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I1
I
I1+ I 2
S1

S S2

I2

A B C

A : The upper curve is obtained when only S 1


is open. The lower curve
is when only S 2 is open.

B : This is what is expected when both slits are open

C : The intensity distribution that is actually obtained

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A B

Fig. 1.3 : Scattering of nuclei A and B in centre of mass frame. The probability of A
reaching 1 and B reaching 2 is p = ψ(Α1,Β2)=ψ(Α2,Β1)


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