|
 




|



  



 

!






 
 Based on Kirchhoff Current Law (KCL).
 Every point at the junction can be used as a
node.
 One of the nodes will be acting as a
reference node where this reference node
voltage will always equal to zero, V = 0.
 !





 
   

 
½


@

B @ @
B
a) Label all the nodes including reference node
and all the currents flow in the circuit.

@
  
a b



B @ @
B
c
b) Write down KCL equation at node a and b.

KCL at node a:  =   
( )

  

 2
 
@ @ 2
 KCL at node b:    =  ()


 

Î
@ @ º

 Equations ( ) and () can be solved by using

simultaneous equations or Cramer rule to
obtain the value of Va and Vb
 !





 
   


 

 
½


@
 a  b 



VB @ @
B

c
a) Nodal analysis equation for the above circuit.

Node a: ^
^ ( )


 
Node b:
 Î ()
@ @º
a) Substitute equation ( ) into equation ().

B = -VB( @)  VB(( @)  ( @
)) (
)

b) From equation (
), the value of Vb can be

obtained.





2 @ ˜˜
 Î


2 @ ˜
2 @ ˜˜
ü

 Occur when the existence of voltage
source between two nonreference nodes
and any elements connected parallel with
it.
 The first step is to write a KCL equation
for the nodes that being unite and this
equation is known as supernode equation.
 Write down the equation that linked the
voltage for the unite node with the voltage
source. This equation is known as
supporting equation.
½


a VB
 b 

 

B
B
c




a VB
 b 

 

B
B
c
Node a and b.
a) Supporting equation,

Va ± Vb = VB

b) KCL equation at supernode,

™ entering supernode = ™ out of supernode

   =   

B  B = Va  @  Vb  @
!





  
   



 
 For the circuit that exist dependent
sources, the nodal analysis can be done
by the same method. The solution for the
circuit that deal with this dependent
sources are shown as in example.
½


 

a

V
V
a


a) Label all the nodes (including reference node)
and the currents of each branch.

  a 


a 

V
V
a



b Vb = 0
b) Write down KCL equation at node a.

(( ± Va)  )  (( a - Va)  ) = ((Va 

) 
)

Va ± a =
0 ( )

Where a =  = (( - Va)  ) ()

c) Solve the equations ( ) and ().

Va = 8.  V

a = (( - Va)  ) = (( ± 8. )  ) =
.  A
 ë




(revision)
 ü 
|


 


 
    



 !"# 
  


$

% &

  

  



  
 

 ü  


 


 
  
 





     


 

Figure : Circuit with  mesh and voltage source

 ü  
'
a) Assign mesh currents i and i in to the  meshes




 
b) Apply KVL to each of the n meshes. Use Ohm¶s law
to express the voltages in terms of the mesh
currents.
mesh :

2  


2 @2  

2
˜@


2
@2   @ ˜
@
mesh  :  
Œ

º

2
˜ @  
@º
Œ

2 @  

@   @º ˜
Œ
c) Solve the resulting simultaneous equations to get the mesh
currents.
Figure  : Circuit with
mesh and  voltage source

R1 R
R5

 R R4 
 @ @ @

 @ @


  

mesh  :


2 ˜ @  
@º  


º ˜ @

Œ

2 @  

@   @º   @
˜
º @

Œ

mesh  :
2 @2

2

˜ @ Î 2

2
@2 @ ˜

@ Î 2

mesh  :

º
˜ @
 
º @


@
 
º
@
  @ ˜

c) Solve the resulting simultaneous equations to get the mesh
currents.
 



    
" 


|ü  

 




   


 
 


 


 
   

 

 
 ( 

 

Example :
Find current that flow in
resistor for the circuit below :

 

1  1


Solutions :

a) Assign mesh currents i and i in to the  meshes

 

 A



b) Apply KVL to each of the n meshes. Use Ohm¶s law to express the
voltages in terms of the mesh currents.
Mesh :

2 º

2

Mesh  :

2 amp

c) Solve the resulting simultaneous equations to get the mesh currents 

 = .8 amp ; 
= ( -)= .8 amp

 ü

 



  





 


 
 ( 

 )
 




(









!"#  
 *   






 


 
Figure below shows a current source ( B ) exists between mesh
and mesh , therefore supermesh analysis is needed to solve the
circuit..
@ @

B
VB VB
 @ 

Mesh &:
Supermesh equation : @   @
 = VB  VB
Supporting equation :  ±  = B
Example :
Find v
and the power absorbed by  resistor in the circuit below

A

 V
-

8V A

Solutions :
a) Assign mesh currents  ,  and 
in to the
meshes

A

 

 V
-

8V A

 

b) Write KVL equations for each mesh.
 Mesh :  = A ( )
 Mesh  and
:
Supporting equation : ( 
± ) = A ()
Supermesh equation : -    
=
8 (
)

c) Solve equation ( ), () dan (
) to get the value of  and 

ù  =
. A ; 
= 8. A

d) From circuit above :

ù V
=  (  ±  ) = V

ù Power absorb by the  resistor, P = =
W


 



    



 
 + 

,  




 






(






( 

 - 


    


 

Example :
For circuit in figure below, get the value of a
a) Assign mesh currents  and  in to the  meshes

a 

V
V a
 

b) Write KVL equations for each mesh

Mesh :  ±
 =  ( )
Mesh  : -
 
 = -
± a ()
where a =  (
)

Substitude equation (
) into equation ()

ù
 
 = -
()
c) From equation ( ) and (), using Cramer¶s @ule to get the value of  .
 =
.  A a =  =
.  A
ù ù

(End of revision)
 ü

ü
 

›

 





 
 


  





 


 
 
 

 
 


  




 
 







  
 


ü
 ü
 




 ›
 








 





   




    


 



 










 

  
 
 


   

 

 









½

Find the value of V.

Figure .

x
 "." /"
ü  

A
 

Figure . (a)

!"# Y - = 0
Y = 0. A
V =  Y = "

" 


 V =  ( ) = "
8
A
 

Figure . (b)

|
 Y
 = 8 (
) =  A
  8
V =  Y
 = §"

+ "
 "
"." /" ./§.0"
½

Find the value of Y.

Figure .

x
  0& 01
ü  

Figure . (a)

Y =  A ««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««.««...( )

-
Y  Y - Y
-  Y0 = 0 ««««««««««««««««...«.()

- Y - Y  0 Y
  Y0¶ = 0 «««««......................................(
)
At node 0 : Y
= Y - Y0¶ =  - Y0¶ «««««««««««.« .()
Substitute ( ) & () into () & (
) :

Y -  Y0¶ = 8 «««««««««««««««.()
Y   Y0¶ = 0 ««««««««««««««....( )
0&.2«««««««««««««««««««.««««..()
3
 Figure . (b)

Y - Y -  Y0¶¶ = 0«««««««««««««««««««««.««.(8)
Loop  : - Y  0 Y - 0   Y0´ = 0 «««...« (
)
But Y = - Y0´ substitute into (8) & (
) :
Y - Y0´ = 0 ««««««««««««.( 0)

Y   Y0´ = 0 «««««..«««««««.( )

01.' 40 ««««««««««««.««..( )

3
+ 
    .' §.' 05304
3
½

Find the value of Y.

Figure .

x
  .  

ü  

Figure .
(a)

 ..
4
 [C

Figure .
(b)

@
 
  








  


  
 
 

Figure .

(c)

 = (8(. 8))x
= . A
Y
= ()x . = A

+ 
   .   

.' /.
  ü
 

›






  


 

 



 


! 

 

 
  

"› 



   
 › #


"› 


  
 


 $
› 

 

! 




 














 
 


›




! 



Figure . (a) : Original circuit Figure . (b) : The Thevenin equivalent circuit
› 
     
  
      



› 

  
   
› 

  
   
 Assignment

uestion

Prove that any complex linear electric

circuit can be replaced by itsThevenin
equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage
source in series with a resistor.

The deadline: 0th February 008

 

"›
›

Ohm a


@L= Ohm
 Volt Vab

b
 

"›
›

Ohm a


@L= Ohm
 Volt Vab

b
 

"›
›

@in

"+ .^ +  . 

Figure . (a) Figure . (b)

 ›  






›







% 
%   









 @›    
 


 







 



  



 
 

  
   
 

  !
   
 % 
&%   















 ›

  



 




 



  





 "  

 #$
 
%

  


 $› 
@› &$
$


›

  







Figure . (a) Figure . (b)

@


      

L = VTh
(@Th  @L)
Figure . (a) : Original circuit

VL = @L L
= @L x VTh
(@Th  @L)

Figure . (b) : Thevenin equivalent

½


Figure .8

Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit of the circuit shown in Fig. .
0
to the left of the terminals a-b. Then find the current through
@L = , and
.
ü  

Finding @Th :

Figure .8 (a)

@Th =     =  x   = 

Finding VTh :

Figure .8 (b)

Loop Y : -
   Y   ( Y   Y ) = 0 «««««.( )

Loop Y :  .'  ««««««««««««««««..«««.()

Substitute () into ( ) :
 .02

"+ .   .02/0.0"

 Figure .8 (c)

L = VTh =
0
@Th  @L   @L

When @L = , L =
0 =
A
0

When @L = , L =
0 = .A
0

When @L =
, L =
0 = 0.A
0
½


Figure .

Find the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit.

ü  
To find @Th, we set the independent sources equal to zero but the
dependent sources remains in the circuit. We may set Vo = V to ease
calculation.

Figure .
(a)
Loop i : -  Vx   ( Y
Y ) = 0 or Vx = Y
Y
But, -  Y = Vx = Y  Y
Hence, Y
-
Y

Loop Y & Y
 KVL :  Y   ( Y  Y )  ( Y

Y
) = 0
( Y

Y )   Y
 = 0
Y
= - A

But, Y = - Y
 = A

Hence, @Th = V =
Y
Finding VTh :

Figure .
(b)

Loop Y : Y = A
Loop Y
: -  Vx   ( Y

Y ) = 0
Vx = Y

Y
Loop Y :  ( Y
Y )   ( Y
Y
)  Y = 0
%  Y ±  Y ±  Y
= 0
But,  ( Y
Y ) = Vx
Y = 0 A


Hence, VTh = Voc = Y = 0V

Figure .
(c) : Thevenin equivalent circuit
½

[etermine the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit.

Figure . 0

ü  

Since there is no dependent source in the circuit,

Vab = VTh = 0 V
 Nodal Analysis : Y  Y =  Y  V0 ««««( )


But , Y = 0 - V0 = - V0 ««««««««........()
 

Substitute () into ( ) :

Y
Y  V0 = - V0  V0 = - V0
   

Or , V0 = -  Y 

Thus , + ."0 .' 5 6


 ü
 

! 



  


 

 



 


! 

 

 
 


'! 

  
   
 !

'!

   

  




! 

 

! 




 














 
 


 ! 

! 



Figure . (a) : Original circuit Figure . (b) : The Norton equivalent circuit
± To find the !   7!, We determine the
'  '
 flowing from terminal a to b in both circuit.
½

Find the Norton equivalent circuit of the circuit

Figure . 
ü  

+ . !

Figure .  (a)

! =   ( 8    8 )
=   0
= 0 ×  = 56

Finding N :

Figure .  (b)

ß Short circuit terminal a & b

ß gnore  resistor
Y = A
0 Y ± Y  ±  = 0

Y =  = Y  = 7!
Finding VTh :

Figure .  (c)

ß Open circuit voltage across a & b

Mesh analysis : Y
=  A
 Y
-  Y
-  = 0 Y
= 0.8A
And Voc = "+  =  Y
 = 5"
Hence, 7! ."+ .5.6
+ 5
½


Using the Norton¶s theorem,find @N and N at terminals a-b

Figure .

ü  

Finding @N :

Figure .
(a)

± The 

 


  equal to ,
± Connect a voltage source of " ." to the terminals a & b
± We   the 56

  because it is
  

Hence,
 .0
At node a,  = = 0

Then, ! = Vo = = 26
Y 0.
Finding N :

Figure .
(b)
± ü    terminals a & b and 
  

± Note the 56

  0" 

  26


 

 

 
  are all in 



Hence,
Y = 0 = . A

At node a, KCL : Y  = 0   Y

=    (.) = A
Thus, Y  = 7! .3





 ü
›

  


 
   

 

 


 ë 
 



@Th
 = ( VTh )
( @Th  @L )

VTh
P = † @ L = ( VTh ) † × @L
( @Th  @L ) †

Figure . 
ë 
 


P = † @ L = ( VTh ) † × @L
( @Th  @L ) †

@L
ë 
 


P = † @ L = ( VTh ) † × @L
( @Th  @L ) †

The slope = dP
d@L

dP
d@L

@L
ë 
 


P = † @ L = ( VTh ) † × @L
( @Th  @L ) †

The slope = dP
d@L
dP =0
P d@L

@L
ë 
 


P = † @ L = ( VTh ) † × @L
( @Th  @L ) †

The slope = dP = 0
d@L

dP = (@TH  @L)  .VTH  ± VTH@L(@TH  @L)

d@L (@TH  @L)  =0

or

(@TH  @L)  .VTH  ± VTH@L(@TH  @L) =0

ë 
 



(@TH  @L)  .VTH  ± VTH@L(@TH  @L) =0

(@TH  @L)  .VTH  = VTH@L(@TH  @L)

(@TH  @L) = @L

@L-@L = -@TH

@L = @TH

When @L = @TH , @L absorbing the maximum power

 ë 
 



@Th
 = ( VTh )
( @Th  @L )

VTh
P = † @ L = ( VTh ) † × @L
( @Th  @L ) †

For @ L = @Th

Figure .  P max = VTh †

 @Th
½


Find the value of @L for maximum power transfer in the circuit. Find the
maximum power.



 A @L
V

Figure . 
ü  
Finding @Th :



@Th


Figure .  (a)

+ =  
  
=   × 
8
= 86
Finding VTh :

Figure .  (b)

Mesh analysis : -   8Y ±  Y = 0,
Y = -A
Get, Y = -A


-   Y 
Y   (0)  VTh = 0
VTh =  V
@L = @Th =

Pmax = VTh† =  =
. watt
 @L (×
)