) Dvflfxohg H (Huflfhvfruuljpv: Filière de Sciences Économiques Et de Gestion

Université Mohammed V – Agdal ϝ΍Ϊϛ΍±βϣΎΨϟ΍ΪϤΤϣΔόϣΎΟ
Faculté des Sciences Juridiques, ΔϳΩΎμΘϗϻ΍ϭΔϴϧϮϧΎϘϟ΍ϡϮϠόϟ΍ΔϴϠϛ

Économiques et Sociales ΔϴϋΎϤΘΟϻ΍ϭ
RABAT ρΎΑήϟ΍΍
http://www.fsjesr.ac.ma
Filière de Sciences Économiques et de Gestion

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6DOPD'$66(5

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[S3, Module M10, Matière : Mathématiques II] Chapitre 1 : espace vectoriel réel
CHAPITRE 1 : ESPACE VECTORIEL RÉEL

ȱȱȱȱ ȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȬȱ


Enoncés des exercices


ͳ
!2 )

" V

IR3 )

1
1) V = {( x, y , z ) ∈ IR 3 / x + z = 0 et y − z = 0}
2) V = {( x, y , z ) ∈ IR 3 / x − y − 2 z = 0},
3) V = {( x , y , z ) ∈ IR 3 / x − y + z = 0 et x − 2 y = 0}
ʹ
!2 )

V

1
1) V =< v1 , v 2 , v3 >, v1 = ( 2,1,1,2), v 2 = (1,0,1,1), v3 = ( 0,1,−1,0) ,
2) V =< v1 , v2 , v3 >, v1 = (0,1,1,0), v2 = (1,0,1,1), v3 = (1,0,1,0) ,
3) V =< v1 , v2 , v3 >, v1 = (1,2,3), v2 = ( 3,1,2), v3 = ( 2,3,1) ,
4) V =< v1 , v2 , v3 >, v1 = (1,1,0), v2 = ( 2,0,1), v3 = ( 4,−2,3) ,
͵
! IR 4 )

V1 ) V2 V3 1
V1 = {( x, y , z, t ) ∈ IR 4 / x + y − z = 0 et y + z − t = 0}
V2 = {( x , y , z , t ) ∈ IR 4 / x + y = 0 et z + t = 0}
V3 = {( x, y , z, t ) ∈ IR 4 / y = 0 et x = z = t}
+/ 5

2
,
-/ !

V1 ∩ V2 ) V2 ∩ V3 V1 ∩ V3 ,
0/ $ V1 ⊕ V2 = IR 4 6 V1 ⊕ V3 = IR 4 6 V1 ⊕ V3 = IR 4 6
Ͷ
!2 )

S = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v 4 } IR 4 1
+/ v1 = (1,1,1,1), v2 = (1,1,−1,−1), v3 = (1,−1,1,−1), v4 = (1,−1,−1,1) ,
-/ v1 = (1,0,−2,1), v2 = ( 2,1,−1,0), v3 = ( 3,2,0,−1), v4 = (1,0,−1,1)
0/ v1 = (1,0,−2,−2), v2 = ( 2,1,−1,0), v3 = ( 3,2,0,2), v4 = ( 4,2,−2,0) ,
ͷ
!2 )

"
v1 , v2 , v3 et v4

IR 4 7

v 1
+/ v1 = (1,2,−1,−2), v2 = ( 2,3,0,−1), v3 = (1,3,−1,0), v4 = (1,2,1,4) v = (1,1,−1,−1) ,
-/ v1 = (1,1,1,1), v2 = (1,1,−1,−1), v3 = (1,−1,1,−1), v4 = (1,−1,−1,1) v = (1,2,1,1) ,

͸
! IR3 " {e1 , e2 , e3 } )

v1 = (1,1,0) )
v2 = (0,1,1) v3 = (1,0,1) ,
+/ *

"
v1 ) v2 v3
IR3 ,
-/ 7

e1 ) e2 e3 ,
͹
"

a ∈ IR )
v1 = (1,−1,0) ) v2 = ( −1,2,−1)
v3 = ( 0,−1, a )
IR3 6
ͺ
! IR3 )

v1 = (1,1, a ) ) v2 = (1, a,1) v3 = ( a ,1,1) ,!

a ∈ IR 1
+/
v1 , v2 et v3 ,
-/
{v1 , v2 , v3 },
0/

v1 , v2 et v3 ,


Solutions des exercices

ͳ
1
"
!2 )

" V

IR3 )

1
1) V = {( x, y , z ) ∈ IR 3 / x + z = 0 et y − z = 0}
2) V = {( x, y , z ) ∈ IR 3 / x − y − 2 z = 0},
3) V = {( x , y , z ) ∈ IR 3 / x − y + z = 0 et x − 2 y = 0}

"

+/ V = {( x, y , z ) ∈ IR / x + z = 0 et y − z = 0} 1
3
X = ( x, y , z )
IR 3 )
X = ( x, y , z ) ∈ V 1
♦ x + z = 0 et y − z = 0 ⇔ x = − z et y = z ⇔ ( x, y , z ) = ( − z , z , z ) ⇔ ( x, y , z ) = z.( −1,1,1), z ∈ IR
♦ ( x, y , z ) ∈ V ⇔ ∃!α ∈ IR (α = z ) /( x, y , z ) = α .( −1,1,1)
♦ {(−1,1,1)}
V ) dimV = 1 V =< (−1,1,1) > ,

-/ V = {( x, y , z ) ∈ IR / x − y − 2 z = 0}1
3
X = ( x, y , z )
IR 3 )
X = ( x, y , z ) ∈ V 1
♦ x − y − 2 z = 0 ⇔ x = y + 2 z ⇔ ( x, y , z ) = ( y + 2 z , y , z ) ⇔ ( x, y, z ) = y.(1,1,0) + z.( 2,0,1), ( y, z ) ∈ IR 2
♦ ( x, y , z ) ∈ V ⇔ ∃!(α , β ) ∈ IR 2 (α = y , β = z ) /( x, y , z ) = α .(1,1,0) + β .( 2,0,1)
♦ {(1,1,0), (2,0,1)}
V ) dimV = 2 V =< (1,1,0), (2,0,1) > ,
1
X = ( x, y , z ) ∈ V 1
♦ x − y − 2 z = 0 ⇔ y = x − 2 z ⇔ ( x, y , z ) = ( x, x − 2 z , z ) ⇔ ( x, y , z ) = x.(1,1,0) + z.(0,−2,1), ( x, z ) ∈ IR 2
♦ ( x, y , z ) ∈ V ⇔ ∃!(α , β ) ∈ IR 2 (α = x, β = z ) /( x, y , z ) = α .(1,1,0) + β .(0,−2,1)
♦ {(1,1,0), (0,−2,1)}

V ) dimV = 2 V =< (1,1,0), (0,−2,1) > ,

0/ V = {( x , y , z ) ∈ IR / x − y + z = 0 et x − 2 y = 0} 1
3
X = ( x, y , z )
IR 3 )
X = ( x, y , z ) ∈ V 1
♦ x = 2 y et z = − x + y = − y ⇔ ( x, y , z ) = ( 2 y , y ,− y ) ⇔ ( x, y, z ) = y.( 2,1,−1), y ∈ IR
♦ ( x, y , z ) ∈ V ⇔ ∃!α ∈ IR (α = y ) /( x, y , z ) = α .( 2,1,−1)
♦ {(2,1,−1)}
V ) dimV = 1 V =< (2,1,−1) > ,



ʹ
1
"
!2 )

V

1
1) V =< v1 , v 2 , v3 >, v1 = ( 2,1,1,2), v 2 = (1,0,1,1), v3 = ( 0,1,−1,0) ,
2) V =< v1 , v2 , v3 >, v1 = (0,1,1,0), v2 = (1,0,1,1), v3 = (1,0,1,0) ,
3) V =< v1 , v2 , v3 >, v1 = (1,2,3), v2 = ( 3,1,2), v3 = ( 2,3,1) ,
4) V =< v1 , v2 , v3 >, v1 = (1,1,0), v2 = ( 2,0,1), v3 = ( 4,−2,3) ,

"
S = {v1 , v 2 , v3 }

V ,8#
" S
V " S
1
♦ S

S V ,
♦ )7
S

2 )

1 )"

V ,

+/ V =< v1 , v 2 , v3 >, v1 = ( 2,1,1,2), v2 = (1,0,1,1), v3 = (0,1,−1,0) 1
?
♦ S = {v1 , v 2 , v3 } 9
6 α 1 .v1 + α 2 .v2 + α 3 .v3 = (0,0,0,0) α 1 = α 2 = α 3 = 0
♦ α 1 .v1 + α 2 .v2 + α 3 .v3 = (0,0,0,0) α 1 .( 2,1,1,2) + α 2 .(1,0,1,1) + α 3 .(0,1,−1,0) = (0,0,0,0)
♦ ( 2α 1 + α 2 ,α 1 + α 3 ,α 1 + α 2 − α 3 ,2α 1 + α 2 ) = (0,0,0,0)
2α1 + α 2 = 0 α 2 = −2α1
°α + α = 0 °α = −α α 2 = −2α1
° 1 ° 3 °
♦ ® ® ®α 3 = −α1
3 1
°α1 + α 2 − α 3 = 0 °α 2 = α 3 − α1 = −2α1 °α ∈ IR
°¯2α1 + α 2 = 0 °¯α 2 = −2α1 ¯ 1
♦ ∃(α1 ,α 2 ,α 3 )(≠ (0,0,0)) ∈ IR 3 / α1 .v1 + α 2 .v2 + α 3 v3 ) = (0,0,0,0) )

7 (α 1 ,α 2 ,α 3 ) = (1,−2,−1) 1 (1,−2,−1) ≠ (0,0,0) et v1 − 2v2 − v3 = (0,0,0,0)
♦ S = {v1 , v 2 , v3 }
,
v1 = 2v2 + v3
° 1 1
♦ !
v1 − 2v2 − v3 = (0,0,0,0) ) " ®v2 = v1 − v3
° 2 2
¯v3 = v1 − 2v2
♦ {v1 ,v2 } ) {v 2 ,v3 } {v1 ,v3 }

V ,
♦ !:1 V =< v1 , v 2 , v3 >=< v1 , v 2 >=< v 2 , v3 >=< v1 , v3 >
♦
"
{v1 ,v2 } ) {v 2 ,v3 } {v1 ,v3 }
,
♦ {v1 ,v2 } ) {v 2 ,v3 } {v1 ,v3 }
V dimV = 2 ,



-/ V =< v1 , v2 , v3 >, v1 = (0,1,1,0), v2 = (1,0,1,1), v3 = (1,0,1,0) 1
?
♦ S = {v1 , v 2 , v3 } 9
6 α 1 .v1 + α 2 .v2 + α 3 .v3 = (0,0,0,0) α 1 = α 2 = α 3 = 0
♦ α 1 .v1 + α 2 .v2 + α 3 .v3 = (0,0,0,0) α 1 .(0,1,1,0) + α 2 .(1,0,1,1) + α 3 .(1,0,1,0) = (0,0,0,0)
♦ (α 2 + α 3 ,α 1 ,α 1 + α 2 + α 3 , α 2 ) = (0,0,0,0)
α 2 + α 3 = 0 α 3 = −α 2
°α = 0 °α = 0
° 1 °
♦ ® ® 1 α1 = α 2 = α 3 = 0
°α1 + α 2 + α 3 = 0 °α 3 = −α1 − α 2
°¯α 2 = 0 °¯α 2 = 0
♦ S = {v1 , v 2 , v3 }

,
♦ S = {v1 , v 2 , v3 } V dimV = 3 ,

0/ V =< v1 , v2 , v3 >, v1 = (1,2,3), v2 = ( 3,1,2), v3 = ( 2,3,1) 1
?
♦ S = {v1 , v 2 , v3 } 9
6 α 1 .v1 + α 2 .v2 + α 3 .v3 = (0,0,0) α 1 = α 2 = α 3 = 0
♦ α 1 .v1 + α 2 .v 2 + α 3 .v3 = (0,0,0) α 1 .(1,2,3) + α 2 .(3,1,2) + α 3 .( 2,3,1) = (0,0,0)
♦ (α 1 + 3α 2 + 2α 3 ,2α 1 + α 2 + 3α 3 ,3α 1 + 2α 2 + α 3 ) = (0,0,0)
(1) α1 + 3α 2 + 2α 3 = 0 6(α1 + α 2 + α 3 ) = 0 α1 = −α 2 − α 3
° °
(1)→(1) + ( 2 ) +( 3)
°
♦ (2) ®2α1 + α 2 + 3α 3 = 0 ® 2α 1 + α 2 + 3α 3 = 0 ® α 3 = α 2 α1 = α 2 = α 3 = 0
(3) °¯3α 1 + 2α 2 + α 3 = 0 ° 3α + 2α + α = 0
¯ 1 2 3
° − 3α = 0
¯ 3
♦ S = {v1 , v 2 , v3 }

,
♦ S = {v1 , v 2 , v3 } V dimV = 3 ,
3
♦ V
IR 3 dim V = dim IR 3 = 3
V = IR

;/ V =< v1 , v2 , v3 >, v1 = (1,1,0), v2 = ( 2,0,1), v3 = ( 4,−2,3) 1
?
♦ S = {v1 , v 2 , v3 } 9
6 α 1 .v1 + α 2 .v2 + α 3 .v3 = (0,0,0) α 1 = α 2 = α 3 = 0
♦ α 1 .v1 + α 2 .v 2 + α 3 .v3 = (0,0,0) α 1 .(1,1,0) + α 2 .( 2,0,1) + α 3 .( 4,−2,3) = (0,0,0)
♦ (α 1 + 2α 2 + 4α 3 ,α 1 − 2α 3 ,α 2 + 3α 3 ) = (0,0,0)
α1 + 2α 2 + 4α 3 = 0 2α 3 − 6α 3 + 4α 3 = 0 α 3 ∈ IR
° ° °
♦ ®α1 − 2α 3 = 0 ®α1 = 2α 3 ®α1 = 2α 3
°α + 3α = 0 °α = −3α °α = −3α
¯ 2 3 ¯ 2 3 ¯ 2 3
♦ ∃(α1 ,α 2 , α 3 )( ≠ (0,0,0)) ∈ IR / α1.v1 + α 2 .v2 + α 3v3 ) = (0,0,0) )

3

7 (α1 , α 2 , α 3 ) = ( 2,−3,1) 1 ( 2,−3,1) ≠ (0,0,0) et 2v1 − 3v2 + v3 = (0,0,0,0)
♦ S = {v1 , v 2 , v3 }
,



3 1
°v1 = 2 v2 − 2 v3
°° 2 1
♦ !
2v1 − 3v2 + v3 = ( 0,0,0,0) ) " ®v2 = v1 + v3
° 3 3
° v 3 = − 2 v1 + 3v2
°¯
♦ {v1 ,v2 } ) {v 2 ,v3 } {v1 ,v3 }

V ,
♦ !:1 V =< v1 , v 2 , v3 >=< v1 , v 2 >=< v 2 , v3 >=< v1 , v3 >
♦
"
{v1 , v2 } ) {v 2 ,v3 } {v1 ,v3 }
,
♦ {v1 , v2 } ) {v 2 ,v3 } {v1 ,v3 }
V dimV = 2 ,

͵
1
"
! IR 4 )

V1 ) V2 V3 1
V1 = {( x, y , z, t ) ∈ IR 4 / x + y − z = 0 et y + z − t = 0}
V2 = {( x , y , z , t ) ∈ IR 4 / x + y = 0 et z + t = 0}
V3 = {( x, y , z, t ) ∈ IR 4 / y = 0 et x = z = t}
+/ 5

2
,
-/ !

V1 ∩ V2 ) V2 ∩ V3 V1 ∩ V3 ,
0/ $ V1 ⊕ V2 = IR 4 6 V1 ⊕ V3 = IR 4 6 V1 ⊕ V3 = IR 4 6

"
+/ 2
2 V1 ) V2 V3 ,
♦ V1 = {( x, y , z, t ) ∈ IR / x + y − z = 0 et y + z − t = 0}, X = ( x, y , z, t )
IR 4 1
4
x = − y + z
x + y − z = 0 °
X = ( x, y, z, t ) ∈ V1 ® ⇔ ® t = y + z ⇔ ( x, y , z , t ) = ( − y + z , y , z , y + z )
¯y + z − t = 0 ° y , z ∈ IR
¯
X = ( x, y, z, t ) ∈V1 ( x, y , z , t ) = y.( −1,1,0,1) + z.(1,0,1,1), ( y , z ) ∈ IR 2
X = ( x, y, z, t ) ∈V1 ∃! (α , β ) ∈ IR 2 (α = y , β = z ) /( x , y , z , t ) = α .( −1,1,0,1) + β .(1,0,1,1)
{( −1,1,0,1), (1,0,1,1)}
V1 ) dimV1 = 2 V1 =< ( −1,1,0,1), (1,0,1,1) > ,
♦ V2 = {( x, y , z , t ) ∈ IR / x + y = 0 et z + t = 0}, X = ( x, y , z, t )
IR 4 1
4
y = −x
x + y − z = 0 °
X = ( x, y, z, t ) ∈V2 ® ⇔ ® t = − z ( x , y , z , t ) = ( x ,− x , z ,− z )
¯z + t = 0 ° x, z ∈ IR
¯
X = ( x, y, z, t ) ∈V2 ( x , y , z, t ) = x.(1,−1,0,0) + z.( 0,0,1,−1), ( x, z ) ∈ IR 2
X = ( x, y, z, t ) ∈V2 ∃! (α , β ) ∈ IR 2 (α = x, β = z ) /( x, y , z , t ) = α .(1,−1,0,0) + β .(0,0,1,−1)
{(1,−1,0,0), (0,0,1,−1)}
V2 )

dimV2 = 2 V2 =< (1,−1,0,0), (0,0,1,−1) >


{ 4
}
♦ V3 = ( x, y , z, t ) ∈ IR / y = 0 et x = z = t , X = ( x, y , z, t )
IR 4 1
y=0
y = 0 °
X = ( x , y , z, t ) ∈ V3 1 ® ⇔ ® z = x, t = x ⇔ ( x, y , z, t ) = ( x,0, x, x )
¯x = z = t ° x ∈ IR
¯
X = ( x , y , z, t ) ∈ V3 ( x, y , z , t ) = x.(1,0,1,1), x ∈ IR 2
X = ( x , y , z, t ) ∈ V3 ∃!α ∈ IR (α = x ) /( x , y , z , t ) = α .(1,0,1,1)
{(1,0,1,1)}
V3 ) dimV3 = 1 V3 =< (1,0,1,1) > ,

-/ 2
2 V1 ∩ V2 ) V2 ∩ V3 V1 ∩ V3 ,
♦ X = ( x, y , z, t )
IR 4 ) X = ( x, y, z, t ) ∈ V1 ∩ V2 X ∈ V1 X ∈ V2
x + y − z = 0 z = 0
°y + z − t = 0 °y = t = 0
° °
X = ( x, y, z, t ) ∈ V1 ∩ V2 ® ⇔® ⇔ ( x, y, z , t ) = (0,0,0,0)
°x + y = 0 °x = − y = 0
°¯ z + t = 0 °¯t = z = 0
! V1 ∩V2 = {(0,0,0,0)}

♦ X = ( x, y , z, t )
IR 4 ) X = ( x , y , z, t ) ∈ V2 ∩ V3 X ∈ V2 X ∈ V3
x + y = 0 x = − y = 0
°z + t = 0 °t = − z
° °
X = ( x , y , z , t ) ∈ V2 ∩ V3 ® ⇔® ⇔ ( x, y , z , t ) = (0,0,0,0)
°y = 0 °y = 0
°¯ x = z = t °¯t = z = x = 0
! V2 ∩V3 = {( 0,0,0,0)}

♦ X = ( x, y , z, t )
IR 4 ) X = ( x, y , z , t ) ∈ V1 ∩ V3 X ∈ V1 X ∈ V3
x + y − z = 0 x = − y + z = z
°y + z − t = 0 °t = y + z = z
° °
X = ( x, y , z , t ) ∈ V1 ∩ V3 ® ⇔® ⇔ ( x, y, z , t ) = ( x,0, x, x )
°y = 0 °y = 0
°¯ x = z = t °¯ x = z = t
X = ( x, y , z , t ) ∈ V1 ∩ V3 ( x, y , z , t ) = x.(1,0,1,1), x ∈ IR 2
X = ( x, y , z, t ) ∈ V1 ∩ V3 ∃!α ∈ IR (α = x ) /( x , y , z , t ) = α .(1,0,1,1)
{(1,0,1,1)}
V1 ∩ V3 ) dimV1 ∩V3 = 1 V1 ∩ V3 =< (1,0,1,1) >= V3



0/
V1 ⊕ V2 = IR 4 ) V1 ⊕ V3 = IR 4 V2 ⊕ V3 = IR 4 ,
♦ V1 ⊕ V2 = IR 4 1
dimV1 = 2 1 {u1 ,u 2 }
V1 ) u1 = (−1,1,0,1) u 2 = (1,0,1,1) ,
dimV2 = 2 1 {v1 ,v2 }
V2 ) v1 = (1,−1,0,0) v2 = (0,0,1,−1)
V1 ⊕ V2 = IR S = {u1 , u 2 , v1 , v2 } IR 4 ,
4
S = {u1 , u 2 , v1 , v2 } IR 4 S = {u1 , u 2 , v1 , v2 }

,
o α1 .u1 + α 2 .u 2 + β1v1 + β 2 v2 = (0,0,0,0)
o α1 .(−1,1,0,1) + α 2 .(1,0,1,1) + β1 .(1,−1,0,0) + β 2 .(0,0,1,−1) = (0,0,0,0)
− α 1 + α 2 + β 1 = 0 α 2 = α1 − β1 = 0
°α − β = 0 °β = α
° °
o ® 1 1
® 1 1
α 1 = α 2 = β1 = β 2 = 0
° α 2 + β 2 = 0 ° β 2 = −α 2
°¯α 1 + α 2 − β 2 = 0 °¯α1 = −α 2 + β 2 = 0
o S = {u1 , u 2 , v1 , v2 }

,
S = {u1 , u 2 , v1 , v2 } IR 4
4
!1 V1 ⊕ V2 = IR

♦ V1 ⊕ V3 = IR 4 1
dimV1 = 2 1{u1 ,u 2 }
V1 ) u1 = (−1,1,0,1) u 2 = (1,0,1,1) ,
dimV3 = 1 1{v3 }
V3 ) v3 = (1,0,1,1)
dimV1 + dimV3 = 3 ≠ dim IR 4 V1 ∩V3 =< (1,0,1,1) >≠ {(0,0,0,0)}
4
!1 V1 ⊕ V3 ≠ IR

♦ V2 ⊕ V3 = IR 4 1
dimV2 = 2 1 {v1 ,v2 }
V2 ) v1 = (1,−1,0,0) v2 = (0,0,1,−1)
dimV3 = 1 1 {v3 }
V3 ) v3 = (1,0,1,1)
dimV1 + dimV3 = 3 ≠ dim IR 4
!1 V2 ⊕ V3 ≠ IR )(

"" V1 ∩V3 = {(0,0,0,0)} /
4



Ͷ
1
"
!2 )

S = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v 4 } IR 4 1
+/ v1 = (1,1,1,1), v2 = (1,1,−1,−1), v3 = (1,−1,1,−1), v4 = (1,−1,−1,1) ,
-/ v1 = (1,0,−2,1), v2 = ( 2,1,−1,0), v3 = ( 3,2,0,−1), v4 = (1,0,−1,1)
0/ v1 = (1,0,−2,−2), v2 = ( 2,1,−1,0), v3 = ( 3,2,0,2), v4 = ( 4,2,−2,0) ,

"
S = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 }
"
1 ≤ rg ( S ) ≤ 4
+/ v1 = (1,1,1,1), v2 = (1,1,−1,−1), v3 = (1,−1,1,−1), v 4 = (1,−1,−1,1) 1 S = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 }

♦ 2
2 rg ( S ) = 4 1 S = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 }
6
α 1 .v1 + α 2 .v 2 + α 3 v3 + α 4 v4 = (0,0,0,0)
α 1 .(1,1,1,1) + α 2 .(1,1,−1,−1) + α 3 .(1,−1,1,−1) + α 4 .(1,−1,−1,1) = (0,0,0,0)
α1 + α 2 + α 3 + α 4 = 0 α1 + α 2 = −(α 3 + α 4 ) α1 + α 2 = 0
°α + α − α − α = 0 °α + α = α + α °α + α = 0
° 1 ° 1 °
® 2 3 4
® 2 3 4
® 3 4
α1 = α 2 = α 3 = α 4 = 0
α
° 1 − α 2 + α 3 − α 4 = 0 α
° 1 − α 2 = − (α 3 − α 4 ) α
° 1 − α 2 = 0
°¯α1 − α 2 − α 3 + α 4 = 0 °¯α1 + α 2 = α 3 − α 4 °¯α 3 − α 4 = 0
S = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 }

,
♦ !1 rg (S ) = 4

-/ v1 = (1,0,−2,1), v2 = ( 2,1,−1,0), v3 = ( 3,2,0,−1), v4 = (1,0,−1,1) 1 S = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 }
♦ 2
2 rg ( S ) = 4 1 S = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 }
6
α 1 .v1 + α 2 .v 2 + α 3 v3 + α 4 v4 = (0,0,0,0)
α 1 .(1,0,−2,1) + α 2 .( 2,1,−1,0) + α 3 .(3,2,0,−1) + α 4 .(1,0,−1,1) = (0,0,0,0)
α1 + 2α 2 + 3α 3 + α 4 = 0 α1 − α 3 + α 4 = 0
°α + 2α = 0 °α = −2α
° 2 °
® 3
® 2 3

°− 2α1 − α 2 − α 4 = 0 °− 2α1 + 2α 3 − α 4 = 0
°¯α1 − α 3 + α 4 = 0 °¯α1 − α 3 + α 4 = 0
α1 = α 3 − α 4 α1 = α 3
°α = −2α °α = −2α
° 2 °
® 3
® 2 3

° − 2 (α 3 − α 4 ) + 2α 3 − α 4 = 0 ° α 4 = 0
°¯α 3 ∈ IR °¯α 3 ∈ IR
∃(α1 ,α 2 ,α 3 ,α 4 )(≠ (0,0,0,0)) ∈ IR 4 / α1 .v1 + α 2 .v2 + α 3v3 + α 4 v4 ) = (0,0,0,0) )

7 (α 1 ,α 2 , α 3 ,α 4 ) = (1,−2,1,0) 1 (α 1 ,α 2 , α 3 ,α 4 ) = (1,−2,1,0) et v1 − 2v 2 + v3 = (0,0,0,0)
S = {v1 , v 2 , v3 , v4 }
,
♦ !1 rg ( S ) < 4



♦ 2
2 rg ( S ) = 3 1

3 ( {v1 , v 2 , v3 } ) {v1 , v2 , v4 })
{v1 , v3 , v4 } {v2 , v3 , v4 }/7
S = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 }

rg ( S ) = 3
!
v1 − 2v2 + v3 = (0,0,0,0) ) " {v1 , v 2 , v3 }
,

" 7
{v1 , v2 , v4 } {v2 , v3 , v4 }
,
♦ !1 rg (S ) = 3

0/ v1 = (1,0,−2,−2), v2 = ( 2,1,−1,0), v3 = (3,2,0,2), v4 = ( 4,2,−2,0) 1 S = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 }

♦ 2
2 rg ( S ) = 4 1 S = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 }
6
α 1 .v1 + α 2 .v 2 + α 3 v3 + α 4 v4 = (0,0,0,0)
α 1 .(1,0,−2,−2) + α 2 .( 2,1,−1,0) + α 3 .(3,2,0,2) + α 4 .( 4,2,−2,0) = (0,0,0,0)
α1 + 2α 2 + 3α 3 + 4α 4 = 0 4α1 + 2α 2 + 4α 4 = 0 α 3 = α1
°α + 2α + 2α = 0 °2α + α + 2α = 0 °α = −2α − 2α
° 2 ° 1 °
® ® ® 2
3 4 2 4 1 4

°− 2α1 − α 2 − 2α 4 = 0 °− 2α1 − α 2 − 2α 4 = 0 °α1 ∈ IR
°¯− 2α1 + 2α 3 = 0 °¯α 3 = α 1 °¯α 4 ∈ IR
∃(α1 ,α 2 ,α 3 ,α 4 )(≠ (0,0,0,0)) ∈ IR 4 / α1 .v1 + α 2 .v2 + α 3v3 + α 4 v4 ) = (0,0,0,0) )

7 (α 1 ,α 2 , α 3 , α 4 ) = (1,−4,1,1) 1 (α 1 ,α 2 , α 3 , α 4 ) = (1,−4,1,1) et v1 − 4v 2 + v3 + v 4 = (0,0,0,0)
S = {v1 , v 2 , v3 , v4 }
,
♦ !1 rg ( S ) < 4

♦ 2
2 rg ( S ) = 3 1

3 ( {v1 , v 2 , v3 } ) {v1 , v2 , v4 })
{v1 , v3 , v4 } {v2 , v3 , v4 }/7
S = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 }

rg ( S ) = 3
!
v1 + v3 = 2v 2 ) " {v1 , v 2 , v3 }
,
!
v1 + v3 = v 4 ) " {v1 , v3 , v 4 }
,
!
v4 = 2v2 ) " {v1 , v2 , v4 } {v2 , v3 , v4 } ,
♦ !1 rg ( S ) < 3

♦ 2
2 rg ( S ) = 2 1

2 7

S = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 }

rg ( S ) = 2

)
7)" {v1 ,v2 }
,

♦ !1 rg (S ) = 2



ͷ
1
"
!2 )

"
v1 , v2 , v3 et v4

IR 4 7

v 1
+/ v1 = (1,2,−1,−2), v2 = ( 2,3,0,−1), v3 = (1,3,−1,0), v4 = (1,2,1,4) v = (1,1,−1,−1) ,
-/ v1 = (1,1,1,1), v2 = (1,1,−1,−1), v3 = (1,−1,1,−1), v4 = (1,−1,−1,1) v = (1,2,1,1) ,

"
S = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 }

4 dim IR 4 = 4 ,.

" S = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 }
IR 4 )

" S = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 }
,

+/ S = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 } 1 v1 = (1,2,−1,−2), v 2 = ( 2,3,0,−1), v3 = (1,3,−1,0), v4 = (1,2,1,4) ) v = (1,1,−1,−1)
♦ *
" S = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 } IR 4 1 S = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 }
6
α 1 .v1 + α 2 .v 2 + α 3 v3 + α 4 v4 = (0,0,0,0)
α1.(1,2,−1,−2) + α 2 .( 2,3,0,−1) + α 3 .(1,3,−1,0) + α 4 .(1,2,1,4) = (0,0,0,0)
α1 + 2α 2 + α 3 + α 4 = 0
°2α + 3α + 3α + 2α = 0 après calcul
°
® 1
2 3 4
α1 = α 2 = α 3 = 0
° − α 1 − α 3 + α 4 = 0
°¯− 2α1 − α 2 + 4α 4 = 0
S = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 }

,
♦ ! S = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 } IR 4 ,

♦

v = (1,1,−1,−1) S = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 },
S = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 } IR 4 1
∃!(α1 ,α 2 , α 3 , α 4 ) ∈ IR 4 / v = α1.v1 + α 2 .v2 + α 3v3 + α 4 v4
v = α1 .v1 + α 2 .v2 + α 3v3 + α 4 v4
(1) α 1 + 2α 2 + α 3 + α 4 = 1 (1) + (3) α 4 = −α 2
(2) °°2α1 + 3α 2 + 3α 3 + 2α 4 = 1 (2) °°2α 1 + 3α 2 + 3α 3 + 2α 4 = 1
® ®
(3) °− α 1 − α 3 + α 4 = −1 − (3) °α1 + α 3 − α 4 = 1
(4) °¯− 2α1 − α 2 + 4α 4 = −1 − (4) °¯2α 1 + α 2 − 4α 4 = 1
(1) α 4 = −α 2 (1) α 4 = −α 2 (1) α 4 = −α 2 α 4 = 3
°
(2) °2α1 + α 2 + 3α 3 = 1 °
(2) − (3) °α1 = −2α 3 °
(2) − (3) °α1 = −2α 3 °α = 8
°
® ® ® ® 1
(3) °α 1 + α 2 + α 3 = 1 (3) °α 2 − α 3 = 1 (3) °α 3 = α 2 − 1 °α 3 = −4
(4) °¯2α1 + 5α 2 = 1 (4) °¯5α 2 − 4α 3 = 1 (4) − 4(3) °¯α 2 = −3 °¯α 2 = −3
♦ ! v = 8v1 − 3v2 − 4v3 + 3v4



-/ S = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 } 1 v1 = (1,1,1,1), v2 = (1,1,−1,−1), v3 = (1,−1,1,−1), v4 = (1,−1,−1,1) ) v = (1,2,1,1)
♦ *
" S = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 } IR 4 1 S = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 }
6
S = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 }
)
7
;+,
♦ ! S = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 } IR 4 ,
♦

v = (1,2,1,1) S = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 },
S = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 } IR 4 1
∃!(α1 ,α 2 , α 3 , α 4 ) ∈ IR 4 / v = α1.v1 + α 2 .v2 + α 3v3 + α 4 v4
v = α1 .v1 + α 2 .v2 + α 3v3 + α 4 v4
(1) α1 + α 2 + α 3 + α 4 =1 (1) − (3) α 2 = −α 4
(2) °°α1 + α 2 − α 3 − α 4 =2 (2) °°α1 + α 2 − α 3 − α 4 = 2
® ®
(3) °α1 − α 2 + α 3 − α 4 =1 (3) − (4) °α 3 = α 4
(4) °¯α1 − α 2 − α 3 + α 4 =1 (1) − (2) °¯2α 3 + 2α 4 = −1
1
°α 2 = 4
α 2 = −α 4 ° 5
°α = 2 + 3α °°α1 =
° 1 4
® 4
®
α = α 1
° 3 4 °α3 = −
°¯4α 4 = −1 ° 4
°α = − 1
°¯ 4 4
5 1 1 1
♦ ! v = v1 + v2 − v3 − v4
4 4 4 4

͸
1
"
! IR3 " {e1 , e2 , e3 } )

v1 = (1,1,0) )
v2 = (0,1,1) v3 = (1,0,1) ,
+/ *

"
v1 ) v2 v3
IR3 ,
-/ 7

e1 ) e2 e3 ,

"

+/ S = {v1 , v2 , v3 }

3 dim IR 3 = 3 ,.

" S = {v1 , v2 , v3 }
IR3 )

" S = {v1 , v2 , v3 }
,
♦ S = {v1 , v2 , v3 } 1 v1 = (1,1,0), v2 = ( 0,1,1), v3 = (1,0,1)
♦ *
" S = {v1 , v2 , v3 } IR3 1 S = {v1 , v2 , v3 }
6
α1 .v1 + α 2 .v2 + α 3v3 = (0,0,0)
α1 .(1,1,0) + α 2 .(0,1,1) + α 3 .(1,0,1) = (0,0,0)



α1 + α 3 = 0 α 3 = −α1
° °
®α1 + α 2 = 0 ®α 2 = −α1 α1 = α 2 = α 3 = 0
°α + α = 0 °− 2α = 0
¯ 2 3 ¯ 1
S = {v1 , v2 , v3 }

,
♦ ! S = {v1 , v2 , v3 } IR3 ,

-/

e1 = (1,0,0), e2 = (0,1, ) et e 3 = (0,0,1) S = {v1 , v2 , v3 },
♦ e1 = (1,0,0) 1 ∃!(α1 , α 2 , α 3 ) ∈ IR 3 / e1 = α1.v1 + α 2 .v2 + α 3v3
e1 = α1 .v1 + α 2 .v2 + α 3v3
α1.(1,1,0) + α 2 .(0,1,1) + α 3 .(1,0,1) = (1,0,0)
1
° α1 =
α1 + α 3 = 1 α1 + α 3 = 1 2α1 = 1 2
° ° ° °° 1
®α1 + α 2 = 0 ®α1 = −α 2 ®α 2 = −α1 ®α 2 = −
°α + α = 0 °α = −α °α = α ° 2
¯ 2 3 ¯ 3 2 ¯ 3 1
°α 3 = 1
°¯ 2
1 1 1
♦ ! e1 = v1 − v2 + v3
2 2 2
♦ e2 = (0,1,0) 1 ∃!(α1 , α 2 , α 3 ) ∈ IR 3 / e2 = α1.v1 + α 2 .v2 + α 3v3
e2 = α1 .v1 + α 2 .v2 + α 3v3
α1.(1,1,0) + α 2 .(0,1,1) + α 3 .(1,0,1) = (0,1,0)
1
° α 1 =
α1 + α 3 = 0 α 3 = −α1 α 3 = −α1 2
° ° ° °° 1
®α1 + α 2 = 1 ®α1 + α 2 = 1 ®2α1 = 1 ®α 2 =
°α + α = 0 °α = −α °α = α ° 2
¯ 2 3 ¯ 2 3 ¯ 2 1
°α 3 = − 1
°¯ 2
1 1 1
♦ ! e2 = v1 + v2 − v3
2 2 2
♦ e3 = ( 0,0,1) 1 ∃!(α1 , α 2 , α 3 ) ∈ IR 3 / e3 = α1.v1 + α 2 .v2 + α 3v3
e3 = α1 .v1 + α 2 .v2 + α 3v3
α1.(1,1,0) + α 2 .(0,1,1) + α 3 .(1,0,1) = (0,0,1)
1
° α1 = −
α1 + α 3 = 0 α 3 = −α1 α 3 = α 2 2
° ° ° °° 1
®α1 + α 2 = 0 ®α1 = −α 2 ®α1 = −α 2 ®α 2 =
°α + α = 1 °α + α = 1 °2α = 1 ° 2
¯ 2 3 ¯ 2 3 ¯ 2 °α 3 = 1
°¯ 2
1 1 1
♦ ! e3 = − v1 + v2 + v3
2 2 2



͹
1
"
"

a ∈ IR )
v1 = (1,−1,0) ) v2 = ( −1,2,−1)
v3 = ( 0,−1, a )
IR3 6

" v1 = (1,−1,0), v2 = ( −1,2,−1), v3 = (0,−1, a )
♦ S = {v1 , v2 , v3 }

3 dim IR 3 = 3 ,
♦ .

" S = {v1 , v2 , v3 } IR3 )

" S
,
♦ !
v1 ) v2 v3

a ,
α1 .v1 + α 2 .v2 + α 3v3 = (0,0,0)
α1.(1,−1,0) + α 2 .( −1,2,−1) + α 3 .( 0,−1, a ) = (0,0,0)
α1 − α 2 = 0 α 2 = α1 α 2 = α1
° ° °
®− α1 + 2α 2 − α 3 = 0 ®α 3 = −α1 + 2α 2 ®α 3 = α1
°− α + a.α = 0 °− α + a.α = 0 °α ( a − 1) = 0
¯ 2 3 ¯ 2 3 ¯ 1

1 a −1 ≠ 0 ( a ≠ 1 /

α 2 = α1 a ≠ 0 α 2 = α1
° °
o ®α 3 = α1 ®α3 = α1 α1 = α 2 = α3 = 0
°α ( a − 1) = 0 °α = 0
¯ 1 ¯ 1
o S = {v1 , v2 , v3 }

,
! a ≠ 1
S = {v1 , v2 , v3 } IR3 ,

1 a −1 = 0 ( a = 1 /

α 2 = α1 a = 0 α 2 = α1 α 2 = α1
° ° °
o ®α 3 = α1 ®α3 = α1 ®α3 = α1
°α (a − 1) = 0 °0 = 0 °α ∈ IR
¯ 1 ¯ ¯ 1
o ∃(α1 ,α 2 , α 3 )( ≠ (0,0,0)) ∈ IR / α1.v1 + α 2 .v2 + α 3v3 ) = (0,0,0)
3

7 (α1 , α 2 , α 3 ) = (1,1,1) 1 (1,1,1) ≠ ( 0,0,0) et v1 + v2 + v3 = (0,0,0)
o S = {v1 , v2 , v3 }
,
! a = 1
S = {v1 , v2 , v3 } IR3 ,



ͺ
1
"
! IR3 )

v1 = (1,1, a ) ) v2 = (1, a,1) v3 = ( a ,1,1) ,!

a ∈ IR 1
+/
v1 , v2 et v3 ,
-/
{v1 , v2 , v3 },
0/

v1 , v2 et v3 ,

"
v1 = (1,1, a ), v 2 = (1, a,1), v3 = ( a,1,1)

+/ !
v1 ) v2 v3

a ,
♦ α1 .v1 + α 2 .v2 + α 3v3 = (0,0,0)
♦ α 1 .(1,1, a ) + α 2 .(1, a,1) + α 3 .( a,1,1) = (0,0,0)
(1) α1 + α 2 + aα 3 = 0 (1) + (2) + (3) (a + 2)α1 + α 2 + α 3 = 0
° °
♦ (2) ®α1 + aα 2 + α 3 = 0 (2) ®α1 + aα 2 + α 3 = 0
°
(3) ¯aα1 + α 2 + α 3 = 0 °
(3) ¯aα1 + α 2 + α 3 = 0

♦ 1 a+2≠0 ( a ≠ −2 /

(a + 2)α 1 + α 2 + α 3 = 0 a ≠ −2 α 1 + α 2 + α 3 = 0
° °
o ®α 1 + aα 2 + α 3 = 0 ®α 1 + aα 2 + α 3 = 0
° aα + α + α = 0 ° aα + α + α = 0
¯ 1 2 3 ¯ 1 2 3

α 3 = −(α1 + α 2 ) α 3 = −(α 1 + α 2 )
° °
o ®α1 + aα 2 − α1 − α 2 = 0 ®(a − 1)α 2 = 0
°aα + α − α − α = 0 °(a − 1)α = 0
¯ 1 2 1 2 ¯ 1

o 1 a + 2 ≠ 0 a − 1 ≠ 0 ( a ≠ −2 a ≠ 1 /

α 3 = −(α 1 + α 2 ) a ≠ 1 α 3 = −(α1 + α 2 ) = 0
° °
o ®(a − 1)α 2 = 0 ®α 2 = 0 α1 = α 2 = α 3 = 0
°(a − 1)α = 0 °α = 0
¯ 1 ¯ 1

o S = {v1 , v2 , v3 }

,

o ! a ≠ −2 a ≠ 1
S = {v1 , v2 , v3 }
,



o 1 a + 2 ≠ 0 a − 1 = 0 ( a = 1 /

α 3 = −(α1 + α 2 ) a = 1 α 3 = −(α1 + α 2 ) α 3 = −(α1 + α 2 )
° ° °
o ®(a − 1)α 2 = 0 ®0 = 0 ®α 2 ∈ IR
°(a − 1)α = 0 °0 = 0 °α ∈ IR
¯ 1 ¯ ¯ 1

o ∃(α1 ,α 2 , α 3 )( ≠ (0,0,0)) ∈ IR 3 / α1.v1 + α 2 .v2 + α 3v3 ) = (0,0,0)

7 (α 1 , α 2 , α 3 ) = (1,1,−2) 1 (1,1,−2) ≠ (0,0,0) et v1 + v 2 − 2v3 = (0,0,0)

o S = {v1 , v2 , v3 }
,

o ! a = 1
S = {v1 , v2 , v3 }
,
o &
"1 a = 1
v1 = v 2 = v3 = (1,1,1) ,

♦ 1 a + 2 = 0 ( a = −2 /

(a + 2)α 1 + α 2 + α 3 = 0 a = −2 0 = 0 α 1 ∈ IR
° ° °
o ®α 1 + aα 2 + α 3 = 0 (1) ®α1 − 2α 2 + α 3 = 0 (1) − (2) ®α 2 = α1
° aα + α + α = 0 (2) °¯− 2α 1 + α 2 + α 3 = 0 (2) °¯α 3 = α 1
¯ 1 2 3

o ∃(α1 ,α 2 ,α 3 )(≠ (0,0,0)) ∈ IR 3 / α1 .v1 + α 2 .v2 + α 3 .v3 ) = (0,0,0)

7 (α 1 , α 2 , α 3 ) = (1,1,1) 1 (1,1,1) ≠ (0,0,0) et v1 + v2 + v3 = (0,0,0)

o S = {v1 , v2 , v3 }
,

o ! a = −2
S = {v1 , v2 , v3 }
,

♦ 1
o a ≠ −2 a ≠ 1
S = {v1 , v2 , v3 }
,
o a = −2 a = 1
S = {v1 , v2 , v3 },

-/ !

S = {v1 , v2 , v3 }

a ,

♦ 1 a ≠ −2 a ≠ 1
o S = {v1 , v2 , v3 }
1 rg ( S ) = 3

♦ 1 a = −2 1 v1 = (1,1,−2), v 2 = (1,−2,1), v3 = ( −2,1,1)
o S = {v1 , v2 , v3 }1 rg ( S ) < 3
o {v1 ,v2 }
1 rg ( S ) = 2


♦ 1 a = 1 1 v1 = v 2 = v3 = (1,1,1)
o rg ( S ) = 1

0/ !
< v1 , v2 , v3 > 1 dim < v1 , v2 , v3 >= rg {v1 , v 2 , v3 }

♦ 1 a ≠ −2 a ≠ 1
o rg ({v1 , v 2 , v3 }) = 3 dim < v1 , v2 , v3 >= 3

♦ 1 a = −2 1
o rg ({v1 , v2 , v3 }) = 2 dim < v1 , v 2 , v3 >= 2

♦ 1 a = 1 1
o rg ({v1 , v 2 , v3 }) = 1 dim < v1 , v 2 , v3 >= 1


[S3, Module M10, Matière : Mathématiques II] Chapitre 2 : applications linéaires
CHAPITRE 2 : APPLICATIONS LINEAIRES





ͳ
"

"
1
+/ h IR3
IR2
1 h ( x, y , z ) = ( x + y , z + 9 )
-/ g IR2
IR2
1 g ( x, y ) = ( xy , x + y )
0/ f IR3
IR2
1 f ( x, y, z ) = ( x + y, y + z )
ʹ

f IR 3
IR 3
1 f (( x, y, z )) = ( y − z, x + z, z )
+/ *

" f
,
-/
f $ f
" f
2,
0/ !

Ker ( f ) Im( f ) ,
͵
f
2
E ,
*

" H = {x ∈ E /( f $ f )( x) = f ( x)}
E ,
Ͷ
+/ !

Im( f ) Ker ( f )
2

,
a) f IR3
IR2
1 f ( x, y , z ) = ( x − y + z, x − y − z )
b) f IR3
IR2
1 f ( x, y , z ) = ( x − y − z , y + z − x )
2 3
c) f IR
IR
1 f ( x, y ) = ( x − y , y + x , x − y )
d) f IR3
IR3
1 f ( x , y , z ) = ( x + 2 y + z ,2 x + y + 2 z ,− x + y − z )
3 3
e) f IR
IR
1 f ( x, y, z ) = ( x + y + z, x − y + z, x + y − z )
−1
-/!

f 7,
ͷ
+/

f IR 3
IR 4
1
∀( x, y, z ) ∈ IR3 : f (( x, y, z )) = ( x + y, y + z, z + x, x + y + z)
a)
" IR 3
f ,
b)
Im( f )
f (rg ( f ) ) ,
c) !

f (Ker( f ) )

f (rg ( f ) ) ,
-/*<"

g IR 3
IR 4
1
∀( x, y, z ) ∈ IR3 : g (( x, y, z )) = ( x + y − z, x − y + z,− x − y + z,− x + y − z )

͸
{
! IR 3 )

V
V = ( x, y, z ) ∈ IR3 / x − z = 0 , }
+/!
B
V ,
-/

g V
IR 2
1
g (( x, y, z )) = ( x + y , x − y )
a)
B
f
Im(g ) ,
b) *

" g
2 V
IR 2

g −1 ,
͹

f IR 4
IR 3
1
f (( x, y , z, t )) = ( x − y , z − t, y − x )
+/!

f (Ker( f ) )

f (rg ( f ) ) ,
-/
" IR 4
f
Im( f ) ,
0/

1 v1 = (1,1,1,1), v2 = (1,1,−1,−1), v3 = (1,−1,1,−1), v4 = (1,−1,−1,1) ,
a) *

" {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 } IR 4 ,
b)

f
7 Im( f ) ,
ͺ

2 f IR 3
1 f (( x, y, z )) = ( x − y,− x + 2 y − z,− y + az ) ) a ∈ IR ,
!

f (rg ( f ) )

a 1
+/
f (Im( f ) ) ,
-/
f (Ker( f ) ) ,
ͻ

2 f IR 2
1
∀( x, y) ∈ IR 2 : f (( x, y)) = (ax + by, bx + ay) ) ( a , b ∈ IR /
+/ 5

Im( f ) ,
-/

a b
" f
2,
0/ !

f (Ker( f ) )

-/,
ͳͲ
! IR 3 )

v1 = (1, m,1) ) v2 = (m,1,1) v3 = (1, m −1,2) ) m ∈ IR ,
+/ !

{v1 , v2 , v3 }

m ,
-/
)

m )

2 f IR 3
1
∀( x, y, z ) ∈ IR3 : f (( x, y, z )) = ( x + my + z, mx + y + (m − 1) z, x + y + 2 z )

ͳͳ

2 f IR 3
1
∀( x, y, z) ∈ IR3 : f (( x, y, z)) = ( x + my + mz, mx + y + mz, mx + my + z ) ) m ∈ IR
+/ !

f (Ker( f ) ) )

m ,
-/
)

m )
{(1, m, m), (m,1, m), (m, m,1)},
0/ !
+/-/ Im( f ) )

m ,



ͳ
1
"
"

"
1
+/ h IR3
IR2
1 h ( x, y , z ) = ( x + y , z + 9 )
-/ g IR2
IR2
1 g ( x, y ) = ( xy , x + y )
0/ f IR3
IR2
1 f ( x, y, z ) = ( x + y, y + z )

"

+/ h( x, y, z ) = ( x + y, z + 9)
♦ h
1 h(0,0,0) ≠ (0,0,0)

-/ g ( x, y ) = ( x. y, x + y )
♦ g
1 ∃α (= −1) ∈ IR / f (α .( x, y)) ≠ α . f (( x, y))
f ((−1).( x, y ) ) = ( x. y,− x − y )
® f ((−1)( x, y ) ) ≠ (−1). f (( x, y) )
¯(−1). f (( x, y) ) = (− x. y,− x − y )

0/ f ( x1 , x2 , x3 ) = ( x1 + x2 , x2 + x3 ) 1*
" f
1
♦ ∀( x, y ) ∈ (IR 3 ) :
2 3
f ( x + y ) = f ( x ) + f ( y ) ∀(α , x) ∈ IR × IR : f (α .x) = α . f ( x)

♦ ∀(α , β ) ∈ IR 2 , ∀( x, y ) ∈ (IR 3 ) :
2
f (α .x + β . y ) = α . f ( x ) + β . f ( y )
♦ ( x , y ) ∈ (IR ) 1 x = ( x , x , x ) y = ( y , y , y )
3 2
1 2 3 1 2 3
2
∀(α , β ) ∈ IR )1
o f (α .x + β . y) = f (α .( x1 , x2 , x3 ) + β .( y1 , y2 , y3 )) = f (α .x1 + β . y1 ,α .x2 + β . y2 ,α .x3 + β . y3 )
o f (α .x + β . y) = ((α .x1 + β . y1 ) + (α .x2 + β . y2 ), (α .x2 + β . y2 ) + (α .x3 + β . y3 ))
o f (α .x + β . y) = ((α .x1 + α .x2 ) + ( β . y1 + β . y2 ), (α .x2 + α .x3 ) + (β . y2 + β . y3 ))
f (α .x + β . y) = α .( x1 + x2 , x2 + x3 ) + β .( y1 + y2 , y2 + y3 )
o
o f (α .x + β . y) = α . f ( x1 , x2 ) + β . f ( y1 , y2 )
o f (α .x + β . y) = α . f ( x ) + β . f ( y )
♦ f

,

ʹ
1
"

f IR 3
IR 3
1 f (( x, y, z )) = ( y − z, x + z, z )
+/ *

" f
,
-/
f $ f
" f
2,
0/ !

Ker ( f ) Im( f ) ,



" f (( x, y , z )) = ( y − z, x + z, z )

+/ *
" f
,
♦ ( x , y ) ∈ (IR 3 ) 1 x = ( x1 , x2 , x3 ) y = ( y1 , y2 , y3 )
2

" ∀(α , β ) ∈ IR 2 )1 f (α .x + β . y) = α . f ( x ) + β . f ( y )
♦ f

,

-/
♦ f $ f ,
f (( x, y, z )) = ( y − z, x + z, z ) ( f $ f )( x, y, z ) = f ( f ( x, y, z )) = f ( y − z, x + z, z )
( f $ f )( x, y, z ) = ( y − z, x + z, z ) = (( x + z ) − z, ( y − z ) + z, z ) = ( x, y, z )
f $ f = Id IR3
♦ f
21
f
,
−1
f % f = f 1 f $ f = Id IR 3

0/ !
Ker ( f ) Im( f ) ,

♦ !
Ker ( f ) 1 {
Ker( f ) = ( x, y, z ) ∈ IR3 / f ( x, y, z ) = (0,0,0) }
( x, y , z ) ∈ Ker( f ) ( y − z, x + z, z ) = (0,0,0)
y − z = 0 y = z = 0
° °
®x + z = 0 ®x = −z = 0
°z = 0 °z = 0
¯ ¯
Ker( f ) = {(0,0,0)}

♦ !
Im( f ) 1 Im f =< f (e1 ), f (e2 ), f (e3 ) > ) {e1 , e2 , e3 } IR 3

{e1 , e2 , e3 }" IR 3 1 e1 = (1,0,0) ) e2 = (0,1,0) ) e3 = (0,0,1)
u1 = f ( e1 ) = (0,1,0)
°
®u2 = f ( e2 ) = (1,0,0) 1 Im f =< u1 , u2 , u3 >
°u = f ( e ) = ( −1,1,1)
¯ 3 3
S = {u1 , u2 , u3 }1 Im f =< u1 , u2 , u3 >

!

S = {u1 , u2 , u3 }1 1 ≤ rg ( S ) ≤ 3
o 2
2 rg ( S ) = 3 1 S = {u1 , u2 , u3 }
6
o α1.u1 + α2 .u2 + α3u3 = (0,0,0)
o α1.(1,0,1) + α2 .(1,0,0) + α3.(−1,1,1) = (0,0,0)



α1 + α 2 − α 3 = 0 α 2 = α 3 − α1 = 0
° °
o ®α 3 = 0 ®α 3 = 0 α1 = α 2 = α 3 = 0
°α + α = 0 °α = −α = 0
¯ 1 3 ¯ 1 3
o S = {u1 , u2 , u3 }

rg ( S ) = 3
o {u1, u2 , u3}
Im f ) dim(Im f ) = 3 1
3
Im f = IR
♦

Ker ( f ) Im f
f
2% )
f %
Ker( f ) = {(0,0,0)}
3
f
%
Im f = IR

͵
1
"
f

2
E ,
*

" H = {x ∈ E /( f $ f )( x) = f ( x)}
E ,

"
H = {x ∈ E /( f $ f )( x ) = f ( x )}
*
" H
E 1
+/ H ≠ φ
-/ ∀x, y ∈ H : x + y ∈ F
0/ ∀(α , x ) ∈ IR × H : α . x ∈ F

+/ H ≠ φ 1
f (0E ) = 0E ) f

( f $ f )(0E ) = f ( f (0E ) ) = f (0E ) = 0E
! 0E ∈ H

?
-/ ∀x, y ∈ H , x + y ∈ H 1 ( f $ f )( x + y ) = f ( x + y )
( f $ f )( x + y) = f ( f ( x + y)) = f ( f ( x) + f ( y)) = f ( f ( x)) + f ( f ( y)) ) f

!1 ( f $ f )( x + y ) = ( f $ f )( x) + ( f $ f )( y )

1 ( f $ f )( x) = f ( x) ( f $ f )( y ) = f ( y ) ) x, y ∈ H
!:1 ( f $ f )( x + y ) = f ( x) + f ( y )
!1 ( f $ f )( x + y ) = f ( x + y ) ) f

?
0/ ∀(α , x ) ∈ IR × H , α . x ∈ H 1 ( f $ f )(α . x ) = f (α . x )
( f $ f )(α.x) = f ( f (α.x)) = f (α. f ( x)) = α. f ( f ( x)) = α.( f $ f )( x) ) f

!:1 ( f $ f )(α. x) = α . f ( x) )
( f $ f )( x) = f ( x) 1 x ∈ H
!1 ( f $ f )(α . x) = f (α . x) ) f



Ͷ
1
"
+/ !

Im( f ) Ker ( f )
2

,
a) f IR3
IR2
1 f ( x, y , z ) = ( x − y + z, x − y − z )
b) f IR3
IR2
1 f ( x, y , z ) = ( x − y − z , y + z − x )
c) f IR2
IR3
1 f ( x, y ) = ( x − y , y + x , x − y )
3 3
d) f IR
IR
1 f ( x , y , z ) = ( x + 2 y + z ,2 x + y + 2 z ,− x + y − z )
3 3
e) f IR
IR
1 f ( x, y, z ) = ( x + y + z, x − y + z, x + y − z )
-/!

f −1 7,

"

+/ !
Ker ( f ) Im( f ) ,

, f ( x, y , z ) = ( x − y + z, x − y − z )

{ 3
!
Ker ( f ) 1 Ker( f ) = ( x, y, z ) ∈ IR / f ( x, y, z ) = (0,0) }
o ( x, y , z ) ∈ Ker( f ) ( x − y + z, x − y − z ) = (0,0)
x − y + z = 0 x − y = 0 x = y
o ® ® ®
¯x − y − z = 0 ¯z = x − y ¯z = 0
o Ker ( f ) =< (1,1,0) > ) {(1,1,0)} Ker ( f )

!
Im( f ) 1 Im f =< f (e1 ), f (e2 ), f (e3 ) >
o {e1 , e2 , e3 }" IR 3 1 e1 = (1,0,0) ) e2 = (0,1,0) ) e3 = (0,0,1)
u1 = f (e1 ) = (1,1)
°
o S = {u1 , u2 , u3 } ®u 2 = f (e2 ) = (−1,−1) 1 Im f =< u1 , u2 , u3 >
°u = f (e ) = (1,−1)
¯ 3 3
o !

S = {u1 , u2 , u3 }1 1 ≤ rg ( S ) ≤ 3
• 2
2 rg ( S ) = 3 1 S = {u1 , u2 , u3 }
6
S = {u1 , u2 , u3 }
u2 = −u1 rg ( S ) < 3
• 2
2 rg ( S ) = 2 1
{u2 ,u3 } ( {u1 ,u3 } /
(/ rg ( S ) = 2
o {u2 ,u3 } {u1 ,u3 } 7 Im f

o Im f =< u2 , u3 >=< u1 , u3 > ) Im f = IR2



, f ( x, y , z ) = ( x − y − z, y + z − x )

{ 3
!
Ker ( f ) 1 Ker( f ) = ( x, y, z ) ∈ IR / f ( x, y, z ) = (0,0) }
o ( x, y , z ) ∈ Ker( f ) ( x − y − z,− x + y + z ) = (0,0)
x − y − z = 0
o ® x − y − z = 0 x = y + z ) ( y, z ∈ IR )
¯ − x + y + z = 0
o ( x, y, z ) = ( y + z, y, z ) = y.(1,1,0) + z.(1,0,1) ) ( y, z ∈ IR)
o !1 Ker ( f ) =< (1,1,0), (1,0,1) > ) {(1,1,0), (1,0,1)} Ker ( f )

!
Im( f ) 1 Im f =< f (e1 ), f (e2 ), f (e3 ) >
o {e1 , e2 , e3 }" IR 3 1 e1 = (1,0,0) ) e2 = (0,1,0) ) e3 = (0,0,1)
u1 = f (e1 ) = (1,−1)
°
o S = {u1 , u2 , u3 } ®u 2 = f (e2 ) = (−1,1) 1Im f =< u1 , u2 , u3 >
°u = f (e ) = (−1,1)
¯ 3 3
o !

S = {u1 , u2 , u3 }1 1 ≤ rg ( S ) ≤ 3
• 2
2 rg ( S ) = 3 1 S = {u1 , u2 , u3 }
6
S = {u1 , u2 , u3 }
u3 = u2 = −u1 rg ( S ) < 3

• 2
2 rg ( S ) = 2 1
{u1 ,u 2 }
u2 = −u1
{u1 ,u3 }
u3 = −u1
{u2 ,u3 }
u3 = u2
• rg ( S ) < 2
o {u1}
rg ( S ) = 1
o {u1}
Im f 1 Im f =< u1 >=< u2 = u3 >

, f ( x, y ) = ( x − y , y + x, x − y )

{ 2
!
Ker ( f ) 1 Ker( f ) = ( x, y) ∈ IR / f ( x, y) = (0,0,0) }
o ( x, y ) ∈ Ker ( f ) ( x − y, y + x, x − y) = (0,0,0)
x − y = 0 x = y
o ® ® x = y = 0
¯x + y = 0 ¯x = − y
o !1 Ker( f ) = {(0,0)}



!
Im( f ) 1 Im f =< f (e1 ), f (e2 ) >
o {e1 ,e2 }" IR 2 1 e1 = (1,0) ) e2 = (0,1)
u1 = f (e1 ) = (1,1,1)
o S = {u1 ,u2 }) ® 1 Im f =< u1 , u2 >
¯u 2 = f (e2 ) = (−1,1,−1)
o !

S = {u1 ,u2 }1 1 ≤ rg ( S ) ≤ 2
• 2
2 rg ( S ) = 2 1 S = {u1 ,u2 }
6 S = {u1 ,u2 }
(/
o rg ( S ) < 2
o S = {u1 ,u2 }
Im f 1 Im f =< u1 , u2 >

, f ( x , y , z ) = ( x + 2 y + z ,2 x + y + 2 z ,− x + y − z )

{3
!
Ker ( f ) 1 Ker( f ) = ( x, y, z ) ∈ IR / f ( x, y, z ) = (0,0,0) }
o ( x, y , z ) ∈ Ker( f ) ( x + 2 y + z,2 x + y + 2 z,− x + y − z ) = (0,0,0)
(1) x + 2 y + z = 0 (1) + (3) y = 0 y = 0
° ° °
o (2) ®2 x + y + 2 z = 0 ( 2) ® 2( x + z ) = − y ®z = −x
(3) °¯− x + y − z = 0 (3) °¯ x + z = y ° x ∈ IR
¯
o ( x, y, z ) = ( x,0,− x) = x.(1,0,−1) ) (x ∈ IR)
o !1 Ker ( f ) =< (1,0,−1) >

!
Im( f ) 1 Im f =< f (e1 ), f (e2 ), f (e3 ) >
o {e1 , e2 , e3 }" IR 3 1 e1 = (1,0,0) ) e2 = (0,1,0) ) e3 = (0,0,1)
u1 = f (e1 ) = (1,2,−1)
°
o S = {u1 , u2 , u3 } ®u 2 = f (e2 ) = (2,1,1) 1 Im f =< u1 , u2 , u3 >
°u = f (e ) = (1,2,−1)
¯ 3 3
o !

S = {u1 , u2 , u3 }1 1 ≤ rg ( S ) ≤ 3
• 2
2 rg ( S ) = 3 1 S = {u1 , u2 , u3 }
6
S = {u1 , u2 , u3 }
u3 = u1
rg ( S ) < 3
• 2
2 rg ( S ) = 2 1
{u1 ,u 2 }( {u2 ,u3 } /
(/ rg ( S ) = 2
o {u1 ,u2 } {u2 ,u3 } 7 Im f 1 Im f =< u1 , u2 >=< u2 , u3 >



, f ( x, y, z ) = ( x + y + z, x − y + z, x + y − z )

{ 3
!
Ker ( f ) 1 Ker( f ) = ( x, y, z ) ∈ IR / f ( x, y, z ) = (0,0,0) }
o ( x, y , z ) ∈ Ker( f ) ( x + y + z, x − y + z, x + y − z ) = (0,0,0)
(1) x + y + z = 0 (1) − (3) z = 0
° °
o ( 2) ® x − y + z = 0 (1) − (2) ® y = 0
(3) °¯ x + y − z = 0 (2) + (3) °¯ x = 0
o !1 Ker( f ) = {(0,0,0)}

!
Im( f ) 1 Im f =< f (e1 ), f (e2 ), f (e3 ) >
o {e1 , e2 , e3 }" IR 3 1 e1 = (1,0,0) ) e2 = (0,1,0) ) e3 = (0,0,1)
u1 = f (e1 ) = (1,1,1)
°
o S = {u1 , u2 , u3 } ®u 2 = f (e2 ) = (1,−1,1) 1 Im f =< u1 , u2 , u3 >
°u = f (e ) = (1,1,−1)
¯ 3 3
o !

S = {u1 , u2 , u3 }1 1 ≤ rg ( S ) ≤ 3
• 2
2 rg ( S ) = 3 1 S = {u1 , u2 , u3 }
6

" S = {u1 , u2 , u3 }
(/,
• rg ( S ) = 3
o {u1 , u2 , u3 }
Im f 1 Im f = IR3

.

Im( f ) ))

"
"1
o f %
1 Ker( f ) = {(0,0,0)}
o f

2% IR 3 ) f %,
3
o ! f
%
Im f = IR

-/ !
f −1 )
"7,

, f IR3
IR2
1 f ( x, y , z ) = ( x − y + z, x − y − z )
3 2
dim IR > dim IR ) f <
% f <
%1
o Im f = IR2 f
%,
o Ker( f ) ≠ {(0,0,0)} f %,

, f IR3
IR2
1 f ( x, y , z ) = ( x − y − z, y + z − x )
3 2
dim IR > dim IR ) f <
% f <
%1
o dim(Im f ) = 1 ) Im f ≠ IR2 f
%,
o Ker( f ) ≠ {(0,0,0)} f %,



, f IR2
IR3
1 f ( x, y ) = ( x − y , y + x, x − y )

dim IR 3 < dim IR 2 ) f <

% f <

%1
o dim(Im f ) = 2 ) Im f ≠ IR3 f
%,
o Ker( f ) = {(0,0)} f %,
o f IR3
IR3
1 f ( x , y , z ) = ( x + 2 y + z ,2 x + y + 2 z ,− x + y − z )

dim IR 3 = dim IR 3 ) f <
%1
f % f % f
%
o dim(Im f ) = 2 Im f ≠ IR3 f
%,
o Ker( f ) ≠ {(0,0,0)} f %,
o f

2 IR 3 ,

, f IR3
IR3
1 f ( x, y, z ) = ( x + y + z, x − y + z, x + y − z )

dim IR 3 = dim IR 3 ) f <
%1
f % f % f
%
o Im f = IR3 f
%,
o Ker( f ) = {(0,0,0)} f %,
o f

2 IR 3 ,

♦ !

f −1 ,
f −1 IR3
IR3
1 f −1 ( X ,Y , Z ) = ( x, y, z ) f ( x, y, z ) = ( X , Y , Z )
f ( x, y , z ) = ( X , Y , Z ) ( x + y + z, x − y + z, x + y − z ) = ( X , Y , Z )
1 1
° z= X− Z
(1) x + y + z = X (1) − (3) 2 z = X − Z °°
2 2
° ° 1 1
(2) ® x − y + z = Y (1) − (2) ®2 y = X − Y ®y = X − Y
° 2 2
(3) °¯ x + y − z = Z (2) + (3) °¯2 x = Y + Z 1 1
°x = Y + Z
°¯ 2 2

♦ %

" f −1 f ( x, y, z ) = ( x + y + z, x − y + z, x + y − z )

§1 1 1 1 1 1 ·
IR3
IR3
1 f −1 ( X ,Y , Z ) = ¨ Y + Z , X − Y , X − Z ¸
©2 2 2 2 2 2 ¹



ͷ
1
"
+/

f IR 3
IR 4
1
∀( x, y, z ) ∈ IR3 : f (( x, y, z )) = ( x + y, y + z, z + x, x + y + z)
a)
" IR 3
f ,
b)
Im( f )
f (rg ( f ) ) ,
c) !

f (Ker( f ) )

f (rg ( f ) ) ,
-/*<"

g IR 3
IR 4
1
3
∀( x, y, z ) ∈ IR : g (( x, y, z )) = ( x + y − z, x − y + z,− x − y + z,− x + y − z )

"

+/ f (( x, y, z )) = ( x + y, y + z, z + x, x + y + z )
/ " {e1 , e2 , e3 } IR 3
f ,
e1 = (1,0,0) f ( e1 ) = (1,0,1,1)
° °
®e2 = (0,1,0) ® f ( e2 ) = (1,1,0,1)
°e = (0,0,1) ° f ( e ) = (0,1,1,1)
¯ 3 ¯ 3
/ ! Im( f ) (rg ( f ) )

♦ !
Im( f )
u1 = (1,0,1,1)
°
Im f =< f (e1 ), f (e2 ), f (e3 ) >=< u1 , u2 , u3 > 1 ®u2 = (1,1,0,1)
°u = (0,1,1,1)
¯ 3
!

S = {u1 , u2 , u3 }1 1 ≤ rg ( S ) ≤ 3
2
2 rg ( S ) = 3 1 S = {u1 , u2 , u3 }
6
α1 + α 2 = 0 α1 = −α 2
°α + α = 0 °α = −α
° °
α1.u1 + α 2 .u2 + α 3 .u3 = (0,0,0,0) ® 2 3
® 3 2
α1 = α 2 = α 3 = 0
° α 1 + α 3 = 0 ° α 3 = −α 1 = α 2
°¯α1 + α 2 + α 3 = 0 °¯α1 + α 2 + α 3 = 0
S = {u1 , u2 , u3 }

rg ( S ) = 3

♦ {u1 , u2 , u3 }
Im f 1 Im f = IR
3

♦ rg ( f ) = dim(Im f ) = 3 rg ( f ) = 3



/ !
Ker ( f ) (rg ( f ) )

♦ !
Ker ( f ) 1 {
Ker( f ) = ( x, y, z ) ∈ IR3 / f ( x, y, z ) = (0,0,0,0) }

( x, y , z ) ∈ Ker( f ) ( x + y , y + + z, x + z, x + y + z ) = (0,0,0,0)
x + y = 0 x = − y
°y + z = 0 °z = − y = x
° °
®
® x = y = z = 0
° x + z = 0 ° z = − x
°¯ x + y + z = 0 °¯ y = − x − z

♦ !1 Ker( f ) = {(0,0,0)} ) dim(Ker( f )) = 0

♦ rg( f ) + dim(Ker( f ) ) = dim IR3 rg( f ) = 3 − dim(Ker( f ) ) rg ( f ) = 3

-/ g (( x, y, z )) = ( x + y − z, x − y + z,− x − y + z,− x + y − z )

/ " {e1 , e2 , e3 } IR 3
g ,
e1 = (1,0,0) g ( e1 ) = (1,1,−1,−1)
° °
®e2 = (0,1,0) ® g ( e2 ) = (1,−1,−1,1)
°e = (0,0,1) ° g ( e ) = ( −1,1,1,−1)
¯ 3 ¯ 3

/ ! Im(g ) (rg ( g ) )

♦ !
Im(g )
u1 = (1,1,−1,−1)
°
Im f =< g (e1 ), g (e2 ), g (e3 ) >=< u1 , u2 , u3 > 1 ®u2 = (1,−1,−1,1)
°u = ( −1,1,1,−1)
¯ 3
!

S = {u1 , u2 , u3 }1 1 ≤ rg ( S ) ≤ 3
2
2 rg ( S ) = 3 1 S = {u1 , u2 , u3 }
6
S = {u1 , u2 , u3 }
u3 = −u2 rg ( S ) < 3
• 2
2 rg ( S ) = 2 1
{u1 , u 2 }( {u1 , u3 }/
(/ rg ( S ) = 2

♦ {u1 , u 2 } {u1 , u3 } 7 Im g 1 Im g =< u1 , u2 >=< u1 , u3 >

♦ rg ( g ) = dim(Im g ) = 2 rg ( g ) = 2



/ !
Ker (g ) (rg (g ) )

♦ !
Ker (g ) 1
Ker( g ) = {( x, y, z ) ∈ IR3 / g ( x, y, z ) = (0,0,0,0)}

( x, y, z ) ∈ Ker( g ) ( x + y , y + + z, x + z, x + y + z ) = (0,0,0,0)
(1) x + y − z = 0
( 2) °° x − y + z = 0 (1) x + y − z = 0 (1) + (2) x = 0
® ® ®
(3) °− x − y + z = 0 ( 2) ¯ x − y + z (1) − (2) ¯ y = z
( 4) °¯− x + y − z = 0
( x, y, z ) = (0, y, y ) = y.(0,1,1) ) ( y ∈ IR)

♦ !1 Ker(g ) =< (0,1,1) > ) dim(Ker( g ) ) = 1

♦ rg( g ) + dim(Ker( g ) ) = dim IR3 rg( g ) = 3 − dim(Ker( g ) ) rg ( g ) = 2

͸
1
"
{
! IR 3 )

V
V = ( x, y, z ) ∈ IR3 / x − z = 0 , }
+/!
B
V ,
-/

g V
IR 2
1
g (( x, y, z )) = ( x + y , x − y )
a)
B
f
Im(g ) ,
b) *

" g
2 V
IR 2

g −1 ,

"

+/ !
V = {( x, y, z ) ∈ IR3 / x − z = 0}1

♦ ( x, y, z ) ∈V x = z = 0 ( x, y, z ) = ( x, y, x) = y.(0,1,0) + x.(1,0,1) ) ( x, y ∈ IR)
♦ !1 B = {(0,1,0), (1,0,1)} V ) dim V = 2

-/
g V
IR 2
1 g (( x, y , z )) = ( x + y, x − y )

/ B V
g ,
u1 = (0,1,0) g (u ) = (1,−1)
B = {u1 , u 2 }: ® ® 1
¯u 2 = (1,0,1) ¯ g (u 2 ) = (1,1)



/ *
" g
2 V
IR 2
g −1 ,

♦ *
" g
2 V
IR 2 1

g
V
IR 2 dimV = dim(IR 2 ) = 2
.

" g
2)

" g %
g
%,

?
*
" g %1 Ker ( g ) ={(0,0,0)}
o !
Ker (g ) 1 Ker( f ) = {( x, y, z ) ∈V / g ( x, y, z) = (0,0)}
x − z = 0
°
o ( x, y , z ) ∈ Ker ( g ) ®x + y = 0 x = y = z = 0
°x − y = 0
¯
o !1 Ker( g ) = {(0,0,0)}
g
% %,

1
?
*
" g
%1 Im( g ) = IR 2
v1 = (1,−1)
o Im g =< g (u1 ), g (u2 )) >=< v1 , v2 > 1 ®
¯v2 = (1,1)
o !

S = {v1 ,v2 } 1 1 ≤ rg ( S ) ≤ 2
o S = {v1 ,v2 }
(/ rg ( S ) = 2 dim(Im g ) = 2
o {u1 ,u 2 }
Im g 1 Im(g ) = IR
2
g

% %,

♦ g

2 V
IR 2 ,

♦ !
g −1 1 g −1 ( X ,Y ) = ( x, y, z) g ( x, y , z ) = ( X , Y ) ) ( x, y, z ) ∈V
(1) x − z = 0
°
(g ( x, y, z) = ( X ,Y ), ( x, y, z ) ∈V ) ( 2) ® x + y = X
(3) °¯ x − y = Y
1 1
(1) z = x °z = 2 X + 2 Y
° °° 1 1
(2) + (3) ®2 x = X + Y ®x = X + Y
° 2 2
( 2) − (3) °¯2 y = X − Y
°y = X − 1 Y
1
°¯ 2 2



♦
2

" g −1 g (( x, y , z )) = ( x + y, x − y )
IR 2
V
−1 §1 1 1 1 1 1 ·

1 g ( X , Y ) = ¨ X + Y , X − Y , X + Y ¸
©2 2 2 2 2 2 ¹

͹
1
"

f IR 4
IR 3
1
f (( x, y , z, t )) = ( x − y , z − t, y − x )
+/!

f (Ker( f ) )

f (rg ( f ) ) ,
-/
" IR 4
f
Im( f ) ,
0/

1 v1 = (1,1,1,1), v2 = (1,1,−1,−1), v3 = (1,−1,1,−1), v4 = (1,−1,−1,1) ,
a) *

" {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 } IR 4 ,
b)

f
7 Im( f ) ,

"
+/ !
f (Ker( f ) )

f (rg ( f ) ) ,

♦ !
Ker ( f ) 1 {
Ker( f ) = ( x, y, z, t ) ∈ IR 4 / f ( x, y, z, t ) = (0,0,0) }
( x, y, z, t ) ∈ Ker ( f ) ( x − y, z − t , y − x) = (0,0,0)
x − y = 0 y = x
° °
® z − t = 0 ®t = z
°y − x = 0 ° x, z ∈ IR
¯ ¯
( x, y, z, t ) = ( x, x, z, z ) = x.(1,1,0,0) + z.(0,0,1,1) ) (x, z ∈ IR)
♦ !1 Ker ( f ) =< (1,1,0,0), (0,0,1,1) > ) {(1,1,0,0), (0,0,1,1)} Ker ( f )

♦

f (rg ( f ) ) ,
dim(Ker( f ) ) = 2
rg ( f ) + dim(Ker( f )) = dim IR4 rg ( f ) = 4 − dim(Ker( f )) rg ( f ) = 2

-/ "
Im( f ) ,

♦ "
Im( f )
{e1 , e2 , e3 , e4 }" IR 4 1
e1 = (1,0,0,1) u1 = f (e1 ) = (1,0,−1)
°e = (0,1,0,0) °u =
° 2 ° 2 f (e2 ) = (−1,0,1)
® ® 1
°e3 = (0,0,1,0) °u 3 = f (e3 ) = (0,1,0)
°¯e4 = (0,0,0,1) °¯u 4 = f (e4 ) = (0,−1,0)


♦ !
Im( f )
Im f =< f (e1 ), f (e2 ), f (e3 ), f (e4 ) > ) {e1 , e2 , e3 , e4 }" IR 4 ,
u1 = (1,0,−1)
°u = ( −1,0,1)
° 2
Im f =< u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 > 1 ®
°u3 = (0,1,0)
°¯u4 = (0,−1,0)
!

S = {u1 , u 2 , u3 , u 4 }1 1 ≤ rg ( S ) ≤ 4
• S = {u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 }(
ordre(S ) > dim IR / 3
rg ( S ) < 4
• 2
2 rg ( S ) = 3 1
{u1 , u 2 , u3 } {u1 , u2 , u4 }
u2 = −u1
{u1 , u3 , u 4 } {u2 , u3 , u4 }
u 4 = −u3
• rg ( S ) < 3
• {u1 ,u3 } (
7/
(/,
rg ( S ) = 2

♦ {u1 ,u3 }
Im f 1 Im f =< u1 , u3 >

♦ rg ( f ) = dim(Im f ) = 2 rg ( f ) = 2

0/

1 v1 = (1,1,1,1), v2 = (1,1,−1,−1), v3 = (1,−1,1,−1), v4 = (1,−1,−1,1) ,

, *
" S = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 } IR 4 ,

♦ ordre( S ) = dim IR 4 )

" S = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 }
1
α1.v1 + α 2 .v2 + α 3v3 + α 4 v4 = (0,0,0,0)
α1.(1,1,1,1) + α 2 .(1,1,−1,−1) + α 3 .(1,−1,1,−1) + α 4 .(1,−1,−1,1) = (0,0,0,0)
α1 + α 2 + α 3 + α 4 = 0 α1 + α 2 = −(α 3 + α 4 ) α1 + α 2 = 0
°α + α − α − α = 0 °α + α = α + α °α + α = 0
° ° °
® 1 2 3 4
® 1 2 3 4
® 3 4
α1 = α 2 = α 3 = α 4 = 0
° α 1 − α 2 + α 3 − α 4 = 0 ° α 1 − α 2 = − (α 3 − α 4 ) ° α 1 − α 2 = 0
°¯α1 − α 2 − α 3 + α 4 = 0 °¯α1 + α 2 = α 3 − α 4 °¯α 3 − α 4 = 0

S = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 }

) S = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 } IR 4 ,



,

f
7 Im( f ) ,

v1 = (1,1,1,1) u'1 = f (v1 ) = (0,0,0)
°v = (1,1,−1,−1) °u' =
° 2 ° f ( v2 ) = (0,0,0)
♦ S = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 }
f 1 ® ® 2
°v3 = (1,−1,1,−1) °u' 3 = f (v3 ) = ( 2,2,−2)
°¯v4 = (1,−1,−1,1) °¯u' 4 = f ( v4 ) = (2,−2,−2)
♦ Im f =< u'1 , u'2 , u'3 , u' 4 >=< u'3 , u'4 > ) u'1 = u'2 = (0,0,0)

♦ {u'3 , u' 4 } 7 Im( f ) ,

ͺ
1
"

2 f IR 3
1 f (( x, y, z )) = ( x − y,− x + 2 y − z,− y + az ) ) a ∈ IR ,
!

f (rg ( f ) )

a 1
+/
f (Im( f ) ) ,
-/
f (Ker( f ) ) ,

" f (( x, y, z )) = ( x − y,− x + 2 y − z,− y + az) ) a ∈ IR

+/ !
f
f 1 rg ( f ) = dim(Im f )

, " {e1 , e2 , e3 } IR 3
f 1
e1 = (1,0,0) f (e1 ) = (1,−1,0)
° °
®e2 = (0,1,0) ® f (e2 ) = (−1,2,−1)
°e = (0,0,1) ° f (e ) = (0,−1, a)
¯ 3 ¯ 3

, !
Im( f )
f
a ∈ IR ,
u1 = (1,−1,0)
°
♦ Im f =< f (e1 ), f (e2 ), f (e3 ) >=< u1 , u2 , u3 > 1 ®u 2 = (−1,2,−1)
°u = (0,−1, a)
¯ 3
♦ !
S = {u1 , u2 , u3 }1 1 ≤ rg ( S ) ≤ 3
♦ rg ( S ) = 3 S = {u1 , u2 , u3 }
,



♦ 1(
7,=2
+/

1 a ≠ 1 1
o S = {u1 , u 2 , u3 }
, rg ( S ) = 3
o !1 S = {u1 , u2 , u3 } Im( f )
o rg ( f ) = dim(Im f ) = 3 Im( f ) = IR3

1 a = 1 1
o S = {u1 , u 2 , u3 } , rg ( S ) < 3
o 2
2 rg (S ) 1 S = {u1 , u2 , u3 } ) u1 = (1,−1,0), u 2 = (−1,2,−1), u3 = (0,−1,1)
o S = {u1 ,u2 }
, rg ( S ) = 2
o !1 S = {u1 ,u2 } Im( f )
o rg ( f ) = dim(Im f ) = 2

/ !
Ker ( f )
f
a ∈ IR ,

♦ !
Ker ( f ) 1 {
Ker( f ) = ( x, y, z ) ∈ IR3 / f ( x, y, z) = (0,0,0) }

( x, y , z ) ∈ Ker( f ) ( x − y,− x + 2 y − z,− y + az ) = (0,0,0)
x − y = 0 x = y
° ° x = y = z
®x − 2 y + z = 0 ®z = y ®
° y − a.z = 0 °(1 − a ). y = 0 ¯(1 − a). y = 0
¯ ¯

1 a ≠ 1 1
o ( x, y , z ) ∈ Ker( f ) x = y = z = 0
o !1 Ker( f ) = {(0,0,0)} ) dim(Ker( f ) ) = 0
o rg ( f ) + dim(Ker( f )) = dim IR3 rg( f ) = 3 − dim(Ker( f )) rg ( f ) = 3

1 a = 1 1
x = y = z
o ( x, y, z ) ∈ Ker( f ) ®
¯ y ∈ IR
o !1 Ker ( f ) =< (1,1,1) > ) dim(Ker( f ) ) = 1
o rg ( f ) + dim(Ker( f )) = dim IR3 rg ( f ) = 3 − dim(Ker( f )) rg ( f ) = 2



ͻ
1
"

2 f IR 2
1
∀( x, y) ∈ IR 2 : f (( x, y)) = (ax + by, bx + ay) ) ( a , b ∈ IR /
+/ 5

Im( f ) ,
-/

a b
" f
2,
0/ !

f (Ker( f ) )

-/,

"
f (( x, y )) = (ax + by, bx + ay) ) a, b ∈ IR

+/ 5

Im( f ) ,
e1 = (1,0) f (e ) = ( a, b)
♦ Im f =< f (e1 ), f (e2 ) > ) {e1 ,e2 }" IR 2 1 ® ® 1
¯e2 = (0,1) ¯ f (e2 ) = (b, a )
u1 = (a, b)
♦ ! Im f =< u1 , u2 > 1 ®
¯u 2 = (b, a)

-/ !

a b
" f
2,
♦ f
2 Im( f ) = IR 2 {u1 ,u 2 } Im( f ) {u1 ,u 2 }

♦ !
u1 u2
a ∈ IR ,
α1.u1 + α 2 .u2 = (0,0)
α1.(a, b) + α 2 .(b, a) = (0,0)

(1) a.α1 + b.α 2 = 0

( )
a.(1) − b.(2) a 2 − b 2 .α1 = 0
® ®
(2) ¯b.α1 + a.α 2 = 0 ( )
a(2) − b(1) ¯ a 2 − b 2 .α 2 = 0

1 a 2 − b 2 ≠ 0 1
o α1.u1 + α 2 .u2 = (0,0) α1 = α 2 = 0
o {u1 ,u 2 }

,
o !1 {u1 ,u2 } Im( f )
2
o dim(Im f ) = 2 Im( f ) = IR
o f

2,

1 a 2 − b 2 = 0 1 a = b a = −b
o 1 a = b ) a ≠ 0
• u1 = u2 = (a, a)
• {u1}
Im( f ) )( a ≠ 0 /,
• dim(Im f ) = 1
• f

2,



o 1 b = − a ) a ≠ 0
• u2 = −u1 = (a,−a)
• {u1}
Im( f ) )( a ≠ 0 /,
• dim(Im f ) = 1
• f

2,

o 1 a = b = 0 1 f
• u2 = u1 = (0,0)
• Im( f ) = {(0,0)}
• f

2,

♦ ! f
2 a 2 − b 2 ≠ 0 ,

0/ !
f

-/,
♦ !
Ker ( f ) 1 {
Ker( f ) = ( x, y) ∈ IR 2 / f ( x, y) = (0,0) }
( x, y ) ∈ Ker ( f ) (ax + by, bx + ay) = (0,0)

(1) ax + by = 0 ( )
a.(1) − b.(2) a 2 − b 2 .x = 0
® ®
(2) ¯bx + ay = 0 ( )
a(2) − b(1) ¯ a 2 − b 2 . y = 0

1 a 2 − b 2 ≠ 0 1
o ( x, y ) ∈ Ker ( f ) x = y = 0 ) 1 Ker( f ) = {(0,0)}
o f
%,
o ! f

2,

1 a 2 − b 2 = 0 1 a = b a = −b

o 1 a = b ) a ≠ 0
• ( x, y ) ∈ Ker ( f ) a( x + y) = 0 x + y = 0
• ( x, y ) ∈ Ker ( f ) ( x, y ) = x.(1,−1) ) x ∈ IR
• !1 Ker ( f ) =< (1,−1) >
• f
%)( Ker( f ) = {(0,0)} /
• f

2,

o 1 b = − a ) a ≠ 0
• ( x, y ) ∈ Ker ( f ) a( x − y) = 0 x− y =0
• ( x, y ) ∈ Ker ( f ) ( x, y) = x.(1,1) ) x ∈ IR
• !1 Ker ( f ) =< (1,1) >
• f
%)( Ker( f ) = {(0,0)} /
• f

2,


o 1 a = b = 0 1 f
• ( x, y ) ∈ Ker ( f ) ( x, y ) ∈ IR
2
• !1 Ker( f ) = IR
• f

2,

ͳͲ
1
"
! IR 3 )

v1 = (1, m,1) ) v2 = (m,1,1) v3 = (1, m −1,2) ) m ∈ IR ,
+/ !

{v1 , v2 , v3 }

m ,
-/
)

m )

2 f IR 3
1
∀( x, y, z ) ∈ IR3 : f (( x, y, z )) = ( x + my + z, mx + y + (m − 1) z, x + y + 2 z )

"
+/ !
{v1 , v2 , v3 }

m 1
v1 = (1, m,1), v2 = (m,1,1), v3 = (1, m − 1,2)
♦ !
S = {v1 , v2 , v3 } 1 1 ≤ rg ( S ) ≤ 3
♦ rg ( S ) = 3 S = {v1 , v2 , v3 }
1
♦ α1.v1 + α 2 .v2 + α 3 .v3 = (0,0,0)
(1) α 1 + mα 2 + α 3 = 0 (1) + (2) + (3) (2 + m)(α 1 + α 2 + α 3 ) = 0
° °
♦ (2) ®mα 1 + α 2 + (m − 1)α 3 = 0 (1) − (3) ®(m − 1)α 2 − α 3 = 0
(3) °¯α 1 + α 2 + 2α 3 = 0 (3) °α + α + 2α = 0
¯ 1 2 3

1 m ≠ −2 1
o α .v
1 1 + α .v
2 2 + α .v
3 3 = ( 0,0, 0)
(1) α 1 + α 2 + α 3 = 0 (1) − (3) α 3 = 0
° °
o (2) ®α 3 = (m − 1)α 2 (2) ®(m − 1)α 2 = 0
(3) °¯α 1 + α 2 + 2α 3 = 0 (3) °¯α 1 = −α 2

o 1 m ≠ −2 m ≠ 1
• α1.v1 + α 2 .v2 + α 3 .v3 = (0,0,0) α1 = α 2 = α 3 = 0
• rg ( S ) = 3
o 1 m = 1 1 v1 = v2 = (1,1,1), v3 = (1,0,2)
α 3 = 0
°
• α 1 .v1 + α 2 .v2 + α 3 .v3 = (0,0,0) ®α 1 = −α 2
°α ∈ IR
¯ 2
• S = {v1 , v2 , v3 }
1
• rg ( S ) = 2 1 {v1 = v2 ,v3 }



1 m = −2 1 v1 = (1,−2,1), v2 = (−2,1,1), v3 = (1,−3,2)
o α1.v1 + α 2 .v2 + α 3 .v3 = (0,0,0)
0 = 0 α 2 ∈ IR
° °
o ®α 3 = −3α 2 ®α 3 = −3α 2
°α = −α − 2α °α = 5α
¯ 1 2 3 ¯ 1 2
o S = {v1 , v2 , v3 }
1 v2 = 3v1 − 5v3 ) (α1 ,α 2 ,α 3 ) = (−3,1,5)
o rg ( S ) = 2 1 {v1 = v2 ,v3 }

-/ !
f

m 1
f (( x, y, z )) = ( x + my + z, mx + y + (m − 1) z, x + y + 2 z )

♦ rg ( f ) = dim(Im f ) Im f =< f (e1 ), f (e2 ), f (e3 ) > ) {e1 , e2 , e3 }" IR 3 ,
e1 = (1,0,0) f (e1 ) = (1, m,1) = v1
° °
♦ dim(Im f ) = rg{ f (e1 ), f (e2 ), f (e3 )}1 ®e2 = (0,1,0) ® f (e2 ) = (m,1,1) = v2
°e = (0,0,1) ° f (e ) = (1, m − 1,2) = v
¯ 3 ¯ 3 3
♦ ! rg ( f ) = rg ( S )
1 m ≠ −2 m ≠ 1 1 rg ( f ) = rg ( S ) = 3

1 m = 1 m = −2 1 rg ( f ) = rg ( S ) = 2

ͳͳ
1
"

2 f IR 3
1
∀( x, y, z) ∈ IR3 : f (( x, y, z)) = ( x + my + mz, mx + y + mz, mx + my + z ) ) m ∈ IR
+/ !

f (Ker( f ) ) )

m ,
-/
)

m )
{(1, m, m), (m,1, m), (m, m,1)},
0/ !
+/-/ Im( f ) )

m ,

" f (( x, y, z )) = ( x + my + mz, mx + y + mz, mx + my + z ) ) m ∈ IR

+/ !
Ker ( f )
m ∈ IR 1

{ 3
♦ Ker( f ) = ( x, y, z ) ∈ IR / f ( x, y, z) = (0,0,0) }

♦ ( x, y , z ) ∈ Ker( f ) ( x + my + mz, mx + y + mz, mx + my + z ) = (0,0,0)
(1) x + my + mz = 0 (1) − (2) (1 − m)( x − y ) = 0
° °
♦ ( x, y , z ) ∈ Ker( f ) (2) ®mx + y + mz = 0 (1) − (3) ®(1 − m)( x − z ) = 0
(3) °¯mx + my + z = 0 (3) °¯mx + my + z = 0



♦ 1 m ≠ 1 1
x = y
°
( x, y , z ) ∈ Ker( f ) ®x = z
°(1 + 2m) x = 0
¯
1
1 m ≠ − m ≠ 1
2
o ( x, y, z ) ∈ Ker( f ) x = y = z = 0
o !1 Ker( f ) = {(0,0,0)} ) dim(Ker( f ) ) = 0

1
1 m = −
2
x = y = z
o ( x, y, z ) ∈ Ker( f ) ®
¯ x ∈ IR
o !1 Ker ( f ) =< (1,1,1) > ) dim(Ker( f ) ) = 1

♦ 1 m = 1 1
o ( x, y , z ) ∈ Ker( f ) x + y + z = 0 z = −x − y
o ( x, y, z ) = ( x, y,− x − y ) = x.(1,0,−1) + y.(0,1,−1)
o !1 Ker ( f ) =< (1,0,−1), (0,1,−1) > ) dim(Ker( f )) = 2

-/ ! )

m )
S = {(1, m, m), (m,1, m), (m, m,1)},

v1 = (1, m, m) = f (e1 )
°
♦ ®v2 = ( m,1, m) = f (e2 ) ) {e1 , e2 , e3 }" IR 3 ,
°v = (m, m,1) = f (e )
¯ 3 3
♦ ! Im f =< f (e1 ), f (e2 ), f (e3 ) >=< v1 , v2 , v3 > rg ( f ) = dim(Im f ) = rg ( S )

♦
rg ( f ) + dim(Ker( f ) ) = dim IR3 rg (S ) = rg ( f ) = 3 − dim(Ker( f ))

1
1 m ≠ 1 m ≠ −
2
Ker( f ) = {(0,0,0)} ) dim(Ker( f ) ) = 0 rg ( S ) = 3

1
1 m=− 1
2
Ker ( f ) =< (1,1,1) > ) dim(Ker( f )) =1 rg ( S ) = 2

1 m =1
Ker ( f ) =< (1,0,−1), (0,1,−1) > ) dim(Ker( f ) ) = 2 rg ( S ) = 1



0/ ! +/-/ Im( f ) )

m ,

♦ Im f =< f (e1 ), f (e2 ), f (e3 ) >=< v1 , v2 , v3 > rg ( f ) = dim(Im f )
1
♦ 1 m ≠ 1 m ≠ − 1 rg ( f ) = 3
2
{(1, m, m), (m,1, m), (m, m,1)}
Im( f ) 1 Im( f ) = IR3

1
♦ 1 m=− 1 rg ( f ) = 2
2
1 1 1 1 ½
®(1,− ,− ), (− ,1,− )¾
Im( f )
¯ 2 2 2 2 ¿

♦ 1 m = 1 1 rg ( f ) = 1

{(1,1,1)}
Im( f )

[S3, Module M10, Matière : Mathématiques II] Chapitre 3 : matrices
CHAPITRE 3 : MATRICES







ͳ
§ 2 1· § 0 1·
+/ ! M ( 2) )

A = ¨¨ ¸¸ B = ¨¨ ¸¸ ,
© 1 0¹ © 1 2¹
,
A + B ) A × B ) B × A ) A2 B 2 ,
,$ ( A + B ) 2 = A2 + B 2 + 2.( A × B ) 6
§ 1 0· § 2 0·
-/ *<"

A = ¨¨ ¸¸ B = ¨¨ ¸¸ ,
© 2 1¹ © 1 2¹
ʹ
§ 1 0 0·
¨ ¸
! M ( 3) )

A = ¨ 1 1 0 ¸ B = A − I 3 ,
B n , n ≥ 1
¨ 0 1 1¸
© ¹
n

A , n ≥ 1 ,
͵
§− 2 1 1·
¨ ¸
+/ ! M ( 3) )

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1
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+/ *

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IR3 " B = {e1 , e2 , e3 })

2 f IR3

( ai , bi , ci ∈ IR , 1 ≤ i ≤ 3 /1
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+/

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ͳ͸

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2 IR4 ,
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g (( x, y, z, t )) = ( x + y + z + t, y + z + t , z + t , t )

+/ !

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-/
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M ( f $ g / B, B ) M ( f $ g / B ' , B ' ) ,



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! A 2 = 3I 4 − 2. A

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)
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2
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2

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D 2 = 4.D
♦ ! A 2 + 6. A × J + 5 I 4 = Ο 4


−1
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A −1 = .( A + 6 J ) 1
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¨ 2 ¸
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3 1 ¨ ¸¨ 1 1¸
♦ L1 → L1 − L3 L2 → L2 − L3 1 ¨0 1 0¸ 0
2 2 ¨ 2 2¸
¨0 0 1¸¹¨ − 1 − 1
© 0¸
¨ ¸
© ¹
§ 3 1·
¨ 2 ¸
¨ 2 2¸
1 1¸
♦
A

A = ¨ 0
−1

¨ 2 2¸
¨ −1 −1 0¸
¨ ¸
© ¹

§− 2 1 1·
¨ ¸
(2) B = ¨ 1 − 2 1¸
¨ 1 1 − 2 ¸¹
©

§− 2 1 1·§ 1 0 0 ·
¨ ¸¨ ¸
♦ ¨ 1 −2 1¸¨ 0 1 0 ¸
¨ 1 1 − 2 ¸¹¨© 0 0 1¸¹
©
§ 1 1 ·§ 1 ·
¨1 − − ¸¨ − 0 0¸
1 ¨ 2 2 ¸¨ 2 ¸
♦ L1 → − L1 1 ¨ 1 − 2 1¸¨ 0 1 0 ¸
2 ¨1
¨ 1 − 2 ¸¸¨¨ 0 0 1¸¸
© ¹© ¹
§ 1 1 ·§ 1 ·
¨1 − − ¸¨ − 0 0¸
¨ 2 2 ¸¨ 2 ¸
¨0 − 3 3 ¸¨ 1
♦ L2 → L2 − L1 L3 → L3 − L1 1 1 0¸
¨ 2 2 ¸¨ 2 ¸
¨ 3 3 ¸¨ 1 ¸
¨0 − ¸¨ 0 1¸
© 2 2 ¹© 2 ¹
§ 1 ·
§ 1 1 ·¨ − 0 0¸
¨1 − − ¸¨ 2 ¸
2 ¨ 2 2¸ 1 2
♦ L2 → − L2 1 1 − 1¸ − ¨ − 0¸
3 ¨0 ¨ 3 3 ¸
¨0 3 3¸
¨ − ¨ 1 ¸
© 2 2 ¸¹¨ 0 1¸
© 2 ¹


§ 2 1 ·
§ 1 ·¨ − − 0¸
¨ 1 0 − ¸ 3 3
1 3 ¨ 4 ¸¨ 1 2
¸
♦ 1 → + → − ¨ ¸
L L 1
2
L L
2 3 L 3
2
L2 1 ¨ 0 1 − 1¸¨ − 3 − 3 0 ¸
¨0 0 0 ¸¸¨ 1 ¸
¨
© ¹¨ 1 1¸
© 4 ¹
♦
B >

,

͹
1
"
E

M M ( 3) "
1
§a c b ·
¨ ¸
M = ¨ b a + c b + c ¸ ) a, b, c ∈ IR
¨c b ¸
a + c¹
©
+/ *

"
M E

M = aI + bJ + cK ) :

I ) J K 3

,
-/
" E
M ( 3)

,

§a c b · ½
° ¨ ¸ °

" E = ®M ∈ M (3) / M = ¨ b a + c b + c ¸, a, b, c ∈ IR ¾
° ¨c b a + c ¸¹ °
¯ © ¿
+/ ∀M ∈ E , ∃a, b, c ∈ IR / M = aI + bJ + cK
§a c b ·
¨ ¸
♦ M ∈E ∃a, b, c ∈ IR / M = M = ¨ b a + c b + c ¸
¨c b a + c ¸¹
©
§ a 0 0· §0 0 b· §0 c 0·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
∃a, b, c ∈ IR / M = ¨ 0 a 0 ¸ + ¨ b 0 b ¸ + ¨ 0 c c ¸
¨ 0 0 a ¸ ¨0 b 0¸ ¨ c 0 c ¸
© ¹ © ¹ © ¹
§1 0 0· §0 0 1· § 0 1 0·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
∃a, b, c ∈ IR / M = a.¨ 0 1 0 ¸ + b.¨ 1 0 1 ¸ + c.¨ 0 1 1 ¸
¨0 0 1¸ ¨ 0 1 0¸ ¨ 1 0 1¸
© ¹ © ¹ © ¹
♦ ! M ∈ E ∃a, b, c ∈ IR / M = a.I + b.J + c.K )

§1 0 0· §0 0 1· § 0 1 0·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
I = ¨ 0 1 0 ¸ = I 3 ) J = ¨1 0 1¸ K = ¨0 1 1¸
¨0 0 1¸ ¨ 0 1 0¸ ¨1 0 1¸
© ¹ © ¹ © ¹



-/ E
M ( 3) 1
§a c b ·
¨ ¸
∀M = ¨ b a + c b + c ¸ ∈ E , ∃!α (= a), β (= b), γ (= c) ∈ IR / M = α .I + βJ + γ .K
¨c b a + c ¸¹
©
♦ E

M ( 3)

I ) J K 1
E = I , J , K ,
♦ !)
I ) J K
M ( 3) ,
♦ dim E = 3 1 {I , J , K } E ,

ͺ
1
"

IR3 " B = {e1 , e2 , e3 })

2 f a ( a ∈ IR /

1 f a (ei ) = ¦ e j + a.ei , 1≤ i ≤ 3
j ≠i
+/ !

M a = M ( f a / B, B ) ,
+/ !
>7
" f a
3 B = {e1 , e2 , e3 },
-/ .
"
a ) f a %6
0/ .
a = −2
a = 1 )

" f a (ei ) = ¦ e j + a.ei , 1 ≤ i ≤ 3 ) B = {e1 , e2 , e3 }
j ≠i
+/ M a = M ( f a / B, B) 1
f a (e1 ) = ae1 + e2 + e3
°
♦ f a (ei ) = ¦ e j + a.ei ® f a (e2 ) = e1 + ae2 + e3
j ≠i ° f (e ) = e + e + ae
¯ a 3 1 2 3
§a 1 1·
¨ ¸
♦ ! M a = M ( f a / B, B) = ¨ 1 a 1 ¸
¨1 1 a¸
© ¹

3
-/ ∀( x, y, z ) ∈ IR : f a ( x, y, z ) = (ax + y + z, x + ay + z, x + y + az ) 1
§ x· §a 1 1· § x·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸¨ ¸
♦ f a ( x, y, z ) = M ( f a / B, B).¨ y ¸ = ¨ 1 a 1 ¸.¨ y ¸ = (ax + y + z , x + ay + z, x + y + az )
¨ z ¸ ¨1 1 a¸ ¨ z ¸
© ¹ © ¹© ¹

0/ 5

a
" f a %,
♦ f a % f a % f a
%,
♦ ! f a % Ker ( f a ) = {( 0,0,0)} Im( f a ) = IR 3 ,


1 f a % Im( f a ) = IR 3 dim (Im( f a ) ) = 3

♦ Im f a = f a ( e1 ), f a ( e2 ), f a ( e3 ) dim(Im( f a ) ) = rg{ f a ( e1 ), f a ( e2 ), f a ( e3 )}
♦ ! f a % { f a ( e1 ), f a ( e2 ), f a ( e3 )}
,
♦ !

a
")1
α1 . f a ( e1 ) + α 2 . f a ( e2 ) + α 3 . f a ( e3 ) = (0,0,0) α1 = α 2 = α 3 = 0
♦ α1 . f a ( e1 ) + α 2 . f a ( e2 ) + α 3 . f a ( e3 ) = ( 0,0,0)
α1.(ae1 + e2 + e3 ) + α 2 .(e1 + ae2 + e3 ) + α 3 .(e1 + e2 + ae3 ) = (0,0,0)
(aα1 + α 2 + α 3 ).e1 + (α1 + aα 2 + α 3 ).e2 + (α1 + α 2 + aα 3 ).e3 = ( 0,0,0)
(1) aα1 + α 2 + α 3 = 0
°
( 2) ®α1 + aα 2 + α 3 = 0 )
B = {e1 , e2 , e3 } IR3 ,
(3) °¯α1 + α 2 + aα 3 = 0
(1) + ( 2) + (3) ( 2 + a )(α1 + α 2 + α 3 ) = 0
°
( 2) − (3) ®( a − 1)(α 2 − α 3 ) = 0
(3) °α + α + aα = 0
¯ 1 2 3

♦ a ≠ −2 a ≠ 1
{ f a ( e1 ), f a ( e2 ), f a ( e3 )}
1
α1 . f a ( e1 ) + α 2 . f a ( e2 ) + α 3 . f a ( e3 ) = ( 0,0,0)
(α1 + α 2 + α 3 ) = 0 α1 = −α 2 − α 3 α1 = −2α 2
° ° °
®(α 2 − α 3 ) = 0 ®α 2 = α 3 ®α 2 = α 3 α1 = α 2 = α 3 = 0
°α + α + aα = 0 °α + α + aα = 0 °( a − 1)α = 0
¯ 1 2 3 ¯ 1 2 3 ¯ 2

♦ a = −2
{ f −2 ( e1 ), f −2 ( e2 ), f −2 ( e3 )}
1
f −2 ( e1 ) = −2e1 + e2 + e3
°
® f −2 ( e2 ) = e1 − 2e2 + e3 1 f −2 ( e1 ) + f −2 ( e2 ) + f −2 ( e3 ) = 0
° f ( e ) = e + e − 2e
¯ −2 3 1 2 3

♦ a = 1
{ f1 ( e1 ), f1 ( e2 ), f1 ( e3 )}
1
f1 (e1 ) = e1 + e2 + e3
°
® f1 (e2 ) = e1 + e2 + e3 1 f1 ( e1 ) = f1 ( e2 ) = f1 ( e3 )
° f (e ) = e + e + e
¯ 1 3 1 2 3

♦ { f a ( e1 ), f a ( e2 ), f a ( e3 )}

) IR 3 a ≠ −2 a ≠ 1 ,
♦ ! f a % a ≠ −2 a ≠ 1



1 f a % Ker ( f a ) = {( 0,0,0)}

♦ !

a
")1
( x , y , z ) ∈ Ker ( f a ) ⇔ ( x, y , z ) = (0,0,0)
♦ ( x, y , z ) ∈ Ker ( f a ) ⇔ f a ( x , y , z ) = (0,0,0) ⇔ ( ax + y + z, x + ay + z , x + y + az ) = ( 0,0,0)
(1) ax + y + z = 0 (1) + ( 2) + (3) (2 + a )( x + y + z ) = 0
° °
♦ ( x, y, z ) ∈ Ker( f a ) ( 2) ® x + ay + z = 0 ( 2) − (3) ®(a − 1)( x − y ) = 0
°
(3) ¯ x + y + az = 0 °
(3) ¯ x + y + az = 0

♦ a ≠ −2 a ≠ 1
Ker ( f a ) = {(0,0,0)}1
x + y + z = 0 x = −2 y
° °
( x, y , z ) ∈ Ker( f a ) ® x − y = 0 ®x = y x = y = z = 0
° x + y + az = 0 °( a − 1) y = 0
¯ ¯

♦ a = −2
Ker( f −2 ) ≠ {(0,0,0)} 1
f −2 ( x, y, z ) = ( −2 x + y + z, x − 2 y + z, x + y − 2 z ) 1 f −2 (1,1,1) = (0,0,0)

♦ a = 1
Ker( f1 ) ≠ {(0,0,0)}1
f1 ( x, y, z ) = ( x + y + z, x + y + z, x + y + z ) 1 f1 (1,−2,1) = (0,0,0)

♦ ! Ker ( f a ) = {(0,0,0)} a ≠ −2 a ≠ 1
♦ ! f a % a ≠ −2 a ≠ 1

;/ .
a = −2
a = 1 )

(+/ a = −2
♦ a = −2
f −2 ( x, y, z ) = ( −2 x + y + z, x − 2 y + z, x + y − 2 z )
(1) − 2 x + y + z = 0 (1) − ( 2) 3( x − y ) = 0
° °
( x, y , z ) ∈ Ker( f −2 ) ( 2) ® x − 2 y + z = 0 ( 2) − (3) ®3( y − z ) = 0 x = y = z
(3) °¯ x + y − 2 z = 0 (1) − (3) °¯3( x − z ) = 0
( x, y, z ) ∈ Ker( f −2 ) ( x, y, z ) = ( x, x, x ) = x.(1,1,1), x ∈ IR
♦ Ker ( f −2 ) = (1,1,1) 1 {(1,1,1)} Ker( f −2 )

(-/ a = 1
♦ a = 1
f1 ( x, y, z ) = ( x + y + z, x + y + z, x + y + z )
( x, y, z ) ∈ Ker( f1 ) x + y + z = 0 z = − x − y, x, y ∈ IR
( x, y, z ) ∈ Ker( f1 ) ( x, y, z ) = ( x, y,− x − y ) = x.(1,0,−1) + y.(0,1,−1), x, y ∈ IR
♦ Ker ( f1 ) = (1,0,−1), ( 0,1,−1) 1 {(1,0,−1), (0,1,−1)} Ker( f1 )



ͻ
1
"
! IR3 " B = {e1 , e2 , e3 })

2 f a ( a ∈ IR )

1 ∀( x, y , z ) ∈ IR 3 : f a (( x, y , z )) = ( x + ay + a 2 z, y + 2az, z )
+/ !
M a = M ( f a / B, B ) ,
-/ *

" M a × M b = M a +b ,
0/
" ∀a ∈ IR )
M a
,(

"
" I 3 = M 0 /
;/
M an ( n ∈ IN ) ,

" ∀( x, y, z ) ∈ IR 3 : f a (( x, y , z )) = ( x + ay + a 2 z, y + 2az, z )

+/ M a = M ( f a / B, B )
f a (e1 ) = (1,0,0) = e1 §1 a a2 ·
° ¨ ¸
♦ ® f a (e2 ) = (a,1,0) = a.e1 + e2 ) M a = M ( f a / B, B ) = ¨ 0 1 2a ¸
° f (e ) = ( a 2 ,2a,1) = a 2 .e + 2a.e + e ¨0 0 1 ¸
¯ a 3 1 2 3 © ¹

-/ M a × M b = M a +b 1
§ 1 a a 2 · § 1 b b 2 · § 1 a + b a 2 + 2ab + b 2 ·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
♦ M a × M b = ¨ 0 1 2 a ¸ × ¨ 0 1 2b ¸ = ¨ 0 1 2 a + 2b ¸ = M a + b
¨0 0 1 ¸ ¨0 0 1 ¸ ¨0 0 1 ¸
© ¹ © ¹ © ¹

0/
M a
1
♦ ∀a, b ∈ IR )1 M a × M b = M a +b
♦ ! ∀a ∈ IR )1 M a × M − a = M a −a = M 0
♦
I 3 = M 0 ) ∀a ∈ IR ) ∃M −a / M a × M −a = I 3
♦
M a

(M a ) = M −a
−1

;/ M an ( n ∈ IN ) 1
♦ ∀a, b ∈ IR )1 M a × M b = M a +b
♦ ! ∀a ∈ IR )1 (M a )2 = M a × M a = M 2 a
♦ *

" ∀n ∈ IN ) (M a )n = M n.a
.
n = 1 )1 (M a ) = M a = M 1×a
n = 2 )1 (M a ) = M 2×a
1 2
" (M a ) = M n.a

" (M a ) = M ( n +1).a 1
n n +1
(M a ) = (M a ) × M a = M n.a × M a = M ( n +1).a
n +1 n
! ∀n ∈ IN ) 1 (M a ) = M n.a

n
♦



ͳͲ
1
"
IR3 IR2

"
B1 B2 ,

f g
1
f : IR 3 → IR 3 g : IR 3 → IR 2

( x , y , z ) ( x − y − z ,− x + y − z , − x − y + z ) ( x, y , z ) ( 2 x − z,2 y − z )

+/
g $ f

M ( g $ f / B1 , B2 )

,
-/ !

M ( f / B1 , B1 ) M ( g / B2 , B2 ) ,
0/

" M ( g $ f / B1 , B2 ) = M ( g / B2 , B2 ) × M ( f / B1 , B1 ) ,

" f ( x, y , z ) = ( x − y − z ,− x + y − z ,− x − y + z ) g ( x, y , z ) = ( 2 x − z , 2 y − z )

+/ g $ f M ( g $ f / B1 , B2 )

,

(/ g $ f
♦ ∀( x, y , z ) ∈ IR : g $ f ( x, y , z ) = g ( f ( x, y , z ) )
3
♦ f ( x, y, z ) = ( x − y − z ,− x + y − z,− x − y + z ) ( g $ f )( x, y, z ) = g (( x − y − z,− x + y − z,− x − y + z ) )

♦ g ( x, y, z ) = (2 x − z,2 y − z ) ( g $ f )( x, y, z ) = (2( x − y − z ) − (− x − y + z ),2(− x + y − z ) − (− x − y + z ) )

♦ ! ∀( x, y , z ) ∈ IR 3 : ( g $ f )( x, y , z ) = (3 x − y − 3 z ,− x + 3 y − 3 z )

(/ M ( g $ f / B1 , B2 )
e1 = (1,0,0)
° ε = (1,0)
♦ B1 = (e1 , e2 , e3 ) 1 ®e2 = (1,0,1) ) B2 = (ε 1 , ε 2 ) 1 ® 1
°e = (0,0,1) ¯ε 2 = (0,1)
¯ 3
♦ ∀( x, y , z ) ∈ IR 3 : ( g $ f )( x, y , z ) = (3 x − y − 3 z ,− x + 3 y − 3 z )
( g $ f )(e1 ) = (3,−1) = 3.ε 1 − 1.ε 2
° § 3 − 1 − 3·
♦ ! ®( g $ f )(e2 ) = (−1,3) = −1.ε 1 + 3.ε 2 M ( g $ f / B1 , B2 ) = ¨¨ ¸¸
°( g $ f )(e ) = (−3,−3) = −3.ε − 3.ε © − 1 3 − 3¹
¯ 3 1 2

-/ M ( f / B1 , B1 ) M ( g / B2 , B2 ) ,

(/ M ( f / B1 , B1 )
3
♦ ∀( x, y , z ) ∈ IR : f ( x, y , z ) = ( x − y − z ,− x + y − z ,− x − y + z )
f (e1 ) = (1,−1,−1) = e1 − e2 − e3 § 1 − 1 − 1·
° ¨ ¸
♦ ! ® f (e2 ) = (−1,1,−1) = −e1 + e2 − e3 M ( f / B1 , B1 ) = ¨ − 1 1 − 1¸
° f (e ) = (−1,−1,1) = −e − e + e ¨ −1 −1 1 ¸
¯ 3 1 2 3 © ¹



(/ M ( g / B2 , B2 )
3
♦ ∀( x, y , z ) ∈ IR : g ( x, y , z ) = (2 x − z ,2 y − z )
g (e1 ) = (2,0) = 2ε 1
° § 2 0 − 1·
♦ ! ® g (e2 ) = (0,2) = 2ε 2 M ( g / B1 , B2 ) = ¨¨ ¸¸
° g (e ) = (−1,−1) = −ε − ε © 0 2 − 1¹
¯ 3 1 2

0/ M ( g $ f / B1 , B2 ) = M ( g / B2 , B2 ) × M ( f / B1 , B1 ) 1

§ 3 −1 − 3·
♦ M ( g $ f / B1 , B2 ) = ¨¨ ¸¸
© −1 3 − 3¹
§ 1 − 1 − 1·
§ 2 0 − 1· ¨ ¸ § 3 − 1 − 3·
♦ M ( g / B2 , B2 ) × M ( f / B1 , B1 ) = ¨¨ ¸¸ × ¨ − 1 1 − 1¸ = ¨¨ ¸¸
© 0 2 − 1¹ ¨ − 1 − 1 1 ¸ © − 1 3 − 3 ¹
© ¹

ͳͳ
1
"
M ( 2 ) " B0 = {E11 , E12 , E 21 , E 22 }1

§ 1 0· § 0 1· § 0 0· § 0 0·
E11 = ¨¨ ¸¸ E12 = ¨¨ ¸¸ E21 = ¨¨ ¸¸ E22 = ¨¨ ¸¸
© 0 0¹ © 0 0¹ © 1 0¹ © 0 1¹

1
§ 1 0· § 0 1· § 0 1· § 1 0·
I = ¨¨ ¸¸ J = ¨¨ ¸¸ K = ¨¨ ¸¸ L = ¨¨ ¸¸
© 0 1¹ © 1 0¹ © − 1 0¹ © 0 − 1¹
§1 1· §1 − 1· § 1 1· §1 1·
A = ¨¨ ¸¸ B = ¨¨ ¸¸ C = ¨¨ ¸¸ D = ¨¨ ¸¸
©1 1¹ ©1 1¹ © − 1 1¹ ©1 − 1¹

+/ *

" B1 = {I , J , K , L} B2 = {A, B, C , D} 7 M ( 2 ) ,
-/ !

PB0 B1 PB1B2 ,
0/

"1 PB0 B2 = PB0 B1 .PB1B2 ,
§ 1 2·
;/

M = ¨¨ ¸¸
B0 ) B1 B2 ,
©3 4¹

§ 1 0· § 0 1· § 0 0· § 0 0·

"
B0 = {E11 , E12 , E 21 , E 22 }) E11 = ¨¨ ¸¸ ) E12 = ¨¨ ¸¸ ) E21 = ¨¨ ¸¸ ) E22 = ¨¨ ¸¸
© 0 0¹ © 0 0¹ © 1 0¹ © 0 1¹
+/ B1 = {I , J , K , L} B2 = {A, B, C , D} 7 M ( 2 ) ,

(/ B1 = {I , J , K , L} M ( 2 ) ,
§ 1 0· § 0 1· § 0 1· § 1 0·
B1 = {I , J , K , L}1 I = ¨¨ ¸¸ ) J = ¨¨ ¸¸ ) K = ¨¨ ¸¸ ) L = ¨¨ ¸¸
© 0 1¹ © 1 0¹ © − 1 0¹ © 0 − 1¹


♦ ordre( B1 ) = 4 = dim(M (2) 1 B1 M ( 2 ) B1
,
§0 0· ?
♦ α .I + β .J + γ .K + δ .L = ¨¨ ¸¸ α = β = γ = δ = 0 1
©0 0¹
§ 0 0· §1 0· §0 1· § 0 1· §1 0 · §0 0·
♦ α .I + β .J + γ .K + δ .L = ¨¨ ¸¸ α .¨¨ ¸¸ + β .¨¨ ¸¸ + γ .¨¨ ¸¸ + δ .¨¨ ¸¸ = ¨¨ ¸¸
© 0 0¹ ©0 1¹ ©1 0¹ © −1 0 ¹ © 0 − 1¹ © 0 0 ¹
§ 0 0 · §α 0 · § 0 β · § 0 γ · § δ 0 · § 0 0 ·
♦ α .I + β .J + γ .K + δ .L = ¨¨ ¸¸ ¨¨ ¸¸ + ¨¨ ¸¸ + ¨¨ ¸¸ + ¨¨ ¸¸ = ¨¨ ¸¸
© 0 0 ¹ © 0 α ¹ © β 0 ¹ © − γ 0 ¹ © 0 − δ ¹ © 0 0 ¹
§ 0 0 · §α + δ β + γ · §0 0·
♦ α .I + β .J + γ .K + δ .L = ¨¨ ¸¸ ¨¨ ¸=¨ ¸
©0 0¹ © β − γ α − δ ¸¹ ¨© 0 0 ¸¹
α + δ =0
°
§ 0 0 · °α − δ =0
♦ α .I + β .J + γ .K + δ .L = ¨¨ ¸¸ ® α = β =γ =δ = 0
© 0 0 ¹ °β + γ =0
°¯ β − γ =0
♦ B1

,
♦ ! B1 M ( 2 ) ,

(/ B2 = {A, B, C , D} M ( 2 ) ,
§1 1· §1 − 1· § 1 1· §1 1·
B2 = {A, B, C , D}1 A = ¨¨ ¸¸ ) B = ¨¨ ¸¸ ) C = ¨¨ ¸¸ ) D = ¨¨ ¸¸
©1 1¹ ©1 1¹ © − 1 1¹ ©1 − 1¹
♦ ordre( B2 ) = 4 = dim(M (2) 1 B2 M ( 2 ) B2
,
§ 0 0· ?
♦ α . A + β .B + γ .C + δ .D = ¨¨ ¸¸ α = β = γ = δ = 0 1
© 0 0¹
§0 0· §1 1· §1 − 1· § 1 1· §1 1 · § 0 0 ·
♦ α . A + β .B + γ .C + δ .D = ¨¨ ¸¸ α .¨¨ ¸¸ + β .¨¨ ¸¸ + γ .¨¨ ¸¸ + δ .¨¨ ¸¸ = ¨¨ ¸¸
©0 0¹ ©1 1¹ ©1 1 ¹ © − 1 1¹ ©1 − 1¹ © 0 0 ¹
§ 0 0 · §α α · § β − β · § γ γ · § δ δ · § 0 0 ·
♦ α . A + β .B + γ .C + δ .D = ¨¨ ¸¸ ¨¨ ¸¸ + ¨¨ ¸¸ + ¨¨ ¸¸ + ¨¨ ¸¸ = ¨¨ ¸¸
© 0 0 ¹ ©α α ¹ © β β ¹ © − γ γ ¹ © δ − δ ¹ © 0 0 ¹
§ 0 0 · §α + β + γ + δ α − β + γ + δ · § 0 0 ·
♦ α . A + β .B + γ .C + δ .D = ¨¨ ¸¸ ¨¨ ¸¸ = ¨¨ ¸¸
© 0 0 ¹ ©α + β − γ + δ α + β + γ − δ ¹ © 0 0 ¹
(1) α + β + γ + δ = 0 (1) − (3) 2γ = 0
° (1) − (2) °°2 β = 0
§0 0· (2) °α − β + γ + δ = 0
♦ α . A + β .B + γ .C + δ .D = ¨¨ ¸¸ ® ®
©0 0¹ (3) °α + β − γ + δ = 0 (4) − (2) °2 β − 2δ = 0
(4) °¯α + β + γ − δ = 0 (4) + (3) °¯2α + 2 β = 0
§0 0·
♦ α . A + β .B + γ .C + δ .D = ¨¨ ¸¸ α = β = γ = δ = 0 )
© 0 0 ¹
♦ B2

,
♦ ! B2 M ( 2 ) ,



-/ !

PB0 B1 PB1B2 ,

(/ PB0 B1
§ 1 0· § 0 1· § 0 0· § 0 0·
♦ B0 = {E11 , E12 , E 21 , E 22 }1 E11 = ¨¨ ¸¸ ) E12 = ¨¨ ¸¸ ) E21 = ¨¨ ¸¸ ) E22 = ¨¨ ¸¸
© 0 0¹ © 0 0¹ © 1 0¹ © 0 1¹
§ 1 0· § 0 1· § 0 1· § 1 0·
♦ B1 = {I , J , K , L}1 I = ¨¨ ¸¸ ) J = ¨¨ ¸¸ ) K = ¨¨ ¸¸ ) L = ¨¨ ¸¸
© 0 1¹ © 1 0¹ © − 1 0¹ © 0 − 1¹
I = E11 + E22 §1 0 0 1 ·
°J = E + E ¨ ¸
° ¨0 1 1 0 ¸
♦ ®
12 21
PB0 B1 =¨
° K = E − E 0 1 −1 0 ¸
12 21
¨ ¸
°¯ L = E11 − E22 ¨ 1 0 0 − 1¸
© ¹

(/ PB1B2
§1 0· § 0 1· § 0 1· § 1 0·
♦ B1 = {I , J , K , L}1 I = ¨¨ ¸¸ ) J = ¨¨ ¸¸ ) K = ¨¨ ¸¸ ) L = ¨¨ ¸¸
©0 1¹ © 1 0¹ © −1 0¹ © 0 − 1¹
§1 1· §1 − 1· § 1 1· §1 1·
♦ B2 = {A, B, C , D}1 A = ¨¨ ¸¸ ) B = ¨¨ ¸¸ ) C = ¨¨ ¸¸ ) D = ¨¨ ¸¸
©1 1¹ ©1 1¹ ©−1 1¹ ©1 − 1¹
A = I + J §1 1 1 0·
°B = I − K ¨ ¸
° ¨1 0 0 1¸
♦ ® PB1B2 =¨
° C = I + K 0 −1 1 0¸
¨ ¸
°¯ D = J + L ¨0 0 0 1¸
© ¹

0/ PB0 B2 = PB0 B1 .PB1B2 ,
§ 1 0· § 0 1· § 0 0· § 0 0·
♦ B0 = {E11 , E12 , E 21 , E 22 }1 E11 = ¨¨ ¸¸ ) E12 = ¨¨ ¸¸ ) E21 = ¨¨ ¸¸ ) E22 = ¨¨ ¸¸
© 0 0¹ © 0 0¹ © 1 0¹ © 0 1¹
§1 1· §1 − 1· § 1 1· §1 1·
♦ B2 = {A, B, C , D}1 A = ¨¨ ¸¸ ) B = ¨¨ ¸¸ ) C = ¨¨ ¸¸ ) D = ¨¨ ¸¸
©1 1¹ ©1 1¹ © − 1 1¹ ©1 − 1¹
A = E11 + E12 + E21 + E22 §1 1 1·1
°B = E − E + E + E ¨ ¸
° ¨1 −1 1 1 ¸
♦ ®
11 12 21 22
PB0 B2 = ¨
°C = E11 + E12 − E21 + E22 1 1 −1 1 ¸
¨ ¸
°¯ D = E11 + E12 + E21 − E22 ¨ 1 1 − 1¸¹
©1

§1 0 0 1 · §1 1 1 0 · §1 1 1 1 ·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
¨0 1 1 0 ¸ ¨1 0 0 1 ¸ ¨1 − 1 1 1 ¸
♦ PB0 B1 .PB1B2 = ¨ × = = PB0 B2
0 1 −1 0 ¸ ¨ 0 −1 1 0 ¸ ¨1 1 − 1 1 ¸
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
¨ 1 0 0 − 1¸ ¨ 0 0 0 1 ¸¹ ¨©1 1 1 − 1¸¹
© ¹ ©



§ 1 2·
;/ M = ¨¨ ¸¸
©3 4¹
§ 1 0· § 0 1· § 0 0· § 0 0·
(/ B0 = {E11 , E12 , E 21 , E 22 }1 E11 = ¨¨ ¸¸ ) E12 = ¨¨ ¸¸ ) E21 = ¨¨ ¸¸ ) E22 = ¨¨ ¸¸
© 0 0¹ © 0 0¹ © 1 0¹ © 0 1¹
♦ M = 1.E11 + 2.E12 + 3.E21 + 4.E22

§ 1 0· § 0 1· § 0 1· § 1 0·
(/ B1 = {I , J , K , L}1 I = ¨¨ ¸¸ ) J = ¨¨ ¸¸ ) K = ¨¨ ¸¸ ) L = ¨¨ ¸¸
© 0 1¹ © 1 0¹ © − 1 0¹ © 0 − 1¹
§1 0· §0 1· § 0 1· § 1 0 · §1 2·
♦ M = x1 .I + y1 .J + z1 .K + t1 .L ⇔ x1 .¨¨ ¸¸ + y1 .¨¨ ¸¸ + z1 .¨¨ ¸¸ + t1 .¨¨ ¸¸ = ¨¨ ¸¸
© 0 1 ¹ © 1 0 ¹ © − 1 0 ¹ © 0 − 1 ¹ © 3 4 ¹
§ x1 + t1 y1 + z1 · § 1 2 ·
♦ M = x1.I + y1 .J + z1 .K + t1 .L ⇔ ¨¨ ¸¸ = ¨¨ ¸¸
© y1 − z1 x1 − t1 ¹ © 3 4 ¹
5
° x1 = 2
(1) x1 + t1 = 1 (1) + (4) 2 x1 = 5 ° 5
°
(2) ° y1 + z1 = 2 °
(2) + (3) ° 2 y1 = 5 ° y1 =
° 2
♦ M = x1 .I + y1 .J + z1 .K + t1 .L ⇔ ® ⇔ ® ⇔®
(3) ° y1 − z1 = 3 (2) − (3) °2 z1 = −1 ° z = − 1
1
(4) °¯ x1 − t1 = 4 (1) − (4) °¯ 2t1 = −3 ° 2
° 3
°¯ t1 = − 2
5 5 1 3
♦ ! M = I + J − K − L
2 2 2 2

§1 1· §1 − 1· § 1 1· §1 1·
(/ B2 = {A, B, C , D}1 A = ¨¨ ¸¸ ) B = ¨¨ ¸¸ ) C = ¨¨ ¸¸ ) D = ¨¨ ¸¸
©1 1¹ ©1 1¹ © − 1 1¹ ©1 − 1¹
§1 1· §1 − 1· § 1 1· §1 1 · § 1 2 ·
♦ M = x2 . A + y 2 .B + z 2 .C + t 2 .D ⇔ x2 .¨¨ ¸¸ + y 2 .¨¨ ¸¸ + z 2 .¨¨ ¸¸ + t 2 .¨¨ ¸¸ = ¨¨ ¸¸
©1 1¹ ©1 1 ¹ © − 1 1¹ ©1 − 1¹ © 3 4 ¹
§ x2 + y 2 + z 2 + t 2 x2 − y 2 + z 2 + t 2 · § 1 2 ·
♦ M = x2 . A + y 2 .B + z 2 .C + t 2 .D ⇔ ¨¨ ¸¸ = ¨¨ ¸¸
© x 2 + y 2 − z 2 + t 2 x2 + y 2 + z 2 − t 2 ¹ © 3 4 ¹
1
° y = −
(1) x2 + y 2 + z 2 + t 2 = 1 (1) − (2) 2 y 2 = −1 2
2
° °
( 2) ° x 2 − y 2 + z 2 + t 2 = 2 (3) + (4) °°2 x2 + 2 y 2 =7 7
°x = − y2 = 4
♦ ⇔ ® ⇔ ® ⇔® 2 2
(3) ° x2 + y 2 − z 2 + t 2 = 3 (1) − (3) °2 z 2 = −2 ° z 2 = −1
(4) °¯ x2 + y 2 + z 2 − t 2 = 4 (1) − (4) °¯2t 2 = −3 ° 3
°t 2 = −
¯ 2
1 3
♦ ! M = 4. A − .B − C − .D
2 2



ͳʹ
1
"
f

2
E ) B1 B2 7 E ,*

"

PB1B2 M ( f / B1 , B1 )
M ( f / B1 , B1 ) = M ( f / B2 , B2 ) ,

"

♦ E
,
♦ B1 B2 7 E ,
♦ f
2 E ,
♦
PB1B2 M ( f / B1 , B1 ) 1 M ( f / B1 , B1 ) × PB1B2 = PB1B2 × M ( f / B1 , B1 )
♦ *
" M ( f / B1 , B1 ) = M ( f / B2 , B2 ) 1
o 1 M ( f / B2 , B2 ) = PB2 B1 × M ( f / B1 , B1 ) × PB1B2
o
M ( f / B1 , B1 ) × PB1B2 = PB1B2 × M ( f / B1 , B1 )
o ! M ( f / B2 , B2 ) = PB2 B1 × PB1B2 × M ( f / B1 , B1 )
o
PB2 B1 = (PB1B2 )
−1
o ! M ( f / B2 , B2 ) = M ( f / B1 , B1 )

ͳ͵
1
"
E

2 B = ( e1 , e2 ) E ,
f ( e1 ) = e1 + e2

2 f E
1 ®
¯ f ( e2 ) = e1 − e2
+/ !
M ( f / B, B ) ,
e' = e + e
-/
® 1 1 2 E ,
¯e'2 = e1 − e2
,*

" B' = ( e'1 , e'2 ) E ,
,!

B 3 B ' ( PBB' /,
,!

B ' 3 B ( PB ' B /,
,!

M ( f / B ' , B ' ) ,
,

" M ( f / B' , B' ) = PB ' B .M ( f / B, B ).PBB '

"
♦ E
2 B = ( e1 , e2 ) E ,
f ( e ) = e1 + e2
♦ f >
2 E
1 ® 1
¯ f ( e2 ) = e1 − e2



+/ M ( f / B , B ) ,

f (e1 ) = e1 + e2 §1 1 ·
♦ ® M ( f / B, B) = ¨¨ ¸¸
¯ f (e2 ) = e1 − e2 ©1 − 1¹

e'1 = e1 + e2
-/ ®
¯e'2 = e1 − e2
(/ B' = (e'1 , e'2 ) E 1

♦ ordre ( B ' ) = 2 = dim E 1 B ' E B '
,
?
♦ α1 .e'1 +α 2 .e' 2 = 0 E α1 = α 2 = 0 1
α1 .e'1 +α 2 .e'2 = 0 E α1 .(e1 + e2 ) + α 2 .(e1 + e2 ) = 0 E (α1 + α 2 ).e1 + (α1 − α 2 ).e2 = 0 E

B = ( e1 , e2 ) E
(α1 + α 2 ).e1 + (α1 − α 2 ).e2 = 0 E (α1 + α 2 ) = (α1 − α 2 ) = 0
α + α 2 = 0
! α1 .e'1 +α 2 .e'2 = 0 E (α 1 + α 2 ) = (α1 − α 2 ) = 0 ® 1 α1 = α 2 = 0
¯α1 − α 2 = 0
♦ B '

♦ ! B ' E ,

(/
B 3 B ' 1 PBB'

e' = e + e §1 1 ·
♦ ® 1 1 2 PBB ' = ¨¨ ¸¸
¯e' 2 = e1 − e2 ©1 − 1¹

(/
B ' 3 B 1 PB ' B

1 1 §1 1 ·
(1) e'1 = e1 + e2 (1) + (2) 2e1 = e'1 +e' 2 °e1 = 2 e'1 + 2 e' 2 ¨ ¸
♦ ® ® ® PB 'B =¨2 2 ¸
(2) ¯e' 2 = e1 − e2 (1) − (2) ¯2e2 = e'1 −e' 2 1 1
°e2 = e'1 − e' 2 ¨¨ 1 1
− ¸¸
¯ 2 2 ©2 2¹

( /
M ( f / B ' , B ' ) ,

f (e'1 ) = f (e1 + e2 ) = f (e1 ) + f (e2 ) = (e1 + e2 ) + (e1 − e2 ) = 2e1 = e'1 +e'2
♦ ®
¯ f (e' 2 ) = f (e1 − e2 ) = f (e1 ) − f (e2 ) = (e1 + e2 ) − (e1 − e2 ) = 2e2 = e'1 −e' 2
§1 1 ·
♦ ! M ( f / B' , B' ) = ¨¨ ¸¸
©1 − 1¹



(/ M ( f / B' , B' ) = PB 'B .M ( f / B, B).PBB '

§1 1 ·
¨ ¸
♦ PB ' B .M ( f / B, B ).PBB ' =¨2 2 ¸ × §¨1 1 ·¸ × §¨1 1 ·¸ = §¨1 1 ·¸ = M ( f / B ' , B ' )
¨1 1 ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
¨ − ¸¸ ©1 − 1¹ ©1 − 1¹ ©1 − 1¹
©2 2¹

"
M ( f / B ' , B ' ) = M ( f / B, B )
♦ PBB ' = M ( f / B, B) PB 'B = (PBB ' )
−1
M ( f / B' , B' ) = PB 'B .M ( f / B, B).PBB ' = (PBB ' ) × PBB ' × PBB ' = PBB ' = M ( f / B, B)
−1
♦
PBB' M ( f / B , B ) ( PBB ' = M ( f / B, B) /
M ( f / B ' , B ' ) = M ( f / B , B )

ͳͶ
1
"
E

3 B = {e1 , e2 , e3 } E ,

2 f E

3
§a b c·
¨ ¸
B = {e1 , e2 , e3 }
1 M ( f / B, B ) = ¨ b c a ¸
¨ c a b¸
© ¹

e'1 = e1 + e2 + e3 ) e' 2 = e2 e'3 = e3
+/

" B ' = {e'1 , e' 2 , e'3 } E ,
-/ !

PBB' PB ' B
0/ !

M ( f / B, B ' ) ) M ( f / B ' , B ) M ( f / B ' , B ' ) ,

"
§a b c·
¨ ¸
♦ B = {e1 , e2 , e3 } E 1 M ( f / B, B ) = ¨ b c a ¸
¨ c a b¸
© ¹
♦ B ' = {e'1 , e' 2 , e'3 }1 e'1 = e1 + e2 + e3 ) e' 2 = e2 e'3 = e3

+/
" B ' = {e'1 , e' 2 , e'3 } E ,
♦ B ' = {e'1 , e' 2 , e'3 }

3 dim E = 3 ,.

" B ' = {e'1 , e' 2 , e'3 }
E )

" B ' = {e'1 , e' 2 , e'3 }
,
♦ B ' = {e'1 , e' 2 , e'3 } 1 e'1 = e1 + e2 + e3 ) e' 2 = e2 e'3 = e3
♦ B ' = {e'1 , e' 2 , e' 3 }
1
α 1 .e'1 +α 2 .e' 2 +α 3 .e' 3 = 0 E
α 1 .(e1 + e 2 + e3 ) + α 2 .e 2 + α 3 .e3 = 0 E
α 1 .e1 + (α 1 + α 2 ).e 2 + (α 1 + α 3 ).e3 = 0 E


B = {e1 , e2 , e3 } E
α 1 = 0
°
! α 1 .e'1 +α 2 .e' 2 +α 3 .e' 3 = 0 E ®α 1 + α 2 = 0 α 1 = α 2 = α 3 = 0
°α + α = 0
¯ 1 3
B ' = {e'1 , e' 2 , e'3 }

,
♦ ! B ' = {e'1 , e' 2 , e'3 } IR3 ,

-/ !

PBB' PB ' B

(a) PBB' 1

e'1 = e1 + e 2 + e3 §1 0 0 ·
° ¨ ¸
♦ ®e' 2 = e 2 PBB ' = ¨1 1 0 ¸
°e' = e ¨1 0 1 ¸
¯ 3 3 © ¹

(b) PB ' B 1

e'1 = e1 + e 2 + e3 e1 = e'1 −e 2 − e3 e1 = e'1 −e' 2 −e' 3 § 1 0 0·
° ° ° ¨ ¸
♦ ®e' 2 = e 2 ®e 2 = e' 2 ®e 2 = e' 2 PB 'B = ¨ − 1 1 0¸
°e' = e °e = e' °e = e' ¨−1 0 1¸
¯ 3 3 ¯ 3 3 ¯ 3 3 © ¹

0/
M ( f / B, B ' ) ) M ( f / B ' , B ) M ( f / B ' , B ' ) ,

(a) M ( f / B, B ' ) 1 M ( f / B, B' ) = PBB .M ( f / B, B).PBB ' = M ( f / B, B).PBB '

§ a b c · §1 0 0· §a + b + c b c·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
♦ M ( f / B , B ' ) = ¨ b c a ¸ × ¨1 1 0¸ M ( f / B, B ' ) = ¨ a + b + c c a ¸
¨ c a b ¸ ¨1 0 1 ¸¹ ä + b + c a b¸
© ¹ © © ¹

(b) M ( f / B ' , B ) 1 M ( f / B' , B) = PB ' B .M ( f / B, B).PBB = PB ' B .M ( f / B, B)

§1 0 0· § a b c · § a b c ·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
♦ M ( f / B' , B) = ¨ − 1 1 0 ¸ × ¨ b c a ¸ M ( f / B' , B) = ¨ − a + b − b + c − c + a ¸
¨−1 0 1 ¸¹ ¨© c a b ¸¹ ¨− a + c − b + a − c + b¸
© © ¹



(c) M ( f / B ' , B ' ) 1 M ( f / B' , B' ) = PB ' B .M ( f / B, B).PBB '

♦ M ( f / B' , B' ) = PB ' B .M ( f / B, B' ) M ( f / B' , B' ) = M ( f / B' , B).PBB '
§a + b + c b c ·
¨ ¸
♦ ! M ( f / B' , B' ) = ¨ 0 − b + c − c + a¸
¨ 0 − b + a − c + b ¸¹
©

ͳͷ
1
"

IR3 " B = {e1 , e2 , e3 })

2 f IR3

( ai , bi , ci ∈ IR , 1 ≤ i ≤ 3 /1
∀( x, y, z ) ∈ IR 3 : f ( x, y , z ) = ( a1 x + a2 y + a3 z, b1 x + b2 y + b3 z, c1 x + c2 y + c3 z )
+/

M ( f / B, B ) ,
-/

e'1 = e3 ) e'2 = e1 e' 3 = e2
,!

M ( f / B ' , B ' )

) B ' = {e'1 , e' 2 , e'3 },
,

"1 M ( f / B' , B' ) = PB ' B .M ( f / B, B ).PBB '

"
♦ B = {e1 , e2 , e3 }" IR3 ,

♦ f ( x, y , z ) = ( a1 x + a 2 y + a 3 z , b1 x + b2 y + b3 z , c1 x + c 2 y + c 3 z ) ) ai , bi , ci ∈ IR , 1 ≤ i ≤ 3

§ a1 a 2 a 3 ·
¨ ¸
+/ M ( f / B, B ) 1 M ( f / B, B ) = ¨ b1 b2 b3 ¸
¨c c c3 ¸¹
© 1 2

-/ B ' = {e'1 , e' 2 , e'3 }1 e'1 = e3 ) e'2 = e1 e' 3 = e2

,
M ( f / B ' , B ' ) 1

f (e'1 ) = f (e3 ) = a 3 e1 + b3 e 2 + c 3 e3 = a 3 e' 2 +b3 e' 3 +c 3 e'1 § c3 c1 c2 ·
° ¨ ¸
♦ ® f (e' 2 ) = f (e1 ) = a1 e1 + b1 e 2 + c1e3 = a1 e' 2 +b1 e' 3 +c1 e'1 M ( f / B ' , B ' ) = ¨ a 3 a1 a2 ¸
° f ( e' ) = f ( e ) = a e + b e + c e = a e ' + b e ' + c e' ¨b b1 b2 ¸¹
¯ 3 2 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 2 2 3 2 1 © 3

, M ( f / B' , B' ) = PB ' B .M ( f / B, B ).PBB ' 1



e'1 = e3 §0 1 0· e'1 = e3 e1 = e' 2 §0 0 1·
° ¨ ¸ ° ° ¨ ¸
♦ ®e' 2 = e1 PBB ' = ¨0 0 1¸ ®e' 2 = e1 ®e 2 = e' 3 PB 'B = ¨ 1 0 0 ¸
°e' = e ¨1 0 0¸ °e' = e °e = e' ¨ 0 1 0¸
¯ 3 2 © ¹ ¯ 3 2 ¯ 3 1 © ¹

§ 0 0 1 · § a1 a2 a 3 · § 0 1 0 · § c3 c1 c2 ·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
♦ PB ' B .M ( f / B, B).PBB ' = ¨ 1 0 0 ¸ × ¨ b1 b2 b3 ¸ × ¨ 0 0 1 ¸ = ¨ a 3 a1 a 2 ¸ = M ( f / B' , B' )
¨0 1 0¸ ¨ c c2 c3 ¸¹ ¨© 1 0 0 ¸¹ ¨© b3 b1 b2 ¸¹
© ¹ © 1

ͳ͸
1
"

2 f IR3
1 f ( x, y, z ) = ( x − z , y − z )
+/ !
M ( f / B1 / B2 ) ) B1 B2 "
IR3 IR 2 ,
-/

e'1 = (1,0,−1) ) e'2 = (0,1,0) e'3 = (1,0,1) IR3 )

ε '1 = (1,1) ε '2 = (1,−1) IR 2 ,
,

" B '1 = ( e'1 , e'2 , e'3 ) B'2 = (ε '1 , ε '2 ) -
IR3 IR 2 ,
,!

M ( f / B'1 / B'2 )

,
,

"1 M ( f / B'1 , B'2 ) = PB ' 2 B2 .M ( f / B1 , B2 ).PB1 B '1

"
♦ f ( x, y, z ) = ( x − z , y − z )
♦ B1 " IR3 B2 " IR 2 ,

§ 1 0 − 1·
+/ M ( f / B1 / B2 ) 1 M ( f / B1 / B2 ) = ¨¨ ¸¸
© 0 1 − 1¹

e'1 = (1,0,−1)
° ε '1 = (1,1)
-/ ®e' 2 = (0,1,0) ® ,
°e' = (1,0,1) ¯ε '1 = (1, − 1)
¯ 3

a. B '1 = ( e'1 , e'2 , e'3 ) IR3 B'2 = (ε '1 , ε '2 ) IR 2 ,

(+/ B '1 = (e'1 , e' 2 , e' 3 ) IR3
♦ ordre( B '1 ) = 3 = dim IR 3 1 B '1
IR3 B '1
,
e'1 = (1,0,−1)
°
♦ B '1 = ( e'1 , e'2 , e'3 ) 1 ®e' 2 = (0,1,0)
°e' = (1,0,1)
¯ 3
♦ B '1 = ( e'1 , e'2 , e'3 )
1



α 1 .e'1 +α 2 .e' 2 +α 3 .e' 3 = (0,0,0)
α 1 .(1,0,−1) + α 2 .(0,1,0) + α 3 .(1,0,1) = (0,0,0)
α 1 + α 3 = 0 α 1 = −α 3
° °
®α 2 = 0 ®α 2 = 0 α1 = α 2 = α 3 = 0
°− α + α = 0 °α = α
¯ 1 3 ¯ 1 3
B '1 = (e'1 , e' 2 , e' 3 )

,
♦ ! B '1 = ( e'1 , e'2 , e'3 ) IR3 ,

(-/ B'2 = (ε '1 , ε '2 ) IR 2 ,
♦ ordre( B ' 2 ) = 2 = dim IR 2 1 B'2
IR 2 B'2
,
ε '1 = (1,1)
♦ B'2 = (ε '1 , ε '2 ) 1 ®
¯ε '1 = (1,−1)
♦ B'2 = (ε '1 , ε '2 )
1
α 1 .ε '1 +α 2 .ε ' 2 = (0,0)
α 1 .(1,1) + α 2 .(1,−1) = (0,0)
α 1 + α 2 = 0
® α1 = α 2 = 0
¯α 1 − α 2 = 0
B'2 = (ε '1 , ε '2 )

,
♦ ! B'2 = (ε '1 , ε '2 ) IR 2 ,

b.
M ( f / B'1 / B' 2 ) 1

e'1 = (1,0,−1)
° ε '1 = (1,1)
♦ f ( x, y, z ) = ( x − z , y − z ) ®e' 2 = (0,1,0) ®
°e' = (1,0,1) ¯ε '1 = (1,−1)
¯ 3
3 1
° f (e'1 ) = f (1,0,−1) = (2,1) = 2 ε '1 + 2 ε ' 2 §3 1 1·
°° 1 1 ¨ − ¸
♦ ® f (e' 2 ) = f (0,1,0) = (0,1) = ε '1 − ε ' 2 M ( f / B '1 / B ' 2 ) = ¨ 2 2 2¸
° 2 2 ¨1 1 1 ¸
¨ − ¸
° f (e' ) = f (1,0,1) = (0,−1) = − 1 ε ' + 1 ε ' ©2 2 2 ¹
¯°
3 1 2
2 2

c. M ( f / B'1 , B' 2 ) = PB '2 B2 .M ( f / B1 , B2 ).PB1B '1 1

e'1 = e1 − e3 § 1 0 1·
° ¨ ¸
♦ ®e' 2 = e 2 PB1B '1 = ¨ 0 1 0 ¸
°e' = e + e ¨ − 1 0 1¸
¯ 3 1 3 © ¹



1 1 §1 1 ·
ε '1 = ε 1 + ε 2 ε 1 = ε '1 + ε ' 2 ¨ ¸
♦ ® 2 2 PB '2 B2 = ¨ 2 2 ¸
¯ε '1 = ε 1 − ε 2 1
ε 2 = ε '1 − ε ' 2
1 ¨¨ 1 − 1 ¸¸
2 2 ©2 2¹

§1 1 ·
¨ ¸ § 1 0 − 1· §¨ 1 0 1 ·¸
♦ PB '2 B2 .M ( f / B1 , B 2 ).PB1 B '1 = ¨ 2 2 ¸ × ¨¨ ¸¸ × ¨ 0 1 0 ¸ = M ( f / B '1 , B ' 2 )
¨ 1 − 1 ¸ © 0 1 − 1¹ ¨ ¸
¨ ¸ © − 1 0 1¹
©2 2¹

ͳ͹
1
"

IR 4 " B = {e1 , e2 , e3 , e4 })

2 f

1 ∀( x , y , z , t ) ∈ IR 4 : f ( x, y , z , t ) = ( x − t , y − z , z + y , t + x )
+/ !
M ( f / B , B ) ,
-/ *

" f
2 IR 4 ,
0/

u1 = (1,0,0,1) ) u2 = (0,1,1,0) ) u3 = ( 0,−1,1,0) u4 = ( −1,0,0,1) ,
,!
"
" B ' = {u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 } IR 4 ,
,!

PBB ' PB ' B ,
;/

x = e1 + e 2 + e 3 + e 4 y = u1 + u 2 + u 3 + u 4 ,

x B '
y B ,

"
♦ ∀( x, y , z , t ) ∈ IR 4 : f ( x, y , z , t ) = ( x − t , y − z , z + y , t + x )
♦ B = {e1 , e2 , e3 , e4 }" IR 4

f (e1 ) = (1,0,0,1) § 1 0 0 − 1·
° f (e ) = (0,1,1,0) ¨ ¸
° ¨0 1 −1 0 ¸
+/ ® 2
M ( f / B, B ) = ¨ ¸
° f ( e ) = ( 0, − 1,1, 0) 0 1 1 0
3
¨ ¸
°¯ f (e 4 ) = (−1,0,0,1) ¨1 0 0 1 ¸
© ¹

-/ *

" f
2 IR 4 ,
♦ f % f % f
%,
♦ ! f % Ker ( f ) = {(0,0,0,0)} Im( f ) = IR 4 ,

1 f % Im( f ) = IR 4 dim(Im( f ) ) = 4
♦ Im f = f (e1 ), f (e 2 ), f (e 3 ), f (e 4 ) dim(Im( f ) ) = rg { f (e1 ), f (e 2 ), f (e 3 ), f (e 4 )}
♦ ! f % { f (e1 ), f (e 2 ), f (e3 ), f (e 4 )}
,



♦ α 1 . f (e1 ) + α 2 . f (e 2 ) + α 3 . f (e 3 ) + α 4 f (e 4 ) = (0,0,0,0)
α 1 .(1,0,0,1) + α 2 .(0,1,1,0) + α 3 .(0,−1,1,0) + α 4 .( −1,0,0,1) = (0,0,0,0)
α 1 − α 4 = 0 α 1 − α 4 = 0
°α − α = 0 °®
° 2 ° α +α4 = 0 α = α 4 = 0
® 3
®¯ 1 ® 1
°α 2 + α 3 = 0 °®α 2 − α 3 = 0 ¯α 2 = α 3 = 0
°¯α 1 + α 4 = 0 °¯¯α 2 + α 3 = 0
♦ { f (e1 ), f (e 2 ), f (e3 ), f (e 4 )}

) IR 4 ,
♦ ! f %

1 f % Ker ( f ) = {(0,0,0,0)}

♦ ( x, y , z , t ) ∈ Ker ( f ) ⇔ f ( x, y , z , t ) = (0,0,0,0) ⇔ ( x − t , y − z , z + y , t + x) = (0,0,0,0)
x − t = 0 x − t = 0
°y − z = 0 °®
° ° x+t =0 x = t = 0
♦ ( x, y, z , t ) ∈ Ker ( f ) ® ®¯ ®
° z + y = 0 °® y + z = 0 ¯ y = z = 0
°¯t + x = 0 °¯¯ y − z = 0
♦ ! Ker ( f ) = {(0,0,0,0)} ) f %

0/ u1 = (1,0,0,1) ) u2 = (0,1,1,0) ) u3 = ( 0,−1,1,0) u4 = ( −1,0,0,1) ,

, B ' = {u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 } IR 4 ,

♦ ordre( B ' ) = 4 = dim IR 4 1 B ′
IR 4 B ′
,
u1 = (1,0,0,1) = f (e1 )
°u = (0,1,1,0) = f (e )
° 2
{ f (e1 ), f (e 2 ), f (e 3 ), f (e 4 )} IR 4
2
♦ ®
u
° 3 = ( 0, − 1,1, 0) = f ( e 3 )
°¯u 4 = (−1,0,0,1) = f (e 4 )
♦ ! B ' = {u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 } IR 4 ,

,
PBB' PB ' B 1

u1 = (1,0,0,1) = f (e1 ) §1 0 − 1·
0
°u = (0,1,1,0) = f (e ) ¨ ¸
° 2 ¨0 1 −1 0 ¸
♦ ®
2
PBB ' = M ( f / B, B ′) PBB ' =¨
° u = ( 0, − 1,1, 0) = f ( e ) 0 1 1 0¸
3 3
¨ ¸
°¯u 4 = (−1,0,0,1) = f (e 4 ) ¨1 0 0 1 ¸¹
©



1 1
° e1 = u1 − u 4
u1 = e1 + e 4 2e1 = u1 − u 4 2 2
1
u = e1 + e 4 ° 1 1
°u = e + e °® °® °e 4 = u1 + u 4
° ° u = −e1 + e 4 ° 2e = u 1 + u 4 °
♦ ® 2 2 3
®¯ 4 ®¯ 4 ® 2 2
°®u 2 = e 2 + e3 °®2e 2 = u 2 − u 3
1 1
°u 3 = −e 2 + e3 °e 2 = u2 − u3
°¯u 4 = −e1 + e 4 °¯¯u 3 = −e 2 + e3 °¯¯2e3 = u 2 + u 3 ° 2 2
° 1 1
°¯e3 = u 2 + u3
2 2
§1 1 ·
¨ 0 0 ¸
¨2 2 ¸
¨0 1 1 0 ¸
¨ 2 2 ¸
♦ ! PB 'B = ¨ ¸
1 1
¨ 0 − 0 ¸
¨ 2 2 ¸
¨¨ 1 0 0 − 1 ¸¸
©2 2¹

;/ x = e1 + e 2 + e 3 + e 4 y = u1 + u 2 + u 3 + u 4 ,

(+/
x B ' 1 x = x1′ .u1 + x ′2 .u 2 + x 3′ .u 3 + x ′4 .u 4
§1·
¨ ¸
¨1¸
♦ x = e1 + e 2 + e 3 + e 4 1 X = ¨ ¸
1
¨ ¸
¨1¸
© ¹
§ x1′ ·
¨ ¸
¨ x′ ¸
♦ x = x1′ .u1 + x ′2 .u 2 + x 3′ .u 3 + x ′4 .u 4 1 X′=¨ 2 ¸
x′
¨ 3¸
¨ x′ ¸
© 4¹

§1 1 ·
¨ 0 0 ¸
¨2 2 ¸ 1
§ · §1· § x1′ · § 1 ·
¨0 1 1
0 ¸ ¨ 1¸ ¨ 1 ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
¸×¨ ¸ =¨ ¸ ¨ x′ ¸ ¨ 1 ¸
♦ X ′ = PB ' B . X = ¨¨ 2 2
¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
X′=¨ 2 ¸=¨ ¸
1 1 x′ 0
¨0 − 0 ¸ ¨ 1¸ ¨ 0 ¸ ¨ 3¸ ¨ ¸
2 2 ¨ ¸ ¨0¸ ¨ x′ ¸ ¨ 0 ¸
¨ ¸ 1 © 4¹ © ¹
¨¨ 1 1¸ © ¹ © ¹
0 0 − ¸
©2 2¹
♦ ! x = u1 + u 2



(-/
y B 1 y = y1 .e1 + y 2 .e 2 + y 3 .e 3 + y 4 .e 4
§ y1 ·
¨ ¸
ÿ ¸
♦ y = y1.e1 + y2 .e2 + y3 .e3 + y4 .e4 1 Y =¨ 2¸
y
¨ 3¸
ÿ ¸
© 4¹
§1 ·
¨ ¸
¨1 ¸
♦ y = u1 + u 2 + u 3 + u 4 1 Y′=¨ ¸
1
¨ ¸
¨1 ¸
© ¹
§ 1 0 0 − 1· § 1· § 0 · § y1 · § 0 ·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
¨ 0 1 − 1 0 ¸ ¨ 1¸ ¨ 0 ¸ ¨ y2 ¸ ¨ 0 ¸
♦ Y = PBB ' .Y ′ = ¨ × = Y = ¨ y ¸ = ¨ 2¸
0 1 1 0 ¸ ¨ 1¸ ¨ 2 ¸
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ 3¸ ¨ ¸
¨1 0 0 ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ y ¸ ¨ 2¸
© 1 ¹ © 1¹ © 2 ¹ © 4¹ © ¹
♦ ! y = 2e3 + 2e 4

ͳͺ
1
"

IR 4 " B = {e1 , e2 , e3 , e4 })

2 f g 1
∀( x, y, z, t ) ∈ IR 4 : f (( x, y, z, t )) = ( x, x + y, x + y + z, x + y + z + t )

g (( x, y, z, t )) = ( x + y + z + t , y + z + t, z + t , t )

+/ !

M ( f / B , B ) M ( g / B , B ) ,
-/
M ( g $ f / B , B ) M ( f $ g / B, B ) ,
0/
u1 = (0,0,0,1) ) u2 = (0,0,1,1) ) u3 = (0,1,1,1) u4 = (1,1,1,1) ,
,*

" B ' = {u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 } IR 4 ,
,!

M ( f / B ' , B ' ) M ( g / B ' , B ' ) ,
,
M ( g $ f / B ' , B ' ) M ( f $ g / B ' , B ' ) ,
;/

M ( f $ g / B, B ) M ( f $ g / B ' , B ' ) ,

"
f ( x, y , z , t ) = ( x, x + y , x + y + z , x + y + z + t ) ) g ( x, y, z , t ) = ( x + y + z + t , y + z + t , z + t , t )

+/ M ( f / B , B ) M ( g / B , B ) 1

f (e1 ) = (1,1,1,1) §1 0 0 0 ·
° f (e ) = (0,1,1,1) ¨ ¸
° ¨1 1 0 0 ¸
♦ ®
2
M ( f / B, B ) = ¨
° f (e3 ) = (0,0,1,1) 1 1 1 0¸
¨ ¸
°¯ f (e 4 ) = (0,0,0,1) ¨1 1 1 1 ¸
© ¹


g (e1 ) = (1,0,0,0) §1 1 1 1·
° g (e ) = (1,1,0,0) ¨ ¸
° 2 ¨0 1 1 1¸
♦ ® M ( g / B, B ) = ¨
° g (e3 ) = (1,1,1,0) 0 0 1 1¸
¨ ¸
°¯ g (e 4 ) = (1,1,1,1) ¨ 0 0 1¸¹
©0

-/ M ( g $ f / B , B ) M ( f $ g / B, B ) 1
§4 3 2 1·
¨ ¸
¨3 3 2 1¸
♦ M ( g $ f / B , B ) = M ( g / B, B ) × M ( f / B , B ) 1 M ( g $ f / B, B ) = ¨
2 2 2 1¸
¨ ¸
¨1 1 1 1¸¹
©

§1 1 1 1·
¨ ¸
¨1 2 2 2¸
♦ M ( f $ g / B , B ) = M ( f / B, B ) × M ( g / B , B ) 1 M ( f $ g / B, B ) = ¨
1 2 3 3¸
¨ ¸
¨1 2 3 4 ¸¹
©

0/ u1 = (0,0,0,1) ) u2 = (0,0,1,1) ) u3 = (0,1,1,1) u4 = (1,1,1,1)

, B ' = {u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 } IR 4 1
♦ ordre( B ' ) = 4 = dim IR 4 1 B ′
IR 4 B ′
,
♦ α 1 .u1 + α 2 .u 2 + α 3 .u 3 + α 4 u 4 = (0,0,0,0)
α 1 .(0,0,0,1) + α 2 .(0,0,1,1) + α 3 .(0,1,1,1) + α 4 .(1,1,1,1) = (0,0,0,0)
α 4 = 0 α 4 = 0
°α + α = 0 °α = −α
° °
® 3 4
® 3 4
α1 = α 2 = α 3 = α 4 = 0
° α 2 + α 3 + α 4 = 0 ° α 2 = −α 3 − α 4
°¯α 1 + α 2 + α 3 + α 4 = 0 °¯α 1 = −α 2 − α 3 − α 4
♦ B ' = {u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 }

) B ' = {u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 } IR 4 ,

, M ( f / B ' , B ' ) M ( g / B ' , B ' ) ,
f (u1 ) = (0,0,0,1) f (u1 ) = u1 §1 1 1 1·
° f (u ) = (0,0,1,2) ° f (u ) = u + u ¨ ¸
° ° ¨0 1 1 1¸
♦ ®
2
®
2 1 2
M ( f / B ′, B ′) = ¨
° f (u 3 ) = (0,1,2,3) ° f (u 3 ) = u1 + u 2 + u 3 0 0 1 1¸
¨ ¸
°¯ f (u 4 ) = (1,2,3,4) °¯ f (u 4 ) = u1 + u 2 + u 3 + u 4 ¨0 0 0 1¸¹
©

g (u1 ) = (1,1,1,1) g (u1 ) = u 4 § 0 − 1 − 1 − 1·
° g (u ) = (2,2,2,1) ° g (u ) = 2u − u ¨ ¸
° ° ¨ 0 0 − 1 − 1¸
♦ ®
2
® 2 4 1
M ( g / B ′, B ′) = ¨
° g (u 3 ) = (3,3,2,1) ° g (u 3 ) = 3u 4 − u 2 − u1 0 0 0 − 1¸
¨ ¸
°¯ g (u 4 ) = (4,3,2,1) °¯ g (u 4 ) = 4u 4 − u 3 − u 2 − u1 ¨1 2 3 4 ¸¹
©


, M ( g $ f / B ' , B ' ) M ( f $ g / B ' , B ' ) ,
§ 0 −1 − 2 − 3 ·
¨ ¸
¨ 0 0 −1 − 2 ¸
♦ M ( g $ f / B ′, B ′) = M ( g / B ′, B ′) × M ( f / B ′, B ′) 1 M ( g $ f / B ′, B ′) = ¨
0 0 0 −1 ¸
¨ ¸
¨1 3 6 10 ¸¹
©

§1 1 1 1·
¨ ¸
¨1 2 2 2¸
♦ M ( f $ g / B ′, B ′) = M ( f / B ′, B ′) × M ( g / B ′, B ′) 1 M ( f $ g / B ′, B ′) = ¨
1 2 3 3¸
¨ ¸
¨1 2 3 4 ¸¹
©

;/ M ( f $ g / B' , B' ) = M ( f $ g / B, B)


[S3, Module M10, Matière : Mathématiques II] Chapitre 4 : déterminant d’une matrice carrée
CHAPITRE 4 : DÉTERMINANT D’UNE MATRICE CARRÉE





ͳ

1
1 2 3 0 a b a+b b b
+/ 2 3 1 ) a 0 c , (a, b, c ∈ IR) ) b a+b b , (a, b ∈ IR)
3 1 2 b c 0 b b a+b
1 2 3 4 α 1 1 1
1 2 3 0 1 α 1 1
-/ ) , (α ∈ IR)
1 2 0 0 1 1 α 1
1 0 0 0 1 1 1 α

ʹ
a2 ab ac a −b−c 2a 2a
*

"1 ab b 2
bc = 0 2b b−c−a 2b = ( a + b + c )3
2
ac bc c 2c 2c c−a −b

͵
1 m 1 1 m 1
&
"1 (+/ m 1 m − 1 = 0 (-/ m 1 m − 1 = 0
1 −1 2 1 1 2
3− m 0 1 1− m 1 −1
(0/ 2 1− m 1 = 0 (;/ 1 1− m 1 = 0
−1 1 1− m −1 1 1− m

Ͷ

1
§ − 3 2 − 1· § 2 1 − 1· § − 3 2 − 1·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
A=¨ 2 0 1¸ B = ¨ −1 0 1¸ D =¨ 2 0 1¸
¨ −1 2 1¸¹ ¨ 0 2 1¸¹ ¨ −1 2 1¸¹
© © ©

ͷ
!

1

§ 2 2 − 4· §2 3 − 4· § 2 −4 6·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
1) ¨ 1 − 1 1¸ ¨ 1 −1 1¸ ¨ −1 2 − 3¸
¨ 5 10 − 13¸ ¨ 5 10 − 13¸ ¨ 3 −6 9 ¸¹
© ¹ © ¹ ©
§ 2 − 3 4 − 1· § 1 2 3 4·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
¨1 2 −1 2¸ ¨ 0 1 2 2¸
-/ ¨
3 − 1 2 − 3¸ ¨ − 2 −1 0 − 2¸
¨¨ ¸ ¨¨ ¸
© 3 −1 1 − 1¸¹ ©− 2 0 2 0 ¸¹

§ 0 1 3· § 4 −1 2·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
¨ 3 0 1¸ ¨ − 3 2 1¸
0/ ¨
2 4 3¸ ¨ 2 1 4¸
¨ ¸ ¨¨ ¸¸
¨ 2 4 1¸ − 4 5 6
© ¹ © ¹
͸
!

)

m 1
§ m 1 m· § m 0 m· § m 0 m·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
¨ 0 m 1¸ ¨ 0 m 1¸ ¨ 0 m 0¸
¨ 0 0 m¸ ¨ 0 0 m¸ ¨ 0 0 m¸
© ¹ © ¹ © ¹
͹
!

A B )

m ∈ IR 1
§1 m 1 · §m 1 1 ·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
A = ¨ m 1 m − 1¸ B =¨ 1 m 1¸
¨ 1 −1 2 ¸¹ ¨ 1 1 m¸
© © ¹

ͺ
§m −1 2 2 ·
¨ ¸
! M (3) )

A = ¨ 2 m +1 1 ¸ ) m ∈ IR
¨ −2 − 3 m − 3¸¹
©
+/ ?7
"
2 f
3" B
IR3 A = M ( f / B / B ) 6
-/ !
)

m )
f ,
0/
e'1 = e2 − e3 ) e'2 = e1 − 2e2 + 2e3 e'3 = 4e1 − 3e2 + e3
(/

" B ' = {e'1 , e' 2 , e'3 } IR3 ,
(/!

PBB′ PB′B ,
(/

C = M ( f / B ' / B ' ) ,
( /&

C = M ( f / B ' / B ' )

,
(/&

f

m ,
( /&

det A ,



ͳ
1
"

1
1 2 3 0 a b a+b b b
+/ 2 3 1 ) a 0 c , (a, b, c ∈ IR) ) b a+b b , (a, b ∈ IR)
3 1 2 b c 0 b b a+b
1 2 3 4 α 1 1 1
1 2 3 0 1 α 1 1
-/ ) , (α ∈ IR)
1 2 0 0 1 1 α 1
1 0 0 0 1 1 1 α

"
+/
1 2 3
♦ 2 3 1 = −18 1
3 1 2
1 2 3 6 6 6 6 0 0
1 −1
ª 2 3 1 L1 → L1 + L2 + L3 2 3 1 C2 → C2 − C1 , C3 → C3 − C1 2 1 − 1 = 6. = −18
− 2 −1
3 1 2 3 1 2 3 − 2 −1
0 a b
o a 0 c = 2abc 1
b c 0
0 a b
a c a 0
ª a 0 c suivant la ligne L1 = −a. + b. = abc + abc = 2abc
b 0 b c
b c 0

a+b b b
o b a+b b = ab.(a + 3b) 1
b b a+b
a+b b b a + 3b a + 3b a + 3b 1 1 1
ª b a+b b L1 → L1 + L2 + L3 a a+b b = (a + 3b). a a + b b
b b a+b b b a+b b b a+b

1 1 1 1 0 0
b b−a
ª a a+b b C 2 → C 2 − C1 , C3 → C3 − C1 a b b − a = = ab
0 a
b b a+b b 0 a



-/
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 0
o = 24 1
1 2 0 0
1 0 0 0

1 2 3 4
2 3 4
1 2 3 0 3 4
ª suivant la ligneL4 (−1). 2 3 0 suivant la ligneL3 (−1).(2). = (−2).(−12) = 24
1 2 0 0 3 0
2 0 0
1 0 0 0

α 1 1 1
1 α 1 1
o = (3 + α )(α − 1) 3 1
1 1 α 1
1 1 1 α

α 1 1 1 3+α 3+α 3+α 3+α 1 1 1 1
1 α 1 1 1 α 1 1 1 α 1 1
ª L1 → L1 + L2 + L3 + L4 = (3 + α ).
1 1 α 1 1 1 α 1 1 1 α 1
1 1 1 α 1 1 1 α 1 1 1 α

1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0
α −1 0 0
1 α 1 1 1 α −1 0 0
ª Ci → Ci − C1 , i = 2,3,4 suivant L1 0 α −1 0 = (α − 1) 3
1 1 α 1 1 0 α −1 0
0 0 α −1
1 1 1 α 1 0 0 α −1

ʹ
1
"
a2 ab ac a −b−c 2a 2a
*

"1 ab b 2
bc = 0 2b b−c−a 2b = ( a + b + c )3
2
ac bc c 2c 2c c−a −b

"

a2 ab ac a2 ab ac 1 1 1
2 2 2 2 2
♦ ab b bc = 0 1 ab b bc = a .b .c .1 1 1 = 0
ac bc c 2 ac bc c2 1 1 1



a −b−c 2a 2a
♦ 2b b−c−a 2b = (a + b + c) 3
2c 2c c −a −b

a −b−c 2a 2a a+b+c a+b+c a+b+c
ª 2b b−c−a 2b L1 → L1 + L2 + L3 2b b−c−a 2b
2c 2c c − a −b 2c 2c c −a−b

a−b−c 2a 2a 1 1 1
ª ! 2b b−c−a 2b = (a + b + c). 2b b − c − a 2b
2c 2c c −a −b 2c 2c c −a −b

1 1 1 1 0 0
ª
2b b − c − a 2b C 2 → C2 − C1 , C3 → C3 − C1 2b − (a + b + c) 0
2c 2c c −a−b 2c 0 − (a + b + c)

1 0 0
− (a + b + c ) 0
ª 2b − (a + b + c) 0 suivant L1 = (a + b + c) 2
0 − (a + b + c)
2c 0 − (a + b + c)

a −b−c 2a 2a
ª ! 2b b−c−a 2b = (a + b + c) 3
2c 2c c −a −b

͵
1
"
1 m 1 1 m 1
&
"1 (+/ m 1 m − 1 = 0 (-/ m 1 m − 1 = 0
1 −1 2 1 1 2
3− m 0 1 1− m 1 −1
(0/ 2 1− m 1 = 0 (;/ 1 1− m 1 = 0
−1 1 1− m −1 1 1− m



"
1 m 1
(1) m 1 m − 1 = 0
1 −1 2
1 m 1
♦ m 1 m − 1 1
1 −1 2
1 m 1 1+ m m 1 1 m 1
ª m 1 m − 1 C1 → C1 + C2 1 + m 1 m − 1 = (1 + m). 1 1 m − 1
1 −1 2 0 −1 2 0 −1 2
1 m 1 1 m 1
1− m m − 2
ª 1 1 m − 1 L2 → L2 − L1 0 1 − m m − 2 suivant C1 = 2(1 − m) + (m − 2) = −m
−1 2
0 −1 2 0 −1 2
1 m 1
ª ! m 1 m − 1 = −m(m + 1)
1 −1 2

1 m 1 1 m 1
♦ & m 1 m − 1 = 0 1 m 1 m − 1 = 0 ⇔ −m(m + 1) = 0 ⇔ m = 0 ou m = −1
1 −1 2 1 −1 2
1 m 1
♦ ! m 1 m − 1 = 0 ⇔ m = 0 ou m = −1
1 −1 2

1 m 1
(2) m 1 m − 1 = 0
1 1 2
1 m 1
♦ m 1 m − 1 1
1 1 2
1 m 1 1− m m 1 1 m 1
ª m 1 m − 1 C1 → C1 − C 2 1 − m 1 m − 1 = (1 − m). 1 1 m − 1
1 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2
1 m 1 1 m 1
1− m m − 2
ª 1 1 m − 1 L2 → L2 − L1 0 1 − m m − 2 suivant C1 = 2(1 − m) − (m − 2) = 4 − 3m
1 2
0 1 2 0 1 2


1 m 1
ª ! m 1 m − 1 = (4 − 3m)(1 − m)
1 −1 2

1 m 1
♦ & m 1 m − 1 = 0 1
1 1 2
1 m 1
4
ª m 1 m − 1 = 0 ⇔ (4 − 3m)(1 − m) = 0 ⇔ m = ou m = 1
3
1 1 2
1 m 1
4
ª ! m 1 m − 1 = 0 ⇔ m = ou m = 1
3
1 1 2

3− m 0 1
(3) 2 1− m 1 = 0
−1 1 1− m

3− m 0 1
♦ 2 1− m 1 1
−1 1 1− m
3− m 0 1 3− m 0 1 1 0 1
ª 2 1− m 1 C1 → C1 + C2 3 − m 1 − m 1 = (3 − m). 1 1 − m 1
−1 1 1− m 0 1 1− m 0 1 1− m
1 0 1 1 0 1
1− m 0
ª 1 1− m 1 L2 → L2 − L1 0 1 − m 0 suivant C1 = (1 − m) 2
1 1− m
0 1 1− m 0 1 1− m
3− m 0 1
ª ! 2 1− m 1 = (3 − m)(1 − m) 2
−1 1 1− m

3− m 0 1
♦ & 2 1− m 1 = 0 1
−1 1 1− m



3− m 0 1
ª 2 1− m 1 = 0 ⇔ (3 − m)(1 − m) 2 = 0 ⇔ m = 3 ou m = 1
−1 1 1− m
3− m 0 1
ª ! 2 1− m 1 = 0 ⇔ m = 3 ou m = 1
−1 1 1− m

1− m 1 −1
(4) 1 1− m 1 =0
−1 1 1− m
1− m 1 −1
♦ 1 1− m 1 1
−1 1 1− m
1− m 1 −1 2−m 1 −1 1 1 −1
ª 1 1− m 1 C1 → C1 + C 2 2 − m 1 − m 1 = (2 − m). 1 1 − m 1
−1 1 1− m 0 1 1− m 0 1 1− m
1 1 −1 1 1 −1
−m 2
ª 1 1− m 1 L2 → L2 − L1 0 − m 2 suivant C1 = −m(1 − m) − 2 = m 2 − m − 2
1 1− m
0 1 1− m 0 1 1− m
1− m 1 −1
ª ! 1 1− m 1 = (2 − m).(m 2 − m − 2)
−1 1 1− m

1− m 1 −1
♦ & 1 1− m 1 = 0 1
−1 1 1− m
1− m 1 −1
ª 1 1− m 1 = 0 ⇔ (2 − m).(m 2 − m − 2) = 0 1
−1 1 1− m
1− 3
°m1 = 2 = −1
ª & m 2 − m − 2 1 ∆m = 9 ®
1+ 3
°m 2 = =2
¯ 2
1− m 1 −1
ª ! 1 1− m 1 = 0 ⇔ m = −1 ou m = 2
−1 1 1− m



Ͷ
1
"

1
§ − 3 2 − 1· § 2 1 − 1· § − 3 2 − 1·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
A=¨ 2 0 1¸ B = ¨ −1 0 1¸ D =¨ 2 0 1¸
¨ −1 2 1¸¹ ¨ 0 2 1¸¹ ¨ −1 2 1¸¹
© © ©

"
§ − 3 2 − 1·
¨ ¸
A=¨ 2 0 1¸
¨ −1 2 1¸¹
©

− 3 2 −1 − 3 2 −1
2 1
♦ det A = 2 0 1 L3 → L3 − L1 2 0 1 suivant C 2 (−2). = 4 1 det A = 4
2 2
−1 2 1 2 0 2

§ 0 1 2 0·
2 1
¨ + − ¸+
¨ 2 1 −1 2 ¸
−1 1
¨ ¸
¨ ¸ §− 2 −3 4 ·
¨ 2 −1 − 3 −1 −3 2 ¸ ¨ ¸
♦ C (A) = ¨ − + − ¸ = ¨− 4 − 4 4 ¸
¨ 2 1 −1 1 −1 2 ¸ ¨
© 2 1 − 4 ¸¹
¨ ¸
¨ ¸
¨+ 2 −1 − 3 −1 −3 2 ¸
¨ 0 − +
© 1 2 1 2 0 ¸¹

§− 2 − 4 2 ·
t
¨ ¸
♦ C ( A) = ¨ − 3 − 4 1 ¸
¨ 4 4 − 4 ¸¹
©

§1 1·
¨ 1 − ¸
§− 2 − 4 2 · ¨2 2¸
−1 ¨ ¸ 3 1
♦ A = C ( A) A = .¨ − 3 − 4 1 ¸ 1
−1 t −1
A =¨
−1
1 − ¸
4 ¨ ¨4 4¸
© 4 4 − 4 ¸¹ ¨ ¸
¨ −1 −1 1 ¸
© ¹



§ 2 1 − 1·
¨ ¸
B = ¨ −1 0 1¸
¨ 0 2 1¸¹
©

2 1 −1 2 1 1
1 1
♦ det B = − 1 0 1 C3 → C3 + C1 − 1 0 0 suivant L2 = −1 1 det B = −1
2 1
0 2 1 0 2 1
§ 0 1 −1 1 −1 0 ·
¨ + − + ¸
¨ 2 1 0 1 0 2¸
¨ ¸
¨ ¸ § − 2 1 − 2·
¨ 1 −1 2 −1 2 1 ¸ ¨ ¸
♦ C (B) = ¨ − + − ¸ = ¨ − 3 2 − 4¸
¨ 2 1 0 1 0 2 ¸ ¨
1 − 1 1 ¸¹
¨ ¸ ©
¨ ¸
¨+ 1 −1 2 −1 2 1¸
¨ 0 − +
© 1 −1 1 − 1 0 ¸¹
§− 2 −3 1 ·
t
¨ ¸
♦ C (B) = ¨ 1 2 − 1¸
¨− 2 − 4 1 ¸
© ¹
§− 2 − 4 2 · § 2 4 − 2·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
♦ B = C ( B) B = (−1).¨ − 3 − 4 1 ¸ 1
−1 t −1 −1
B =¨ 3 4 −1 ¸
¨ 4 4 − 4 ¸¹ ¨− 4 − 4 4 ¸
© © ¹

§ − 3 2 − 1·
¨ ¸
D=¨ 2 0 1¸
¨ −1 2 1¸¹
©

− 3 2 −1 − 3 2 −1
2 1
♦ det D = 2 0 1 L3 → L3 − L1 2 0 1 suivant C 2 (−2). = −4 1 det D = −4
2 2
−1 2 1 2 0 2
§ 0 1 2 0·
2 1
¨ + − ¸ +
¨ 2 1 −1 2 ¸
−1 1
¨ ¸
¨ ¸ §− 2 − 3 4 ·
¨ 2 −1 − 3 −1 −3 2 ¸ ¨ ¸
♦ C (D) = ¨ − + − ¸ = ¨− 4 − 4 4 ¸
¨ 2 1 −1 1 −1 2 ¸ ¨
2 1 − 4 ¸¹
¨ ¸ ©
¨ ¸
¨+ 2 −1 − 3 −1 −3 2 ¸
¨ 0 − +
© 1 2 1 2 0 ¸¹


§− 2 − 4 2 ·
t
¨ ¸
♦ C (D) = ¨ − 3 − 4 1 ¸
¨ 4 4 − 4 ¸¹
©
§1 1·
¨ 1 − ¸
§− 2 − 4 2 · ¨2 2¸
1¨ ¸ 3 1
♦ D −1 = t C ( D) D −1 = − .¨ − 3 − 4 1 ¸ 1 D −1 = ¨ 1 − ¸
4¨ ¨4 4¸
© 4 4 − 4 ¸¹ ¨ ¸
¨ −1 −1 1 ¸
© ¹

ͷ
1
"
!

1

§ 2 2 − 4· §2 3 − 4· § 2 −4 6·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
+/ ¨ 1 − 1 1¸ ¨ 1 −1 1¸ ¨ −1 2 − 3¸
¨ 5 10 − 13¸ ¨ 5 10 − 13¸ ¨ 3 −6 9 ¸¹
© ¹ © ¹ ©

§ 2 − 3 4 − 1· § 1 2 3 4·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
¨1 2 −1 2¸ ¨ 0 1 2 2¸
-/ ¨
3 − 1 2 − 3¸ ¨ − 2 −1 0 − 2¸
¨¨ ¸ ¨¨ ¸
© 3 −1 1 − 1¸¹ ©− 2 0 2 0 ¸¹

§ 0 1 3· § 4 −1 2·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
¨ 3 0 1¸ ¨ − 3 2 1¸
0/ ¨
2 4 3¸ ¨ 2 1 4¸
¨ ¸ ¨¨ ¸
¨ 2 4 1¸
© ¹ ©− 4 5 6 ¸¹

"
§ 2 2 − 4· §2 3 − 4· § 2 −4 6·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
+/ ¨ 1 −1 1¸ ¨ 1 −1 1¸ ¨ −1 2 − 3¸
¨ 5 10 − 13¸ ¨ 5 10 − 13¸ ¨ 3 −6 9 ¸¹
© ¹ © ¹ ©

§ 2 2 − 4·
¨ ¸
(/

A = ¨ 1 − 1 1¸ 1 A ∈ M (3) 1 ≤ rg ( A) ≤ 3
¨ 5 10 − 13 ¸
© ¹



?
♦ rg ( A) = 3 1 rg ( A) = 3 ⇔ det A ≠ 0

2 2 −4 2 4 −6
4 −6
ª det A = 1 − 1 1 C2 → C2 + C1 , C3 → C3 − C1 1 0 0 suivant L 2 (−1). = −18
15 − 18
5 10 − 13 5 15 − 18

ª ! rg ( A) = 3 ,

§2 3 − 4·
¨ ¸
(/

A = ¨ 1 − 1 1¸ 1 A ∈ M (3) 1 ≤ rg ( A) ≤ 3
¨ 5 10 − 13 ¸
© ¹
?
♦ rg ( A) = 3 1 rg ( A) = 3 ⇔ det A ≠ 0
2 3 −4 2 5 −6
5 −6
ª det A = 1 − 1 1 C 2 → C 2 + C1 , C3 → C3 − C1 1 0 0 suivant L 2 (−1). =0
15 − 18
5 10 − 13 5 15 − 18
ª ! rg ( A) < 3 ,

?
♦ rg ( A) = 2 1 rg ( A) = 2 ⇔ on peut extraire de A un déterminan t non nul d' ordre 2.
2 3
ª ≠ 0
>

2 7
A ,
1 −1
ª ! rg ( A) = 2 ,

§ 2 −4 6·
¨ ¸
(/

A = ¨ − 1 2 − 3 ¸ 1 A ∈ M (3) 1 ≤ rg ( A) ≤ 3
¨ 3 −6 ¸
9¹
©
.
*

22"
?
♦ rg ( A) = 3 1 rg ( A) = 3 ⇔ det A ≠ 0
ª det A = 0
L3 = L1 − L2
ª ! rg ( A) < 3 ,

?
2 −4 2 6 −4 6 2 − 4 2 6 − 4 6 −1 2 −1 − 3 2 −3
ª = = = = = = = = = 0
−1 2 −1 − 3 2 −3 3 −6 3 9 −6 9 3 −6 3 9 −6 9
ª 5
>

2 7
A ) rg ( A) < 2 ,
♦ ! rg ( A) = 1



3.

22" rg ( A) = rg ( S ) ) S 1

A
♦ rg (S ) S = {u, v, w} 1 u = ( 2,−1,3) ) v = (−4,2,−6) w = (6,−3,9)
♦ 1 ≤ rg ( S ) ≤ 3
?
♦ rg ( S ) = 3 1 rg ( S ) = 3 ⇔ S est libre
ª S
w = u − v
ª ! rg ( S ) < 3
?
♦ rg ( S ) = 2 1 rg ( S ) = 2 ⇔ on peut extraire de S un système libre d' ordre 2.
ª 5 >

2 7
S 1
o {u, v}
v = −2u
o {u , w}
w = 3u
o {v, w}
2 w + 3v = (0,0,0)
ª ! rg ( S ) < 2 ) rg ( S ) = 1

♦ ! rg ( A) = 1

§ 2 − 3 4 − 1· § 1 2 3 4·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
¨1 2 −1 2¸ ¨ 0 1 2 2¸
-/ ¨ ¨ − 2 −1 0 − 2¸
3 −1 2 − 3¸
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
¨ 3 − 1 1 − 1¸ ¨− 2 0 2 0 ¸¹
© ¹ ©

§ 2 − 3 4 − 1·
¨ ¸
¨1 2 −1 2¸
(/

A = ¨ 1 A ∈ M ( 4) 1 ≤ rg ( A) ≤ 4
3 −1 2 − 3¸
¨ ¸
¨ 3 − 1 1 − 1¸
© ¹
?
♦ rg ( A) = 4 1 rg ( A) = 4 ⇔ det A ≠ 0
2 − 3 4 −1 2 −3 1 2 2 −3 1 2
1 2 −1 2 1 2 1 0 1 2 1 0
ª det A = C3 → C 3 + C 2 , C 4 → C 4 − C 2 L3 → L3 + L1
3 −1 2 − 3 3 −1 1 − 2 5 −4 2 0
3 −1 1 −1 3 −1 0 0 3 −1 0 0
2 −3 1 2
1 2 1 1 2 1
1 2 1 0 3 8
ª suivant C 4 (−2). 5 − 4 2 L2 → L2 − 2 L1 (−2). 3 − 8 0 suivant C3 (−2). = −42
5 −4 2 0 3 −1
3 −1 0 3 −1 0
3 −1 0 0
ª det A = −42
ª ! rg ( A) = 4 ,



§ 1 2 3 4·
¨ ¸
¨ 0 1 2 2¸
(/

A = ¨ 1 A ∈ M ( 4) 1 ≤ rg ( A) ≤ 4
− 2 −1 0 − 2 ¸
¨ ¸
¨− 2 0 2 0 ¸¹
©
*.

22"
?
♦ rg ( A) = 4 1 rg ( A) = 4 ⇔ det A ≠ 0
ª det A = 0
L4 = L2 + L3
ª ! rg ( A) < 4
?
L3 = 3L2 − 2 L1
°L = 4 L − 2L
° 4 2 1
ª 5
>

3 7
A
®
° 3 L4 = 2 L 1 + 4 L 3
°¯ L4 = L2 + L3
ª ! rg ( A) < 3 ,

?
1 2
ª ≠ 0
>

2 7
A ,
0 1
ª ! rg ( A) = 2 ,

3.

22" rg ( A) = rg ( S ) ) S 1

A
♦ rg ( S ) ) S = {u , v, w, t}1 u = (1,2,3,4) ) v = (0,1,2,2) ) w = ( −2,−1,0,−2) t = ( −2,0,2,0)
?
ª S
t = v − w
ª ! rg ( S ) < 4
?
ª 5 >

3 7
S 1
o {u, v, w}
w = 3v − 2u
o {u, v, t}
t = 4v − 2u
o {u , w, t}
2u + 4w − 3t = (0,0,0,0)
o {v, w, t}
t = v + w
ª ! rg ( S ) < 3
?
ª {u, v}
>

2 7
S ) rg ( S ) = 2
ª ! rg ( A) = 2



§0 1 3· § 4 −1 2 ·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
¨3 0 1¸ ¨ − 3 2 1¸
0/ ¨
2 4 3¸ ¨ 2 1 4¸
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
¨2 4 1¸¹ ¨ − 4 5 6¸
© © ¹

§0 1 3·
¨ ¸
¨3 0 1¸
(/

A = ¨ 1 A ∈ M (4,3) 1 ≤ rg ( A) ≤ 3(min(3,4))
2 4 3¸
¨ ¸
¨2 4 1¸¹
©

?
0 1 3
1 3 1 3
ª 3 0 1 suivant C1 (−3). + (2). = 29
4 3 0 1
2 4 3
0 1 3
ª 3 0 1 ≠ 0
>

3 7
A ,
2 4 3
ª ! rg ( A) = 3 ,

§ 4 −1 2 ·
¨ ¸
¨ − 3 2 1¸
(/

A = ¨ 1 A ∈ M (4,3) 1 ≤ rg ( A) ≤ 3(min(3,4))
2 1 4¸
¨ ¸
¨ − 4 5 6¸
© ¹

.
*

22"

?
ª 5
>

3 7
A
C3 = C1 + 2C 2 1
4 −1 2 4 −1 2 4 −1 2 − 3 2 1
ª −3 2 1 = −3 2 1 = 2 1 4 = 2 1 4 = 0
2 1 4 −4 5 6 −4 5 6 −4 5 6
ª ! rg ( A) < 3 ,
?
4 −1
ª ≠ 0
>

2 7
A ,
−3 2
ª ! rg ( A) = 2 ,



3.

22" rg ( A) = rg ( S ) ) S 1

A

♦ rg (S ) ) S = {u , v, w, t}1 u = (4,−3,2,−4) ) v = (−1,2,1,5) w = ( 2,1,4,6)
?
ª S
w = u + 2v
ª ! rg ( S ) < 4

?
ª {u, v}
>

2 7
S ) rg ( S ) = 2
ª ! rg ( A) = 2

͸
1
"
!

)

m 1
§ m 1 m· § m 0 m· § m 0 m·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
¨ 0 m 1¸ ¨ 0 m 1¸ ¨ 0 m 0¸
¨ 0 0 m¸ ¨ 0 0 m¸ ¨ 0 0 m¸
© ¹ © ¹ © ¹

"
§m 1 m·
¨ ¸
(/

A = ¨ 0 m 1¸ 1 A ∈ M (3) 1 ≤ rg ( A) ≤ 3
¨ 0 0 m¸
© ¹
?
♦ rg ( A) = 3 1 rg ( A) = 3 ⇔ det A ≠ 0
m 1 m
ª det A = 0 m 1 = m 3 1 det A ≠ 0 ⇔ m ≠ 0
0 0 m
♦ ! m ≠ 0
rg ( A) = 3 ,
♦ m = 0
rg ( A) < 3 1
§ 0 1 0·
¨ ¸ 1 0
ª A = ¨ 0 0 1¸ 1
>

2 7
A ) rg ( A) = 2
¨ 0 0 0¸ 0 1
© ¹
♦ ! m = 0
rg ( A) = 2 ,



§m 0 m·
¨ ¸
(/

A = ¨ 0 m 1¸ 1 A ∈ M (3) 1 ≤ rg ( A) ≤ 3
¨ 0 0 m¸
© ¹
?
♦ rg ( A) = 3 1 rg ( A) = 3 ⇔ det A ≠ 0
m 0 m
ª det A = 0 m 1 = m 3 1 det A ≠ 0 ⇔ m ≠ 0
0 0 m
♦ ! m ≠ 0
rg ( A) = 3 ,
♦ m = 0
rg ( A) < 3 1
§0 0 0·
¨ ¸
ª A = ¨ 0 0 1¸ 1
>

2 7
A ) rg ( A) < 2
¨0 0 0¸
© ¹
♦ ! m = 0
rg ( A) = 1 )
A ≠ 0 3
§m 0 m·
¨ ¸
(/

A = ¨ 0 m 0 ¸ 1 A ∈ M (3) 1 ≤ rg ( A) ≤ 3
¨ 0 0 m¸
© ¹
?
♦ rg ( A) = 3 1 rg ( A) = 3 ⇔ det A ≠ 0
m 0 m
ª det A = 0 m 1 = m 3 1 det A ≠ 0 ⇔ m ≠ 0
0 0 m
♦ ! m ≠ 0
rg ( A) = 3 ,
§0 0 0·
¨ ¸
♦ m = 0
A = ¨ 0 0 0 ¸
¨0 0 0¸
© ¹
♦ ! m = 0
rg ( A) = 0

͹
1
"
!

A B )

m ∈ IR 1
§1 m 1 · §m 1 1 ·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
A = ¨ m 1 m − 1¸ B =¨ 1 m 1¸
¨ 1 −1 2 ¸¹ ¨ 1 1 m¸
© © ¹



"
§1 m 1 ·
¨ ¸
(/

A = ¨ m 1 m − 1¸ 1 A ∈ M (3) 1 ≤ rg ( A) ≤ 3
¨ 1 −1 2 ¸¹
©
?
♦ rg ( A) = 3 1 rg ( A) = 3 ⇔ det A ≠ 0
1 m 1 1 m 1
1 − m2 −1
ª det A = m 1 m − 1 L2 → L2 − mL1 , L3 → L3 − L1 0 1 − m 2 − 1 suivant C1
− (1 + m) 1
1 −1 2 0 −1 − m 1
ª ! det A = (1 − m 2 ) − (1 + m) = (1 + m)(1 − m) − (1 + m) = (1 + m)(1 − m − 1) = −m(1 + m)
ª ! det A = −m(1 + m) 1 det A ≠ 0 ⇔ m ≠ 0 et m ≠ −1

♦ ! m ≠ 0 et m ≠ −1
rg ( A) = 3 ,

♦ m = 0
rg ( A) < 3 1
§1 0 1 ·
¨ ¸ 1 0
ª A = ¨ 0 1 − 1¸ 1
>

2 7
A
¨ 1 −1 2 ¸ 0 1
© ¹
ª ! rg ( A) = 2
♦ ! m = 0
rg ( A) = 2 ,

♦ m = −1
rg ( A) < 3 1
§ 1 −1 1 ·
¨ ¸ −1 1
ª A = ¨ − 1 1 − 2 ¸ 1
>

2 7
A ,
¨ 1 −1 2 ¸ 1 − 2
© ¹
ª ! rg ( A) = 2
♦ ! m = −1
rg ( A) = 2 ,

§m 1 1 ·
¨ ¸
(/

B = ¨ 1 m 1 ¸ 1 B ∈ M (3) 1 ≤ rg ( B ) ≤ 3
¨ 1 1 m¸
© ¹
?
♦ rg ( B ) = 3 1 rg ( B ) = 3 ⇔ det B ≠ 0
m 1 1 2+m 2+m 2+m 1 1 1
ª det B = 1 m 1 L1 → L1 + L2 + L3 1 m 1 = (2 + m).1 m 1
1 1 m 1 1 m 1 1 m



1 1 1 1 0 0
m −1 0
ª 1 m 1 C 2 → C2 − C1 , C3 → C3 − C1 1 m − 1 0 suivant L1 = (m − 1) 2
0 m −1
1 1 m 1 0 m −1
ª ! det B = ( 2 + m)(m − 1) 2 1 det B ≠ 0 ⇔ m ≠ −2 et m ≠ 1

♦ ! m ≠ −2 et m ≠ 1
rg ( B ) = 3 ,

♦ m = −2
rg ( B ) < 3 1
§− 2 1 1 ·
¨ ¸ −2 1
ª B = ¨ 1 − 2 1 ¸ 1
>

2 7
B
¨ 1 1 − 2
© 1 − 2 ¸¹
ª ! rg ( B ) = 2
♦ ! m = −2
rg ( B ) = 2 ,

♦ m = 1
rg ( B ) < 3 1
§1 1 1·
¨ ¸ −2 1
ª B = ¨1 1 1¸ 1
>

2 7
B ( /
¨1 1 1¸ 1 −2
© ¹
ª ! rg ( B ) < 2
♦ ! m = 1
rg ( B ) = 1 )
B ≠ 0 3

ͺ
1
"
§m −1 2 2 ·
¨ ¸
! M (3) )

A = ¨ 2 m +1 1 ¸ ) m ∈ IR
¨ −2 − 3 m − 3¸¹
©
+/ ?7
"
2 f
3"
B IR3 A = M ( f / B / B ) 6
-/ !
)

m )
f ,
0/
e'1 = e2 − e3 ) e'2 = e1 − 2e2 + 2e3 e'3 = 4e1 − 3e2 + e3
(/

" B ' = {e'1 , e' 2 , e'3 } IR3 ,
(/!

PBB′ PB′B ,
(/

C = M ( f / B ' / B ' ) ,
( /&

C = M ( f / B ' / B ' )

,
(/&

f

m ,
( /&

det A ,



"

§ m −1 2 2 ·
¨ ¸
+/ A = ¨ 2 m +1 1 ¸ 1 A = M ( f / B / B ) ) B " IR3 ,
¨ −2 − 3 m − 3 ¸¹
©
§ x1 ·
¨ ¸
♦ ∀x = ( x1 , x2 , x3 ) ∈ IR 3 1 x = x1e1 + x 2 e2 + x3 e3 , X = ¨ x 2 ¸
¨x ¸
© 3¹
§ y1 ·
¨ ¸
♦ ∀x = ( x1 , x2 , x3 ) ∈ IR 3 1 f ( x ) = y1e1 + y 2 e2 + y 3 e3 , Y = ¨ y 2 ¸
ÿ ¸
© 3¹
♦ $
Y = M ( f / B / B ) × X 1
§ m −1 2 2 · § x1 · § (m − 1) x1 + 2 x2 + 2 x3 ·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
ª A× X = ¨ 2 m +1 1 ¸ × ¨ x2 ¸ = ¨ 2 x1 + (m + 1) x 2 + x3 ¸
¨ −2 − 3 m − 3 ¸¹ ¨© x3 ¸¹ ¨© − 2 x1 − 3x 2 + (m − 3) x3 ¸¹
©
§ y1 · § (m − 1) x1 + 2 x2 + 2 x3 · y1 = (m − 1) x1 + 2 x2 + 2 x3
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ °
♦ ! Y = ¨ y 2 ¸ = ¨ 2 x1 + (m + 1) x2 + x3 ¸ ® y 2 = 2 x1 + (m + 1) x2 + x3
¨ y ¸ ¨ − 2 x − 3 x + (m − 3) x ¸ ° y = −2 x − 3 x + (m − 3) x
© 3¹ © 1 2 3¹ ¯ 3 1 2 3
♦ >7
" f
3 B

1
∀x = ( x1 , x2 , x3 ) ∈ IR 3 1 f ( x ) = (( m − 1) x1 + 2 x 2 + 2 x3 ,2 x1 + ( m + 1) x 2 + x3 ,−2 x1 − 3 x 2 + ( m − 3) x3 )

-/
f )

m 1

rg ( f ) = rg (M ( f / B, B) )
°
♦ .
rg ( f ) )

1 ®rg ( f ) = dim(Im f )
°rg ( f ) = 3 − dim(Kerf )
¯

*.

" rg ( f ) = rg (M ( f / B, B) )

§ m −1 2 2 ·
¨ ¸
♦

A = ¨ 2 m +1 1 ¸ 1 A ∈ M (3) 1 ≤ rg ( A) ≤ 3
¨ −2 − 3 m − 3 ¸¹
©
?
♦ rg ( B ) = 3 1 rg ( A) = 3 ⇔ det A ≠ 0
m −1 2 2 m −1 2 2 m −1 2 2
ª det A = 2 m +1 1 L3 → L3 + L2 2 m +1 1 = (m − 2). 2 m +1 1
−2 −3 m−3 0 m−2 m−2 0 1 1



m −1 2 2 m −1 0 2
m −1 0
ª 2 m + 1 1 C 2 → C 2 − C3 2 m 1 suivant L 3 = m(m − 1)
2 m
0 1 1 0 0 1
ª ! det A = m(m − 2)(m − 1) 1 det A ≠ 0 ⇔ m ≠ 0 et m ≠ 1 et m ≠ 2

♦ ! m ≠ 0 et m ≠ 1 et m ≠ 2
rg ( A) = 3 ,

♦ m = 0
rg ( A) < 3 1
§ −1 2 2 ·
¨ ¸ −1 2
ª A=¨ 2 1 1 ¸ 1
>

2 7
A
¨ − 2 − 3 − 3¸ 2 1
© ¹
ª ! rg ( A) = 2
♦ ! m = 0
rg ( A) = 2 ,

♦ m = 1
rg ( A) < 3 1
§ 0 2 2 ·
¨ ¸ 0 2
ª A=¨ 2 2 1 ¸ 1
>

2 7
A
¨ − 2 − 3 − 2¸ 2 2
© ¹
ª ! rg ( A) = 2
♦ ! m = 1
rg ( A) = 2 ,

♦ m = 2
rg ( A) < 3 1
§ 1 2 2·
¨ ¸ 1 2
ª A=¨ 2 3 1 ¸ 1
>

2 7
A
¨ − 2 − 3 − 1¸ 2 3
© ¹
ª ! rg ( A) = 2
♦ ! m = 2
rg ( A) = 2 ,

3.

" rg ( f ) = dim(Im f )

♦ f ( x, y, z ) = ((m − 1) x + 2 y + 2 z,2 x + (m + 1) y + z,−2 x − 3 y + (m − 3) z )
♦ " {e1 , e2 , e3 } IR3
f 1
e1 = (1,0,0) f (e1 ) = (m − 1,2,−2)
° °
®e2 = (0,1,0) ® f (e2 ) = (2, m + 1,−3)
°e = (0,0,1) ° f (e ) = (2,1, m − 3)
¯ 3 ¯ 3



♦ !
Im( f )
f
m ∈ IR ,
u1 = (m − 1,2,−2)
°
ª Im f =< f ( e1 ), f ( e2 ), f ( e3 ) >=< u1 , u2 , u3 > 1 ®u 2 = (2, m + 1,−3)
°u = (2,1, m − 3)
¯ 3
ª ! dim(Im f ) = rg ( S ) ) S = {u1 , u2 , u3 }

ª rg (S ) 1 1 ≤ rg ( S ) ≤ 3
♦ rg ( S ) = 3 S = {u1 , u2 , u3 }
,
α 1 .u1 + α 2 .u 2 + α 3 .u 3 = (0,0,0)
(1) (m − 1)α 1 + 2α 2 + 2α 3 = 0 (1) (m − 1)α1 + 2α 2 + 2α 3 = 0
° °
(2) ®2α 1 + (m + 1)α 2 + α 3 = 0 (2) ®2α1 + (m + 1)α 2 + α 3 = 0
(3) °¯− 2α 1 − 3α 2 + (m − 3)α 3 = 0 (3) + (2) °¯(m − 2)(α 2 + α 3 ) = 0

1 m ≠ 2 1
o α 1 .u1 + α 2 .u 2 + α 3 .u 3 = (0,0,0)
(m − 1)α1 + 2α 2 + 2α 3 = 0 (m − 1)α1 = 0 (m − 1)α1 = 0
° ° °
o ®2α1 + (m + 1)α 2 + α 3 = 0 ®2α1 + mα 2 = 0 ®mα 2 = −2α1
°α + α = 0 °α = −α °α = −α
¯ 2 3 ¯ 3 2 ¯ 3 2

o 1 m ≠ 1 ( m ≠ 2 /
α 1 = 0
°
• α 1 .u1 + α 2 .u 2 + α 3 .u 3 = (0,0,0) ®mα 2 = −2α1
°α = −α
¯ 3 2
• m ≠ 0 ( m ≠ 2 m ≠ 1 /

α 1 .u1 + α 2 .u 2 + α 3 .u 3 = (0,0,0) α 1 = α 2 = α 3 = 0
S = {u1 , u2 , u3 }

rg ( S ) = 3 rg ( f ) = 3
u1 = (−1,2,−2)
°
• m = 0
u 2 = u 3 1 m = 0 ®u 2 = (2,1,−3)
°u = (2,1,−3)
¯ 3
S = {u1 , u2 , u3 }
, {u1 ,u 2 }
rg ( S ) = 2
rg ( f ) = 2
u1 = (0,2,−2)
°
o
1 m = 1 1 m = 1 ®u 2 = (2,2,−3)
°u = (2,1,−2)
¯ 3
α 1 ∈ IR
°
• α 1 .u1 + α 2 .u 2 + α 3 .u3 = (0,0,0) ®α 2 = −2α1
°α = −α = 2α
¯ 3 2 1
• ! u1 + 2u 2 − 2u 3 = (0,0,0) ) (α 1 = 1 α 2 = 2, α 3 = −2 )
• S = {u1 , u2 , u3 }
, {u1 ,u 2 }
rg ( S ) = 2
rg ( f ) = 2


u1 = (1,2,−2)
°
1 m = 2 1 m = 2 ®u 2 = (2,3,−3)
°u = (2,1,−1)
¯ 3
α 1 + 2α 2 + 2α 3 = 0
° α + 2α 2 + 2α 3 = 0
o α 1 .u1 + α 2 .u 2 + α 3 .u3 = (0,0,0) ®2α 1 + 3α 2 + α 3 = 0 ® 1
°− 2α − 3α − α = 0 ¯ 2α 1 + 3α 2 + α 3 = 0
¯ 1 2 3
(1) α 1 + 2α 2 + 2α 3 = 0 (1) α 1 + 2α 2 + 2α 3 = 0 α = 4α 3
o ® ® ® 1 ,α 3 ∈ IR
(2) ¯2α 1 + 3α 2 + α 3 = 0 (2) − 2(1) ¯− α 2 − 3α 3 = 0 ¯α 2 = −3α 3
o ! 4u1 − 3u 2 + u3 = (0,0,0) ) (α 3 = 1 α 2 = −3, α 1 = 4 )
o S = {u1 , u2 , u3 }
, {u1 ,u 2 }
rg ( S ) = 2
rg ( f ) = 2

).

" rg ( f ) = 3 − dim(ker f )

♦ f ( x, y, z ) = ((m − 1) x + 2 y + 2 z,2 x + (m + 1) y + z,−2 x − 3 y + (m − 3) z )

Ker ( f ) = {( x, y , z ) ∈ IR 3 / f ( x, y , z ) = (0,0,0)}

ª ( x, y , z ) ∈ Ker ( f ) ((m − 1) x + 2 y + 2 z,2 x + (m + 1) y + z,−2 x − 3 y + (m − 3) z ) = (0,0,0)
(1) (m − 1) x + 2 y + 2 z = 0 (1) (m − 1) x + 2 y + 2 z = 0
° °
ª ( x, y , z ) ∈ Ker ( f ) (2) ®2 x + (m + 1) y + z = 0 (2) ®2 x + (m + 1) y + z = 0
(3) °¯− 2 x − 3 y + (m − 3) z = 0 (3) + (2) °¯(m − 2)( y + z ) = 0
1 m ≠ 2 1
(m − 1) x + 2 y + 2 z = 0 (m − 1) x = 0 (m − 1) x = 0
° ° °
o ( x, y, z ) ∈ Ker ( f ) ⇔ ®2 x + (m + 1) y + z = 0 ⇔ ®2 x + my = 0 ⇔ ®my = −2 x
°y + z = 0 °z = − y °z = − y
¯ ¯ ¯

o 1 m ≠ 1 ( m ≠ 2 /
x = 0
°
• ( x, y, z ) ∈ Ker ( f ) ⇔ ®my = −2 x
°z = − y
¯
x = 0
°
• m ≠ 0 ( m ≠ 2 m ≠ 1 /
( x, y, z ) ∈ Ker ( f ) ⇔ ®my = −2 x ⇔ x = y = z = 0
°z = − y
¯
!1 Ker ( f ) = {(0,0,0)} ) dim(Ker( f ) ) = 0
x = 0
°
• m = 0
( x, y, z ) ∈ Ker ( f ) ⇔ ® y ∈ IR ⇔ ( x, y, z ) = (0, y,− y ), y ∈ IR 1
°z = − y
¯
!1 Ker ( f ) =< (0,1,−1) > ) dim(Ker ( f ) ) = 1



o 1 m = 1 1
x ∈ IR
°
• ( x, y, z ) ∈ Ker ( f ) ⇔ ® y = −2 x ⇔ ( x, y, z ) = ( x,−2 x,2 x)
°z = − y = 2x
¯
!1 Ker ( f ) =< (1,−2,2) > ) dim(Ker ( f ) ) = 1

1 m = 2 1
(1) x + 2 y + 2 z = 0 z ∈ IR
° x = −2 y − 2 z °
o ( x, y, z ) ∈ Ker ( f ) ⇔ (2) ®2 x + 3 y + z = 0 ⇔ ® ⇔ ®x = 4z
(3) °¯− 2 x − 3 y − z = 0 ¯2(−2 y − 2 z ) + 3 y + z = 0 ° y = −3z
¯
o !1 Ker ( f ) =< (4,−3,1) > ) dim(Ker ( f ) ) = 1
"
m ≠ 0 et m ≠ 1 et m ≠ 2
rg ( f ) = 3 m = 0 ou m = 1 ou m = 2
rg ( f ) = 2

0/ e'1 = e2 − e3 ) e'2 = e1 − 2e2 + 2e3 e'3 = 4e1 − 3e2 + e3

(/

" B ' = {e'1 , e' 2 , e'3 } IR3 1
♦ B ' = {e'1 , e' 2 , e'3 }

3 dim IR 3 = 3 ,.

" B ' = {e'1 , e' 2 , e'3 }
IR3 )

" B ' = {e'1 , e' 2 , e'3 }
,
ª B ' = {e'1 , e' 2 , e'3 } 1 e'1 = e2 − e3 ) e'2 = e1 − 2e2 + 2e3 e'3 = 4e1 − 3e2 + e3
ª *
" B ' = {e'1 , e' 2 , e'3 } IR3 1 B ' = {e'1 , e' 2 , e'3 }
6
α 1 .e1′ + α 2 .e2′ + α 3 e3′ = (0,0,0)
α 1 .(e2 − e3 ) + α 2 .(e1 − 2e2 + 2e3 ) + α 3 .( 4e1 − 3e2 + e3 ) = (0,0,0)
(α 2 + 4α 3 ).e1 + (α 1 − 2α 2 − 3α 3 ).e2 + ( −α 1 + 2α 2 + α 3 ).e3 = (0,0,0)
(1) α 1 + 4α 3 = 0 (1) α1 = −4α 3
° °
(2) ®α 1 − 2α 2 − 3α 3 = 0 (2) + (3) ®− 2α 3 = 0 α1 = α 2 = α 3 = 0
(3) °¯− α1 + 2α 2 + α 3 = 0 (3) °¯2α1 = α 1 − α 3
B ' = {e'1 , e' 2 , e'3 }

,
ª ! B ' = {e'1 , e' 2 , e'3 } IR3 ,
§0 1 4 ·
¨ ¸
) B ' = {e'1 , e' 2 , e'3 } IR det M ( B' / B) ≠ 0 1 M ( B' / B) = ¨ 1 − 2 − 3 ¸
3
¨ −1 2 1 ¸¹
©
0 1 4 0 1 4
0 1
ª det(M ( B' / B) = 1 − 2 − 3 L3 → L3 + L2 1 − 2 − 3 suivant L3 = (−2). = 2
1 −2
−1 2 1 0 0 −2
ª ! B ' = {e'1 , e' 2 , e'3 } IR3 ,



(/
PBB′ PB′B 1
§0 1 4 ·
¨ ¸
♦ *
PBB′ 1 PBB′ = M ( B' / B) ! PBB′ = ¨ 1 − 2 − 3¸
¨ −1 2 1 ¸¹
©
♦ *
PB′B 1

ª
PB′B 1 PB 'B = M ( B / B' )
e1′ = e2 − e3 e2 = e1′ + e3 e2 = e1′ + e3
° ° °
®e2′ = e1 − 2e2 + 2e3 ®e2′ = e1 − 2(e1′ + e3 ) + 2e3 ®e2′ + 2e1′ = e1
°e′ = 4e − 3e + e °e′ = 4e − 3(e′ + e ) + e °e′ + 3e′ = 4e − 2e
¯ 3 1 2 3 ¯ 3 1 1 3 3 ¯ 3 1 1 3

′ + §¨ e1′ + 2e2′ − e3′ ·¸
5 1
2 = ′ + = ′ + ° e = e
e e1 e 3 ° 2
e e 1 e3
2 1
©2 2 ¹
° ° °
®e2′ + 2e1′ = e1 ®e2′ + 2e1′ = e1 ®e2′ + 2e1′ = e1
°2e = 4(e′ + 2e′ ) − (e′ + 3e′ ) ° 5 1 ° 5 1
¯ 3 2 1 3 1
°¯e3 = 2 e1′ + 2e2′ − 2 e3′ °e3 = 2 e1′ + 2e2′ − 2 e3′
¯

e1 = e2 − e3
′ °e1 = 2e1′ + e′2
° °° 7 1
! ®e′2 = e1 − 2e2 + 2e3 ®e2 = e1′ + 2e′2 − e3′
°e′ = 4e − 3e + e ° 2 2
¯ 3 1 2 3 5
°e3 = e1′ + 2e′2 − e3′ 1
¯° 2 2
§ 7 5 ·
¨2 ¸
¨ 2 2 ¸
ª ! PB′B = ¨ 1 2 2 ¸
¨ ¸
¨ 1 1¸
¨0 − − ¸
© 2 2¹

ª PB′B

PBB′ 1 PB′B = (PBB′ )
−1

§0 1 4 ·
¨ ¸
PBB′ = ¨ 1 − 2 − 3 ¸ 1 PBB′ = M ( B' / B) det PBB′ = 2
¨ −1 2 1 ¸¹
©

§ −2 −3 1 −3 1 −2·
¨+ − + ¸
¨ 2 1 −1 1 −1 2 ¸
¨ §4 2 0 ·
1 4 0 4 0 1 ¸ ¨ ¸
C ( PBB′ ) = ¨ − + − ¸ = ¨ 7 4 − 1¸
¨ 2 1 −1 1 −1 2 ¸ ¨
5 4 − 1¸¹
¨ 1 4 0 4 0 1 ¸ ©
¨¨ + − + ¸
© −2 −3 1 −3 1 − 2 ¸¹


§4 7 5 ·
t
¨ ¸
C ( PBB′ ) = ¨ 2 4 4 ¸
¨ 0 − 1 − 1¸
© ¹
§4 7 5 ·
1¨ ¸
(PBB′ ) −1
= C ( PBB′ ) (PBB′ )
t −1
= .¨ 2 4 4 ¸
2¨ ¸
© 0 − 1 − 1¹
§ 7 5 ·
¨2 ¸
¨ 2 2 ¸
ª ! PB′B = ¨1 2 2 ¸
¨ ¸
¨ 1 1¸
¨0 − − ¸
© 2 2¹

(/
C = M ( f / B ' / B ' ) 1

♦ C = M ( f / B' / B' ) = PB′B × M ( f / B / B) × PBB′ 1
§ 7 5 ·
¨2 ¸
¨ 2 2 ¸ § m −1 2 2 · §0 1 4 ·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
ª C = M ( f / B ' / B' ) = ¨ 1 2 2 ¸×¨ 2 m +1 1 ¸ × ¨ 1 − 2 − 3¸
¨ ¸ ¨
¨ 1 1¸ © −2 − 3 m − 3 ¸¹ ¨© − 1 2 1 ¸¹
¨0 − − ¸
© 2 2¹
§m 0 0 ·
¨ ¸
♦ ! C = M ( f / B ' / B ' ) = ¨ 0 m − 1 0 ¸
¨0 0 m − 2 ¸¹
©

( /
C = M ( f / B ' / B ' ) 1

e1′ = e2 − e3 f (e1′ ) = f (e2 − e3 ) = f (e2 ) − f (e3 )
° °
♦ ®e2′ = e1 − 2e2 + 2e3 ® f (e2′ ) = f (e1 − 2e2 + 2e3 ) = f (e1 ) − 2 f (e2 ) + 2 f (e3 )
°e′ = 4e − 3e + e ° f (e′ ) = f (4e − 3e + e ) = 4 f (e ) − 3 f (e ) + f (e )
¯ 3 1 2 3 ¯ 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
f (e1 ) = (m − 1)e1 + 2e2 + 2e3

°
♦
® f (e2 ) = 2e1 + (m + 1)e2 + e3
° f (e ) = −2e − 3e + (m − 3)e
¯ 3 1 2 3
f (e1′ ) = (2e1 + (m + 1)e2 + e3 ) − (− 2e1 − 3e2 + (m − 3)e3 )

°
♦ ! ® f (e2′ ) = ((m − 1)e1 + 2e2 + 2e3 ) − 2(2e1 + (m + 1)e2 + e3 ) + 2(− 2e1 − 3e2 + (m − 3)e3 )
° f (e′ ) = 4((m − 1)e + 2e + 2e ) − 3(2e + (m + 1)e + e ) + (− 2e − 3e + (m − 3)e )
¯ 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3



f (e1′ ) = me2 − me3 = m(e2 − e3 )
°
♦ ! ® f (e2′ ) = (m − 1)e1 − 2(m − 1)e2 + 2(m − 1)e3 = (m − 1)(e1 − 2e2 + 2e3 )
° f (e′ ) = 4(m − 2)e − 3(m − 2)e + (m − 2)e = (m − 2)(4e − 3e + e )
¯ 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
f (e1′ ) = me1′ §m 0 0 ·
° ¨ ¸
♦ ! ® f (e2′ ) = (m − 1)e2′ 1 C = M ( f / B' / B' ) = ¨ 0 m − 1 0 ¸
° f (e′ ) = (m − 2)e′ ¨0 0 m − 2 ¸¹
¯ 3 3 ©

(/
f

m ,

♦ rg ( f ) = rgC 1 det C = m(m − 1)(m − 2)
m ≠ 0 et m ≠ 1 et m ≠ 2
rg ( f ) = 3
1 det C ≠ 0 ) rgC = 3
§0 0 0 ·
¨ ¸
ª m = 0
rg ( f ) = 2
1 C = ¨ 0 −1 0 ¸
¨ 0 0 − 2¸
© ¹
det C ≠ 0
−1 0

>

2 7
C
0 −2
§1 0 0 ·
¨ ¸
ª m = 1
rg ( f ) = 2
1 C = ¨0 0 0 ¸
¨ 0 0 − 1¸
© ¹
det C ≠ 0
1 0

>

2 7
C
0 −1
§ 2 0 0·
¨ ¸
ª m = 2
rg ( f ) = 2
1 C = ¨ 0 1 0¸
¨ 0 0 0¸
© ¹
det C ≠ 0
2 0

>

2 7
C
0 1
"
m ≠ 0 et m ≠ 1 et m ≠ 2
rg ( f ) = 3 m = 0 ou m = 1 ou m = 2
rg ( f ) = 2

( / det A

♦ C = PB′B × A × PBB′ A = PBB′ × C × PB′B det A = det PBB′ × det C × det PB′B
♦ ! det A = det C
det PBB′ × det PB′B = 1 ) PB′B = (PBB′ )
−1
♦ ! det A = m(m − 1)(m − 2)

[S3, Module M10, Matière : Mathématiques II] Chapitre 5 : systèmes linéaires
CHAPITRE 5 : SYSTÈMES LINÉAIRES





ͳ
− x + y + z − 2t = −3
° x − y − 2z + t = 3
°

( S )®
° x − 2 y − z + t = −6
°¯− 2 x + y + z − t = −6
+/

(S )

A. X = b ,
-/

A ,
0/
( S ) ,
ʹ
§− 3 1 1·
¨ ¸
/! M (3) )

A = ¨ 1 − 3 1¸ B = A + 4I 3 ,
¨ 1 1 − 3 ¸¹
©
+/ 7

B 2 B ,
-/
A2 A ,
0/
"
A
,(7

A−1 A /,
− 3 x + y + z = 3
°
/

( S )® x − 3 y + z = 0
° x + y − 3 z = −3
¯
;/

( S )

A. X = b ,
@/

A )

( S ) ,
͵

"

2

− 3 x + 2 y − z = 2 2 x + y − z = 1 − 3 x + 2 y − z = −1
° ° °

1 ® 2 x + z = 0 ) ® − x + z = 0 ) ® 2x + z = 1
° − x + 2y + z = 2 ° 2y + z =1 ° − x + 2y + z = 1
¯ ¯ ¯
Ͷ

"

2

1
− 3 x + y + z = 1 x − y + z =1 x + y + z = −1
° ° °
( S1 )® x − 3 y + z = −1 ( S 2 ) ® − x + y − 2 z = −1 ( S 3 ) ®− 2 x + y − 3 z = 0
° x + y − 3 z = −1 ° x + y + 2z = 0 ° x − 2y + z =1
¯ ¯ ¯



ͳ
1
"
− x + y + z − 2t = −3
° x − y − 2z + t = 3
°

( S )®
° x − 2 y − z + t = −6
°¯− 2 x + y + z − t = −6
+/

(S )

A. X = b ,
-/

A ,
0/
( S ) ,
− x + y + z − 2t = −3
° x − y − 2z + t = 3
°

" ( S )®
° x − 2 y − z + t = −6
°¯− 2 x + y + z − t = −6
ª−1 1 1 − 2º § x · § − 3 ·
« 1 −1 − 2 1 » ¨ y¸ ¨ 3 ¸
1) Le système ( S ) s’écrit sous la forme matricielle suivante : « ».¨ ¸ = ¨ ¸
« 1 − 2 − 1 1 » ¨ z ¸ ¨ − 6¸
« »¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
¬− 2 1 1 − 1 ¼ ¨© t ¸¹ ¨© − 6 ¸¹
2)
§ 0 0 0 1·
¨ ¸
−1 −1 ¨0 0 1 0¸
ª D’après l’exercice 5 du chapitre 3, on a : A = .( A + 6 J ) , avec J = ¨
5 0 1 0 0¸
¨ ¸
¨ 1 0 0 0¸
© ¹
ª 1 − 1 − 1 − 4º
« »
1 − 1 1 − 4 − 1»
ª Donc A−1 = « .
5 « − 1 − 4 1 − 1»
« »
¬− 4 − 1 − 1 1 ¼
ª 1 − 1 − 1 − 4º § − 3 · § − 24 ·
« − 1 1 − 4 − 1» ¨ 3 ¸ ¨ ¸
1 ¨ ¸ ¨ 24 ¸
0/ A. X = b ssi X = A .b X = « ». X =¨
−1
¨ ¸
5 « − 1 − 4 1 − 1» − 6 − 21¸
« » ¨¨ ¸¸ ¨
¨ 21 ¸
¸
¬ − 4 − 1 − 1 1 ¼© ¹ − 6 © ¹


ʹ
1
"
§− 3 1 1·
¨ ¸
/! M (3) )

A = ¨ 1 − 3 1¸ B = A + 4I 3 ,
¨ 1 1 − 3 ¸¹
©
+/ 7

B 2 B ,
-/
A2 A ,
0/
"
A
,(7

A−1 A /,
− 3 x + y + z = 3
°
/

( S )® x − 3 y + z = 0
° x + y − 3 z = −3
¯
+/

( S )

A. X = b ,
-/

A )

(S ) ,

"
§− 3 1 1·
¨ ¸
/ A=¨ 1 −3 1¸ B = A + 4I 3 ,
¨ 1 1 − 3 ¸¹
©

+/ B 2 B 1
ª1 1 1º ª3 3 3º
« » « »
ª B = A + 4 I 3 = «1 1 1» B 2 = B × B = «3 3 3» B 2 = 3B
«¬1 1 1»¼ «¬3 3 3»¼

-/ A2 A 1
ª B = A + 4I3 A = B − 4I3
ª Or B 2 = 3B , donc :
ª A2 = (B − 4 I 3 ) = B 2 + 16 I 3 − 8 B = 3B + 16 I 3 − 8 B = −5 B + 20 I 3 − 4 I 3 = −5(B − 4 I 3 ) − 4 I 3
2
ª D’où : A2 = −5 A − 4 I 3

0/
"
A
,(7

A−1 A /,

ª −1 º
ª A 2 = −5 A − 4 I 3 A 2 + 5 A = −4 I 3 A « ( A + 5 I 3 ) » = I 3
¬4 ¼
§ 2 1 1·
−1 −1 −1−1¨ ¸
ª La matrice A est alors inversible et A = ( A + 5I 3 ) : A = ¨ 1 2 1¸
4 4 ¨ ¸
© 1 1 2¹



− 3 x + y + z = 3
°
/ ( S )® x − 3 y + z = 0
° x + y − 3 z = −3
¯

+/ (S )

A. X = b )1
§− 3 1 1· § 3 ·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
A=¨ 1 −3 1¸ b = ¨ 0 ¸
¨ 1 1 − 3 ¸¹ ¨ − 3¸
© © ¹

-/

A )

( S ) ,
§ 3·
§ 2 1 1· § 3 · ¨− ¸
−1¨ ¸¨ ¸ ¨ 4¸
0/ A. X = b ssi X = A .b X = ¨ 1 2 1¸.¨ 0 ¸ X = ¨ 0 ¸
−1
4 ¨ ¸¨ ¸
© 1 1 2 ¹ © − 3¹ ¨ 3 ¸
¨ 4 ¸
© ¹
͵
1
"

"

2

− 3 x + 2 y − z = 2 2 x + y − z = 1 − 3 x + 2 y − z = −1
° ° °

1 ( S1 )® 2 x + z = 0 ) ( S 2 )® − x + z = 0 ) ( S3 )® 2x + z = 1
° − x + 2y + z = 2 ° 2y + z = 1 ° − x + 2y + z = 1
¯ ¯ ¯

"
− 3 x + 2 y − z = 2
°
( S1 )® 2x + z = 0
° − x + 2y + z = 2
¯
ª ( S1 )

A. X = b )1
§ − 3 2 − 1· § 2·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
A=¨ 2 0 1¸ b = ¨ 0¸
¨ −1 2 1¸¹ ¨ 2¸
© © ¹
ª Le système ( S1 ) est de cramer car det A ≠ 0 :
− 3 2 −1 − 3 2 −1
2 1
o det A = 2 0 1 L3 → L3 − L1 2 0 1 suivant C 2 (−2). =4
2 2
−1 2 1 2 0 2



ª Calcul de A−1 :
§ 0 1 2 1 2 0·
¨ + − + ¸
¨ 2 1 −1 1 −1 2¸
¨ ¸
¨ ¸ §− 2 −3 4 ·
¨ 2 −1 − 3 −1 −3 2¸ ¨ ¸
o C ( A) = ¨ − + − ¸ = ¨− 4 − 4 4 ¸
¨ 2 1 −1 1 −1 2¸ ¨
2 1 − 4 ¸¹
¨ ¸ ©
¨ ¸
¨+ 2 −1 − 3 −1 −3 2¸
¨ 0 − +
© 1 2 1 2 0 ¸¹
§− 2 − 4 2 ·
t
¨ ¸
o C ( A) = ¨ − 3 − 4 1 ¸
¨ 4 4 − 4 ¸¹
©
§1 1·
¨ 1 − ¸
§− 2 − 4 2 · ¨2 2¸
−1 ¨ ¸ 3 1
o A = C ( A) A = .¨ − 3 − 4 1 ¸ 1
−1 t −1
A −1 = ¨ 1 − ¸
4 ¨ ¨4 4¸
© 4 4 − 4 ¸¹ ¨ ¸
¨ −1 −1 1 ¸
© ¹
ª Solution du système ( S1 ) :
§− 2 − 4 2· § 2· § 0·
−1¨ ¸¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
♦ A. X = b ssi X = A .b X = 1¸.¨ 0 ¸ X = ¨ 1 ¸
−1
¨−3 −4
4 ¨
© 4 4 − 4 ¸¹ ¨© 2 ¸¹ ¨ 0¸
© ¹

2 x + y − z = 1
°
( S 2 )® − x + z = 0
° 2y + z = 1
¯

ª ( S2 )

B. X = b )1
§ 2 1 − 1· §1·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
B = ¨−1 0 1¸ b = ¨ 0¸
¨ 0 2 1¸¹ ¨1¸
© © ¹
ª Le système ( S 2 ) est de cramer car det B ≠ 0 :
2 1 −1 2 1 1
1 1
o det B = − 1 0 1 C3 → C3 + C1 − 1 0 0 suivant L2 = −1 1
2 1
0 2 1 0 2 1



ª Calcul de B −1 :
§ 0 1 −1 1 −1 0 ·
¨ + − + ¸
¨ 2 1 0 1 0 2¸
¨ ¸
¨ ¸ § − 2 1 − 2·
¨ 1 −1 2 −1 2 1 ¸ ¨ ¸
o C ( B) = ¨ − + − ¸ = ¨ − 3 2 − 4¸
¨ 2 1 0 1 0 2 ¸ ¨
1 − 1 1 ¸¹
¨ ¸ ©
¨ ¸
¨+ 1 −1 2 −1 2 1¸
¨ 0 − +
© 1 −1 1 − 1 0 ¸¹
§−2 −3 1 ·
t
¨ ¸
o C (B ) = ¨ 1 2 − 1¸
¨−2 − 4 1 ¸
© ¹
§− 2 − 3 1· § 2 3 − 1·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
o B = C ( B) B = (−1)¨ 1
−1 t −1 −1
2 − 1¸ : B = ¨ −1 − 2 1¸
¨− 2 − 4 1¸¹ ¨ 2 4 − 1¸¹
© ©
ª Solution du système ( S 2 ) :
§ 2 3 − 1· § 1 · §1·
¨ ¸¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
o B. X = b ssi X = B .b X = ¨ − 1 − 2 1¸.¨ 0 ¸ X = ¨ 0 ¸
−1
¨ 2 4 − 1¸¹ ¨© 1 ¸¹ ¨1¸
© © ¹

− 3 x + 2 y − z = −1
°
( S3 )® 2x + z = 1
° − x + 2y + z = 1
¯
ª ( S3 )

A. X = b )1
§ − 3 2 − 1· § − 1·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
A=¨ 2 0 1¸ (<
"
( S1 ) ) b = ¨ 1 ¸
¨ −1 2 ¸
1¹ ¨1¸
© © ¹
ª Le système ( S3 ) est de cramer car det A ≠ 0 : det A = 4
ª Solution du système ( S1 ) :
§− 2 − 4 2 · § − 1· §0·
− 1 ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
o A. X = b ssi X = A .b X = 1¸.¨ 1 ¸ X = ¨ 0 ¸
−1
¨−3 −4
4 ¨
© 4 4 − 4 ¸¹ ¨© 1 ¸¹ ¨1¸
© ¹


Ͷ
1
"

"

2

1
− 3 x + y + z = 1 x − y + z =1 x + y + z = −1
° ° °
( S1 )® x − 3 y + z = −1 ( S 2 ) ® − x + y − 2 z = −1 ( S 3 ) ®− 2 x + y − 3 z = 0
° x + y − 3 z = −1 ° x + y + 2z = 0 ° x − 2y + z =1
¯ ¯ ¯

"
− 3 x + y + z = 1
°
( S1 )® x − 3 y + z = −1
° x + y − 3 z = −1
¯
ª ( S1 )

A. X = b )1
§− 3 1 1· §1·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
A=¨ 1 −3 1¸ b = ¨ − 1¸
¨ 1 1 − 3 ¸¹ ¨ − 1¸
© © ¹
−3 1 1 −3 1 1 −3 2 1
−3 2
det A = 1 − 3 1 L3→L3− L2 1 − 3 1 C2 →C2 +C3 1 − 2 1 = −4 = −16
1 −2
1 1 −3 0 4 −4 0 0 −4
ª Résolution du système ( S1 ) :
F calcul des déterminants de Cramer :
1 1 1 1 1 1
L3 → L3 + L1 −2 2
o ∆ x = −1 − 3 1 L →L + L 0 − 2 2= = 0
2 2 1 2 −2
−1 1 −3 0 2 −2
−3 1 1 1 1 1
L3 → L3 + L1 −2 2
o ∆ y = 1 −1 1 L →L + L − 2 0 2 = (−1) = −8
2 2 1 −2 −2
1 1 −3 −2 0 −2
−3 1 1 −3 1 1
L3 → L3 + L1 −2 −2
o ∆ z = 1 − 3 − 1 L →L + L − 2 − 2 0 = = −8
2 2 1 −2 2
1 1 −1 −2 2 0
F Solution du système ( S1 ) :
∆x
° x = det A = 0
°° ∆y −8 1 1 1
®y = = = ( x, y, z ) = (0, , )
° det A − 16 2 2 2
°z = ∆ z = − 8 = 1
°¯ det A − 16 2



x − y + z =1
°
( S 2 ) ® − x + y − 2 z = −1
° x + y + 2z = 0
¯
ª ( S2 )

A. X = b )1
§ 1 −1 1· §1·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
A = ¨ −1 1 − 2¸ b = ¨ − 1¸
¨ 1 1 ¸
2¹ ¨0¸
© © ¹
1 −1 1 1 0 1
1 1
det A = − 1 1 − 2 C2 →C2 +C1 − 1 0 − 2 = (−2) = 2
−1 − 2
1 1 2 1 2 2
1 −1 1 1 −1 1
0 −1
o ∆ x = − 1 1 − 2 L2 →L2 + L1 0 0 − 1 = = 1
1 2
0 1 2 0 1 2
1 1 1 1 1 1
0 −1
o ∆ y = − 1 − 1 − 2 L2 →L2 + L1 0 0 − 1 = (−1) = −1
1 2
1 0 2 1 0 2
1 −1 1
o ∆ z = − 1 1 − 1 = 0 ( L2 = − L1 )
1 1 0
∆x 1
° x = =
det A 2
°° ∆y −1 1 −1
®y = = ( x , y , z ) = ( , ,0 )
° det A 2 2 2
°z = ∆ z = 0
°¯ det A

x + y + z = −1
°
( S 3 ) ®− 2 x + y − 3 z = 0
° x − 2y + z =1
¯
ª ( S3 )

A. X = b )1
§ 1 1 1· § − 1·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
A = ¨− 2 1 − 3¸ b = ¨ 0 ¸
¨ 1 −2 1¸¹ ¨1¸
© © ¹


1 1 1 1 1 0
1 1
det A = − 2 1 − 3 C3→C3−C1 − 2 1 − 1 = −(−1) = −3
1 −2
1 −2 1 1 −2 0
−1 1 1 −1 1 1
1 −3
o ∆x = 0 1 − 3 L3→L3 + L1 0 1 − 3 = (−1) = 1
−1 2
1 −2 1 0 −1 2
1 −1 1 1 −1 1
−2 −3
o ∆ y = − 2 0 − 3 L3→L3 + L1 − 2 0 − 3 = −(−1) = 2
2 2
1 1 1 2 0 2
1 1 −1 1 1 −1
−2 1
o ∆z = − 2 1 0 L3→L3+ L1 − 2 1 0 = (−1) = 0
2 −1
1 −2 1 2 −1 0
∆x −1
° x = det A = 3
°° ∆y 2 −1 2
®y = = ( x, y , z ) = ( , ,0 )
° det A 3 3 3
°z = ∆ z = 0
°¯ det A


[S1, Module M4, Matière : Instruments d’analyse économique] Sommaire
°

!"!#$#
!"!#$#
"!#$#

#! #$
#! #$

Matrices

Déterminant d’une matrice carrée

Systèmes linéaires


) Dvflfxohg H (Huflfhvfruuljpv: Filière de Sciences Économiques Et de Gestion

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) Dvflfxohg H (Huflfhvfruuljpv: Filière de Sciences Économiques Et de Gestion

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Université Mohammed V – Agdal ϝ΍Ϊϛ΍±βϣΎΨϟ΍ΪϤΤϣΔόϣΎΟ

Faculté des Sciences Juridiques, ΔϳΩΎμΘϗϻ΍ϭΔϴϧϮϧΎϘϟ΍ϡϮϠόϟ΍ΔϴϠϛ

Filière de Sciences Économiques et de Gestion

CHAPITRE 1 : ESPACE VECTORIEL RÉEL

Enoncés des exercices

Solutions des exercices

! 2    )

! 2    ) 

 S = {v1 , v 2 , v3 }  

♦  ∃(α1 ,α 2 ,α 3 )(≠ (0,0,0)) ∈ IR 3 / α1 .v1 + α 2 .v2 + α 3 v3 ) = (0,0,0,0) )

♦  S = {v1 , v 2 , v3 } 

♦  ∃(α1 ,α 2 , α 3 )( ≠ (0,0,0)) ∈ IR / α1.v1 + α 2 .v2 + α 3v3 ) = (0,0,0) )

! IR 4 )  

 S = {u1 , u 2 , v1 , v2 }    IR 4  S = {u1 , u 2 , v1 , v2 } 

! 2    ) 

+/ v1 = (1,1,1,1), v2 = (1,1,−1,−1), v3 = (1,−1,1,−1), v 4 = (1,−1,−1,1) 1 S = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 } 

! 2    )

S = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 }    

! IR3       "  {e1 , e2 , e3 } )   

  S = {v1 , v2 , v3 }

 "   

! IR3 )  

v1 = (1,1, a ), v 2 = (1, a,1), v3 = ( a,1,1) 

CHAPITRE 2 : APPLICATIONS LINEAIRES

[S3, Module M10, Matière : Mathématiques II] Chapitre 2 : applications linéaires

  S = {u1 , u2 , u3 }1 Im f =< u1 , u2 , u3 > 

o  S = {u1 , u2 , u3 }  

 f   

[S3, Module M10, Matière : Mathématiques II] Chapitre 2 : applications linéaires

/ !    Im( f )  (rg ( f ) ) 

[S3, Module M10, Matière : Mathématiques II] Chapitre 2 : applications linéaires

! IR 3 )  

♦ !  Im f =< f (e1 ), f (e2 ), f (e3 ) >=< v1 , v2 , v3 >  rg ( f ) = dim(Im f ) = rg ( S ) 

[S3, Module M10, Matière : Mathématiques II] Chapitre 3 : matrices

  A 2 = 9.I 4 − 6.B + B 2 = 9.I 4 − 6.B + 4.B = 9.I 4 − 2.B ) 

[S3, Module M10, Matière : Mathématiques II] Chapitre 3 : matrices

 E  

! IR3    "  B = {e1 , e2 , e3 })  

 "  (M a ) = M n.a 

!  ∀n ∈ IN ) 1 (M a ) = M n.a 

   IR3   IR2   

♦ f ( x, y, z ) = ( x − y − z ,− x + y − z,− x − y + z )  ( g $ f )( x, y, z ) = g (( x − y − z,− x + y − z,− x − y + z ) ) 

[S3, Module M10, Matière : Mathématiques II] Chapitre 3 : matrices

  M ( 2 )   "  B0 = {E11 , E12 , E 21 , E 22 }1

 f   

 E    

 E    

  B ' = {e'1 , e' 2 , e'3 }

♦ B = {e1 , e2 , e3 } "   IR3 ,

[S3, Module M10, Matière : Mathématiques II] Chapitre 3 : matrices

  B '1 = (e'1 , e' 2 , e' 3 ) 

CHAPITRE 4 : DÉTERMINANT D’UNE MATRICE CARRÉE

•  m ≠ 0 ( m ≠ 2  m ≠ 1 /

­ f (e1 ) = (m − 1)e1 + 2e2 + 2e3

­ f (e1′ ) = (2e1 + (m + 1)e2 + e3 ) − (− 2e1 − 3e2 + (m − 3)e3 )

♦ !  det A = m(m − 1)(m − 2) 

CHAPITRE 5 : SYSTÈMES LINÉAIRES

[S3, Module M10, Matière : Mathématiques II] Chapitre 5 : systèmes linéaires

[S1, Module M4, Matière : Instruments d’analyse économique] Sommaire

 Déterminant d’une matrice carrée

 Systèmes linéaires

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CHAPITRE 1 : ESPACE VECTORIEL RÉEL

!2 )

!2 )

S = {v1 , v 2 , v3 }

♦ ∃(α1 ,α 2 ,α 3 )(≠ (0,0,0)) ∈ IR 3 / α1 .v1 + α 2 .v2 + α 3 v3 ) = (0,0,0,0) )

♦ S = {v1 , v 2 , v3 }

♦ ∃(α1 ,α 2 , α 3 )( ≠ (0,0,0)) ∈ IR / α1.v1 + α 2 .v2 + α 3v3 ) = (0,0,0) )

! IR 4 )

S = {u1 , u 2 , v1 , v2 } IR 4 S = {u1 , u 2 , v1 , v2 }

!2 )

+/ v1 = (1,1,1,1), v2 = (1,1,−1,−1), v3 = (1,−1,1,−1), v 4 = (1,−1,−1,1) 1 S = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 }

!2 )

S = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 }

! IR3 " {e1 , e2 , e3 } )

S = {v1 , v2 , v3 }

"

! IR3 )

v1 = (1,1, a ), v 2 = (1, a,1), v3 = ( a,1,1)

S = {u1 , u2 , u3 }1 Im f =< u1 , u2 , u3 >

o S = {u1 , u2 , u3 }

f

/ ! Im( f ) (rg ( f ) )

! IR 3 )

♦ ! Im f =< f (e1 ), f (e2 ), f (e3 ) >=< v1 , v2 , v3 > rg ( f ) = dim(Im f ) = rg ( S )

A 2 = 9.I 4 − 6.B + B 2 = 9.I 4 − 6.B + 4.B = 9.I 4 − 2.B )

E

! IR3 " B = {e1 , e2 , e3 })

" (M a ) = M n.a

! ∀n ∈ IN ) 1 (M a ) = M n.a

IR3 IR2

♦ f ( x, y, z ) = ( x − y − z ,− x + y − z,− x − y + z ) ( g $ f )( x, y, z ) = g (( x − y − z,− x + y − z,− x − y + z ) )

M ( 2 ) " B0 = {E11 , E12 , E 21 , E 22 }1

f

E

E

B ' = {e'1 , e' 2 , e'3 }

♦ B = {e1 , e2 , e3 }" IR3 ,

B '1 = (e'1 , e' 2 , e' 3 )

• m ≠ 0 ( m ≠ 2 m ≠ 1 /

f (e1 ) = (m − 1)e1 + 2e2 + 2e3

f (e1′ ) = (2e1 + (m + 1)e2 + e3 ) − (− 2e1 − 3e2 + (m − 3)e3 )

♦ ! det A = m(m − 1)(m − 2)

Déterminant d’une matrice carrée

Systèmes linéaires