THE IRON HULL - A BRIEF HISTORY OF IRON SHIP BUILDING by: Mike McCarthy ent of Maritime Archaeology WA Maritime Museum Cliff Street Fremantle WA 6160 Iron in Wooden Vessels Tron has long been a part of European wooden shipbuilding tradition and was used from its earliest periods as fastenings and fittings. Gabriel Snodgrass, Chief Surveyor to the Honourable East India Company is generally considered the first champion of the use of iron as an actual structural member in wooden shipbuilding. These first beginnings date back to 1771 but were limited to the application of the metal for use as knees, standards and diagonal braces in wooden shipbuilding and are considered a direct result of enforced or actual shortages of “compass” timber etc. (Fincham, 1851:114). ‘An increase in usc of iron as a structural material can be seen in the patents of Walters of 1814 and Watson of 1839, with the latter referring to the forming of ribs of iron bars with wooden planking (Patents for Inventions 1862:59). Jordans patent of November 1849 however, is considered the first to advocate a complete iron frame, i.e. “composite” construction; a development to find its peak in the composite vessels of the late 1860s and resulting in large part from the inability of iron shipbuilders to solve the problems caused by hull fouling at a time when speed became of the essence (MacGregor, 1973, Chpt.5). Iron Shipbuilding - Barges and Boats arallelling these developments in wooden shipbuilding was the beginning of iron shipbuilding itself. It is ‘generally agreed that the development of the puddiing process for the production of wrought iron and the use by Henry Cort in 1784 of grooved rollers for expressing slag in the production of bar and plate iron were vital breakthroughs necessary to enable a production of plate iron of sufficient size, quantity and quality for iron shipbuilding. These developments followed logically from the work of many other English iron masters with the name of John Wilkinson being prominent (Tylecote, 1976, Chpt 9). ‘The application of this and other technology to the plating of boilers with iron, followed soon after and Smith (1937:95) claims: "It is the art of boiler-making that lead to the art of iron shipbuilding” From a reading of his metallurgical achievements, it is not surprising to find that the same John Wilkinson formerly mentioned is credited with the building of the first iron vessel. Grantham, writing in 1859 (page 6), states that the first evidence of iron boat building that he could find was the following paragraph taken from publication dated July 28th, 1787 and written in Birmingham: "A few days ago, a boat built of English iron by J. Wilkinson, Esq. of Bradley Forge, came up our Canal to this town, loaded with 22 tons and 15 hundredweight of its own metal, etc. It is nearly of ‘equal dimensions with other boats employed upon the Canal, being 70 ft long and 6 ft 8 1/2 ins wide. ‘The thickness of the plate with which it is made is about 5/16 of an inch, and itis put together with rivets (ike copper or fire engine boilers); but the stem and stem posts are wood, and the gunwale lined with the same; the beams are made of elm planks. Her weight is about 8 tons; she will carry in deep water upwards of 32 tons, and draws 8 or 9 inches of water when light.” Grantham refers to other small vessels built after this time by his partner, a Mr Page, and he quotes a letter from a Mr Thomas Jevons dated March 1842, telling of a small vessel that he had built by Joshua Horton of Tipton near Birmingham in 1815 for use on the Mersey, only to have it apparently ruined "for some malicious Purpose”. Jevons apparently then went on to build a lifeboat of iron. ‘The first English patent found on the application of iron to shipbuilding as opposed to its application in boats, is Number 3231 of April 29, 1809, that of Richard Trevithick and Robert Dickinson to: "build of iron, ships of war, East Indiamen and other large deck vessels, the decks as well as the sides of such ships to be of plates of wrought iron riveted or joined by screws... and in making masts, bowsprits, yards and booms of wrought iron out of plate riveited or screwed together in hollow or tubular forms". (Patent for inventions 1862..63) Fletcher (1910:195) records this patent as having been in received with derision however, and all sources consulted show little further development in iron shipbuilding til the construction by Thomas Wilson of the 61 ftx 11 ft x4 ft6 in Vulcan in 1818 near Glasgow. This carvel built vessel had 2 ft wide flush plates, bulk heads, frames of flat bar iron 24 inches apart onto which butted each plate (Corlett 1971:25). Fletcher (1910:195) records that as late as 1875 she was engaged in transporting coal on the Forth and Clyde Canal and "looked little worse for wear". Self Propelled Iron Vessels ‘The above vessels were all boats or barges for towing and the first self propelled iron vessel is generally considered to be the iron steamship Aaron Manby, the product of a society formed by Charles Manby and the then Captain Charles Napier. In 1820 the two took out a patent in France for an iron steamboat and immediately began to construct the first iron steamship the Aaron Manby at Horsley in Staffordshire, England. She was sent to London in parts and was put together in the dock. Complete with a cargo and under 219Captain Napier, she was steamed from London to Le Havre and then to Paris. Manby in a letter to Grantham, dated 19 February 1842, indicates that he then built a vessel of the same description at Horsley for use in France, He was forced by the French Navigation Laws to ship it out in parts and she was put together at Charenton near Paris where he had, by then, established an ironworks, and where it appears he subsequently constructed two other iron steamboats thus having four for use of navigation on the Seine (Grantham, 1859:9). For a variety of reasons, Manby sold the vessels to a new society but by 1842 he believed that they ‘were still navigating on the Seine. The 106 foot long Aaron Manby was fitted with one of the first oscillating engines ever built (Guthrie, 1976:46) and according to Fletcher (1910:195) “had oldhams revolving bars" or ‘what both Smith (1937:98) and Baker and ‘Trykare (1972:30) refer to as a form of feathering paddles or floats. In 1823 the iron, twin hull, centre paddle steamer Marquis Wellesey was built by Grantham's father also at the Horsley works. She crossed the Channel in 1825 and proceeded to the River Shannon where she worked successfully and was recorded as derelict but still afloat 34 years later. She was the beginning of steam navigation on that River and five more vessels were eventually built for navigation there. The year 1829 saw the first iron vessel to be built in Liverpool, and in the same year William Laird and Sons began the process of iron shipbuilding in the Mersey, culminating with the launch of the steamer Alburkah (70 ft x 13 ft x 6 6 ins, draft 3 ft 6 ins) which was used in the 1832 Niger expedition by MacGregor Laird. In 1832, Maudslay ‘Sons and Field, constructed four 120 ft long, 275 ton, 30 nhp steamers for use on the Ganges. These were the first iron steamers built in the London district and they were shipped to India in pieces. The following year (1833) saw the launch of a 250 ton steamer John Randolph which was sent to America in pieces and the steamer Garry Owen, for the lower Shannon, a year later. The latter vessel also has the distinction of being the first iron vessel in which water tight bulkheads were fitted. In 1837 Laird built a 580 ton Channel packet, the steamship Rainbow followed a year later by the Liverpool built and owned 264 ton ship-rigged sailing vessel Iron Sides : "the first iron sailing vessel of any significance that was employed for sea voyages" (Grantham, 1859:13,14), The First Iron Vessels Registered In Lioyds ‘The first iron vessel to receive a classification (Class A) was the London built Marseilles owned, 180-ton, iron steamer Sirius built in 1837; next was the iron sailing ship Jronsides already mentioned above (Annals of Lloyds Register: 75 and 76). Like the Sirius she is noted as built of iron but has no classification. ‘The Compass and the Iron Hull ‘ ‘This period also saw a solution to the problem of compass deviation caused by iron hulls. Deviation tables had already been used successfully in experiments on wooden ships by a Professor Barlow. Similar experiments on the iron steamer Garry Owen on the Shannon were conducted by the Admiralty in 1835 and by the Astronomer Royal Mr Airy on the Rainbow at Deptford and the /ronside at Liverpool. The compasses of these vessels were successfully compensated and tested in 1838 and in the transoceanic maiden voyage of the Zronside to Rio de Janiero and back. A paper was presented on this subject in the transaction of the Royal Society for 1838, though controversy still raged and many losses and strandings of iron vessels was blamed ‘on compass deviation problems. Naval Use of Iron Hulls , ‘The Dover, built in 1839, was the first iron steam vessel built for the English Government and used'as a ‘steam packet on the Dover station. She was followed a year later by three others built specifically fora Niger expedition and for the exploration of that river. in 1840 the French Navy launched the iron hulled 160 hp, 765 ton displacement despatch vessel Tenare. In 1841 the Admiralty ordered the 60 hp Mohawk to be built for service on Lake Huron and in September of the same year the steam tenders Rocket and Ruby were ordered. Some proof of the suitability of iron vessels for use in war was shown in 1842 by the Nemesis and Phlegeton, iron steamers of the East India Company. ‘The year 1843 saw the building of the Navy's first iron steam vessel built specifically for war - the Trident, (850 tons and 350 hp) which was followed soon after by the Birkenhead of 1400 tons and 566 hp. By 1844, further vessels were being ordered by the English and itis interesting to note that the French were building iron steam vessels for war in similar if not greater numbers. Fincham (1859:392) says: "Since 1844, considerably the larger number of war steamers laid down by the French have been iron vessels". i ; 4 The Great Britain July of 1843 also saw the launch of the 292 ft (between perpendiculars), 3443-ton, 1200 hp iron screw steamer Great Britain, What must be remembered here is that when the decision to build this vessel of iron was taken at the end of 1838, the largest iron vessels built (the Royal Sovereign and Rainbow ) were in excess” of 100 ft shorter with one-fifth of the tonnage and horsepower of the Great Britain, Corlet, (1970:77) records that the decision to build the Great Britain of iron was taken at the end of 1838 by a technical committee including Brunel, Claxton and Guppy. Claxton, managing director of the Great Western steamship company took passage in the Rainbow in 1838 and, according to Corlett, saw that iron afforded better strength, : buoyancy and capacity at less expense than wood, and that 600 tons (or volume of 24000 cubic feet) would ~ be gained by using iron in a vessel of the size proposed. In the report prepared for discussion, advantages 220advantages such as freedom from dry rot, less upkeep, less damage on grounding, the elimination of the bilge water stench were examined and it was concluded that the compasses could be adjusted to compensate for the iron hull, that lightning strikes (see Cannell, 1979), could be avoided and that finer lines were attainable with equal strength and greater speed. The greatest disadvantage was correctly seen to be fouling, though the report underestimated these effects and the length of time it would take to solve the problem. Corlett notes that even when the decision was taken to use iron, Brunel and his colleagues knew little of the practicalities and wrote to Grantham in November 1838 asking the name of the maker of the best and largest iron plates and angle iron, Grantham apparently does not record this incident but states (page 15): "The Great Britain iron steamer built in Bristol was at the time the boldest effort in iron ship building and forms the ‘most remarkable feature in the history of this important science". Fincham (1859:317), who can be Telied upon to be more objective than the enthusiastic Grantham, wrote ‘thus; "In two respects the building of this ship was a gigantic experiment: in the use of material, and the description of propeller (i.e. screw as opposed to paddle). In comparison of the Great Britain all that had yet been done in the building of iron vessels was almost in miniature but whatever was deficient in experience ‘was supplied here by sound and intelligent reasoning”. ‘Apart from size and the application of the screw the Grear Britain saw the development of many other innovations, e.g. a flat plate keel, some longitudinal stiffening, multiple (though not watertight) bulkheads, an inner bottom, hollow water-lines, and bilge keels. The realization that increased size allowed for economies of fuel, capacity, resistance and engine power, was very much part of the Great Britain's development (Corlett, 1970:10). The successful demonstration of these economies culminated in the calling for tenders in 1853 of the Leviathan, soon to be known as the Great Eastern. The Growth of Iron Shipbuilding Following the success of the Great Britain, and a much publicized stranding and salvage at Dundrum Bay in 1846/7, it becomes difficult to follow the history of individual ships with iron shipbuilding establishments busy on the Clyde, Thames, Mersey, Baltic and probably throughout the continent but especially in France. ‘Though noting the reticence of shipowners to apply iron to sailing ships early in this period, Grantham (1859:16) notes with obvious pleasure the growth in this field, especially at Liverpool. The iron ship of this period and the mid 19th century had, with a few notable exceptions, notably the products of Brunel and Scott Russell, a series of transverse frames in the form of single angle iron and later Z bars which carried the deck beams, with lengthwise strength provided by the skin plating, decks, stringers and the keel, ic. they were built in the same fashion as the wooden ship with ribs (frames). Plates were small and in many cases, including the PS Xantho of 1848, applied in clinker fashion with (in the best circumstances) tapered liners to fill the ensuing gap between the plate and the frames. Rules for Iron Shipbuilding ‘The classification Societies were watching these developments with some interest and Lloyds began in August 1843 to collect information from their surveyors on iron ships. In January 1844 a notice was issued that: "the character AI will be granted by the Society to vessels of iron built under the survey of the Society's surveyors and reported to be of good and substantial materials with good workmanship. All such materials to be surveyed annually". (Annals of Lloyds Register, 1884:76). By 1855 Lloyds had still not seen fit to specify actual modes of construction as the following illustrates: “Considering that iron shipbuilding is yet in its infancy and that there are no well understood general rules for building iron ships, the committee have not deemed it desirable to frame a scheme compelling the adoption of a particular form or mode of construction, but that certain general requirements should ‘be put forward having for their basis thickness of plates and substance of frames..... showing a minimum.....With......petiodical surveys..." (Annals of Lloyds, 1884:78). The Advantages of Iron Hulls ‘The decision to build the Great Britain of such a size, of iron and of screw propulsion, were decisions based on sound economic reasoning: in that to the English, iron represented a means of obtaining the large size needed for economic trans-oceanic navigation at less cost (40% in 1845), and less weight (0%) than the equivalent wooden vessels which for a time were the monopoly of the Americans and Canadians. Grantham, in a chapter headed "Iron Vessels considered as a commercial question” listed 8 objects most desired by a merchant in the choices of a ship (pp. 87-111). 1, strength combined with lightness 2. great capacity for stowage 3. safety 4. speed 5. durability 6. economy in repairs 7. cost 8. draught of water and concludes (as an ardent enthusiast): “experience proves that iron vessels possess advantages under all the heads above in so eminent a degree as to render them superior to wooden vessels". 221"poe tn ers ESPERO SS ST EG I His comtemporary Fincham, writing 8 years earlier and with a less biased eye, also enumerated the b of iron ships, i. superior strength, greater safety, thinner and lighter hulls providing greater capacity for stowage, economy at building, less damage when aground, cheaper repairs, probably a longer life, and an abundant (in Britain) supply of materials. From a naval point of view, the question of the effect of the imp Of shot on the iron hull was still a negative factor in comparison to the wooden walls and Douglas (1855: in examining the effect of the above on iron ships in comparison to their wooden counterparts as late as 1855) ‘was still drawn to comment thus: “from what has been stated, it cannot be denied that iron vessels, however convenient in other respects, are utterly unfit for purposes of war" In 1850, 10% of the new tonnage added to the British Register was of iron, in 1860 it was 30% and 1870, 60% with steam the percentage was much higher, being 26% in 1850 and 80% in 18960 (Corlett, 1970:217). tis important to note at this point that it was still economical in some parts of the world, notably North America, to build and operate large, all wooden vessels at this time and indeed into the 1900s (see McGregor, 1973, Wallace and Desmond, 1919 as examples). _ The Great EASTERN ¥ ‘When launched in 1858, she was 692’ x 83' x 25" in dimensions, powered by paddle and screw witha 4 cellular double bottom to Scott Russell's longitudinal system, 10 transverse bulkheads, 8 watertight from kee to upper deck and other innovations that saw her almost half a century ahead of her time as she was not copied partly due to her failure as an economic proposition, Many of the features of Great Eastern's construction became standard practice in the late 19th and early 20th century but the value of these innovations were not immediately recognized until long after she had proved herself at sea. Scott Russell's introduction of the ‘in and out' or ‘alternative’ plating system soon replaced the less efficient clinker system of applying hull plating though the ‘longitudinal system’ of lengthwise girders and partial and main bulkheads as opposed to transverse frames with stringers was less quickly accepted (Westcott, Abell, 1948:120). The Decline of the Iron Hull - Steel Shipbuilding 7 ‘Steel began to replace iron as a shipbuilding medium after the invention of the Bessemer converter in 1856 and more rapidly after the Siemens process in 1866 and the new sources of high Manganese, low carbon ferro alloys in France in the 1870s (Tylecote, 1976 Chpt 10).. ‘The British Board of Trade, sanctioned the use of steel in bridges in 1879 (Tylecote, 1976:147) and as these structures in iron were the source of Brunel's and Scott Russell's inspiration at sea itis not surprising that the development of steel shipbuilding followed suit in accepting the new technology. Steel allowed for a reduction of scantlings and hence weight, with a subsequent rise in carrying capacity. ‘Though initially proving expensive, by 1880 it was only 50% more expensive than iron and by 1891 down to 10%, with Lloyds’ first rules appearing in 1888 (Corlett, 1970:219). The difference in the use of iron and steel is dramatically illustrated again by Corlett (221) in the case of the City of Rome, designed in steel but built of iron. She proved uneconomic largely for that reason, having a cargo capacity about one-third less than that expected of her steel counterpart. ‘The iron ships were not built in quantities after that time but, due to the lasting properties of wrought iron ‘compared with steel, will remain with us in shipwreck and Museum ship form long after their steel contemporaries have disintegrated. References Baker, W. A. & Trykare, R., (1972) The Engine Powered Vessel. Crescent Books, New York. 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Tylecote, RF., (1976) ‘History of Metallurgy. ‘The Metals Society, London. Wallace, F. W., (no date) Wooden Ships & Iron Men. Hodder and Stoughton, London. ‘Westcott, Abell, Sir, (1948) The Shipwrights’ Trade. Conway Maritime Press, 1981 Edition. 223