A CONSTITUTIVE MODEL AND DATA FOR METALS SUBJECTED TO LARGE STRAINS, HIGH STRAIN RATES AND HIGH TEMPERATURES

Gordon R. Johnson Honeywell Inc.

Defense Systems Division Hopkins, Mineiota 65343 USA

William H. Cook

Ail' Force Armament Laboratory Eglin Air Force Base, Florida 32542 USA

. Th~s pape~ presents a ~onstitutive model and d~ta for materials subjected td large strains, high strain rates and hlih temperatures. The basic form of the model is well suited for computations because it uses variables which are readily available in most of the applicable ~omputer codes. The ~ate~'ials considered are OFHC copper, Cartridge brass, Nickel 200, Armco iron, Carpenter electrical ircn, 1006 steel, 2024·T351 alumihum, 7039 aluminum. 4340 steel, S-7 tool steel, Tungsten alloy and DU·.75Ti (depleted uranium). The data for the material constants are obtained from torsion tests over a wide range of strain rates, static tensile tests, dynamic Hopkinson bar tensile tests and Hopkinson bar tests at elevated temperatures. The model and data are evaluated by comparing computational results with data from cylinder impact tests.

INTRODUCTION

During recent years there has been a great deal of effort directed at computations for intense impulsive loading due to high-velocity impact and explosive deto· nation. The capabilities of currentcomputer cl'des have been extended to the point that the limiting factor is often that of adequately defining material chs.ractar· istics for both strength and fracture. A common approach is to simply repeat the computations with dif· ferent material characteristics until a.g'l'eement with experiment is obtained. Clearly it would' be desirable to be able to characterize materials with a limited number of laboratory tests so the initial computlltkms could be used with more confidence. This would result in a more efficient design cycle and would also give increased insight into understanding the complicated processes which occur during intense impulsive loacUng ecndinons.

This paper presents a constitutive model which is primarily intended for computations. It is recognized that more complicated models may indeed i'ive more ac· curate descriptions of material behavior. Similarly, vari· ous models may give better descriptions for various mao terials, In many instances, however, the computational User cannot readily incorporate complicated and diverse models. The result is that a constant "dynamic flow

stress" is often used. .

In the following sections test data will be presented and the approach used to extract the appropriate material constants from the data will be explained, This will be done in detail for three materials (OFHC copper. Armco iron and 4340 steel). Results for the other nine materials will be included, but with limited discussion, Finally, the model and data will be evaluated by comParing computational results to data from cylinder impact tests.

TEST DATA

The test data are primarily obtained from torsion tests over a wide range of strain rates (quasi·static to

about 400 s -1) and dynamic Hopkinson bar tensile tests over a range of temperatures. Static tensile test data are also used. The specific torsion testing apparatus is described in (1) and a representative Hopkinson bar apparatus is described in (2J.

Figure 1 shows Hopkinson bar test data at various temperatures, The elevated temperatures are obtained by surrounding the in-place test specimen by an oven such that the temperatures are applied for several minutes prior to testing. Although it is possible to test materials to greater strains than those shown in Figure 1, the Hopkinson bar data cannot be accurately evaluated after necking begins to occur in the tensile specimens. Futhermore, at large strains the effects of adiabatic heating can also complicate the results. The elevated temperatures show a distinct softening effect on the strength of the materials.

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Quasi·static stress-strain data for both tension and torsion tests are shown in Figure 3. An equivalent tensile flow stress is obtained from the torsion data by using the von Mises flow rule; the tensile stress is a = .J3r and the corresponding tensile strain is E ee "'(1-/3.

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The stress for the tension test data is based on the current area of the neck, and the strain is defined as In (Ao/A), where Ao and A represent the initial and CU1Tent areas of the neck.

At larger strains, after necking has begun, the net tensile stress is greater than the tensile flow stress. This is due to the presence of hydrostatic ten.sion. The equivalent tensile now stress, obtained from the tension data, is approximately determined by using the Bridgman correction factor [51.

In all three instances the tension data tend to indicate a higher strength than that derived from the torsian data. Therefore, ,it is desirable to have data from both tension and torsion' tests such that the discrepancy between the two modes of deformation can be identified and compensated.

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both torsion and tension. Comparable torsion data for the other materials are given in [3) and (4). In all instances the stress increases as the strain rate increases.

DATA ANALYSIS AND MODEl DEVElOPMENT

The model for the von Mises flow stress, a, is expressed as

a = [A+B en] (l+Cln Ii*} [1-T*mJ

where e is the equivalent plastic strain, €* = dEo is the dimensionless plastic strain rate for fo = 1.0 s-l and T* is the homologous temperature. The five material constantsare A, B, n, C,.Im. The expression in the first set of brackets gives the stress as a function of strain for f* = 1.0 and T* = O. The expressions in the second and third sets of brackets represent the effects of strain rate and temperature, respectively. The basic form of the model is readily adaptable to most computer codes since it uses variables (E, i*, T"') which are available in the codes .

The first step in the process is to determine the constants in the first set of brackets. A is the yield stress and Band n represent the effects of strain hardening. Since the torsion data include the strain rate of interest (€ .. = 1.0), it is a straightforward procedure to obtain the appropriate constants for this strain rate. However, these constants are for isothermal conditions (T* - 0) so the effects of adiabatic heating must be considered in analyzing the torsion data (3,4].

The same three constants can also be derived from the tension data. Here the starting point is the equivalent tensile flow stress from the tension data, as shown in Figure 3. This approximate flow stress, obtained by using the Bridgman correction factor, is adjusted based on finite element simulations of the tension test. The proper flow stress will give computed results which agree with the tension test data of Figure 3. Generally, the Bridgman correction factor gives acceptable results, and the adjustments due to the refining computations are not large.

The flow stress which is eventually deterrnin~d from the quaei-static tension test is for ~ '" = 0.002 and must therefore be adjusted for E" = 1.0. This is done by increasing the quasi-static values of the constants A and B, by the ratio of the stresses at E" = 1.0 and f" = 0.002, as shown in Figure 5.

The preceding gives two sets of constants, one for torsion and one for tension. For general computational purposes, the average values of A, Band n can be used. The resulting adiabatic flow stress, based on average values of the constants, is generally within about 10 percent of that obtained by using either the torsion or the tension data .

The effect of thermal softening is shown in Figure 6. The thermal softening fraction, KT, is simply the ratio of the stress at elevated temperature to that at room temperature. The data are taken frbm the Hopkinson bar tests of Figure 1. The Armco iron is

.• hown to soften very rapidly with increasing temperature, and this is in close agreement with static data (3,6J. The OFHCcopper shows an approximately linear dependence on T*. This is not in good agreement

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considered [9). In some instances the strain rate cons. tant is adjusted to give better agreement with torsion test data at large strains. Figure 7 shows a comparison of the computed and test results using the torsional strain rate constants. The final strain rate constant is taken as an average of those obtained from the tensile data and the torsion data.

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with static data [3,7], which tend to soften more rapidly as T'" increases. There is some evidence, however, that the thermal softening fraction tends to increa8~ as the strain rate increases [81, This trend is consistent with. the results reported herein ...

The strain rate constant, C, is determined next.

For the tensile mode of deformation it CI.Il be obtained from the data of Figure 5. Similarly, for torsion it can be obtained from the data of Figure .4. The torsion data aleo allow the combination of the strain rate hardenini and thermal softening to be evaluated at large strains. Thia is done by numerically simulating the torsion tNt at high strain rates. Strain hardening, atrain rate hardening, thermal softening and heat conduction efrects are

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Figure 7. Comparison of Test Data and Numerical Simulations for the Highest Strain Rate Torsion Tests

The resulting constants for the 12 materials are presented in Table 1. The corresponding stress-strain reo . Iationships are shown in Figure 8. The temperature for

. Tabl. 1. Con.titutiv. Constants f01" the Various Materials

~SCA II'TI ON CONSTITUTIVE CONSTANTS FOR
rr. [A. Bt'l'l.](1+CZo.to](1 - TO"""]
~ATERIAL ~ARON£SS SPECIFIC MELTJNG
DEliSI TY . HEAT TEMPERATURE A B
(ROCKWELl) (u/1l3) -n, C 'm
CJ/KtK) (K) (MP.) (/,\P.)
OFHC COPPER F-30 8960 313 1356 90 292 .31 .025 1. 09
CARTR I DGE 8RASS F-07 &;20 US 1189 112 505 ,42 .009 1.58
NICKEL 200 F-79 8900 4116 1726 163 6Q8 ,33 ,006 1. 44
ARI'ICO IRON F -72 7190 q52 1811 175 380 .32 ,060 0, SS
CARPEMTER ELECTRICAL IRON F·83 78!O q52 18H 290 339 ,40 .055 0.55
1006 STEEL F-9~ 7aiO m lSH 350 275 ,36 .022 1.00
2024- T3S1 ALUi'I!NUM HS 2770 875 77S 265 426 ,34 .015 1.00
7039 ALUMINUM B-76 '2770 115 877 337 343 .41 .0lD 1.00
4340 STEEL e-30 783>0 ~n 1793 792 510 ,26 ,Ol~ 1.03
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OU-.7STI C-45 11600 117 1473 1079 1120 ,25 .007 1.00 2~0 2024-T351 ALUMINUM 703Q AL.UMINUM
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Figure 8. Isothermal and AdiabatiCStress-Strain Relationships for the Various Materials

the adiabatic relationships is due to che plastic work of deformation. In all cases, the adiabatic stl'eSS8.!J reach a maximum and then decrease with increasing stl:ain. The point of maximum stress is important inasmuch aa it represents the strain at which localized instabilities may begin to occur.

Some comments should be made about the materials other than the OFHC copper. Armco iron and 4340 steel. The Cartridge brass and Nickel 200 have several similarities; they are not very sensitive to strairi rat •. [3], the flow stress derived from the tensile data is significantly greater than that obtained from the torsion data [3]. and the thermal softening is leu pronounced than for the other materials. The thermal softeninQl data obtained from the Hopkinson bar tests i!V8JI r.il "" 1,68 (Cartridge brass) and m = 1.44 (Nickel 200). This is con. sistent with static data (3,10, 11J.

No Hopkinson bar tests were pelformed on the Carpenter electrical iron and it ill a.s.umed that ita thermal softening characteristics are similar to that of the Armco iron. Hopkinson bar tests were performed on the 1006 steel and some very unexpected resulta were obtained. At lower temperatures (0 < T'" < .2) the thermal softening data are similar to that of the Armco iron. At higher temperatures. however, (.2 < T'" < .4) KT increases sharply as the temperaturainereue •. Sin· ce these results cannot be adequately explained, the thermal softening fraction is assumed to vary in' a linear manner (rn = 1.00). The other conatants for the 1000 steel are obtained from the torsion data only [8].

The data for the remaining material. (2024-TSSl aluminum, 7039 aluminum, 8.7 tool ~st.el, Tun,.ten alloy and DU·.75Ti) are also obtained from torsion data. only (41. No tensile data are included. The thermal loftening fraction is again assumed to vary in a line.ar manner.

EVALUATION WITH CYLINDER IMPACT TESTS

An evaluation of the model and data can be ma.c:le by comparing computed results with data fro.m cylinder impact tests. These t~sts provide strain rate. in exce.e. of 105 s-l and strains in excess of 2.0. Also, a ran,e 'of -tensile and shear deformations is experienced.

The results of these comparisons &1'6 shown in Figure 9. The computations were performed with the EPIC-2 code. For these computations an average pre.sure was used for each set of adjacent trianiU1ar ele· ments such that the excessive stifl'nelS 80metimes usocia ted with triangular elements i. usentially eliminated [121. The Armco iron and 4340 _teel show very good agreement. The OFHC copper resulta do not agree as well, but even these are acceptable for' most applications. It should be emphasized that the result. o£ cylinder impact tests have not been incorporated into the data. and they represent a totally indapendent check case. Photographs of the impacted cylinders are shown' in Figure 10.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

A computational model for flow stress has been . presented which includes the effects ofstrain hardenin" strain rate hardening and thermal softening. Some welldefined laboratory tests have been performed on 12 mao

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Fi£Ul'e 9. Comparison of Computed Shapes and Test Results for Cylinder Impact Tests at Various Velocities

terials to obtain data for this model. An independent evaluation has shown the model and data to give good computational results for a range of cylinder impact conditions.

This work was funded by Contract F08635-81- C·0179 from the U.S. Air Force and a Honeywell Independent Development Program.

1. Lindholm. U.S., Nagy. A., Johnson, G.R.. and Hoegfeldt s , J. M, "Large Strain, High Strain Ra.te Testing of Copper," A5ME Journal of Engineering Materials and Technology, Vol. 102, No.4. October 1.980.

2. Nicholas. T .. "Tensile Testing of Materials at High Rates of Strain." Experimental Mechanics, May 1981.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

REFERENCES

OfHC COPPER

V:'30 "'IS

v=,.e .M18

ARMCO IRON

V&22' MIS

V=2TQ MIS

U~Q ITILIL

Figure 10. Photographs of the Impacted Cylinder!

3. Johnson, G.R., Hoegfeldt, J.M., Lindholm, U.S., and Nagy, A., "Response of Various Metals to L.ri8 Torsional Strains over a Large Rania of Strain Rates - Part 1: Ductile Metals," ASME Jou.rnal

.P4.S

of Engineering Materials and Technology, Vol. 105, No.1, January 1983.

4. Johnson, G.R., Hoegfeldt, J.M., Lindholm, U.S., and Nagy, A., "Response of Various Metals to Large 'I'oi-sicnal Strains over a Large Range of Strain Rates - Part 2: Less Ductile Metals," ASME Jour· nal of Engineering Materials and Technology, Vol. 105, No.1, January 1983.

5. Bridgman, P.W., Studies in Large Plastic Flow and Fracture, McGraw-Hill, 1952.

6. Leslie, w.e., "Iron and Its Dilute Substitutional Solid Solutions," Metallurgical Trmtsactions, Vol. 3, January 1972.

7. Hawkyard, J.B., Eaton, D., and Johnson, W., "The Mean Dynamic Yield Strength of Copper and Low Carbon Steel at Elevated Temperatures from Measurments of the Mushrooming of Flat-Ended Projectiles," International Journal of Mechamcal Sciences, Vol. 10, No. 12, 1968.

8. Nadai, A., and Manjoine, M.J., "High Speed Tensian Tests at Elevated Temperatures - Parts nand III," Journal of Applied Mechanics, Vol. 8, June 1941.

." .;

9. Johnson, G.R., "Dynamic Analysis of a Torsion

Test Specimen Including Heat Conduction and Plastic Flow," ASME Journal of Engineering Materials and Technology, Vol. 103, No.3, JUly 1981.

10. Izumi, 0., and Harada. Y., "Repeated Yielding and Abnormal Hardening in High-Temperature and Tensile Deformation of a-Brass," Trans. Japan Institute of Metals, Vol. 11, 1970.

11.. Huntington Nickel Alloys Bulletin.

12. Johnson, G.R., "Recent Developments and Analyses Associated with the EPIC·2 and EPIC·3 Codes," ASME 1981 Advances in Aerospace Structures and Materials, AD-Ol, Wang, S.S. and Renton, W.J. eds., 1981.