Materials for INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING ANALYSIS Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Excerpted from ELEMENTARY LINEAR ALGEBRA Eighth Edition Howard Anton ee Ds aa | A Z A 7ie sae lead Sales a ales Malad aan ld alas alas Als aeVectors in 2-Space and 3-Space (Crapremeenvens: 341 Introduction to Vectors (Geometric) 3.2. Norm ofa Vectar, Vector Arithmetic 3.3 Dot Product; Projections Cross Product Lines and Planes in 3-Space are completely described once the magnitude of the quantity is given. Such quantities: are called scalars. Other physical quantities are not completely determined until both 2: ‘magnitude and a direction are specified. These quantities ae called vectors. For example. wind movement is usualy described by giving the speed and direction, say 20 mph northeast The wind speed and wind direction form a vector called the wind velocity. Other examples of Vectors are force and displacement. in this chapter cur goals 3 review some ofthe bask theory of vectors in two and three dimensions [reer Many physica quantities, such av area, length, mass, and Semperature, Note. Readers already familiar with the contents of this chapter can go to Chapter 4 with na loss of continuity120 (a) The vector AB POS (a) Thesumv+w () vew=waw Figure 312 Figure 3.13 ‘The negative of has the same length as v, but is oppositely directed. 3.1 ‘© Chapter 3 / Vectors in 2-Space and 3-Space TT: INTRODUCTION TO VECTORS (GEOMETRIC) In this section vectors in 2-space and 3-space will be introduced geometrically, arithmetic operations on vectors will be defined, and some basic properties of these arithmetic operations will be established. Geometric Vectors Vectors can be represented geometrically as directed line segments or arrows in 2-space or 3-space. The direction of the arrow specifies the direction of the vector, and the length of the arrow describes its magnitude. The tail of the arrow is called the inital point of the vector, andthe tip ofthe arrow the terminal ‘point. Symbolicaly, we shall denote vectors in lowercase boldface type (for instance, 1, k, v, w, and.x). When discussing vectors, we shall refer to numbers as scalars. For now, all our scalars will be real numbers and will be denoted in lowercase italic type (for instance, a, k, vw, and x), If, as in Figure 3.1.2, the intial point of a vector v is A and the terminal point is B, we write v=ab Vectors with the same length and same direction, such as those in Figure 3.1.16, are called equivalent. Since we want a vector to be determined solely by its length and direction, equivalent vectors are regarded as equal even though they may be located in different positions. If v and w are equivalent, we write If v and w are any two vectors, then the sum y+ w is the vector determined as follows: Position the vector w so that its initial point coincides with the terminal point of v. The vector v + w is represented by the arrow from the initial point of w to the terminal point of w (Figure 3.1.22) In Figure 3.1.26 we have constructed two sums, v + w (color arrows) and w + v (gray arrows). Itis evident that vewswey and that the sum coincides with the diagonal of the parallelogram determined by v and. ‘Ww when these vectors are positioned so they have the same initial point. The vector of length zero is called the zero vector and is denoted by 0. We define Otveve for every vector v. Since there is no natural direction for the zero vector, we shall agree that it can be assigned any direction that is convenient for the problem being considered. Iv is any nonzero vector, then —v, the negative of v, is defined to be the vector having the same magnitude as v, but oppositely directed (Figure 3.1.3). This vector has the property vei =o (Why?) In addition, we define —0 = 0, Subtraction of vectors is defined as follows,a Figure 3.1.5 Figure 316 1 and 0, are the components ote, 121 BL Ineraduction ta Vectors (Geometric) © fy and w ave any two vectors, then the difference of w from ¥ is defined by vew=v+(—w) (Figure 3.1.4). To obtain the difference v — w without constructing -w, position v and w so their initial points coincide: the vector from the terminal point of w to the terminal point of v is then the vector v — w (Figure 3.1.4). If v is @ nonzero vector and k is a nonzero real number (scalat), then the product ‘kv is defined to be the vector whose length is |&| times the length of v and whose direction is the same as that of v if & > 0 and opposite to that of vif k < 0. We define ky = Difk = Oorv =0. Figure 5.15 illstrats the elation between a vector v and the vectors 4v, (—1)¥. 2v. and (~3)v. Note thatthe vector (~I)v has the same length as v, but is oppositely ‘estes, Thus, (Ue is just the negative of v5 that is «by A vector ofthe form kv js calleda scalar multiple of v. As evidenceaby Figure3.1.5, vectors that are scalar multiples of each other are parallel. Conversely, it can be shown that nonzero parallel vectors are scalar multiples of each other. We omit the proof, Vectors in Coordinate Systems Probiemsinvolving vectorseanohien be simplified by introducing a rectangular coordinate system. For the moment we shall restrict the discussion to vectors in 2-space (the plane). Let Vbe any veior inthe plare, and assume, as in Figure 3.1.6 that v has been positioned so its initial point is atthe origin ofa rectangular coordinate system. The coordinates (v, v2) ofthe terminal point of Vare called the components of ¥, and we write vem) 1F equivatent vectors, v and w, are focated 80 thet initial points fall atthe origin, then itis obvious that ther terminal points must coincide (since the vectors have the samte length and direction); thus, the vectats have the same components. Conversely, ‘vectors withthe same Components are equivalent since they have the same length and same direction, tn summary, twa vectors Ve (ov) and w= (a1. w2) are equivalent if and only if by = we and v2 = we ‘The operations of vector addition and multiplication by scalars are easy to carry out in terms of components. As ihastrated in Figure 3.1.7. if v= (v.02) and w wr, W2) then (uy Fwy. tee) woT22 eee Chapter3/ Vectors in 2-Space and 3-Space ra Figure 3.1.8 Figuce 31.7 Itv = (vy, va) and k is any scalar, then by using a geometric argument involving similar ‘wiangles, it can be shown (Exercise 15) that sky = (kup, ke) Q) (Figure 3.1.8). Thus, for example, if v = (1, -2) and w = (7.6), then Vtw= (1.-2)4(7,6) =(1+7,-24+6) = 8,4) and dy = 4(1, -2) = (441), 4(-2)) = 4, -8) Since v — w = v+ (—1)w, it follows from Formulas (1) and (2) that Yow (vj — wi, v2 ~ ws) (Verify.) Vectors in 3-Space just as vectors in the plane can be described by pairs ‘of real numbers, vectors in 3-space can be described by triples of real numbers by introducing a rectangular coordinate system. To construct such a coordinate system, select apoint O, called the origin, and choose three mucualy perpendicular lines, called coordinate axes, passing through the origin. Label these axes x, y, and z, and select 4 positive direction for each coordinate axis @8 well as a unit of length for measuring distances (Figure 3.1.9a). Each pair of coordinate axes determines a plane called a coordinate plane. These are referred to asthe xy-plane, the x2-plane, and the yz-plane. ‘To each point P in 3space we assign a triple of numbers (x, ». 2). calfed the coordinates of P, as follows: Pass tree planes through P parallel tothe coordinate planes, and denote e @ » Figure 3.1.9(a) Right-handed (6) Leftchanded Figure Figure 31.12 Wane) 3.1 Introduction to Vectors (Geometric) @#@ 123 456) @ Figure 31.10 the points of intersections of these planes with the three coordinate axes by X,Y, and Z (Figure 3.1.95), The coordinates of P are defined to be the signed lengths x=0X, y oz oY, In Figure 3.1.10a we have constructed the point whose coordinates are (45.6) and ix Figure 3.1.10b the point whose coordinates are (3,2, ~4) Rectangular coordinate systems in 3-space fall into two categories, lef-handed and right-handed. A right-handed system has the property that an ordinary screw pointed in the positive direction on the z-axis would be advanced if the positive x-axis is rotated 90° toward the positive y-axis (Figure 3.1.11; the system is lefi-handed if the screw would be retracted (Figure 3.1.11). REMARK. In this book we shall use only right-handed coordinate systems. If, as in Figure 3.1.12, a vector v in 3-space is positioned so its initial point is at the origin of a rectangular coordinate system, then the coordinates ofthe terminal point are called the components of v, and we write (1. 12,09) Tey = (04, v2, v9) and w = (w}, we, ws) are two vectors in 3-space, then arguments similar to those used for vectors in a plane can be used to establish the following results. vy and w are equivalent if and only if vy = ws, v2 = w2,and vy = ws vbw (U1 + wo + we, vs + ws) key = (kuy, kez, kos), where k is any scalar EXAMPLE 1 voc: non Ity = (1,-3.2) and w = (4,2, 1, then vtw=(5,-1 Sometimes a vector is positioned so that its initial point is not at the origin. If the vector Py Ps has initial point (xy, v1.21) and terminal point P,(r2, yo, 22), then