 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

ã¹]<gè…‚jÖ]æ<ËÖ]<Üé×Ãj×Ö<íÚ^ÃÖ]<퉉ö¹]
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬ 

‫א‬‫א‬

٢٧٠
  ‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

 W،،‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
  ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ،‫א‬   ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬ 
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
  ‫א‬        ،‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬  
‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬   ‫א‬    ،  
‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
     ‫א‬  ‫א‬   ،‫א‬   
 K‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬

 ?  ? EF ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ? ‫א‬ ‫א‬  
‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬     ‫א‬  ? ‫א‬
 K‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
،‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

   W    ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬    ‫א‬
 K‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬      
    ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬
 W،‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬    ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬J
 K‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬J
 K
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬J
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬J
 K‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬J
‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬J
‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬    ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬    ‫א‬J
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬ 
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬
    ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

    ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬ 
 K‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ،‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬ 
 ‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
    K   ‫א‬  ‫א‬   ‫א‬     ‫א‬ 
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
ã¹]<gè…‚jÖ]æ<ËÖ]<Üé×Ãj×Ö<íÚ^ÃÖ]<퉉ö¹]
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬

١
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬


 K‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬

 W‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J
K‫א‬‫א‬ J
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬ W‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬

-١-
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬
K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
،‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬
‫א‬K  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬collision ‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬
 ‫א؟‬،‫א‬
‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 KE‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 Worder of reaction (n) ‫א‬
F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E 
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ،‫א‬
‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬
K
 ‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
،‫א‬‫א‬، ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،
‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

-٢-
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
 Kn‫א‬K‫א‬،
 W Rate of reaction (ν)‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬K ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
،‫א‬‫א‬Kmol/L/time  ‫א‬
‫א‬Kyear hour min s 
‫א‬K‫א‬t‫א‬C،ν = dC/dtW‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 WHalf-life time (t0.5)‫א‬
‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ t0.5‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K ‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
،E ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬
A1 +
A2 + A3 + … + An → C (1-1)
 W‫א‬
ν ∞
[A1] [A2] [A3] …. [An] (1-2)
ν = k [A1] [A2] [A3] …. [An] (1-3)
ν = k [A]n (1-4)

-٣-
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،reaction rate constant ‫א‬k

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E1-4F‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬K
ν = -d[A1]/dt = -d[A2]/dt = -d[A3]/dt = -d[An]/dt = d[C]/dt (1-5)
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬
a-xt‫א‬a ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 Kx t‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
dx /dt = k (a-x)n
(1-6)
 KEnF‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W
 Wzero-order reactions ‫א‬‫א‬ .١
‫א‬،n = 0‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W(1-6)‫א‬
dx / dt = k
(1-7)
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
x = k t
(1-8)
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬
(1-1)‫א‬Kk  ‫א‬ slope‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

-٤-
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬


 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WE1-1F
  ‫א‬‫א‬k‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬Kmol/L time-1
 W،x = a/2‫א‬(1-8)‫א‬t = to.5
t0.5 = a/2k
(1-9)
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬
W
 W‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫ א‬‫א‬J
Cl2 hν 2Cl
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬
 WFirst-order reactions‫א‬‫א‬ .٢
Kn = 1،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W(1-6)‫א‬‫א‬
dx /dt
= k (a-x) (1-10)
dx/
d(a-x) = k dt (1-11)
 W‫א‬‫א‬
-ℓn (a-x) = k t + C (1-12)
 t = 0x = 0C
-ℓn a = C (1-13)
-٥-
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬C
ℓn (a/(a-x) = kt (1-14)
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬
ℓn a - ℓn (a-x) = kt (1-15)
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
Kk ‫א‬ slope‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E1-2F‫א‬
Ktime-1‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ k‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬


 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WE1-2F
 W،x = a/2‫א‬(1-14)‫א‬t = to.5
t0.5 = ℓn 2/k = 0.693/k
(1-16)

-٦-
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬
 J W
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬K
MnΟ2
H2O2 1/2 O2 + H2O
 W‫א‬ K
CH3COOC2H5 + H2O H+ CH3COOH + C2H5OH
 W‫א‬‫א‬ K

N N Cl
∆ Cl + N2

 Wsecond-order reactions ‫א‬‫א‬ .٣

Kn = 2،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
(1-6)‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W
dx /dt = k (a-x)2
(1-17)
 W،‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬
1/(a-x) = k t + C
(1-18)
 t = 0x = 0C
1/a = C
(1-19)
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬C
1/(a-x) - 1/a = k t
(1-20)
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
x / a (a-x) = kt
(1-21)
E1-20F‫א‬‫א‬1/(a-x) 
 k ‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬E1-3F‫א‬KE1-21F‫א‬‫א‬x/a(a-x)

-٧-
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬

K(mol/L)-1time-1‫א‬‫א‬k‫א‬K‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬


 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WE1-3F

 W،x = a/2‫א‬(1-21)‫א‬t = to.5

t0.5 = 1/ k a
(1-22)
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬
 W
 W ‫א‬J 
CH3COOC2H5 + OH- → CH3COO-
+ C2H5OH
 W‫א‬J 
catalyst
C2H4 + H2 C2H6
 W‫א‬‫א‬J 
S2O82- + 2I- → I2 + 2SO42-
 W‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .١
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬k ‫א‬Kk   ‫א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬

-٨-
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬

‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬ .٢
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ t0.5‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K
t0.5 ∞ a1-n
(1-23)
t0.5 = C a1-n
(1-24)
 W‫א‬KC
log t0.5 = log C +
(1-n) log a (1-25)
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
KE1- slopeFn‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬Klog t0.5log a 
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
،‫א‬(1-4)  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬
 ‫א‬


 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬WE1-4F
‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬

-٩-
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬


 WOstwald’s isolation method‫א‬‫א‬ .٣
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W
2FeCl3
+ 6KI → 2FeCl2 + 6 KCl + I2 (1-26)
‫א‬‫א‬،KI , FeCl3 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K[FeCl3][KI]2،
 W،
FeCl3 + 2KI
→ FeI2 + 2KCl + Cl (slow) (1-27)
2Cl + 2KI
→ 2KCl + I2 (fast) (1-28)
،slow  ‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬Kfast ‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬   ،‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬    ‫א‬  
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬    Kactivation energy (Ea) ‫א‬     ‫א‬  
Kcal/mol  J/mol K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ Arrhenius 
 W‫א‬‫א‬
k = A exp(Ea/RT)
(1-29)
 KA‫א‬‫א‬R،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬T،‫א‬k
 W‫א‬
ℓn k = ℓn A -
Ea/RT (1-30)
- ١٠ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬

‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
KEslope x RF‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬
‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬ (1-5)‫א‬
 W،‫א‬‫א‬
Ea = slope x 1.987 cal/mol , Ea = slope x 8.314
J/mol

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WE1-5F

 W
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .١
C6H6NH3Cl → C6H6Cl + N2
Time / min 5 20 40 ∞
P(N2) / mm Hg 5 40 80 200
 ‫א‬‫א‬J 
 K‫א‬٪٩٩‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬J 
 K‫א‬٪٩٠‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K١٥٩٠‫א‬‫א‬ .٢
،‫א‬‫א‬ K٪٨٠ 13C‫א‬ .٣
 K٥٧٣٠‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .٤
 K٪٩٠‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

- ١١ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬


 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .٥

Time/ hour 2 4 6
C / µg L-1 7.2 4.8 3.2
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬J 
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬J 
، ١٥‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .٦
K0.01M‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
Time / s 120 180 330 530 600
%hydrolyzed 33.0 41.8 58.0 69.0 71.4
 K‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬٦٠٠‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .٧
(CH2)O(g) → CH4(g) + CO(g)
Time / min 10 20 40 100 ∞
Ptotal / mm Hg 139.14 151.67 172.65 212.34 249.88
 ‫؟‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬J 
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬J 
 K‫א‬‫א‬J 
 K‫א‬‫א‬J 
 W‫א‬ .٨
CH3COOC2H5 + H2O → CH3COOH + C2H5OH
K٪٩٠‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K١٠‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .٩
CH3COOC2H5 + OH- → CH3COO- + C2H5OH
K٠{٠٥‫א‬‫א‬١٠‫א‬
‫א‬K٠{٠٠٥‫א‬‫א‬١٠٠‫א‬
 K‫ ؟‬٢٠٠‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
٤٠  ١٥  ‫א‬ ‫א‬   ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬   ٪٢٠  .١٠
 K‫א‬‫א‬K٦٠٣

- ١٢ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬

١٢ ٢٥‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .١١

16.5‫א‬، ٧٠‫א‬‫א‬ K
 K
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .١٢
KI + K2S2O8 → I2 + 2K2SO4
 K‫؟‬‫א‬‫א‬J 
 K‫؟‬‫א‬J 
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬J 
 W‫א‬‫א‬ .١٣
Time / min 0 5 15 25
a-x 16.00 10.24 6.13 4.32
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬J 
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬J 

- ١٣ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬
ExF‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E J ١
 W‫א‬‫א‬EaF‫א‬
Time, min 5 20 40 ∞
P(N2) = x 10 40 80 200
a–x 190 160 120

5.4

5.2
ln (a-x)

5.0

4.8

0 10 20 30 40
Time / min


 W‫א‬k = 0.0139 min-1W‫א‬
t0.5 = 0.693/ k = 0.693/0.0139 = 49.8 min
 W‫א‬‫א‬،x = 99a = 100 W‫א‬٪٩٩‫א‬J 
t = (1/k) ℓn {a/(a-x)}
= (1/0.0139) ℓn 100/ 1 = 331.3 min
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬ J ٢
 WE
k = 0.693/ t0.5 = 0.693/ 1590 = 4.4x10-4 year-1
W‫א‬٪٩٠‫א‬‫א‬
t = (1/k) ℓn {a/(a-x)} = 1/ 4.4x10-4 ℓn 100/10 = 5233 year
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J ٣
k = 0.693/ t0.5 = 0.693/ 5730 = 1.2x10-4 year-1
a = 100 ،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬٪٨٠‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬،a-x = 80
t = (1/k) ℓn {a/(a-x)}
= 1/ 1.2x10-4 ℓn 100/80 = 1859.5 year
- ١٤ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬

،a-x = 10a = 100‫א‬‫א‬ J ٤

 W‫א‬
t = (1/k) ℓn {a/(a-x)}
= 1/5x10-4 ℓn 100/10 = 4605 s
‫א‬ a-x ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J ٥
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

2.0

1.6
ln c

1.2

0 2 4 6
Time / min


W‫א‬‫א‬k = 0.203W‫א‬
t0.5 = 0.693/ k = 0.693/ 0.203 = 3.4 hour
‫א‬،a = 100 x %hydrolyzed  J ٦
‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬x/a-x
 K‫א‬‫א‬
Time, s 120 180 330 530 600
% hydrolyzed 33 41.8 58 69 71.4
x/(a-x) 0.49 0.72 1.38 2.23 2.33

- ١٥ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬

2.5

2.0
x/(a-x)

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0
0 200 400 600
Time / s


 W‫א‬‫א‬k a = 4.22x10-3 s-1 W‫א‬
t0.5 = 1/ k a = 1 / 4.22x10-3 = 237 s

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬mol/L
 WEL mol-1time-1‫א‬F
k = 1/ t0.5 a = 1/ 237 x 0.01 = 0.422
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E J ٧
pi = 249.88/2 = 124.94 mm Hg
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E
(CH2)2O → CH4 + CO
at t = 0 Pi 0 0
at t≠ 0 Pi - x x x
Pt = Pi – x + x + x = P i + x
x = Pt – Pi
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
k = 1/t ℓn a/a-x
 W‫א‬‫א‬
k = 1/t ℓn Pi/(2Pi – Pt)

- ١٦ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬

‫א‬ℓn (2pi – Pt)‫א‬‫א‬

 K k ‫א‬
Time / min 10 20 40 100
Pt / mm Hg 139.14 151.67 172.65 212.34
2Pi - Pt 110.74 98.21 77.23 37.54

5.0

4.5
ln (2pi-Pt)

4.0

3.5

0 40 80 120
Time / min


t0.5 = 0.693/ k = 0.693/0.012 = 57.75 min ‫א‬Kk = 0.012 min-1W‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J ٨
‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬٪٩٠
 W‫א‬‫א‬
k = 0.693/ t0.5 = 0.693/ 10 = 0.0693 hour-1
t = (1/k) ℓn (100/10) = 33.22 hour
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E J ٩
Log t0.5 = const. +(1-n) log a
K،t0.5 a ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬
Log (t0.5)2 / Log (t0.5)1 = (1-n) log a2/a1
(1-n) = {log 100/10} /{log 0.005/0.05} = -1
n=2
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،t0.5 = 200 min a2 ‫א‬J 
Log (t0.5)2 / Log (t0.5)1 = (1-n) log a2/a1
Log (t0.5)2 / Log (t0.5)1 = - log a2/a1 = log a1/a2
log a2 = log {a1 (t0.5)1/(t0.5)2} = log 10 x 0.05/200
a2 = 0.0025 M.
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬k ‫א‬ J ١٠
T1 = 40 + 273 = 313 K T2 = 60 + 273 = 333 K
- ١٧ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬

t1 = 15 min t2 = 3 min
k1 = 1/t ℓn 100/80 = 1/15 ℓn 100/80 = 0.0149 min-1
k2 = 1/t ℓn 100/80 = 1/3 ℓn100/80 = 0.0744 min-1
ℓn k2/k1 = (Ea/R) {(T2-T1)/T2T1}
Ea = T2T1 R /T2-T1 ℓn k2/k1
= (333 x 313 x 1.987 / 20) ℓn (0.0744/0.0149)
= 16.67 kcal mol-1
k2  ‫א‬EF‫א‬ J ١١
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ t0.5  ‫א‬٧٠‫א‬‫א‬
٢٥k1  ‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬
 W،‫א‬‫א‬
T1 = 25 + 273 = 298 K T2 = 70 + 273 = 343 K
(t0.5)1 = 12
Ea = 16.5 kcal mol1
k1 = 0.693/ 12 = 0.0578 min1
ℓn k2/k1 = (Ea/R) {(T2-T1)/T2T1}
ℓn k2 = (Ea/R) {(T2-T1)/T2T1} + ℓn k1
ℓn k2 = (16500/1.987) {55/298x343} + ℓn 0.0578
ℓn k2 = 4.468 – 2.851 = 1.617
k2 = 5.04
t0.5 = 0.693/ 5.04 = 0.138 hour = 8.25 min
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J ١٢
2KI + K2S2O8 → I2 + 2K2SO4
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E
‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬K
 ‫א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬K[K2S2O8] = 0.01 M[KI] = 1 M
‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E
K ‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬
  ‫א‬‫א‬KExF‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬KEaF‫א‬،
 K‫א‬‫א‬
- ١٨ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬J 
k = x / a t (a-x)
 K‫א‬k ‫א‬t‫א‬x ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬a
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬E J ١٣
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬E
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W ‫א‬J 
 KE
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E J ١٤
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬ ‫א‬
 W‫א‬K
 W‫א‬J
k1 = x /a t1 (a-x)
= (16.0 - 10.24)/16.0 x 5 x 10.24 = 0.00703 L mol -1 min-1
k2 = x /a t2 (a-x)
= (16.0 - 6.13)/16.0 x 15 x 6.13 = 0.00671 L mol -1 min-1
k3 = x /a t3 (a-x)
= (16.0 – 4.32)/16.0 x 25 x 4.32 = 0.00676 L mol -1 min-1
 K‫א‬k 

- ١٩ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬

 W‫א‬‫א‬J
Time / min 0 5 15 25
a-x 16.0 10.24 6.13 4.32
x/(a-x) 0.56 1.61 2.70
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 Kt0.5 = 1/k a = 9.3 min ،k a = 0.108 min-1W‫א‬‫א‬
 k = 1/ t0.5 a = 1/ 9.3 x 16.0 = 0.0067 L mol-1min-1 ‫א‬

2.5

2.0
x/(a-x)

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time / min

- ٢٠ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
ã¹]<gè…‚jÖ]æ<ËÖ]<Üé×Ãj×Ö<íÚ^ÃÖ]<퉉ö¹]
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬

٢
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬

 W‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬، ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬J
 K‫א‬
‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬J
 ‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬J
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬J

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬


- ٢١ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬

 Chemical Catalysis‫א‬‫א‬
،‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K  ‫א‬Catalyst ‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬
K
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬، ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W ‫א‬‫א‬
 Knegative catalyst‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W ‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬ ‫א‬K
 
‫א‬‫א‬ K ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬
E2-1FK‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
E1‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬
‫א‬EiF‫א‬‫א‬KE2‫א‬‫א‬
 WEiiF‫א‬
i) A { A# → B (2-1)
ii) A + catalyst { [A-catalyst] → B + catalyst (2-2)
#
A ≡ Reactant , B ≡ Product , A ≡ Intermediate

- ٢٢ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬

Intermediate

No catalysr
Energy E1
E2

Reactants

With catayst
Products


 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WE2-1F
‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬
 Kcatalytic salt effect‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬W
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W
 ‫א‬‫א‬K١
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬،
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
KpH
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
K ‫א‬‫א‬،HH3O‫א‬،HH‫א‬
K
 ‫א‬J OH‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
،
  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬

- ٢٣ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬


 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬-SO3H. ‫א‬-COOH 
 ‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬polystyrenesulfonic acid


 ‫א‬W١
ERCHOFaldehyde ‫א‬‫א‬ERCOR’Fketones‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬halogenation ‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬
 KEF‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
W‫א‬‫א‬J 
k1
CH3 C CH3 + HA CH3 C CH3 + A-
k-1
+
O slow OH

k2

CH3 C CH2I + HI k
CH3 C CH2 + HA
I2
OH
 OH

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬
Rate = K2 [CH3COHCH3+] [A-] (2-3)
 W‫א‬‫א‬CH3COHCH3 ‫א‬
+

K1 = [CH3COHCH3+] [A-] / [CH3COCH3] [HA] (2-4)

+ -
[CH3COHCH3 ] = [CH3COCH3] [HA] / [A ] (2-5)
(2-5)Rate = k1 k2 [CH3COCH3] [HA]
K‫א‬‫א‬Rate ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
- ٢٤ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬

W‫א‬‫א‬J 


k1 -
CH3 C CH3 + B CH3 C CH2 + BH+
slow
O O

I2

+
BH
HI + B CH3 C CH2I + I-

 OH

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬
 Rate = k1 [acetone] [base] (2-6)
 K‫א‬‫א‬Rate ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W٢
‫א‬‫א‬OH- H+،‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬K
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬
k1
+ R C OR'
R C OR' + H
k-1
O O H
slow

HOH

R' OH + R C OH + H+

 O

،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WRedox catalyst ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

Ag+ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬
KCe4+ ‫א‬Tl+‫א‬

- ٢٥ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬

 W‫א‬‫א‬
 Tl + 2Ce
+ 4+
→ Tl 3+
+ 2Ce 3+
(2-7)
W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
4+ + K 3+ ++
Ce + Ag Ce + Ag

++ + k ++ +
Ag + Tl Tl + Ag
slow
++ 4+ 3+ 3+
Tl + Ce Ce + Tl
fast

+ 4+ 3+ 3+
Tl + 2Ce
 Tl + 2Ce

W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
++ +
Rate = k [Ag ] [Tl ] (2-8)
K = [Ce3+] [Ag++] / [Ce4+] [Ag+] (2-9)
 W،‫א‬‫א‬Ag++ ‫א‬‫א‬
Rate = k K [Tl+] [Ce4+] [Ag+]/ [Ce3+] (2-10)
 WPolymerization catalysis ‫א‬
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬     ،Ziegler-Natta catalysis     ‫א‬ ،‫א‬ ‫א‬
Ti, Cr, ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬KAl, Mg‫א‬ alkyl  Zr, V
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WEnzymes‫א‬
‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬
،‫א‬ ‫א‬
 peptide‫א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

- ٢٦ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬


 R’ ‫ أو‬R ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 KZn2+ , Fe3+ , Ni2+ , Ca2+ chelation
 W‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬J
 ‫א‬J
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬J
‫א‬H2O CO2 ‫א‬J
 W‫א‬
 lysozyme ‫א‬J
isomerase‫א‬J
hydrogenase‫א‬-
 W‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬
L-lactate hydrogenaseJ
alcohol dehydrogenase-
WMichaelis-Menten‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬RE  ‫א‬‫א‬R ‫א‬E ،‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬P 
k1
R + E k2
[ RE ] P + E (2-11)
 k-1
 W‫א‬‫א‬

- ٢٧ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬

[RE]  ‫א‬‫א‬،[E]t 
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W[E]‫א‬‫א‬
[E]t = [RE] + [E]

k1 [R] [E] = k-1 [RE]

[E] = [E]t - [RE]

[RE] = [R] [E]t

k-1 + [R]
k1

Rate = k2 [RE]

k2 [R] [E]
Rate = , k-1/ k1 = kM (2-12)
 kM + [R]
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
KE2-2F‫א‬K
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬K  ‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬



 ‫א‬‫א‬WE2-2F

- ٢٨ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬

‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W
 ‫א‬‫ א‬.١
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬
،‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K
 ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬، adsorption‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬K
‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬Kzeolite 
 ‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬
،alcohol dehydration  ‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬
Kcyclization‫א‬،hydrogenation  ‫א‬،dehydrogenation 
 ‫א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬W ‫א‬
،،‫א‬،transition metals‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬chemisorption‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬
K
 ‫א‬‫א‬ ،W, Ni, Pt ‫א‬‫א‬
KCu, Al 
‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
W
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬
 Kgeometric factorelectronic factor 
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬J
K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

- ٢٩ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬

K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬

 Wformic acid decarboxylation ‫א‬‫א‬J W١
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬
catalyst
 HCOOH CO2 + H2 (2-13)
‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
Kheat of formate formation‫א‬‫א‬ catalytic activity ‫א‬
‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E2-3F
‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬
Pt

Pd Cu
Catalytic
activity

Ni
Ag
W
Au

Heat of formate formation

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WE2-3F
‫א‬

- ٣٠ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬، Pd ‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬

W‫א‬‫א‬J W٢
Pd
CO + 1/2O2 CO2 (2-14)
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
O2 + 2S → 2Oads (2-15)
CO + S → COads (2-16)
Oads + COads → CO2 + 2S (2-17)
CO + Oads → CO2 + S (2-18)
K‫א‬‫א‬S
‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬W
 ‫א‬‫א‬J
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬J W
Fe
N2 + 3H2 2NH3 (2-19)

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
N2 + 2S } 2Nads (2-20)
H2 + 2S } 2Hads (2-21)
Nads + Hads } NHads + S (2-22)
NHads + Hads } NH2 ads + S (2-23)
NH2ads + Hads } NH3 + S (2-24)
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬S
٥٢٥ ‫א‬   ، ‫א‬ ‫א‬     ،‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬
 W،٢٠
Fe(111) : Fe(100) : Fe(110) = 400 : 25 : 1
 .Fe(110) Fe(100) Fe(111) 

- ٣١ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬

catalyst ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬،poisoning
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬E ‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K
 ‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ W
Ni
CO + 2H2 CH4 + H2O (2-25)
‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،H2S ‫א‬
،‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W ‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬J W
α-Al2O3
CH3CH2OH CH2=CH2 + H2O (2-26)
 E ‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
،‫א‬،partially hydrated
 W‫א‬‫א‬


‫א‬F‫א‬hydration ‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬E
 F‫א‬K ‫א‬E
 .‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬:Zeolite‫א‬
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬KAluminosilicates (Al, Si, O, Na)

- ٣٢ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
K
 ‫א‬‫א‬K ‫א‬
‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬K
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬ 
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬Koil cracking‫א‬‫א‬
+ +
H H
+ +
O ONa O O O Na O O O O O O O O O
Si Al Si Si Al Si Si Al Si Al
Si Si
OO O OO OO OO O O O
O O O OO OO OO O O O

 Sodium From Hydrogen Form

‫א‬‫א‬Wparaffins cracking‫א‬W
،olefins‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،
 Wn-butane ‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬
H H H b H c
+
H C C C CH + H
H3C C C2H5
H H H H H
a
a c
b

C4H9+ + H2 CH4 + C3H7+ C2H6 + C2H5+

+
-H -H
+
-H
+

 CH3CH=CH-CH3 CH2=CH-CH3 CH2=CH2

 Wcatalytic salt effect ‫א‬‫א‬

،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬activity‫א‬‫א‬
concentration  ‫א‬‫א‬K
‫א‬‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

- ٣٣ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬

Debye-ionic strength  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 WHuckel
1/2
Log f± = - A ZA ZB (U) (2-27)
U،
 ‫א‬‫א‬ ZBZA،‫א‬f±
KA،‫א‬‫א‬
U = ½ ∑(mi Zi)2 (2-28)
‫א‬‫א‬BrØnsted K‫א‬Zimi
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬
A+ B+ A+B
A + B } (AB) → Products (2-29)
 W‫א‬‫א‬ 
log k = C + A ZA ZB (U)1/2 (2-30)

  ،‫א‬‫א‬KC،‫א‬k
 W‫א‬

ZA ZB = +ve
Log k

ZA ZB = 0

ZA ZB = -ve


1/2
(U)

‫א‬ZBZA‫א‬J
 K‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬،،‫א‬،ZBZA‫א‬J
 K‫א‬‫א‬
،E FZBZA‫א‬J
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

- ٣٤ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬

 W
 W‫א‬ .١
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬J ‫א‬‫א‬J 
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬J ‫א‬‫א‬J 
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .٢
‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .٣
 K‫א‬
 W .٤
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬J ‫א‬J ‫א‬‫א‬J 
 ‫א‬‫א‬J 
 K‫א‬ .٥
 K‫א‬ .٦

- ٣٥ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬

 E‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬EFW‫א‬‫א‬K١ K
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫ א‬K
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫ א‬K
 K
  ،‫א‬   ‫א‬     W‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫ א‬K
‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬  ‫א‬  ،‫א‬    ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬
 K
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .١
α-Al2O3
CH3CH2OH CH2=CH2 + H2O
، E ‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W،‫א‬


K‫א‬E‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬
 .‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .٢
N2 + 3H2 Fe
2NH3

 WE‫א‬‫א‬SF‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
N2 + 2S } 2Nads
H2 + 2S } 2Hads
Nads + Hads } NHads + S
NHads + Hads } NH2 ads + S
NH2ads + Hads } NH3 + S

- ٣٦ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬

،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W٢٠٥٢٥‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 Fe(111) : Fe(100) : Fe(110) = 400 : 25
E‫א‬FW‫א‬‫א‬J  .٣
‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬BrØnsted K‫א‬
 W‫א‬
AA+ + BB+ } (AB)A+B → Products
 W‫א‬‫א‬ 
1/2
log k = C + A ZA ZB (U)
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬


ZA ZB = +ve
Log k

ZA ZB = 0

ZA ZB = -ve


1/2
(U)

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬J 
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬KAluminosilicates (Al, Si, O, Na)
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
K
 ‫א‬K‫א‬
‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬K
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 Koil cracking‫א‬‫א‬
- ٣٧ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬

‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬J 
Ag+ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K ‫א‬
KCe4+ ‫א‬Tl+‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬
 Tl+ + 2Ce4+ → Tl3+ + 2Ce3+
W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
4+ + K 3+ ++
Ce + Ag Ce + Ag

++ + k ++ +
Ag + Tl Tl + Ag
slow
++ 4+ 3+ 3+
Tl + Ce Ce + Tl
fast

+ 4+ 3+ 3+
Tl + 2Ce
 Tl + 2Ce

W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
Rate = k [Ag++] [Tl+]
K = [Ce3+] [Ag++] / [Ce4+] [Ag+]
 W،‫א‬‫א‬Ag++ ‫א‬‫א‬
Rate = k K [Tl+] [Ce4+] [Ag+]/ [Ce3+]
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬W ‫א‬‫א‬J 
‫א‬ ، 
 ، 
 ‫א‬،‫א‬
K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W ‫א‬K‫א‬
‫א‬K
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬KCu, Al  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ،W, Ni, Pt  ‫א‬
K  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬
،W
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬،،‫א‬‫א‬
H+،‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .٤
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،OH- 
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

- ٣٨ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬

‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬
k1
+ R C OR'
R C OR' + H
k-1
O O H
slow

HOH

R' OH + R C OH + H+

 O

‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .٥
‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬
،‫א‬‫א‬peptide‫א‬
‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬
،lysozyme W‫א‬K‫א‬H2O CO2 ‫א‬
‫א‬ ‫א‬،hydrogenase،isomerase
Kalcohol dehydrogenase،L-lactate hydrogenase‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬
k1
R + E k2
[ RE ] P + E
 k-1
 W
k2 [R] [E]
Rate =
 kM + [R]
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬

- ٣٩ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
ã¹]<gè…‚jÖ]æ<ËÖ]<Üé×Ãj×Ö<íÚ^ÃÖ]<퉉ö¹]
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬
 ‫א‬

٣
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬

 W‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .١
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .٢
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .٣
 K‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .٤

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬









- ٤٠ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

 W‫א‬
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬  ‫א‬            adsorption E‫א‬F
‫א‬ absorption‫א‬Kadsorbate ‫א‬‫א‬ adsorbent ‫א‬
 K‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬
،surfactant         W   ‫א‬ .١
 ‫א‬ ‫א‬   ‫א‬  ،‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬
‫א‬   ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬   K‫א‬     ‫א‬ 
 K‫א‬‫א‬
catalysts ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬ .٢
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   ،‫א‬     ‫א‬      K‫א‬‫א‬  
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬E3-1F‫א‬KEF
 KPhysisorption‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬Chemisorption

- ٤١ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WE3-1F

 Physisorption ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ Chemisorption ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬J  ‫א‬‫א‬J
  ١٠  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬  J ٢٠‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬J
   ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬J
 ‫א‬‫א‬J  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬J
 ‫א‬‫א‬J ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬J
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬J ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬J
 ‫א‬J  ‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬ K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬Kexothermic‫א‬
∆G = ∆H - T∆S (3-1)
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ T‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ∆G‫א‬‫א‬ ∆S‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬ ∆H
  ‫א‬  ∆G  ،E‫א‬ ‫א‬F ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬   
  
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ∆S‫א‬‫א‬ ،‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬  K‫א‬  ∆H    ‫א‬  K‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬   ‫א‬ ‫א‬
، ٢٠‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬
  ‫א‬   ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬    K   ١٠  ‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬

 W،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W
CH3CH2OH → CH2=CH2 + H2O W‫א‬
CH3CH2OH → CH3CHO + H2 W‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬ dehydration ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 Kdehydrogenation ‫א‬
- ٤٢ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬،‫א‬
 W‫א‬E‫א‬F‫א‬W
N2 + 3H2 } 2NH3
 W‫א‬‫א‬
Fe(111) : Fe(100) : Fe(110) = 400 : 25 : 1

Cu, ‫א‬‫א‬، W, Ni, Pt ‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ KAl
3-F‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
K٢٥‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E2



- ٤٣ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WE3-2F
 ٣
 /‫א‬ /‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬
 ١٥٧  ٣٤٠ SO2‫א‬
 ١٣٠  ١٣٦  NH3 ‫א‬
 ٣١  ٦٠  CO2 ‫א‬
 ١٤٧J  ١١  N2 
 ٢٤٦J  ٢  H2 
Adsorption isotherm‫א‬‫א‬
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬ESTP = 1 atm , 0 oCF‫א‬
‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬١٩٦J ١٠٠‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E3-1F
‫א‬‫א‬   ‫א‬   ، ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬  
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬
Solid + Gas ↔ adsorbed gas + heat (3-2)
‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬K

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬١٩٦J ١٠٠‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ WE3-1F

- ٤٤ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E3-2F‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬
 ،E3-2F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬
 KEa F‫א‬‫א‬monolayer‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .١
KEb-c F‫א‬‫א‬non-porous ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .٢
KEd-e F‫א‬‫א‬porous ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .٣
‫א‬ b, e ‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 a ‫א‬   KE F ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬  E‫א‬ ‫א‬ F ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬ ‫א‬     ،‫א‬ ‫א‬      ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬ K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
 KLangmuir isotherm،‫א‬



 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WE3-2F

- ٤٥ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

 W
 W‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .١
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬  .٢
 KE3-3F‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .٣
P
Gas
θ
1−θ

 Solid
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WE3-3F
 W‫א‬
 EVbF‫א‬ZEVfF‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
Vf = Kf P (1- θ) (3-3)
-Q/RT
Vb = Kb θ e (3-4)
،‫א‬‫א‬ θ ،‫א‬ P ،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ Kf 
‫א‬‫א‬ T ‫א‬‫א‬ R ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬ Q ، Kb ،‫א‬‫א‬ (1- θ)
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E3-4FE3-3F‫א‬K‫א‬
θ / (1- θ) = K P (3-6)
E3-6F‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،K= (Kf/Kb) eQ/RT
 W‫א‬،
θ = KP/(1+KP) (3-7)
W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
θ = V / Vm (3-8)
‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ Vm ‫א‬‫א‬ V 
 W‫א‬E3-8FE3-7F‫א‬Kθ =1E‫א‬
V/Vm = K P / ( 1 – K P ) (3-9)

- ٤٦ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

E3-9F‫א‬،Vm ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K ‫א‬‫א‬

W‫א‬‫א‬
P/V = 1/KVm + P/Vm (3-10)
‫א‬،E3-4F‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

P/V
slope = 1/Vm

Intercept = 1/KVm

P
 K‫א‬‫א‬WE3-4F

K‫א‬ ‫א‬           W‫א‬  
 ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬   K‫א‬  ‫א‬    ‫א‬ ‫א‬   
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬KVm‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
A(m2) = Vm (cm3) × 6.02 × 1023 × 16.2 (Ǻ2) × 10-20 / 22414 (3-11)
  6.02×10 ‫א‬‫א‬  ،‫א‬   ‫א‬ ‫א‬  16.2 Ǻ2 ‫א‬‫א‬ 
23

‫א‬KE1 atm, 273KF‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬22414 ‫א‬‫א‬،

‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
W‫א‬‫א‬
Po Vm/ To = P V/ T (3-12)
KT = 273 K P =1 atm P ‫א‬T ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬V
o o

- ٤٧ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬       W(Q) ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬ 
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬،‫א‬
‫א‬ P1, P2 ‫א‬ T1, T2 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬
 W‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬
ℓn (P2/P1) = (Q/R) {(T2 - T1) / T2T1} (3-13)
‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
WKK ∞ 1/P ‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬
ℓn (K1/K2) = (Q/R) {(T2 - T1) / T2T1} (3-14)
٣
  ٠{٩‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬ W١‫א‬
 K٢٥٠٣٢٤{٨١٩٠‫א‬،‫א‬
 ‫א‬W‫א‬
ℓn (P2/P1) = (Q/R) {(T2 - T1) / T2T1}
ℓn (32/4.8) = (Q/2) {(250-190)/190×250}
Q = 3003.7 cal mol-1
 ٣ ٢{٨٦‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ W٢‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬W‫א‬
2 3 23 2
A(m ) = Vm (cm ) × 6.02 × 10 × 16.2 (Ǻ ) / 22414
= 2.86 × 6.02 × 1023 × 16.2 (Ǻ2) × 10-20 / 22414
= 124.4 m2
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬ W
‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
Q = ∆Ho ( 1- β θ ) (3-15)
‫א‬    ‫א‬‫א‬  K β   ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬  ∆Ho 
W‫א‬E3-4F‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
Vb = Kb θ exp{- ∆Ho (1- β θ)/RT} (3-16)
 ،Vf = Vb
Kf P (1- θ) = Κb θ exp{- ∆Ho (1- β θ)/RT} (3-17)
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬
D P = {θ /(1- θ)} × eCθ (3-18)
D = Kf/Kb exp{∆Ho/RT} (3-19)
- ٤٨ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

C = ∆Hoβ/RT (3-20)
،E3-18F‫א‬، θ /(1- θ ) ≈ 1 W‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬ 
 W‫א‬،‫א‬
θ = (1/C) ℓn P + G (3-21)
،Pθ،E3-21F‫א‬KG = (1/C) ℓn DW
 Kθ ≈ 0.5‫א‬‫א‬
  ،Brunauer-Emmett-Teller    ‫א‬ W‫א‬ ‫א‬    :BET
  ‫א‬‫א‬      ‫א‬  K‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬
V
=
(
C P / Po ) (3-22)
Vm
[1 − (P / P )]
o 
(
1 + P / P
o
) (C − 1)
 
   ‫א‬    K‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬ Po   C 
 W‫א‬
P
=
1
+
(C − 1) P
(3-23)
(
V P −Po
) CVm CVm Po

K1/CVm   C-1/CVm ،P/Po  P/V(Po-P) 

 KE3-5F‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬Vm ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

P/V(Po-P)
slope = c-1/cVm

Intercept = 1/cVm

P/Po
 K‫א‬‫א‬EBT ‫א‬‫א‬WE3-5F

‫א‬ W   ‫א‬  ‫א‬  W‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬
100nm ‫א‬ macropores ‫א‬ ‫א‬ 10nm  micropores ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬K10-100 nm ‫א‬‫א‬mesopores ‫א‬‫א‬

- ٤٩ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬


 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WE3-6F

،‫א‬‫א‬    ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬   ‫א‬‫א‬   K‫א‬‫א‬ 
‫א‬ ‫א‬     ‫א‬‫א‬     KE3-6F ‫א‬   
  ‫א‬ ‫א‬   ‫א‬ ‫א‬   K‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬     ،desorption
 KP1>P2‫א‬،P2‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬P1‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬ porosimeter ‫א‬   ‫א‬    WE‫א‬F ‫א‬  
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬KE3-7F‫א‬


 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WE3-7F

 ‫א‬ K‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬      ‫א‬ 
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬
 W
∆P = 2 γ cos θ / r  (3-24)
- ٥٠ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

 r،‫א‬‫א‬ θ،‫א‬‫א‬ γ‫א‬ ∆P 

θ،‫א‬‫א‬ γ،∆P‫א‬K‫א‬
‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬     KE3-24F ‫א‬  ‫א‬  
‫א‬‫א‬،،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬  Dr ‫א‬
 W‫א‬
Dr = - (P/r) d(V-Vo)/dP  (3-25)
 r  DrK‫א‬ Vo  P r ‫א‬ V
 ‫א‬ ‫א‬     ،‫א‬   ‫א‬ ‫א‬    
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬
WE3-3F‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WE3-3F
 EnmF‫א‬ EatmF‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
8550 1.7
147 98
74 197
49 296
37 395
29 493
25 592
 21  691

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬  ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬    ‫א‬ ‫א‬ W‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
  ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬         ‫א‬  K‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

- ٥١ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

 WFreundlich isotherm
1/n
Wa = K C (3-25)
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬Wa ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬n K
 KE‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬C ‫א‬
 W
 K‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬.١
 W .٢
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬K
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬K
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫ א‬.٣
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .٤
‫א‬  ‫א‬    ،‫א‬  ‫א‬    ‫ א‬.٥
 K‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .٦
‫א‬   ‫א‬   ،‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫ א‬.٧
 K‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫ א‬.٨
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ECF‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E√F .٩
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬K
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬K
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬K
   ٠{١     ١٠٠  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬   .١٠
  K ٠{٠١  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬  ‫א‬  ‫א‬   ،‫א‬
،   ١٠٠٠  ‫א‬‫א‬    ،    ‫א‬‫א‬
- ٥٢ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

٢٣‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .١١
‫א‬ ٠{٥٢٠٠‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬،n = 2‫א‬K٠{٣٥،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫ א‬.١٢
 K = 0.5‫א‬‫א‬٤٠٢٥‫א‬‫א‬٠{٠٥٠{٢
‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫ א‬.١٣
 ‫א‬‫א‬     ٠{٠٥  ٠{٢٥ ‫א‬    ٢٠ ‫א‬  
 K‫א‬‫א‬K٠{٤٥٠{٥‫א‬٤٠‫א‬
 ‫א‬        ‫א‬ ١٠   ‫ א‬.١٤
 ‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ٣ ٠{٢١‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬١٢{٦‫א‬‫א‬
٢٧٣ ‫א‬   ‫א‬  ‫א‬   ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬ .١٥
 W
P, mmHg 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
V, cm3 10.2 18.6 25.5 31.4 36.9 41.6 46.1
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬ ١٩‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬
 K
٣٠{٨٩٢٠‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .١٦
٨٠‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K٤{٨‫א‬
 K٢٠‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،




- ٥٣ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬
.١
 Physisorption ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ Chemisorption ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬J  ‫א‬‫א‬J
  ١٠  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬  J ٢٠‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬J
   ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬J
 ‫א‬‫א‬J  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬J
 ‫א‬‫א‬J ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬J
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬J  ‫א‬ ‫א‬   ‫א‬ J
 ‫א‬J  ‫א‬‫א‬
.٢
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K
 K‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬ W‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬K
 K‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬K
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K
 KEF‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬ .٣

P/V
slope = 1/Vm

Intercept = 1/KVm

 P
Vm‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬

- ٥٤ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .٤
‫א‬Agas (cm2) ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬
EVm ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬
W‫א‬A (m2) ‫א‬Vm ‫א‬‫א‬
A = Vm (cm3) × 6.02×1023× Agas×10-20/22414
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .٥
Wa = K C1/n
‫א‬‫א‬  C ،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ Wa ، K  n 
K‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬J W .٦
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬J 
‫א‬‫א‬∆H ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
  ∆H = ∆Ho(1 – βθ) :‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬K β  θ = 0 ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬ ∆Ho 
 W‫א‬
θ = 1/C ℓn PC
K‫א‬‫א‬PC G
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬.٧
V
=
(
C P / Po )
Vm
[1 − (P / P )]
o 
(
1 + P / P
o
) (C − 1)
 
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 P
=
1
+
(C − 1) P
(
V Po − P ) CVm CVm Po

K1/CVm    C-1/CVm      ،P/Po  P/V(Po-P)  
 K‫א‬‫א‬Vm ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

- ٥٥ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

P/V(Po-P)
slope = c-1/cVm

Intercept = 1/cVm

P/Po
 K‫א‬‫א‬EBT ‫א‬‫א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .٨
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
Dr = - (P/r) d(V-Vo)/dP
 r  DrK‫א‬ Vo  P r ‫א‬V
‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬



 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 2J 3J 3J 2J  .٩
 W‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .١٠
N/Nm = K C / ( 1 + K C )

- ٥٦ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

 K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ Nm ،‫א‬‫א‬ N 

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  C ‫א‬‫א‬
:‫א‬‫א‬
N = (0.1 – 0.01)/1000 = 0.0099 mol
 :
0.009/Nm = 1000×0.01/{1+(1000×0.01)}
Nm = 0.0099 mol
:‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
A = Nm × 6.02×1023×23×10-20
= 0.0099× 6.02×1023×23×10-20
= 1370.8 m2.
 ٢٠٠‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .١١
Wa = (0.5 – 0.35) × 200/1000 = 0.03 g
 W
1/n
Wa = K C
K = Wa/C1/n = 0.03/(0.35)1/2 = 0.05
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .١٢
ℓn (C2/C1) = (Q/R) {(T2 - T1) / T2T1}
Q = RT2T1/(T2-T1) ℓn (C2/C1)
= 2×298×313/15 ℓn (0.05/0.2)
= -17.242 kcal mol-1
W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .١٣
ℓn (K1/K2) = (Q/R) {(T2 - T1) / T2T1}
، 40  20 ‫א‬‫א‬ C  θ  K2 K1 
 W
θ/1−θ = KC
 W٢٠‫א‬
0.25/1-0.25 = K1×0.05
K = 0.0167
0.5/1-0.5 = K2×0.45
W٤٠‫א‬
K2 = 0.225
W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
Q = RT2T1/(T2-T1) ℓn (K1/K2)
= 2×298×313×ℓn (0.0167/0.225)
- ٥٧ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

= -23.867 kcal mol-1

 W‫א‬A ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬.١٤
A = Vm × 6.02×1023× 12.6×10-20 × W/22414
 .‫א‬W ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬Wm
A = 0.21× 6.02×1023× 12.6×10-20 × 10/22414
= 7.1 m2.
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .١٥
P/V = 1/KVm + P/Vm
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ Vm ‫א‬‫א‬  K ‫א‬‫א‬ V ‫א‬‫א‬ P 
‫א‬K1/KVm  1/Vm  P  P/V
K 0.11Vm ،9.13‫א‬

experimental
15 best fit

14
3
P/V, mmHg/cm

13

12

11

10

9
0 200 400 600 800
P, mmHg


 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
A = Vm × 6.02×1023× 19 ×10-20 /22414
= 0.11 × 6.02×1023× 19 ×10-20 /22414 = 0.56 cm2

- ٥٨ -
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .١٦
ℓn (P2/P1) = (Q/R) {(T2 - T1) / T2T1}
 KT2 T1 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬P2 P1 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬Q 
ℓn(P2/4.6) = (-20000/2) (60/239×353)
P2 = 0.013 atm.

- ٥٩ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
ã¹]<gè…‚jÖ]æ<ËÖ]<Üé×Ãj×Ö<íÚ^ÃÖ]<퉉ö¹]
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬
‫א‬

٤
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬

 W‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬  ‫א‬    ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬  W‫א‬‫א‬ 
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬






- ٦٠ -
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

W‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬ solution ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬ ‫א‬  K     ‫א‬   ‫א‬    ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬     ‫א‬    K‫א‬  ‫א‬      ‫א‬  ‫א‬
‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬ K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 Ksolute ‫א‬‫א‬solvent
   ‫א‬ ‫א‬   ‫א‬     ‫א‬ ‫א‬  
،‫א‬‫א‬K colloid ‫א‬،‫א‬
،‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬E4-1F
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WE4-1F
   ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬  ‫א‬
‫أي ﻧﺴﺐ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻐﺎزات‬ ‫ﻏﺎز‬ ‫ﻏﺎز‬ ‫ﻏﺎزي‬
‫اﻻﻳﺮوﺱﻮﻻت‬ ‫ﺱﺎﺋﻞ‬ ‫ﻏﺎز‬ ‫ﻏﺎزي‬
‫اﻟﺪﺧﺎن‬ ‫ﺻﻠﺐ‬ ‫ﻏﺎز‬ ‫ﻏﺎزي‬
‫اﻟﻤﺎء و اﻟﻜﺤﻮل‬ ‫ﺱﺎﺋﻞ‬ ‫ﺱﺎﺋﻞ‬ ‫ﺱﺎﺋﻞ‬
(H2O + CO2) ‫اﻟﺼﻮدا‬ ‫ﻏﺎز‬ ‫ﺱﺎﺋﻞ‬ ‫ﺱﺎﺋﻞ‬
‫ﻣﺤﻠﻮل ﻣﻠﺤﻲ أو ﺱﻜﺮي‬ ‫ﺻﻠﺐ‬ ‫ﺱﺎﺋﻞ‬ ‫ﺱﺎﺋﻞ‬
‫ﺑﻼﺗﻴﻦ ﻣﺸﺒﻊ ﺑﺎﻟﻬﻴﺪروﺝﻴﻦ‬ ‫ﻏﺎز‬ ‫ﺻﻠﺐ‬ ‫ﺻﻠﺐ‬
(‫ ﻣﺎء‬+ ‫اﻟﺠﻴﻠﻲ )ﺑﺮوﺗﻴﻦ‬ ‫ﺱﺎﺋﻞ‬ ‫ﺻﻠﺐ‬ ‫ﺻﻠﺐ‬
‫اﻟﺴﺒﺎﺋﻚ اﻟﻤﻌﺪﻧﻴﺔ‬ ‫ﺻﻠﺐ‬ ‫ﺻﻠﺐ‬ ‫ﺻﻠﺐ‬
- ٦١ -
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

 W‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬   ‫א‬ ‫א‬   
X ‫א‬ m ‫א‬،‫א‬،
‫א‬‫א‬ A‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،B
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬

m = 1000 x WB /
MB WA (4-1)
K‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬  ، ‫א‬   WA  ،‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬   MB  WB 
 Kmol kg-1‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WX‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
XB = nB/(nA + nB) = (WB/MB)/ {(WA/MA) + (WB/MB)} (4-2)
 K‫א‬‫א‬MA‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬nBnA
 W‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬ .١
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬ 
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬KHCl, HBr, SO3, NH3،‫א‬‫א‬،N2, O2, H2
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K،
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ WHenry’s law 
 W‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬

m = k P
(4-3)
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬k،‫א‬P،‫א‬m 

- ٦٢ -
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

، ٢٥‫א‬ HCl E4-2F‫א‬

‫א‬،PHCl ‫א‬  XHCl ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
Kk 
‫א‬ Wabsorption coefficient (α) ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬mL ،‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬


 K٢٥‫א‬‫א‬HCl:E4-2F
PHCl / atm XHCl k-1
0.0033 0.00141 0.0427
0.0338 0.00154 0.0456
0.0964 0.00431 0.0446
0.158 0.00702 0.0444
0.282 0.0126 0.0446

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬،E1 atm, 273 KF STP
 W‫א‬‫א‬K1 atm‫א‬

α = v’ / V P
(4-4)
‫א‬‫א‬P‫א‬V،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬v’
 Katm-1‫א‬K
 W‫א‬‫א‬ .٢
   ‫א‬           ‫א‬‫א‬  
F‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬،
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬KE
،‫א‬‫א‬ vapor pressure ،‫א‬‫א‬
E‫א‬F‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬، ∆Vm‫א‬‫א‬،∆Hm ‫א‬

- ٦٣ -
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

non- ideal solutions W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 Kideal solutions
 W‫א‬،B AW‫א‬‫א‬
 A-A = B-B = A-B (2-5)
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W،‫א‬‫א‬
 K∆Hm = 0‫א‬‫א‬ .١
 K∆Vm= 0W،‫א‬‫א‬ .٢
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬ ‫א‬ .٣
EF‫א‬‫א‬: Raoult’s law ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬ K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 WK‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
XA
= nA / (nA + nB) (2-6)
XB
= nB / (nA + nB) (2-7)
1 = XA + XB (2-8)
 W‫א‬

PA ∞ nA / (nA + nB) (2-9)

PA = C nA / (nA + nB) (2-10)
 PA ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ،nB = 0    ،  C 
 KPoA‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
PA = PoA { nA / (nA + nB)} (2-11)

PA = PoA XA (2-12)
 W،B‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
PB = PoB XB (2-13)

- ٦٤ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬،Pt ‫א‬‫א‬
Pt = P A + PB (2-14)
‫א‬KB‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬ E4-1F
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬


 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WE4-1F
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬
K‫א‬  ‫א‬   ‫א‬  ‫א‬     K  ‫א‬
‫א‬K∆Hm ≠ 0،EF‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬، ∆Vm ≠ 0،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬positive deviation ‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬
 Knegative deviation
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬J 
 K(CH3COCH3 + CS2)‫א‬‫א‬W
 W‫א‬
 K∆Hm > 0E‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬ .١
 K∆Vm> 0W،‫א‬‫א‬ .٢
F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬ .٣
‫א‬ ‫א‬
 KE ‫א‬‫א‬
 W
A-A ≠ B-B > A-B (2-15)
 
- ٦٥ -
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬


‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬


 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WE4-2F
 ‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬J 
 (CH3COCH3 + CCl3H)‫א‬‫א‬W
 W‫א‬
 K∆Hm < 0E‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬ .١
 K∆Vm< 0W،‫א‬‫א‬ .٢
F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬ .٣
 W‫א‬‫א‬KE‫א‬‫א‬
A-A ≠ B-B < A-B (2-16)
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬

- ٦٦ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬


 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WE4-3F
 ‫א‬‫א‬
E‫א‬F ‫א‬    ‫א‬  Wvapor composition‫א‬ 
‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬
 WK‫א‬E‫א‬
 W‫א‬،X’A‫א‬A ‫א‬
PA = Pt X’A (4-17)
 W‫א‬
o
PA = P A XA (4-18)
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
X’A = (PoA XA) / (PoA XA + PoB XB) (4-19)
o o o
X’A/XA = P A/ (P A XA + P B XB) (4-20)
o o
= 1/(XA + (P B/P A) XB) (4-21)
‫א‬‫א‬،PoA > PoB،B‫א‬‫א‬A ‫א‬
 K،‫א‬‫א‬KX’A > XA
 W‫א‬ .٣
‫א‬   ،‫א‬   ‫א‬ ‫א‬   ‫א‬ ‫א‬ 
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬ solute ‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬   ‫א‬   ‫א‬  ‫א‬     K‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬
  ‫א‬‫א‬   ‫א‬‫א‬     KColligative properties of solutions 
‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬   ‫א‬   K?‫?א‬      ،‫א‬  
- ٦٧ -
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

       ،‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬        ،‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬ 
 ‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬ XB  W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J ١
  W‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬XA
Pt = PoA XA + PoB XB
(4-22)
 W،PoB = 0،‫א‬‫א‬
Pt = PoA XA = Po XA (4-23)
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K‫א‬ P  PoA ‫א‬‫א‬
o

 W
o o o
Pt = P (1 – XB) = P - P XB (4-24)
Po – Pt/Po = ∆P/Po = Po XB (4-25)
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
∆P/Po = (WB MB)/{(WB MB) + (WA MA)} (4-26)
‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ MA  MB ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ WA  WB 
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،WB →0،
∆P/Po = (WB MB)/(WA MA) (4-27)
MB = (∆P/Po) WA MA / WB (4-28)
   ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬   W‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬ J ٢
‫א‬F‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬ ABC‫א‬KE4-4F،‫א‬
KC1 , C2 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،E
 C2 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،to ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 Kt1 ‫א‬C1 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬t2 

- ٦٨ -
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬


 ‫א‬‫א‬:E4-4F
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬ADEABC‫א‬
AB/AD = AC/AE
(4-29)
(t1 - to)/(t2 - to) = (Po - P1)/(Po - P2) (4-30)
∆T1/∆T2 = ∆P1/∆P2 (4-31)
 W‫א‬(4-12)‫א‬
∆tb ∞ ∆P ∞ XB (4-32)
∆tb = k XB = k nB/ (nA + nB) (4-33)
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،n2 << n1،‫א‬‫א‬
∆tb = k (WB/MB)/(WA/MA) (4-34)
 W،(4-1)‫א‬،‫א‬

∆tb = k (MA / 1000) m (4-35)

∆tb = kb m (4-36)
KKmolal elevation constant ‫א‬‫א‬ kb
‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 (4-34) ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬
MB = 1000 kb WB /(∆tb WA) (4-37)

- ٦٩ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ W‫א‬‫א‬J ٣
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K
K(4-4)‫א‬ freezing point ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
∆tf = kf m (4-38)
K molal depression constant ‫א‬‫א‬ kf‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ∆tf 
‫א‬ ‫א‬    ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬   ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬  
 W‫א‬
MB = 1000 kf WB /(∆tf WA) (4-39)


 ‫א‬‫א‬:E4-4F

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬ J ٤
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬ semipermeable membrane K‫א‬
،‫א‬‫א‬    ‫א‬  ‫א‬    ،‫א‬   ‫א‬  ‫א‬  
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬KOsmosis‫א‬
‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬   ‫א‬ ‫א‬    K‫א‬     
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K pressure osmotic

- ٧٠ -
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬
K‫א‬reverse osmosis ‫א‬‫א‬
Berkeley-Hartley osmometer E4-5F
 K‫א‬
Pressure

Reference
point

solution
solvent
solution

semipermeable
 membrane

 ‫א‬‫א‬:E4-5F
‫א‬‫א‬ W‫א‬‫א‬ Van’t Hoff 
E‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
πV = nRT (4-40)
π V = (WB/MB) RT (4-41)
π = C RT (4-42)
‫א‬ V mol/L‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ C  atm‫א‬‫א‬ π
     ‫א‬ ‫א‬  K‫א‬‫א‬  R  ،‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬  T  ‫א‬
R     ،‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬    K‫א‬  ‫א‬ 
  mm Hg  ‫א‬ ‫א‬     K0.082 L atm K-1 mol-1 ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬K670 ‫א‬
  E4-41F ‫א‬  ‫א‬   K‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬  ‫א‬  
 W‫א‬
MB = WB R T/ π V (4-43)

- ٧١ -
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬           WVan’t Hoff factor   
‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬
   K‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ particles  ‫א‬ ‫א‬   ‫א‬ ‫א‬ 
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬
 W،i 
i = ∆P/(∆P)o = ∆tb/(∆tb)o = ∆tf/(∆tf)o = ∆π/(∆π)o (4-44)
K‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬?o?‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬    K‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬       
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬ W
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬EαF‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
WAn‫א‬‫א‬KEnF‫א‬‫א‬
An } A1 + A2 + … + An (4-45)
1-α α α … α
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬K1+(n-1)α‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬
i = ∆P/(∆P)o= 1+(n-1)α/1 (4-46)
 W‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 α = (i - 1) / (n - 1) (4-47)
‫א‬‫א‬   ،‫א‬     W Fractional Distillation ‫א‬ ‫א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،
‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬ ‫א‬       boiling point curves ‫א‬   ‫א‬ 
F ‫א‬  ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬        K‫א‬ 
 K‫א‬‫א‬E


- ٧٢ -
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ W‫א‬ K١
‫א‬KE4-6F‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬KEa’F‫א‬‫א‬EaF‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬residue‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬
‫א‬Kdistillate ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬


 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬:E4-6F
‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬    WMaximum BP    ‫א‬  K٢
KE4-7F‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬ C‫א‬
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬    KAzeotrope ‫א‬       ‫א‬ ‫א‬
a’  ‫א‬   a   ‫א‬ KC ‫א‬   ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬
 ‫א‬ HCl  ‫א‬ ‫א‬     ‫א‬   ‫א‬ 

- ٧٣ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

، b، C ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ KHCl‫א‬‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬C ‫א‬‫א‬


 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬:E4-7F
‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬    WMinimum BP    ‫א‬  K٣
KE4-8F‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬
، ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬    ، ‫א‬ ‫א‬  C ‫א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 a   ‫א‬ KC ‫א‬   ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬ 
‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬،a’‫א‬
، b، C ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ،‫א‬‫א‬
 
  ‫א‬ ‫א‬    ‫א‬  ‫א‬  ‫א‬   
K‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬
KE4-9F‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬


- ٧٤ -
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬


 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬:E4-8F
plates ‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

condenser
vapor

liquid

 heater
 :E4-9F
K‫א‬  heater‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

- ٧٥ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

 WDistribution law ‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
   ،  ‫א‬ ‫א‬    ‫א‬ ‫א‬    
 dissociation EF     ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬     K‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬association 
CA/CB = K (4-48 )
distribution ‫א‬ K  B ‫א‬‫א‬ CB  A ‫א‬‫א‬ CA 
 W‫א‬‫א‬B‫א‬A‫א‬‫א‬Kcoefficient
(CA)1/n /CB = K (4-49 )
 A‫א‬‫א‬KA‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬ n
 W‫א‬‫א‬B‫א‬
n
(CA) /CB = K (4-50 )
 KA‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬n
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬

- ٧٦ -
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

 W
‫א‬‫א‬‫؟‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J ١
K‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬J ٢
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬NaNO2  ‫א‬٪١٠‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬J ٣
K٣٩{٥‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،٣٠‫א‬
 ‫א‬B A‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬J ٤
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ،‫א‬K‫א‬
K‫א؟‬‫؟‬‫א‬KB‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬B ‫א‬
Pt , mmHg XB PB PA
300 0.0
290 0.1
280 0.2
270 0.3
250 0.4
240 0.5
230 0.7
210 0.9
200 1.0

،٪٣٠٪٧٠‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬J ٥
،٣٠٣٦{٧١١٨{٢‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬
‫א‬١٤٠‫א‬‫א‬ J ٦
‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K
K٩٥{٨٩٣٩{٤،‫א‬،‫א‬
١٠٠CO(NH2)2 ‫א‬‫א‬٥‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬J ٧
K‫א‬‫א‬٢٤‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬

- ٧٧ -
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K-1.5 oC J ٨
K‫א‬،1.85 oC0.5 oC‫א‬‫א‬
١٩‫א‬‫א‬٥٠٠‫א‬٥٠ J ٩
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K٢٠
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K٢{١0.5 M K2CrO4 J ١٠
 K‫א‬‫א‬K١٥




- ٧٨ -
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W
 ‫א‬‫ א‬K١
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬K ‫א‬،
K ‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬




 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬



 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

- ٧٩ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬


‫א‬‫א‬ K٢
W‫א‬‫א‬
W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬-
 Pt = PoA XA + PoB XB
W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬-
 ∆tf = kf m
W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬-
 ∆tb = kb m
W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬-
 π = C RT
MB‫א‬‫א‬MA  ‫א‬‫א‬P ‫א‬‫ א‬Po 
kb  ‫א‬‫א‬kf  ‫א‬‫א‬WB‫א‬WA‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬R ‫א‬‫א‬T‫א‬‫ א‬π ‫א‬V‫א‬‫א‬
 WEB‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K٣
∆P = Po – P = XB
XB = (W/M)B /{ (W/M)A + (W/M)B}
= (10/69)/ {90/18 + 10/69} = 0.0281
P = Po – XB = 39.5 – 0.0281 = 39.47 mm Hg

- ٨٠ -
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

 ‫א‬ K٤
Pt , mmHg XB PB PA
300 0.0 0 300
290 0.1 20 270
280 0.2 40 240
270 0.3 60 210
250 0.4 100 150
240 0.5 120 120
230 0.7 140 90
210 0.9 180 30
200 1.0 200 0
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬KB ‫א‬

PA
300 XB
Pt

250

200
P / mm Hg

150

100

50

0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
XB


W‫א‬ K٥
Mbenzene (C6H6) = 78 , Mtoluene (C7H8) = 92
Xbenzene = (70/78)/ {70/78 + 30/92} = 0.733
 Xtoluene = 1.0 – 0.733 = 0.267 W‫א‬
W‫א‬‫א‬
Pbenzene = (Po X)benzene = 118.2 x 0.733 = 86.6 mm Hg
 W‫א‬‫א‬
Ptoluene = (Po X)toluene = 36.7 x 0.267 = 9.8 mm Hg

- ٨١ -
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

 W‫א‬‫א‬
Pt = Pbenzene + Ptoluene = 86.6 + 9.8 = 96.4 mm Hg
 ‫ א‬K٦
o
Pt = 760 mm Hg P = 939.4 mm Hg
chlorobenzene
Pobromobenzene = 95.8 mm Hg Xchlorobenzene = ?
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
Pt = Pchlorobenzene + Pbromobenzene
Pchlorobenzene = Pochlorobenzene Xchlorobenzene
Pbromobenzene = Pobromobenzene Xbromobenzene
Xbromobenzene + Xchlorobenzene = 1
Pt = Pobromobenzene Xbromobenzene + Pobromobenzene (1 – Xchlorobenzene)
Xchlorobenzene = {Pt – Pobrompbenzene} / {Pochlorobenzene - Pobromobenzene}
= 760 – 95.6 / {939.4 – 95.8} = 0.787
‫ א‬K٧
Wurea = 5 g Wwater = 100 g
Po = 24 mm Hg Psolution = ?
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
o
∆P/P = XB
Po – Psolution / Po = (W/M)urea / (W/M)urea + (W/M)water
24 – Psolution / 24 = (5/58) / {5/58 + 100/18} = 0.015
Psolution = 24 – 24 x 0.015 = 23.64 mm Hg
 ‫ א‬K٨
Tf = -1.5 oC Tof = 0 oC
Kf = 1.85 oC/molal kb = 0.5 oC/molal
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
∆tf = Tof – Tf = kf m
m = Tf – Tof / kf = 0.0 -1.5 / 1.85 = 0.81 mol kg-1
∆tb = Tb – Tob = kb m
Tb = 100 + 0.5 x 0.81 = 100.4 oC
 ‫ א‬K٩
V = 500 mL = 0.5 L Wprotein = 50 g
π = 19/ 760 mm Hg = 0.025 atm T = 20 + 273 = 293 K
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
πV = n R T = (W/M) R T
M=WRT/πV
M = 50 x 0.082 x 293 / (0.025 x 0.5) = 96,104 g mol-1

- ٨٢ -
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

 ‫ א‬K١٠
C = 0.5 M T = 15 + 273 = 288 K
i = 2.1
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
πo = C R T = 0.5 x 0.082 x 288 = 11.8 atm
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
K2CrO4 { 2K+ + CrO42-
1− α 2α α
n=1+2α
 WE‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬
i = πreal / πo = n / 1
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
i=1+2α/1
2.1 = 1 + 2 α
α = 2.1 − 1 / 2 = 0.55
π = i x πo = 2.1 x 11.8 = 24.8 atm

- ٨٣ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
ã¹]<gè…‚jÖ]æ<ËÖ]<Üé×Ãj×Ö<íÚ^ÃÖ]<퉉ö¹]
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

٥
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬

 W‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J
‫א‬        ‫א‬ ‫א‬   ‫א‬   J
K‫א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

  ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬   ‫א‬ ‫א‬   W‫א‬‫א‬ 
 K‫א‬‫א‬






- ٨٤ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
     ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬  
   ‫א‬ ‫א‬    K   ‫א‬ ‫א‬ 
 ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬   ‫א‬‫א‬   ‫א‬   ‫א‬  ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 Functions‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬  ‫א‬    ‫א‬ ‫א‬   W ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬ 
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬    Endothermic ‫א‬   W‫א‬     K‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬ Athermal‫א‬‫א‬KExothermic
F System EFUniverse‫א‬W‫א‬
 KE‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬FSurroundingsE
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ W‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬
 W‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WJ 
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
   K‫א‬ ‫א‬   ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬  W J 
 K‫א‬‫א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ WJ 
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ W‫א‬
 K‫א‬ 

- ٨٥ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬   ‫א‬‫א‬ WJ 
 K،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ WJ 
 K‫א‬‫א‬
K‫א‬   ‫א‬  ‫א‬      ‫א‬   W‫א‬‫א‬ J 
‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
 K‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 Kx‫א‬‫א‬
∆x = xf – xi ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
  (∆x) →0 = dx‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ∆x = dx = 0 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ WJ 
‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬   K‫א‬    ‫א‬   ‫א‬   
E‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬
‫א‬   ‫א‬    ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬    W  J 
K‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
  ‫א‬      ‫א‬   ‫א‬   
 K‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬
    ‫א‬ ‫א‬  W Isothermal E‫א‬F ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬  J 
K∆E = 0،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K‫א‬‫א‬

- ٨٦ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W Isobaric E‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬J 

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬
‫א‬    ،    ‫א‬ ‫א‬  WAdiabatic  J 
 Kq = 0،‫א‬(q)‫א‬
      ‫א‬ ‫א‬  WIsochoric E‫א‬F ‫א‬ ‫א‬ J 
 KW = 0،‫א‬K
 W‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬
 Kcgs‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ SI ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E5-1F‫א‬
 Kcgs‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WE5-1F
cgs  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬
centimeter (cm)  meter (m)‫א‬  ‫א‬
kilogram (kg) ‫א‬  ‫א‬
 gram (g) ‫א‬   ‫א‬
 second (s) ‫א‬  second (s) ‫א‬  ‫א‬
  candle (cd)‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬
 Ampere (A)   ‫א‬
 mole (mol) ‫א‬

- ٨٧ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬
 Joule (J) ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬K١
‫א‬EF‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ W‫א‬Kcgs erg
EF  ‫א‬  ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬  W‫א‬ K‫א‬      
 K‫א‬‫א‬
1 J = 107 erg
 ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬    Calorie (cal) ‫א‬    ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫ א‬K٢
 K15oC‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬     ‫א‬  ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫ א‬K٣
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬   ‫א‬       ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬ 
 WK‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 1 cal = 4.184 J
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
KE‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬KE
∆E= +ve‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W E ‫א‬J 
∆E = -ve ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
W= +ve‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WW‫א‬J 
W = -ve ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
q = +ve‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ Wq‫א‬‫א‬J 
 q = -ve ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 

- ٨٨ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ?‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬?
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K?‫?א‬W ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬
q = ∆E + W  (5-1)
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ W،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ q
‫א‬E5-1F‫א‬ K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ∆E
  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬   ‫א‬ ‫א‬     ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬   ‫א‬
 K‫א‬

final initial (i)‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ W‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬(f)
‫א‬ state function‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬Kthermodynamic function ‫א‬
∆E = Ef - Ei  (5-2)
‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬

 WWork of expansion‫א‬
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 KE5-1F‫א‬

- ٨٩ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬

Vf
d
Vi

 a
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WE5-1F
Vi‫א‬‫א‬ P (atm)‫א‬ a (cm2)‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،d (cm)‫א‬‫א‬،Vf ‫א‬
W = P a d = P(Vf –Vi) = P∆V (5-3)

W >0 W =0 W >0
P P P

 V V V
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬WE5-2F

 ‫א‬     ،‫א‬   ‫א‬  ‫א‬   ‫א‬ 
‫א‬ ،‫א‬  ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬   ‫א‬      K
‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ KE3-2F‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬    ‫א‬  K  K‫؟‬‫א‬  ‫א‬  ‫א‬    
‫א‬    ، ‫א‬‫א‬   ‫א‬  ‫א‬  P∆V   ‫א‬‫א‬  
‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،L‫א‬atm‫א‬‫א‬
1 atm = 101,325 Pa (kg/ms2)
1L = 10-3 m3

- ٩٠ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬

P∆V ( atm × L ) = 101325 × 10-3 = 101.325 (kg m2/s2) = 101.325 J

‫א‬101.325 ‫א‬atm L ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬
 W‫א‬(5-3) (5-2)‫א‬
q = ∆E + P(Vf – Vi) (5-4)

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ WH‫א‬‫א‬

q = E2 – E1 + P (Vf - Vi) (5-5)

q = (Ef + PVf) - (Ei + PVi) (5-6)

qp = Hf – Hi = ∆H (5-7)
 heat content ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ Enthalpy (H)‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ، qp‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W،W = 0،‫א‬‫א‬ K‫א‬‫א‬
qv = ∆E (5-8)
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬
∆H = ∆E + P∆V (5-9)
5.3 L 2.5 L ‫א‬2.6 atm ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W
K200 cal‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
W = P∆V = 2.6 × (5.3 – 2.5) = 7.28 atm L ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬
 W = 7.28 x 101.325 = 737.646 J W101.325 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
∆H = ∆E + P∆V = 200 + 737.646 = 937.645 JW‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 Kcal/K/g‫א‬ 

- ٩١ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬

‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 Kcal/K 
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ W(C) ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬Kcal/K/mol  ‫א‬K‫א‬
 K Cp‫א‬ Cv ‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ W(Cv)‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
qv = n ∆E (5-10)
Cv = qv/∆T = ∆E/∆T (5-11)
∆T = Tf – Ti (5-12)
 ∆T،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ∆E،‫א‬ n،‫א‬‫א‬ q
 KTi ‫א‬‫א‬Tf‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬W(Cp)‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
qp = n ∆H (5-13)
Cp = qp/∆T = ∆H/∆T (5-14)
 :‫א‬‫א‬E5-9,5-11,5-13F‫א‬WCpCv ‫א‬
Cp = Cv + P (∆V/∆T) (5-15)
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
PV = RT (5-16)
 W‫א‬‫א‬E5-15F‫א‬
Cp = Cv + R = Cv + 2 (5-17)
 W‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ W‫א‬‫א‬J 
∆E = 0 , q = W (5-18)
،W = P∆V،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،E5-3F‫א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬
        ،‫א‬  E5-3F ‫א‬   
‫א‬‫א‬E‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬E5-3F‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬
KEcF‫א‬‫א‬EbFEaF


- ٩٢ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬

(a) (b) (c)

P P P

W W
W

 V V V
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WE5-3F
‫א‬‫א‬ Wmax ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬
qrev = Wmax (5-19)
 W‫א‬‫א‬
W = ∫ ∂(PV) = ∫ V∂P + ∫ P∂V (5-20)
 WK‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

∫ V∂P = 0 (5-21)
Wmax = ∫ P∂V (5-22)
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬P ‫א‬
 W،Vf‫א‬‫א‬Vi‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
Wmax = n RT ∫ ∂V/V (5-23)
Wmax = n RT ℓn (Vf /Vi) (5-24)
٢٩٨‫א‬١٠‫א‬W
 K‫א‬٧‫א‬٣
Wmax = n R T ℓn (Vf/Vi) = 10 × 8.314 × 298 × ℓn (7/3) = 20992.4 J W‫א‬
W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،q = 0‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬J 
W = - ∆E = - Cv ∆T (5-25)
٢٩٨‫א‬٤‫א‬W
 K٤{٦‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K٢٠٠
W = -n Cv (Tf – Ti) = -4 × 4.6 × (200 – 298) = 1803.2 cal W‫א‬

- ٩٣ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬

W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
dE + dW = 0
Cv dT + P dV = 0
Cv dT/T + RT dV/V = 0
Cv dT/RT + dV/V = 0
 W،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
Cv/R ℓn (Tf/Ti) = - ℓn (Vf/Vi)
W‫א‬‫א‬
(Tf/Ti)Cv/R = Vi/Vf (5-26)
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬:‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬ ‫א‬E ١ ٢٥F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬E‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬F
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬KE‫א‬F‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ W‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
   
   ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬  W‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬     ‫א‬    ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬  W‫א‬ ‫א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬،
K?‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬? W
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
 ∆E‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ∆H
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ KBA

- ٩٤ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬

C
∆E1 ∆E2

∆E
A B

∆E3 ∆E5

D E
∆E4

 ∆E = ∆E1 +∆E2 = ∆E3 + ∆E4 + ∆E5

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 WE‫א‬‫א‬F ‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬
C2H4(g) + H2(g) → C2H6(g) + ∆E (5-27)
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
C2H6(g) + 7/2 O2(g) → 2 CO2(g) + 3 H2O(g) + ∆E1 (5-28)
H2(g) + ½ O2(g) → H2O(g) + ∆E2 (5-29)
C2H4(g) + 3 O2(g) → 2 H2O(g) + 2 CO2(g) + ∆E3 (5-30)
C2H4(g) + H2(g) → C2H6(g) + ∆E2 + ∆E3 - ∆E1 (5-31)

KE5-28-5-30F‫א‬E5-27F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
  ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬   KE5-29,5-30F ‫א‬   E5-28F ‫א‬ 
 :E5-27,5-31F‫א‬
∆E = ∆E2 + ∆E3 - ∆E1  (5-31)
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬،
P ∆V = ∆n RT (5-32)
∆H = ∆E + ∆n RT (5-33)
 W‫א‬، ∆n = nf – ni = 1 – 2 = -1 WE5-27F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
∆H = ∆E - RT

- ٩٥ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬

adiabatic bomb  ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ،   W‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬ 
‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،E5-4F،calorimeter
٣٠ ‫א‬F  ‫א‬‫א‬    K    ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،E
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K

K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WE5-4F
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ W
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
d∆H/dT = ∆Cp (5-34)
∆Cp = ΣCp(product) - ΣCp(reactant) (5-35)
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 :‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬   ‫א‬ ‫א‬    ‫א‬ ‫א‬   ‫א‬ 
       ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬       ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬
- ٩٦ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K‫א‬‫א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
KE‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬  ‫א‬     K‫א‬ ‫א‬   ‫א‬  
 K‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
    K‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬    ‫א‬ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬K‫؟‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬
 ‫א‬ ‫א‬    ‫א‬   ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬ W 
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬
K‫א‬ E‫א‬F ‫א‬  ‫א‬ E‫א‬F ‫א‬  ،E‫א‬F ‫א‬ 
    ‫א‬   K  ‫א‬  ‫א‬    
 KE5-6F E5-5F،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
q=0
T1 ∆E=0

V1 V2

q1
(a ) (b )

q=0
T2 ∆E=0

V3 V4

q2

 (c ) (d )

K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WE5-5F

- ٩٧ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬

T1‫א‬ W1 ‫א‬‫א‬q1‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬
W1 = q1 = RT1 ℓn (V2/V1) (5-36)
 W2 ‫א‬‫א‬q2‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬
W2 = q2 = - Cv (T2 - T1) (5-37)
T2‫א‬ W3 ‫א‬‫א‬q3‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬
W3 = q3 = RT2 ℓn (V4/V3) (5-38)
 W4 ‫א‬‫א‬ q4 ‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
W4 = q4 = - Cv (T1 - T2) (5-39)
W = W1 + W2 + W3 + W4 (5-40)
W = RT1 ℓn (V2/V1) + Cv(T1-T2) – RT2 ℓn (V3/V4) - Cv (T1 - T2) (5-41)
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
V2/V1 = V3/V4 (5-42)
  WW‫א‬
W = R(T1 – T2) ℓn (V2/V1) (5-43)

P 1 V 1
T 1
a P 2 V 2
P
d
b
c
P 4 V 4 T 2
P 3 V 3

 V

K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WE5-6F

 W،Eff = W/q‫א‬‫א‬
Eff = W/q = q1-q2/q1
= R(T1 – T2) ℓn (V2/V1)/ RT1 ℓn (V2/V1) (5-44)
Eff = q1 – q2/ q1 = T1 – T2 /T1 (5-45)
‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬      ‫א‬‫א‬      
 ،‫א‬      ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬      K‫א‬ 
‫א‬‫א‬ ٣٦٧‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K٪١٠٠‫א‬
 W‫א‬،٤٠‫א‬
Eff = T1 – T2 / T1 = {(367+273) – (40+273)}/(367+273)
= 0.25 = 25%
- ٩٨ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬٤
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬٣
K٪٢٥‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
KE5-45F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬:‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬E5-45F ‫א‬
q1/T1 + q2/T2 = 0 (5-46)
∑q/T = 0 (5-47)
∑S = 0 (5-48)
Kcal K-1 ‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬ S = q/T
‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E5-48F‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬  ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬    K ‫א‬   ‫א‬ ‫א‬
 W‫א‬
∆S = Sf - Si (5-49)
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬Sf ,Si
 ‫א‬     ‫א‬            
 K‫א‬
 Tl ‫א‬‫א‬    ‫א‬  Th ‫א‬     ،  W
   EaF  ‫א‬    ‫א‬  ‫א‬    ،
 KE5-7F‫א‬ ،EbF‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ، ‫א‬  ‫א‬    ‫א‬    W‫א‬
 ∆S ‫א‬
(b) (a)   
Th Tl
  K
q
Th Tl
q q EaF ‫א‬ ‫א‬
Th- dT Tl + dT  

K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WE5-7F

- ٩٩ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬

K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬
Th - ،‫א‬‫א‬Th،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬ Tℓ،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،dT
 K‫א‬‫א‬∆S‫א‬‫א‬KTℓ + dT
∆S = ∆Ssystem + ∆Ssurroundings (5-50)
∆Ssystem = ∆Shot body + ∆Scold body (5-51)
= -q/Th + q/Tℓ (5-52)
∆Ssurroundings = ∆Shot surroundings + ∆Scold surroundings
= -q/Tℓ + q/Th (5-53)
∆S = 0 (5-54)
 ∆S   K  ∆S  ‫א‬ ‫א‬     
 W، ∆Ssurroundings = 0 ،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
∆S = ∆Ssystem = -q/Th + q/Tℓ , Th > Tℓ
= +ve value
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬  ‫א‬  ،       ‫א‬‫א‬   K‫א‬  
 W
∆S = ∆Ssystem = q/Th - q/Tℓ , Th > Tℓ
= -ve value
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬
 ،‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬        K‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬
∆S = 0WE‫א‬‫א‬F
 ∆S = +veW
 ∆S = -veW
 W‫א‬‫א‬

- ١٠٠ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬

∆E = 0‫א‬‫א‬ nW‫א‬‫א‬J 

qrev = Wmax = RT ℓn (Vf/Vi) (5-55)
∆S = q/T = W/T (5-56)
∆S = n R ℓn (Vf/Vi) (5-57)
q = 0‫א‬:‫א‬‫א‬J 
:
 ∆S = q/T = 0 (5-58)
 ‫א‬       ،‫א‬   W‫א‬ ‫א‬ J 
 W‫א‬‫א‬Kndq‫א‬‫א‬
dqp = dH (5-59)
= n Cp dT (5-60)
dS = n dqp/T (5-61)
= n Cp dT/T (5-62)
 :
∫dS = ∫n Cp dT/T (5-63)
∆S = n Cp ℓn (Tf/Ti) (5-64)
‫א‬W‫א‬J 
W‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
∆S = n ∆Htrans/Ttrans (5-65)
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬∆Htrans ‫א‬Ttrans 
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬ W    free energy ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬  K 
‫א‬ Gibb’s free energy‫א‬
‫א‬ Helmholtz free energy ‫א‬‫א‬،G ‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬KA‫א‬
G = H - TS (5-66)
A = E - TS (5-67)
   W    EE HF ‫א‬   ‫א‬ ‫א‬  
KA G‫א‬‫א‬،TS‫א‬‫א‬
- ١٠١ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬

 TS،‫א‬ A G ،‫א‬‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬
‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬   ،‫א‬   ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬    
K‫א‬
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬
∆G = Gf - Gi (5-68)
 W E5-66F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
∆G = ∆Η - T∆S (5-69)
 W‫א‬‫א‬
WE5-66F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
dG = dH - TdS – SdT (5-70)
= d(E + PV) - TdS – SdT (5-71)
= dE + VdP + PdV - TdS – SdT (5-72)
VdP = 0 , SdT = 0 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
dG = dE + pdV -TdS (5-73)
 W‫א‬‫א‬dqrev = TdSW‫א‬
dG = dE + pdV -dqrev (5-74)
dE = dqrev - dWmax W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
-dG = dWmax - pdV W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
-dG = dWuseful (5-76)
 ‫א‬ ‫א‬   K‫א‬   ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬  dWuseful 
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K‫א‬،‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬

- ١٠٢ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
dG = 0‫א‬‫א‬
 dG = -ve ‫א‬
  dG = +ve‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
PdV = dWmax , TdS = dqrev W‫א‬‫א‬
 WE5-72F‫ א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
dG = dE + dWmax + VdP - dqrev -SdT (5-77)
dE = dqrev – dWmax W‫א‬‫א‬
dG = VdP - SdT (5-78)
 ‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
dG = VdP (5-79)
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
∫dG = nRT ∫dP/P (5-80)
∆G = G2 – G1 = nRT ℓn (P2/P1) (5-81)
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
G = Go + nRT ℓn P (4.82)
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬KE‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 KEF‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬
aA + bB ↔ cC + dD (5-83)
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
K = PCc PDd / PAa PBb (5-84)
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
∆G = Σ Gproducts - Σ Greactants (5-85)
 W‫א‬‫א‬
∆G = ∆Go + RT ℓn {PCc PDd/PAa PBb} (5-86)
∆Go = GoD + GoC - GoB - GoA (5-87)
- ١٠٣ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬

 WE5-86F‫א‬E5-84F‫א‬
o
∆G = ∆G + RT ℓn K (5-88)
 W،∆G = 0W‫א‬‫א‬
∆Go = -RT ℓn K (5-89)
 WE5-78F‫א‬،‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
dG = -SdT (5-90)
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
d∆G/dT = -∆S (5-91)
 W‫א‬‫א‬E5-69F‫א‬
d∆G/dT = (-∆H - ∆G)/T (5-92)
 W‫א‬
d∆G/dT - ∆G/T = -∆Η/T (5-93)
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
d(u/v) = (udv – udv)/v2 W‫א‬،v = T u = ∆G
 W‫א‬E5-93F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
T d∆G/dT ≡ d∆G/dT - ∆G/T (5-94)
 WE93F‫א‬‫א‬
Td∆G/dT = -∆Η/Τ (5-95)
d∆G/dT = -∆H/T2 (5-96)
d(ℓnK)/dT = -∆Ho/RT2 (5-97)
d(ℓn K)/d(1/T) = - ∆Ho/T (5-98)
ℓn K = -∆Ho/RT + constant (5-99)
ℓn (K2/K1) = -(∆Ho/R) (1/T2 – 1/T1) (5-100)
‫א‬ ‫א‬F ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  E5-100F  E5-99F ‫א‬
KE‫א‬

- ١٠٤ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬

 
‫א‬ ‫א‬         ١٠  ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫ א‬K١
 K٦٠‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬١٠‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬٥‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬
 ‫؟‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫؟‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬ K٢
K ٤٠ ٦٠‫א‬‫א‬ ٤ K٣
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬٢
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K٤
 K٣‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬K٥
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬K٦
C10H8(s) + 12O2(g) → 10CO2(g) + 4H2O(ℓ)
1.
 K288 K‫א‬619 kcal mol-1‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 298K‫א‬ K٧
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K94.2 kcal mol-184 kcal mol-1 173kcal mol-1
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬، ١٨‫א‬ K٨
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K20.8 kcal mol-1‫א‬‫א‬
1. Fe(s) + 2H+(aq) → Fe2+(aq) + H2(g)
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬K٩
1. Al2O3(s) + 3C(graphite) → 2Al(s) + 3CO(g)
K7.01 kcal  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W67.6 kcal mol-1 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
2. C(graphite) + ½O2(g) → CO(g)
  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬   ،‫א‬    ‫א‬ ‫ א‬K١٠
 K64.6 kcal mol-184 kcal mol-1W‫א‬
310.7 kcal mol-1 ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬   ، ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫ א‬K١١
 K84 kcal mol-1 94.2 kcal mol-1‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬ K 4.29K  22.0 cal ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬ K١٢
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

- ١٠٥ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬

 A + B → 2C W‫א‬ K١٣
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K 25 oC‫א‬ 153 kcal mol-1‫א‬‫א‬
6.2 cal K-1 mol-1CBA‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K300 oC ‫א‬‫א‬
 K7.3 cal K-1 mol-15.1 cal K-1 mol-1
KE ١٠٠F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ٣٠ K١٤
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬ K 192 kcal mol-1 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K80 oC ‫א‬200 oC‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬K١٥
‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬ ٥ K١٦
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K٧{٥‫א‬٣
K30oC  20 oC ‫א‬‫א‬ ١٠‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫ א‬K١٧
 K18.5 cal K-1 mol-1‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬K200 oC ‫א‬0.01 ‫א‬‫א‬ K١٨
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
10 atm 1 atm ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬K١٩
 K25 oC‫א‬
‫א‬ K 0.031  0.12  150 oC 25 oC ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  K٢٠
K‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬-110 kcal mol-1 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬K٢١
 K٢٥‫א‬-120 kcal mol-1 


- ١٠٦ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫ א‬K١
W = n R T ℓn (Vf/Vi)
= 10×2×333 ℓn (10/5)
= 4.616 kcal.
 W‫א‬‫א‬∆E = 0W=+ve  K٢
q = ∆E + W
q=W
W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬q= +ve ‫א‬
q= 4.616 kcal.
q = ∆E + W‫א‬‫א‬q= 0‫א‬‫א‬ K٣
∆E= -W
W = - n Cv ∆T
= 4×2×20 = 160 cal.
∆E = -160 cal.
W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K٤

(Tf/Ti)Cv/R = Vi/Vf
(50/60)3/2 = 2/Vf
Vf = 3.67 L
 W‫א‬‫א‬ K٥
∆H = ∆E + W
∆H = 0∆E = -W
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬K٦
∆H = ∆E + ∆nRT
∆n = 10-12 = -2
∆H = -618,800 - 2×2×288 = -619,952 cal
W‫א‬‫א‬ K٧
C(graphite) + 2H2(g) + ½O2(g) → CH3OH(ℓ) + ∆H (i)
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
C(graphite) + O2(g) → CO2 -84,000 cal (ii)
2H2(g) + O2(g) → H2O - 94,200×2 cal (iii)
CH3OH(ℓ) + ½O2(g) → CH3OH(ℓ) -173,000 cal (iv)
 W،EiF‫א‬‫א‬،EivF‫א‬EiiiFEiiF‫א‬
∆H = -84,000 – 2×94,200 + 173,000
- ١٠٧ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬

= -99,400 cal
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E∆HF‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬K٨
∆H = ∆E + ∆nRT
∆n = 1- 0 = 1
∆H = -20,800 - 1×2×298
= -21,396 cal mol1
W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K٩
Al2O3(s) + 3C(graphite) → 2Al(s) + 3CO(g) + ∆H (i)
3C(graphite) + 3/2 O2(g) → 3CO(g) -67,600×3 (ii)
2Al(s) + 3/2O2 → Al2O3(s) – 7,010×2×27 (iii)
،EiF ‫א‬   EiiiF  EiiF ‫א‬   ، ‫א‬   EiiiF ‫א‬  
 W
∆H = 378,540 – 202,800 = 175,740 cal
 W‫א‬ K١٠
C(graphite) + ½O2(g) → CO + ∆Hf (i)
C(graphite) + O2(g) → CO2 -84,000 cal (ii)
CO(g) + ½O2(g) → CO2 -64,600 cal (iii)
،EiF ‫א‬   EiiiF  EiiF ‫א‬   ، ‫א‬   EiiiF ‫א‬  
 W
-1
∆H = 84,000 – 64,000 = -19,400 cal mol
 W‫א‬ K١١
2C(graphite) + H2(g) → CH≡CH + ∆Hf (i)
2C(graphite) + 2O2(g) → 2CO2 -2×84,000 cal (ii)
H2(g) + ½O2(g) → HO2 - 94,200 cal (iii)
CH≡CH + 5/2O2(g) → 2CO2 + H2O -84,000 cal (iv)
‫א‬EivFEiiiFEiiF‫א‬،‫א‬EivF‫א‬
 W،EiF
∆H = 2×84,000 – 94,200+ 310,700 = 48,500 cal mol-1
 W‫א‬‫א‬ K١٢
q = ∆E + W
 W∆n= 1 W = ∆n RT‫א‬‫א‬q = 22 cal
∆E = q – W
= 22 – 8.58 = 13.42 cal
d∆H/dT = ∆Cp W K١٣

- ١٠٨ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬

 ∆Cp = ∑Cp(product) – ∑Cp(reactant) :

W‫א‬
∆H2- ∆H1/T2-T1 = ∑Cp(product) – ∑Cp(reactant) 
∆H2 + 153,000/(300-25) = 2×7.3 – (6.2+5.1)
∆H2 = 152,092 cal mol-1
30/18 = 1.667 ‫א‬ K١٤
 W‫א‬
W = ∆n RT
= 1.667×2×373 = 1243.58 cal
q = 1.667×192,000 = 320, 000 cal W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
q = ∆E + W W‫א‬‫א‬
∆E = q – W = 318,756 cal
∆S = ∆n ∆Hb /Tb W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
= 1.667×192,000/373
= 858.08 cal K-1
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬K١٥
Eff = Th – Tℓ/Th
= 473 – 353/473 = 0.25
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬K١٦
∆S = n RT ℓn (Vf/Vi)
= 5 × 2 ℓn (7.5/3) = 9.16 cal K-1
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬K١٧
∆S = n Cp ℓn (Tf/Ti)
= (10/18) × 18.5 ℓn (303/293) = 0.34 cal K-1
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K١٨
∆Go = - RT ℓn K
= - 2×573 ℓn 0.01 = -5277.5 cal mol-1
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K١٩
∆G = n RT ℓn Pf/Pi
= 3×2×298 ℓn 10 = 4,114 cal

- ١٠٩ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K٢٠
ℓn K2/K1 = (∆Ho/R) {(T2-T1)/T2T1}
ℓn 0.03/0.12 = (∆Ho/2) {150-25/298×423}
∆Ho = -2,796 cal mol1
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬K٢١
∆G = ∆H - T ∆S
∆S = (∆H - ∆G) / T
= -110,000 – 120,000 /298 = 33.6 cal K-1

- ١١٠ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
ã¹]<gè…‚jÖ]æ<ËÖ]<Üé×Ãj×Ö<íÚ^ÃÖ]<퉉ö¹]
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬
‫א‬

٦
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬

 W‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬J
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬J
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬J
 K‫א‬J

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬









- ١١١ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 WPhase rule E‫א‬F‫א‬

‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
  K ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬  ‫א‬   ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬   ‫א‬       WSystem ‫א‬
K   ‫א‬    ،         K‫א‬
‫א‬K Heterogeneous Homogeneous W‫א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬
      ‫א‬   ‫א‬ K‫א‬      ‫א‬  
 K‫א‬‫א‬K
‫א‬،‫א‬WPhase ‫א‬
‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
K‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬،
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،
 KP ‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WComponent‫א‬
‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
  ‫א‬‫א‬     K‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬   ‫א‬‫א‬   
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬      ‫א‬   K‫א‬  ،‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬
‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WKC‫א‬
2H2 + O2 → H2O (6-1)
 ،‫א‬‫א‬   ‫א‬ ‫א‬      ،  ‫א‬ ‫א‬
‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،

- ١١٢ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WDegrees of Freedom ‫א‬

‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬    KE ‫א‬   ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬ F 
 K‫א‬
EF1F ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬  EFF ‫א‬  W‫א‬  ‫א‬
KEF2F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
F = F1 - F 2 (6-2)
‫א‬‫א‬P  C F1 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
F1 = ( C -1 ) P + 2 (6-3)
W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬F2 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
F2 = ( P - 1 ) C (6-4)
 WE6-1F‫א‬F E6-3, 6-4F‫א‬
F = P ( C- 1) P + 2 – C ( P -1 ) (6-5)
F= C-P+2 (6-6)
KP C ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬   ،‫א‬  ‫א‬      WCondensed systems ‫א‬ ‫א‬
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬
F= C-P+1 (6-7)
 W‫א‬
  ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬   WOne-component systems ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬  K١
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬W١
‫א‬ ،    ‫א‬    ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬  
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬KEF‫א‬EF‫א‬EF
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬، Phase diagram ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬KE6-1F‫א‬‫א‬ ،
K‫א‬ ABD ‫א‬‫א‬ ABC‫א‬ DBC ‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬P = 1C = 1‫א‬،‫א‬
- ١١٣ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬


K‫א‬‫א‬WE6-1F

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬KF = C – P + 2 = 1-1+2 = 2
‫א‬‫א‬ K‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬ BC ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
KAB ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ DB ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬
F = C – P + 2 = 1-2+2 = 1
‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ B‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬
WB‫א‬‫א‬Ktriple point ‫א‬‫א‬
F = C – P + 2 = 1-3+2 = 0
‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬

 ‫א‬W٢
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،Allotropies ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
  ‫א‬ ‫א‬    K‫א‬  ‫א‬  E6-2F ‫א‬   K‫א‬
- ١١٤ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬F =1‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ F = 2 ‫א‬

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬KB, C


K‫א‬‫א‬WE6-2F

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬

 W‫א‬ K٢
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K
KF = C – P +1W‫א‬K
 ‫א‬‫א‬W١
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬
KEx%F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K
‫א‬‫א‬W،E6-3F ،‫א‬
،‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬
 

- ١١٥ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬


K‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬WE6-3F

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬
‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬  ‫א‬  K ‫א‬   ‫א‬  ‫א‬    ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬K F = 2 – 1 + 1 = 2WE‫א‬F‫א‬
 F = 2 – 2 + 1 = 1 W‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬  K‫א‬    ‫א‬‫א‬   ،  ‫א‬ 
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ،F = 2 – 1 + 1 = 2WEF
 K‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬W٢
‫א‬،،E6-4F،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬K‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬


K‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬WE6-4F

- ١١٦ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬W٣
‫א‬ loop ،E6-5F،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬K‫א‬


K‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬WE6-5F
 WEutectic mixtures‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬
 ،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E6-6F‫א‬K‫א‬
‫א‬    K ‫א‬     13% Sb    ‫א‬
AB ‫א‬ K،eutectic temperature ‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬   BC ‫א‬   ، ‫א‬   ‫א‬  
،B‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬E‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬E‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬


K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
- ١١٧ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬    K‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬  E‫א‬ ‫א‬
،‫א‬   ،αβγ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬  cooling curve ‫א‬  
α‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ KE6-7F‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
،β‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬
  K‫א‬     ‫א‬    ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬ 
 Kγ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬


K‫א‬WE6-7F

 WFormation of compounds ‫א‬

K ،‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬  ‫א‬      E6-8F ‫א‬   
 K‫א‬٪٥٠‫א‬‫א‬


K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WE6-8F
- ١١٨ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

،‫א‬ X3 ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ A ‫א‬KX1X2 ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ E ‫א‬، X1 ‫א‬‫א‬
،X1‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ X3‫א‬B ‫א‬K‫א‬
 ‫א‬ ‫א‬   KX3 ‫א‬   X1 ‫א‬ ‫א‬ F ‫א‬
 K‫א‬
 WMiscible solids ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬    ،‫א‬       ‫א‬ ‫א‬ 
 ،‫א‬‫א‬E6-9F‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬


K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WE6-9F

 ‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 WThree-component systems ‫א‬‫א‬ K٣
‫א‬‫א‬
٪١٠٠‫א‬E‫א‬FK‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬E6-10F‫א‬K‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬  ‫א‬     K‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬

- ١١٩ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

  ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬ K  ‫א‬  ‫א‬  ،‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،


K‫א‬WE6-10F
، F = C- P = 3 - 2 = 1 W‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K،F = 3 - 1 = 2W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،،F = 3 - 2 = 1
‫א‬ ،binodal curve‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬E‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬،E٪١٠٠F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬E6-11F‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬ C BA ‫א‬‫א‬X ‫א‬‫א‬


KExFWE6-11F

- ١٢٠ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬K١
 K‫א‬‫א‬ K
 K‫א‬‫א‬ K
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K
 W K٢
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬K
 K‫א‬ K
 K‫ א‬K
 K‫א‬‫ א‬K
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬K٣
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
  ،‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬  ‫א‬  ،‫א‬  ‫א‬  ‫ א‬K٤
 K‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬


- ١٢١ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬ .١
F = C – P + 2 = 2 – 3 + 2 = 1 K
F = C – P + 2 = 2 – 2 + 2 = 2 K
 F = C – P + 2 = 2 – 1 + 2 = 3 K 
 F = C – P + 2 = 2 – 2 + 2 = 2 K 
F = C – P + 2 = 1 – 3 + 2 = 0 K
.٢
  ‫א‬    ‫א‬     W‫א‬ ‫ א‬K
‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
 
‫א‬‫א‬ W‫א‬
 K‫א‬
‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬ K
 KE‫א‬F
‫א‬ ‫א‬W‫ א‬K
 K‫א‬‫א‬
EFW‫א‬‫ א‬K
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .٣
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،13% Sb،
AB ‫א‬   K       ،eutectic temperature ‫א‬
 K‫א‬BC ‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬

- ١٢٢ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬


K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
،B‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬E‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬
F‫א‬‫א‬E‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬
W‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬F= C-P+2 = 2-1+1= 2
F = 2-W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ KF= 2-2+1 = 1 W‫א‬‫א‬
 KF= 2-2+1=1:‫א‬‫א‬B ‫א‬‫א‬2+1=1
‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .٤
‫א‬‫א‬F = 2 ‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬K B, C‫א‬ F = 1‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬


K‫א‬‫א‬

- ١٢٣ -
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬
c = 2.998 × 10 8 m/s
g = 9.806 m/s2
F = 96.485 c/mol
R = 8 . 314 J / K . mol
 R = 1 . 987 cal / K . mol
R = 0 . 082 l . atm / K . mol
k = 1.38 × 10 −23 J / K
N = 6.022 × 10 23 mol −1
e = 1.602 × 10 −19 C
−10
e = 4.803 × 10 esu
h = 6.626 × 10 −34 J .s
u = 1.66 × 10 −27 kg
me = 9.109 × 10 −31 kg
m p = 1.673 × 10 −27 kg
m n = 1.675 × 10 −27 kg
 e=2.71828182846
 π = 3 .1415926535 9
- ١٢٤ -
 ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬EF
 ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬
Boltzman
Avogadro ‫א‬
E‫א‬F‫א‬
Planck 
 ‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬
‫א‬
‫א‬
e E‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬
 π‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 

1K=1ºC+273.16 ‫א‬‫א‬

1 atm = 760 mm Hg
 ‫א‬
 = 760 Torr
= 101.325 kPa
 1 bar = 105 Pa
1 L =103 cm3  ‫א‬
= 1000 mL
1 N = 105 dyne ‫א‬

1 J = 107 erg  ‫א‬

1 cal = 4.184 J
1 year = 365.25 days(d)  ‫א‬
1 day = 24 hours (h)
1 hour = 60 minutes (min)
1 minute = 60 second(s)
1 C = 3 × 109 esu ‫א‬‫א‬

- ١٢٥ -
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬ ‫א‬
 ‫א‬
SI‫א‬‫א‬
M meter ‫א‬
Kg kilogram‫א‬  ‫א‬
S second ‫א‬
N Newton ‫א‬
J Joule ‫א‬
W Watt‫א‬ ‫א‬
mol  ‫א‬
Cd Candle ‫א‬
A Ampere ‫א‬
Pa Pascal ‫א‬
cgs‫א‬‫א‬
cm Centimeter ‫א‬
G gram‫א‬ ‫א‬
S second ‫א‬
dyne dyne‫א‬ ‫א‬
erg erg‫א‬ ‫א‬
‫א‬
Volt Volt ‫א‬‫א‬
Ω Ohm ‫א‬‫א‬
C Colom ‫א‬‫א‬
L liter ‫א‬
atm atmosphere ‫א‬
K kelvn ‫א‬‫א‬

- ١٢٦ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬

10-15 f femto
10-12 p pico
10-9 n nano
10-6 µ micro
10-3 m milli
-2
10 c centi
10-1 d deci
103 k kilo
106 M mega
109 J giga
12
10 T tetra‫א‬

 W‫א‬
 1 m = 10 dm = 100 cm =106 µm

- ١٢٧ -
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 

‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬
α 
Α
β B 
γ Γ 
δ ∆ 
η Η 
 σ Σ 
π Π 
φ Φ 
ψ Ψ 
ω Ω 
θ Θ 
ρ R 
κ  Κ 
ε  Ε ‫א‬
µ Μ 
υ Ν 
λ Λ ‫א‬
τ Τ  
χ  
ξ Ξ  

- ١٢٨ -
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

EN EA IE r ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬
kJ mol kJ mol-1
-1
Å
‫א‬ ‫א‬
2.2 1312 0.37 1.008 H 
1
- 2373 0.5 4.003 2 He 
1.0 -58 520 1.52 6.939 3 Li 
1.6 250 1.11 9.012 4 Be 
2.0 -23 0.88 10.811 5 B 
2.6 -108 0.77 12.011 6 C 
3.0 0 0.70 14.007 7 N 
3.4 0 0.66 15.999 8 O 
4.0 -333 0.64 18.998 9 F 
- 2080 0.70 20.183 10 Ne 
0.9 -53 496 1.86 22.99 11 Na 
1.3 230 1.60 24.31 12 Mg 
1.6 -44 1.43 26.98 13 Al

1.9 -135 1.17 28.09 14 Si 
2.2 -74 1012 1.10 30.97 15 P 
2.6 -200 1.09 32.06 16 S 
3.2 -348 0.99 35.45 17 U 
- 1527 0.94 39.95 18 Ar ‫א‬
0.8 -48 419 2.31 39.10 19 K 
1.0 154 590 1.97 40.08 20 Ca 
1.6 52.00 24 Cr 
1.5 54.94 25 Mn 
- ١٢٩ -
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

1.8 55.85 26 Fe 

1.9 58.93 27 Co 
1.9 58.71 28 Ni 
1.9 63.54 29 Cu 
1.6 65.37 30 Zn 
2.2 -77 1.21 74.92 33 As 
3.0 -324 1.14 79.91 35 Br 
- 1356 1.09 83.80 36 Kr 
0.9 120 2.15 87.62 38 Sr ‫א‬‫א‬
1.9 107.87 47 Ag 
1.7 112.40 48 Cd 
2.0 -121 1.40 118.69 50 Sn 
2.1 -101 1.41 121.75 51 Sb ‫א‬
2.7 -295 1.33 126.90 53 I 
- 1176 1.30 131.30 54 Xe 
0.9 52 2.17 137.34 56 Ba 
1.7 183.85 74 W 
2.2 195.09 78 Pt 
2.0 169.97 79 Au 
1.9 200.59 80 Hg 
2.3 -101 1.75 207.19 82 Pb 
2.0 -100 1.46 208.98 83 Bi 
 rZ‫א‬،ENZ‫א‬‫א‬،EAZ‫א‬‫א‬،IEZ‫א‬

- ١٣٠ -
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

٢٥‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬ ‫א‬
ka ‫א‬
k1 = 4.3 × 10 −7 , k 2 = 5.6 × 10 −11 H2CO2  ‫א‬
4.8 × 10−10 HCN ‫א‬
1.8 × 10 −5 CH3COOH E‫א‬F‫א‬
1.8 × 10 −4 HCOOH E‫א‬F‫א‬
6.3 × 10 −5 C6H5COOH ‫א‬
7.2 × 10 −10 H3BO3 ‫א‬
107 HCl ‫א‬
10 9 HBr ‫א‬
1011 HI ‫א‬‫א‬
k1 = 5.6 × 10 −2 , k 2 = 5.1× 10 −5 ‫א‬
k1 = 6.9 × 10 −3 , k 2 = 6.2 × 10−8 , H3PO4 ‫א‬
k 3 = 4.8 × 10 −13

5.9 × 10 −9 H3BO3 ‫א‬

k1 = 8.9 × 10−8 , k 2 = 1.2 × 10−13 H2 S ‫א‬
kb ‫א‬
1.7 × 10 −5 NH4OH ‫א‬
4.1× 10 −10 C6H5NH2 ‫א‬
5 × 10 −4 CH3NH2 ‫א‬‫א‬
1.7 × 10 −9 C5H5N 

- ١٣١ -
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬EkfF‫א‬EkbF‫א‬
kf kb ‫א‬
°C/molal °C/molal
1.86 0.51 H2 O ‫א‬
1.22 CH3CH2OH ‫א‬
0.83 CH3OH ‫א‬
5.12 2.53 C6H6 ‫א‬
C6H5CH3 ‫א‬
2.02 (C2H5)2O ‫א‬‫א‬
3.63 C Cl3H 
5.02 C Cl4 ‫א‬‫א‬
37.7 ‫א‬
3.9 CH3COOH ‫א‬
20 C6H12 ‫א‬‫א‬
14.4 C6H5Br 
6.9 
7.3 

- ١٣٢ -
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 K٢٥‫א‬‫א‬

λ∞‫א‬‫ א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

349.8 H+ ‫א‬
38.69 Li+ ‫א‬
+
50.11 Na ‫א‬
73.52 K+ ‫א‬
73.4 NH4+ ‫א‬
+
59.5 1
2
Ca ‫א‬
127.2/2 1
2
Ba+ ‫א‬
+
1
2
Pb ‫א‬
+
105.6/2 1
2
Zn ‫א‬

198.0 OH‫־‬ ‫א‬

75.23 Cl‫־‬ ‫א‬
78.1 Br‫־‬ ‫א‬
76.80 I‫־‬ ‫א‬
40.9 CH3COO‫־‬ ‫א‬
2
79.8 1
2
SO 4 ‫־‬ ‫א‬
2
138.6/2 1
2
CO 3 ‫־‬  ‫א‬

- ١٣٣ -
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 KE‫א‬‫א‬F٢٥‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬
-3.045 Li+ + e = Li
-2.925  K+ + e = K
-2.714  Na+ + e = Na
-1.662 Al3+ + 3e = Al
-0.763 Zn2+ + 2e = Zn
-0.440 Fe2+ + 2e = Fe
-0.36 PbSO4 + 2e = Pb + SO2-
-0.250 Ni2+ + 2e = Ni
-0.136 Sn2+ + 2e = Sn
-0.126 Pb2+ + 2e = Pb
0.00 H+ + e = 1/2H2
0.15 Sn4+ + 2e = Sn2+
0.153 Cu2+ + e = Cu+
0.222 AgCl + e = Ag + Cl-
0.268 Hg2Cl2 + 2e =2Hg +2Cl-
0.337 Cu2+ + 2e = Cu
0.521 Cu+ + e = Cu
0.536 I2 + 2e = 2I-
0.68 O2 + 2H+ = H2O2
0.771 Fe3+ + e = Fe2+
0.799 Ag+ + e = Ag
1.229 O2 + 4H+ + 4e = 2H2O
1.455 PbO2 + 4H+ + 2e = Pb2+ + 2HO

- ١٣٤ -
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 ٢٥‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

ks‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬
3.7 × 10 −15 Al(OH)3 ‫א‬
Ca(OH)2
‫א‬
1.2 × 10 −11 Mg(OH)2 ‫א‬
Ba(OH)2
‫א‬
Cu(OH)2 ‫א‬
1.0 × 10 −10 AgCl ‫א‬
1.5 × 10 −16 AgI ‫א‬
7.7 × 10 −13 AgBr ‫א‬
9.0 × 10 −12 Ag2CrO9 ‫א‬
8.5 × 10 −45 CuS ‫א‬
Hg2S
‫א‬
7 × 10 −29 PbS ‫א‬
Bi2S3
‫א‬
Ag2S ‫א‬
1.1 × 10 −10 BaSO4 ‫א‬
CaSO4
‫א‬
CaCO3  ‫א‬
BaCO3 ‫א‬
2 × 10 −10 ZnCO3 ‫א‬

- ١٣٥ -
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 ٢٥E∆Ho /kcal mol-1F ‫א‬‫א‬

∆Ho  ‫∆ א‬H
o
‫א‬‫א‬

11.72 C6H6‫א‬ -26.42 ‫א‬

CO
-57.08 CH4‫א‬ -94.05 ‫א‬
CO2
-66.41 C2H3‫א‬ -17.89 CH4‫א‬
-33.25 CCl4‫א‬‫א‬ 54.19 C2H2‫א‬
-68.32 H2O‫א‬ -20.24 CH3CH3‫א‬
-98.35 NaCl‫א‬‫א‬ -24.82 C3H8‫א‬
-270.53 NaCO3‫א‬‫א‬ 19.82 C6H6‫א‬
-217.92 SiO2‫א‬‫א‬ -48.08 CH3OH‫א‬
-288.73 ‫א‬‫א‬ -56.63 C2H5OH‫א‬
CuCO3
-51.20 PbO‫א‬‫א‬ -57.80 H2O‫א‬
-30.38 AgCl‫א‬‫א‬ -11.04 NH3‫א‬
-23.80 AgBr‫א‬‫א‬ -22.06 HCl‫א‬
-14.93 AgI‫א‬‫א‬ -8.66 HBr‫א‬
-23.52 PbS‫א‬‫א‬ 6.2 HI‫א‬
-70.96 ‫א‬
SO2
-94.45 ‫א‬
SO3
12.50 C2H4‫א‬
-116 HCOH
 K‫א‬F2,Br2,Cl2,O2,N2,H2 ‫א‬‫א‬J
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬J
 K‫א‬
- ١٣٦ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 EF‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬
 323 H─Si 432 H-H
 305 C─N 146 O-O
358 C─O 160 N-N
259 C─S 154 F-F
485 C─F 239 Cl-Cl
339 C─Cl 193 Br-Br
276 C─Br 347 C-C
240 C─I 614 C═C
272 N─F 839 C≡C
200 N─Cl 418 N═N
243 N─Br 495 O═O
799 C═O 413  H─C
1072 C≡O 427 H─Cl
607 N═O 467 H─O
887 C≡N 391 H─N
941 N≡N  363 H─Br
347 H─S

 
 W‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬EpowerFEbaseF
 W‫א‬،
- ١٣٧ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

Klog‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬10‫ א‬K١
Kln‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬e = 2.71828‫ א‬K٢
 K34.67‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W١
log 34.67= 1.540
ln 34.67 = 3.5459
 K3.76‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬–1.67‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W٢
Anti log (3.76) =5754.3393
 Anti ln (-1.76) = 0.1720
‫اﻟﻤﻘﺎﺑﻞ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻠﻮﻏﺎریﺘﻤﺎت‬ ‫اﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺔ‬
*
log A + log B ≠ log (A+B) ‫اﻟﺠﻤﻊ‬
*
log A - log B ≠ log (A-B) ‫اﻟﻄﺮح‬
*
log A + log B = log (AB) ‫اﻟﻀﺮب‬
*
log A - log B = log (A/B) ‫اﻟﻘﺴﻤﺔ‬
B log A = log (AB) *
‫اﻷس‬
*
1 ‫اﻟﻤﻘﻠﻮب‬
- log A = log ( )
A
log 10 =1 ; ln e = 1
log 0 = ln 0 = -∞
log 1 = ln 1 = 0
ln A = 2.303 log A ‫ﺗﺤﻮﻳﻞ‬
 K‫א‬loglnG
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
ax2+ bx+ c = 0
 W‫א‬x‫א‬‫א‬c,b,a

x = (−b ± b 2 − 4ac ) 2a
 K‫א‬x‫א‬‫א‬

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬x‫א‬W
x 2 + 2x = 4
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬
 ax2 + bx + c = 0

- ١٣٨ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬


2
 x + 2x - 4 = 0
 W‫א‬x

 x = (−b ± b 2 − 4ac ) 2a

 = (−2 ± 4 − 4 × 1(− 4)) 2 × 1

 x = -3.236x = 1.236  
 W‫א‬
  ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬  Scientific notation ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬K‫א‬
       ،‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬   EF ‫א‬   
 K   ‫א‬      ‫א‬  ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 35.7 × 10 8 ‫א‬‫א‬ 3570000000‫א‬W١
 K
     3.57 × 10−10  ‫א‬   0.000000000357 ‫א‬ W٢ 
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 357 × 10−8  35.7 × 10−9


- ١٣٩ -
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 W‫א‬‫א‬
A10a +B10a = (A+B)10a ‫א‬ K١

A10a -B10a = (A-B)10a ‫א‬ K٢

10a10b = 10(a+b)    ‫א‬ K٣

10a/10b = 10(a-b) ‫א‬ K٤

1/10a = 10-a ‫א‬ K٥

100 = 1
10∞ = ∞
0a = 0
 K0.0037 ,0.00081‫א‬W١
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬
37 ×10−4 + 8.1×10−4
= (37 + 8.1)10−4 = 45.1×10−4 = 0.00451
 K 8 ×105 ,7.1×10−3 ‫א‬W٢
 W‫א‬
8 × 105 × 7.1× 10−3 = 8 × 7.1× 105−3 = 65.8 × 102 = 6580

- ١٤٠ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 W‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
W‫א‬a, nExF‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K١

‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬
ax adx
x n
nx n −1
ln x dx
x
en e x dx
a 0
1 − dx
x x2
1 dx
 
a−x (a − x )2

W(xF‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K٢

‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬
x 1
2 x2
xn 1
x n +1
n +1
ex ex
a ax
1 ln x
x
1 − ln (a − x )
a−x


- ١٤١ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

 E١F‫א‬
K‫א‬      ‫א‬ ‫א‬     ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫ א‬.١
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
،‫א‬‫א‬٪٩٠‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬.٢
 K١٣‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬.٣
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬.٤
 KK‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .٥
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬.٦
 KJ 
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬J 
، ٢٠٠‫א‬ ٣‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬.٧
 K٢٥‫א‬٣٥‫א‬
٠{٣‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬.٨
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K٠{١٢‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W .٩
 ٠٠٠٠٠‫א‬٠٠٠٠‫א‬J 
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬٠٠٠٠‫א‬‫א‬J 
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬٠٠٠٠٠،‫א‬‫א‬٠٠٠٠‫א‬‫א‬J 
،٠٠٠٠٠،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬٠٠٠٠J 
 ٠٠٠٠٠٠٠٠٠


- ١٤٢ -
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

 E٢F‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬K
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬J 
 K‫א‬‫א‬J 
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬J 
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬J 
١٠‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬K
 K٧{٤٣{٥‫א‬٣٠‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬ K
 ‫א‬J 
 ‫א‬‫א‬J 
 ‫א‬‫א‬J 
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬K
 ‫א‬‫א‬J 
 ‫א‬‫א‬J 
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬J 
 ‫א‬‫א‬J 
L٠{٣‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬K
 K١J ١J ELF٠{٠١٢‫א‬
 W K
 K٠٠٠٠٠٠٠J 
 ٠٠٠٠‫א‬‫א‬،٠٠٠٠‫א‬J 
‫א‬‫א‬،٠٠٠٠٠٠٠٠٠‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬٠٠٠٠‫א‬‫א‬J 
 ٠٠٠٠‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬٠٠٠٠
 ٠٠٠٠٠،٠٠٠٠‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬J 

- ١٤٣ -
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

‫א‬١٠‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬K
‫א‬L‫א‬١٨‫א‬‫א‬L‫א‬٤٨‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،
 K٣١٠‫א‬



- ١٤٤ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

 E٣F‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K
 4.184×1018 E٤6.625×10-34E٣6.02×1023E٢6.5×10-20 E١
 W‫א‬‫א‬ K
 0.693/k E٤k/2aE٣kaE٢a/2kE١
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬K
 E٤E٣E٢E١
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬K
 E٤E٣E٢E١
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬K
E٤‫א‬‫א‬E٣‫א‬E٢‫א‬‫א‬E١
 ‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬K
 ‫א‬E٤‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E٣‫א‬E٢ ‫א‬E١
 W‫א‬‫א‬ K

0.082 l atm g-1 E٤4.18 J K-1E٣2 cal K-1 mol-1E٢2.5 JK-1 mol-1E١
 W K
 ‫א‬E٤‫א‬E٣E٢‫א‬‫א‬E١
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K
‫א‬E٤‫א‬E٣‫א‬E٢‫א‬E١
 
 W‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K
 E٤‫א‬E٣‫א‬E٢E١




- ١٤٥ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

k = (1/t) ln (a/a-x) W‫א‬‫א‬J ١

 t½ = 0.693/k W‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬W
k = x/at(a-x) W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬J ٢
 t½ = 1/ka W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 :‫א‬٪٩٠‫א‬‫א‬
t = 13 × 90 / 10 = 117 min.
 W‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬J ٣
∆P/Po = XB W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬J
 ∆tb = kb m W‫א‬‫א‬J
 ∆tf = kf m W‫א‬‫א‬J
 π V = n RT W‫א‬‫א‬J
 J ٤
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
   ‫א‬
 ١٠‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ٢٠‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬J ٥
‫א‬  K‫א‬   ‫א‬   K‫א‬   ‫א‬‫א‬    ‫א‬ 
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬
- ١٤٦ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

 W‫א‬J ٦
F = C – P + 2 = 1-3 +2 = 0 J 
 F = 3 – 2 +2 = 3    J 
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬J ٧
πV=nRT
‫א‬‫א‬ T‫א‬‫א‬ R ‫א‬‫א‬ π‫א‬ V ‫א‬ n
 K‫א‬
n = w/M
 K‫א‬M ‫א‬‫א‬w 
M = w R T / π V = 3 × 0.082 × 298× 760/(0.2× 35)
= 7959 g moℓ1
 θ/(1-θ) = KC WJ ٨
K = θ/(1-θ)C = 0.3/(0.12×0.7) = 3.57 ℓ mol-1
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬J J ٩
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬J 
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬J 
،،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬J 
 K‫א‬‫א‬


- ١٤٧ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬
Wmax = n R T ln (Vf/Vi) W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬J J ١
 K‫א‬n ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬Vi Vf 
 W = - n Cv ∆T W‫א‬‫א‬J 
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬∆T‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬Cv 
∆S = n Cp ln (Tf/Ti) W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬J 
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬Cp ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬Ti Tf 
 eff = W/q = (Th - Tℓ )/ThW‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬J 
 K‫א‬‫א‬Tℓ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬Th 
 ‫א‬ ‫א‬    ،∆E = 0    ، ‫א‬‫א‬   J ٢
 q = W W‫א‬‫א‬
 W = n R T ℓn (Vf/Vi) W‫א‬‫א‬
W = 10×2×303 ℓn (7.4/3.5) = 45.372 kcal.
F = C – P + 2 = 2-2+1 = 1W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬J  W‫א‬J ٣
 F = 2-1+1 = 2 W‫א‬‫א‬J 
F = 2-1+1 = 2 W‫א‬‫א‬J 
x=kt W‫א‬‫א‬J J ٤
 K‫א‬k ‫א‬t ‫א‬x 
t½ = 0.693/k W‫א‬‫א‬J 

k = A e-Ea/RT W‫א‬‫א‬J 
 KA ‫א‬‫א‬Ea
 Pt = PA + PB, PA = PAo xA , PB = PB xB WEB AF‫א‬‫א‬J 
 t½= a/2k = 0.3/2×0.012 = 12.5 min W‫א‬J ٥
 K‫א‬‫א‬J J ٦
‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬J 
 K‫א‬

- ١٤٨ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬J 
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬J 
∆P/Po = XB W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬J ٧
XB = (WB/MB)/ {WB/MB + WA/MA}W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
= (10/48)/{10/48 + 1000/18} = 0.0037
 ∆P = Po XB = 310×0.0037 = 1.16 mm Hg

- ١٤٩ -
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

6.02×1023J 
 a/2kJ 
 J 
 J 
 ‫א‬‫א‬J 
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬J 
2 cal K-1 mol-1J 
 J 
 ‫א‬J 
 J 

- ١٥٠ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬J ١
 K١٩٩٦،‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬
 K١٩٨٢،‫א‬،‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬،J ٢
‫א‬  ،‫א‬ ‫א‬ ،‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬   ‫א‬  J ٣
 K١٩٩٨،‫א‬،‫א‬
،‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬J  ‫א‬  ،‫א‬ ‫א‬  ،‫א‬  J ٤
K١٩٩٣،‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
1- Ralph H. Petruccii and William S. Harwood, General Chemistry, Principle and
Modern Applications, Prentice-Hall, New Gersey, 1997.
2- James E. Brady and John R. Holum, Chemistry, The study of Matter and its
Changes, Wiley, New York, 1993.
3- Petter Atkins and Loretta Jones, Chemistry, Matter and Change, 3rd Edition,
W.H. Freedman and Co., New York, 1997.
4- James E. Brady, General Chemistry, Principles and Structure, 5th Edition, Wiley,
New York, 1990.
5- David E. Goldberg, Schaum’s Outline Series, Theory and Problems of
Chemistry Foundations, International Editions, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1991.
6- James E. Brady and John R. Holum, Fundamentals of Chemistry, 3rd Edition,
Wiley, New York, 1988.
7- Raymond Chang, Chemistry, 5th Edition, International Edition, McGraw-Hill,
New York, 1994.
8- R. Abu-Etta, Y. Essa and A. El-Ansary, General Chemistry, Cairo University
Press, 1998.
8- P.W. Atkins, Physical Chemistry, Oxford Press, Oxford, UK, 1982.
9- G.M. Barrow, Physical Chemistry, MacGraw-Hill, New York, USA, 1996.
10- Maurice Wahba, Hanna A. Rizk, Introduction to Physical Chemistry, Anglo-
Egyptian, 1978.
11- Robert A. Alberty and Robert J. Silby, Physical Chemistry, Wiley, New York,
1992.

- ١٥١ -
 ‫א‬  ٢٧٠  ‫א‬
  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

‫א‬  ‫א‬
 
٢ ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬
٢٢ ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬
٤١ ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬
٦١ ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
٨٥ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬
١١٢  ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬
١٤٢ ‫א‬

١٥١ ‫א‬‫א‬
 

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬E‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬

GOTEVOT appreciates the financial support provided by BAE SYSTEMS