ny oW yi GE 3aBGou war Lp he) 7 093 Go rah GwGo wh pre Tobie A C36 pam po WWD AUS YDD wu 52 fora Question: how to determine MAC address of B knowing B's IP address? aa i98778 A 2F-88-7609-40 zarsse720 are 1 ARP: Address Resolution Protocol » Each IP node (Host, Router) ‘on LAN has ARP table > ARPTable: IPMAC address ‘mappings for some LAN nodes IP addres MAC adress TTL> TTL (Time To Live} time after ‘which address mapping will be forgotten (eypcally 2 min) > Awants to send datagram to By and Bs MAC address notin As voy 5O Wha. , Kroes Ge ssiy ado] * Snaps adie 9B som] eta Fr Free FR (GR -d) 7B » all machines on LAN receive ARP query a on 8] erecees ARP paca raps Ph ayy a Awith its (B's) MAC address ioe oa 8 3 Lop 2 doy ras LA ARP protocol: Same LAN (network) > Reaches (saves) IP-to-MAC address pair in ts ARP able unt information becomes old (times out) » soft state: information that times out (goes vay) unless refreshed >» ARP is “plug-and-play”: nodes create cher ARP tables without inzervention from net administrator oe GAL poy i BHA OW sda SO LSoue -D A ak ) if ARF ve 6K EA i Be pe WM pl oy nig query 2 ® 24A Src MAC ete. -5S dest ARC = Eb~..-4O Src = weeW dest 9 2696—-992 BL smb A FD PWD vk ip ao 78 Po ph walkthrough send datagram rom ro Ba Rol Lew ye assume A knows B IP address Jay B® Want 86 aft secre (unc) Rovker -a] Hom | eal rt A MAD A NWCP3 vader RY" Gy voter -9 serbomonere, - 8 4-90 Paps +n rousing able source Host fo rouer 111111111110 FU LOL UW] | ARP oble at source, find MAC adress E6-E.00:17-BB-48, etc oy pa 15 1a) dada-D ADE, MAC =D API PP GAG BPH WIND a pare AP peg > pH ‘Ws puke wy & pp MAC WI] V3E) DDO! 90)? aQ5 7H. DD) Wh pra ‘A creates datagram with source A, destination B ‘A uses ARP to get R's MAC address for 111.111.111.110 ‘A create lnkelayer frame with R's MAC address a8 dest. frame contains Ato IP datagram [As adapter sends frame R's adapter receives frame R removes IP datagram from Ethernet frame, sees its destined to B R uses ARP to get Bs MAC address Reereates frame contaning A-to-B IP datagram sends t0 B 25yD pr hs one Gp 6a 2d we PrP ANA 52 oa THe va osha dominant” wired LAN technology, developed at the 70s: » cheap $20 for 100Mbs! » first widely used LAN technology » Simple, cheap. > Kept up with speed race: 10 Mbps ~ 10 Gbps Metcalfe’s Ethernet sketch Classic Ethernet Now star topology prevalts, » Connection choices: hub or) + Shored Bus with CSMA/CD switch (more later) | + Bus maximal length: 500 rn “Transmission rate: 10Mb/s. » Fast Ethernet: 100 Mb/s » Gigabit Ethernet: 16bps & uber switch [Tirwigh the years the nly common isi The Frome 2639'Ow oar 6 Dow eacker ane wonks BI sn Md »p pyri yp He 43) xO! Hn PIC FOF P=) pO AYO 3B) Kw PM@® NSD DD} p33 yo pas 3 Sending adapter encapsulates IP datagram (or other network layer protocol packet) in Echernet frame = "ve Type/ length: length or type of frame, . aire Ean) 78 SHO ve Preamble: > T bytes with pattern 10101010 followed by one byte with pattern 10101011 » used to synchronize receiver, sender clock rates: what is the length, in clock ticks, of one bit. 7 9G9A_Ni_Wh Fy » Addresses: 6 bytes > ifadapter receives frame with matching destination address, or with broadcast aderess (eg ARP packer), it passes daa in frame to net-layer protocol » otherwise, adapter discards frame + MAC addresses also called: Physical addresses » Type:indicates the higher layer protocol (mostly IP but others may be supported such as Novell IPX and AppleTalk) > CRC: checked at receiver if error is detected, the frame is simply dropped. Before CRC there is a padding field for the CRC to pad to 64 bytes. 27Gu deo xf) wl , al cable in a bus topol wi pd _ refed] thin goaxal able in bus topology (ees yn). yO} yh 9G ooh (==a i oop yyw Ethernet Technology: 10Base2 » 10: 1OMbps; 2: under 200 meters max cable length te esi pace conmector emia wrest anecons > repeaters used to connect up to multiple segments > repeater repeats bits it hears on one interface to its other interfaces: physical layer device only! ‘Ethernet technology: | 100BaseT. + 10/100 Mbps rate; latter called “fast ethernet” » T stands for Twisted Pair » Nodes connect to a hubs"'star topology”; 100 m max distance between nodes and hub fare swisged pair Botan FA ose te pies fibers Ay rmweur—sam fr? deleg > @ 402 -C ih yw A pom ful Gn» 2 yD OD BP ay WD Cerabys Aor De a PU) @ 28Ethernet technology: 100BaseT » Problem : must keep minimal packet stze when bandwidth increases. } With fixed cable length and propagation speed, must > increase minimal size proportionally to bandwidth increase! » Eg. 100Mb/s, 1500m of cable: prop remains 6s, minimal » size becomes 1200 bits » Solutions: > Cable length limited co 100m » Prevent colfsions by "Ethernet Switches" (ater). > Max distance from node to Hub is 100 meters pee Gbit Ethernet » use standard Ethernet frame format, » allows for point-to-point links and shared broadcast channels. » in shared mode, CSMAICD is used: shore distances between nodes to be efficiency. » uses hubs, called here “Buffered Distributors” » Full-Duplex at | Gbps for point-to-point links. » 10 Gbpsec now! 29remy) Pfr TY nil aban OD VYD wha D ein sf 289 AMD Wh POD B DAD Dyn wo & YR sor fap dees) AWD TOMY Cpe a ‘e Hubs | Q:Why not just one big LAN? > Limited amount of supportable traffic: on single LAN, all stations must share bandwidth » limited length: 802.3 (Ethernet) specifies maximum cable length » large'‘collision domain” (can collide with many stations) » limited number of stations: 802.5 (token ring) have token passing delays at each station DSO Wd Ya | (pxAGn arwy)| Gn mle pe olen Wd WH: (Bn Gow) Abad pe you) « brdcst £ ro] fay A so it BS mor wes rt repeaters, Bus in a box) » Physical Layer devices: essentially repeaters operating at bit Ievelsrepeat ceived ts on one interface to al ober interfaces > Can't interconnect !0BaseT & 100BaseT (because Segments done share the same rte). > Hubs can be arranged in a hierarchy (or multi-tier design), with backbone hub at its top 30nant fabs aie PC Ada 9d ar ay 5) Geo Gero Iman WRAL 30 gp Wal pro Quer € syd store Abd! Goria) prann ply PANG , 55 gp wa pe. Sobel Wid oy p We <>, eho 1 vr fe? Dw Hubs (Multiport repeaters, Bus in @ box) + Each connected LAN referred to as LAN segment + Hubs do not isolate callision domains: node may collide with any node residing at any segment in LAN > Extends max distance between nodes, but all he segments become one large collision domain. > Hub Advantages: > simple, inexpensive device ) Multi-tier provides graceful degradation: portions of the LAN ‘continue to operate if one hub malfunctions > extends maximum distance between node pairs (100m per Hub) Bridges) » Link Layer devices: operate on Ethernet frames, examining frame header and selectively forwarding frame based on its destination » Bridge isolates collision domains since it buffers frames » When frame is to be forwarded on segment, bridge uses CSMAICD to access segment and transmit » Store and forward element. So different types of Ethernet types can be connected, » Transparent: no need for any change to hosts LAN adapters » Forwarding is selective: do not always flood. All connected segments can work independently in parallel? 31