Introduction to DESIGN STRESS ANALYSIS

(Designing Against Yielding)

R. E. Little

PROLOGUE

Introduction

DEFORMATIONS DETERMINED BY THE BRITTLE LACQUER METHOD ELEMENTARY DEFORMATIONS DEDUCED BY SIMPLE GEOMETRIC REASONING Axial Loading

Tension Test

Torsion

Torsion Test Pure Bending Transverse Shear INTERNAL LOADS

Notation and Sign Convention Example

CHAPTER EIGHT

STRESS, STRAIN, and STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONSHIPS

Introduction

PART A: ANALYTICAL

STRESS (FROM AN ENGINEERING MECHANICS PERSPECTIVE) stress Notation

Mohr's Circle Analysis (uniaxial stress) State of Stress

stress Equilibrium

STRAIN (FROM AN ENGINEERING MECHANICS PERSPECTIVE) state of Strain

compatibility Condition for Plane Strain Mohr's Circle for Plane Strain

Engineering Mechanics Versus Elasticity Strain STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONSHIPS

One-Dimensional Material Models

Residual stress

Three-Dimensional Material Models

Relationship Among E, u, and G for Linear Elastic Isotropic Materials

PART B: EXPERIMENTAL

THE TENSION TEST

Behavior Versus Property The Basic Idea

Example Stress-Strain Diagrams YIELDING

The Yield strength

CHAPTER NINE

STRESS ANALYSIS FOR THE AXIAL FORCE COMPONENT OF INTERNAL LOADS

THE TENSION TEST: A DETAILED ANALYSIS APPLICATIONS

Shrink Fit

Thick-Walled cylinders

STRESS CONCENTRATION

stress Concentration Factors DESIGNING AGAINST LOCAL YIELDING RESIDUAL STRESS

CONSTRAINED (LOCAL) YIELDING

CHAPTER TEN

STRESS ANALYSIS FOR THE BENDING MOMENT COMPONENTS OF INTERNAL LOADS

NOMINAL STRESS ANALYSIS FOR ELEMENTARY BE~~ING comparison to the Elasticity solution Anticlastic Curvature

THE GENERAL CASE

SPECIAL CASES

Curved Members

Tapered Members Nonsymmetrical Members Yielding

Nonlinear stress-Strain Relationship Laminated Members

Superimposed Direct Shear Force components Superimposed Axial Force Components

STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTORS RESIDUAL STRESS

WELDED MEMBERS

BOLTED MEMBERS

CHAPTER ELEVEN

STRESS ANALYSIS FOR THE SHEAR FORCE COMPONENTS OF INTERNAL LOADS

NO~lmIFORM BE~~ING Equilibrium Analysis

Transverse Shear Stress Sxy Thick Sec't10ns Nonsymmetrical Cross Sections SHEAR FLOW DIAGRAMS

Numerical Example

shear center

WELDED MEMBERS

BOLTED AND RIVETED MEMBERS

CHAPTER TWELVE

STRESS ANALYSIS FOR THE TORSIONAL MOMENT COMPONENT OF INTERNAL LOADS

NOMINAL STRESS DISTRIBUTION FOR ROUND MEMBERS Static Equilibrium

Twist Angle

Mohr's Circle Analysis THE TORSION TEST

Yielding

Residual Stress

STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTORS

HELICAL COMPRESSION SPRINGS (CURVED MEMBERS) NONCIRCULAR MEMBERS

WELDED MEMBERS

BOLTED AND RIVETED MEMBERS

CHAPTER THIRTEEN

STRESS ANALYSIS FOR "COMBINED" INTERNAL LOADS

MAXIMUM STRESS SEARCH

critical State of Service Loading Critical Locations

MOHR'S CIRCLE ANALYSIS

Direction of Rotation for tbe stress Element LOCATION SEARCH EXAMPLE

THE SHEAR STRESS CRITERION FOR YIELDING WELDED MEMBERS

BOLTED AND RIVETED MEMBERS

CHAPTER FOURTEEN

FACTORS OF SAFETY AGAINST YIELDING

SIZING FACTOR OF SAFETY

O\~RLOAD FACTOR OF SAFETY (METHOD ONE) OVERLOAD FACTOR OF SAFETY (METHOD TWO)

Numerical Example Exercises

DESIGN PROJECT

APPENDIX A: vectors
APPENDIX B: Transverse Shear Force, Bending Moment Relation-
ships
APPENDIX c: Principal Axes
APPENDIX D: Elastic Buckling
APPENDIX E: stress at a Point Finite Element Project 1 Finite Element Project 2 Finite Element Project 3

PROLOGUE

Introduction

A solid component can neither resist nor transmit loads without deforming.

component deformations can be measured using experimental stress analyses. employing brittle coatings .. photoelastic coatings, strain gauges, X-ray techniques, e~c. Experience indicates that there are three basic types

of deformations: (1) elementary, (2) analytically tractable, and (3) complex.

We shall discuss elementary deformations in this Prologue. Analytically tractable deformations may be

analyzed using either finite-element analyses or experimental stress analisis techniques. (Generally good design practice dictates that both are used to complement one another,

with emphasis on the former in preliminary design and

emphasis on the latter in the developmental stages of design.) Complex deformations occur in welds, threads,

keys in keyways, bolted and riveted joints, etc. Generally we can only crudely estimate the actual local deformations

in these applications, and consequently we must adopt empirical methods to base allowable design loads -on appropriate experimental test data.

Design stress analysis involves using the appropriate tool at the appropriate time. When elementary solutions suffice, we may use the engineering mechanics expressions developed in this text to estimate the allowable component loads. Otherwise we must use either

finite-element analyses or some appropriate experimental stress analysis technique(s) in estimating allowable design

loads. unless the local deformations are so complex that empirical procedures based on test data are required. Generally, each method is used at least once in each of the several stages of the overall design stress analysis process.

In fact, since good design practice requires that we continually use our analytical methods to compare the present product to products with service-proven performance, the design stress analysis process continues on after the given design has

been finalized (and usually even after the given product

is no longer being sold or perhaps even being resold).

P.t

DEFORMATIONS DETERMINED BY THE BRITTLE LACQUER (EXPERIMENTAL STRESS ANALYSIS) METHOD:

Suppose a member or component is sprayed with

a special lacquer coating which becomes brittle when it dries. We know by experience and simple experiments that the lacquer cracks only when the local deformation (strain) exceeds some threshold value, and then the cracks occur perpendicular to the directions of the tensile deformations of the material directly underneath the lacquer. As the load imposed on the member or component is increased, the cracks in the brittle lacquer become longer and wider. Usually, the perimeter of the region exhibiting cracks

is marked (say with a grease pencil) for each of several imposed loads, providing a pictorial perspective of the progress of the threshold deformation (strain) as the

imposed loads increase. ~

The primary use of bri~tle lacquer coating methods in design stress analysis is to establish the location

of maximum local deformation (strain,stress), viz., where the cracks first occur. In this application the member

or component is sprayed in every area where large deformations may occur (perhaps covering the .entire member), and the imposed load is increased incrementally until coating cracks are detected. Then, we usually use strain gauges to obtain

a more accurate estimate of the local deformation (strain,

stress) at that location. (The threshold cracking strain for brittle lacquers is too sensitive to minor variations in

test conditions to provide accurate measurement of the

strain directly underneath the coating.) Refer Figure P.1.

P.2

- ~ :::=::;..= .~-.-- .. --. ~-----..._.-. . ..... -

-:-

".,..

,....

,J:J

-

,....

15

-

P.3

No matter how much theoretical analysis has been done in the preliminary stages of design, we can never

be certain that we know the actual 10oation of the maximum local deformation (strain,stress) until we have built the appropriate prototype and subjected it to the appropriate loads. Even then, there may still remain some doubt -because the actual service loads that cause failure may

not be understood or foreseen. Nevertheless, brittle lacquer coatings (and photoelastic coatings) provide considerable "full field" information regarding local deformations.

We shall DOW present two brittle lacquer coating examples that are quite remarkable. Figure P.I displays the brittle lacquer cracks for the root of a turbine

blade under "centrifugal" loading. Although the (christmas

treer geometry is relatively complex, the cracks exhibit considerable geometric regularity. The fact that the cracks form small grids of approximately uniform size indicates that the deformation (strain,stress) is approximately uniform througout the entire blade root. This uniformity reflects an exceptional design with nearly perfect (uniform) utilization of all of the root material. (Unfortunately

th.is feat is seldoll duplicated, aaking this design quite

remarkable.) Figure P.3 displays the brittle lacquer coating cracks exhibited by a special laboratory specimen intended to illustrate and demonstrate the inherent orthogonality

and regularity of local deformations. If you carefully examine the crack patterns in comparable locations and how the crack patterns change from location to location, you will surely be intrigued.

p.6

Figure P.4 schematically describes the deformations within a double edge-notched strip subjected to a (uniform) tensile load (distributed force) at each end. The elementary and analytically tractable deformation regions are quite apparent in this schematic. The actual loading (gripping) conditions are sot shown here but will be discussed next.

Figure P.5 provides four examples of how a tensile load (force) can be applied to various specimens. In each

of these examples (and in most practical applications) the local deformations are t~o complex to describe analytically. Nevertheless, whatever the actual local deformations, the

~

force F shown is statically equivalent to the local distri-

buted forces.acting on the surface of the specimen in the

grip area. Moreover, if we examine the elementary deformations occuring in regions remote to the grip areas, we will note that the deformations relate to the statically equivalent forces (and/or moments) rather than the specific means of gripping the specimen. This is saint Venant's principle.

We shall now examine elementary deformations in long slender members (whose longitudinal axes are obvious by inspection). If the member or component cannot be categorized as long and slender (e.g., an engine block, or a transmission housing), then we cannot deduce the nature of the member or component deformation using simple geometric reasoning (and either finite-element analysis or experimental stress analysis must be under-

taken).

P.7

t t

Figure P.1f

Unl.form Deformation Here

•• Elementnry

Geometricall\"

Regular .

Deformn t ion lle r e •• Analyt it-a II v

Tractab It' .

Uniform Detormation Here

•• Element41r~·

schematic of deformations in edgenotched strip under uniform tensile loading at each end.

Tapered collet

...... .,....,.-4 __

-

f

Threaded Grip

r--.. '"
I" -,
r- "-
~-<:
i"....:-
r-, -.'"
t'( == ."'-...
r-, -."-...
- -




,
... . P.8

statioally Equivalent Force (Assuming No Bending)

-

I +-++-+-I - _-

Uill Uill

Split Collet

--

t

Po as
.... Q)
M M
e <
---
..


-
._ . - -

F

1

saint Venant Region

SAINT VENANT'S PRINCIPLE: If two or more sets of loads

are statically equivalent, a member or component will experience the same deformations outside of the respective saint Venant regions regardless of which load set is actually imposed on the member or oomponent •

..

Figure p.5

illU

-

f

- .._

-

f

Regions of Identical Deformations (viz., the deformation at a given pOint is the same in each case provided it is located outside the largest saint venant region)

-

f

Saint Venant's principle as applied to a tension test. (see also Figure 10.8.)

P.9

ELEMENTARY DEFORMATIONS OF LONG SLENDER MEMBERS DEDUCED BY SIMPLE GEOMETRIC REASONING:

Axial Loading:

Perbaps tbe most practical and intuitive example

of axial loading pertains to tbe tension test, Figure p.6. Here we use ball joints in an attempt to eliminate(reduce) specimen bending so tbat tbe applied load tbat is statically equivalent to tbe action of tbe grip on tbe specimen is

...

tbe axial force P.

Now tbe issue is bow does tbe specimen deform

..

under tbe action of tbe axial load (force) P. First, we

sball stipulate tbat our discussion pertains only to tbe gauge lengtb of tbe specimen wbere elementary deformations take place. (Tbe deformations in tbe vicinity of tbe specimen fillets are properly regarded as analytically tactable.) Next, we stipulate tbat tbe specimen cross section is uniform and tbere is no variation in material bebavior along tbe gauge lengtb, viz., tbat tbe deformation wbatever its nature is uniform along the gauge length. Hence, we now consider the deformation of a typical segment of the gauge length portion of tbe speeimen, Figure p.7.

If the segment geometry chosen is indeed typical and proper, the gauge length of the tension specimen can be "constructed" by placing a sufficient number of the typical segments one

on top of another until the entire elementary deformation region is defined. Examination of possible alternative geometries for the typical segment leads to the conclUsion that only the segment in Figure P.7(c) is geoaetrically acceptable, ~iz., satisfies tbe required leoaetr1c coapat1bility constraints.

P.10

Gauge Lengtb

f

...

p

.J _

p

Mecbanical Extensometer (to measure elongation A of gauge lengtb)

Figure p.6

Tension test specimen and test set-up.

Figure p.7

P.11

Typical segment of a long slender member with a uniform cross section experiencing only a tensile load (force), i.e., no bending.

Before Deformation

After Deformation

I », :~'

. ~ .. ":: .. ~

-

~ :',' .. - ),

~ '1 : ,.

- --

Not valid. Orientation requires (a) distinguishing top from bottom.

Not valid. Orientation requires (b) distinguishing left from right.

(ci) Only geometrically acceptable alternative.

(c2)

Still the only geometrically acceptable alternative. (Note the deformation is the same at every point on the cross-section as well

as for every segment along the length of the member.)

P.12

Note clearly that the analysis (geometric reasoning) underlying Figure P.7 places no restrictions

on the deformations relative to either elastic, plastic, or viscoelastic behavior (or combinations thereof), or involved (metal, ceramic, plastic, etc.) except that it must be homogeneous relative to the longitudinal axis of the tension specimen.

Now consider Figure P.8. If the typical segment

deforms as indicated in Figure P.7(c), then each filament within each segment must deform identically. If, in turn,

we view each filament as being comprised of infinitesimal

elements stacked one on top of another, then each infinitesimal element must deform identically. Namely, the entire gauge length portion of the tension specimen is composed of

identical infinitesimal elements. Elements stacked one on

top of another act in series, whereas elements laterally adjacent to one another act in parallel.

The issue now becomes to deduce the load-deformation relationship for the infinitesimal elements using measurements based on the entire specimen.

Load-Deformation (stress-Strain) Relationships for a Tension Test specimen:

Consider Figure P.9. We argue that each typical filament in (b) is an intinitesiaal tension speciaen, with cross sectional area a, experiencing an axial force p.

~

Tbis intinitesiaal tension speciaen exhibits an enongation 6.

P.t3

Figure P.S T)lIpical infinitesimal filament with a typical segment, and a typical infinitesimal element within a typical infinitesimal filament.

.» ."

Typical Element

Typical Filament

I ,;1} ,~; ; y

-I. . . ...

Typical Segment

Figure p.9

Each infinitesimal filament in each typioal lI,epeDt ill allio a "tension IIpeci.en" •

...
p
p
_j_

I
t
~ - ~ ,~ ,
J' !i>.
,
.(,
Ca) _L I C~_)
... ,
<, ...

p

p

P.14

Its original length was t. The portion of the tension

specimen shown in Figure p.9(a) is in static equilibrium

when P acts through the centroid of A along the longitudinal axis and (~ F).~ = 0 = - P + t p in which the latter summation pertains to the number of infinitesimal filaments com-

*

prising the typical segment, say N • Then we observe that

A = t a, with the su .. ation also over N*. Rewriting these two expressions as P = p(N*) and A = a(N*) respectively, it is clear that, for ~ (co.pletely) ho.ogeneous .aterial,

Normal

P P. Longitudinal __

(_) = ( ) _ S

A a _ stress nn

Next, we know that ~ t = Land t 6 = 6. ThUs, rewriting

* *

these relations as (n )t = Land (D )6 = A, it is also clear

that (for the sa.e aaterial)

Normal

6 A Longitudinal

~ = L = Strain

= e nn

But, since the length t of the infinitesimal tension

speci.en .ay be .ade as saall as we wish (at least in

theory), we aay argue that the longitudinal nor.al stress

and the longitudinal normal strai~ are uniform throughout

the entire gauge length p~rtion of the tension specimen, viz., across each cross section and along the entire gauge length, provided the material is homogeneous, the cross section is uniform, and the specimen experiences no

bending. This uniformity makes it possible to use measured values of P and A to deduce the associated values of stress

and strain. (Neither stress nor strain can be measured directly. But stress is always calculated using some relevant stress-strain relationship.)

P.15

Tension Test Example:

Table P.i list the load-deformation (P-A) data

for four different tension test specimens machined from

the same bar of stock and tested using the same equipment and procedures. These data are plotted in Figure P.10(a). Figure P.10(b) in turn shows that the four load-deformation plots in (a) reduce to a single stress-strain plot.

It should also be noted that the transverse normal strain associated with the change in diameter of each tension specimen under load is given by the simple relationship

where u is termed Poisson's ratio.

Exercises:

1. Does the reduction of the various load-deformation

plots to a single stress-strain plot depend on the linearity of the stress-strain relationship.

2. Is it the aaterial or tbe .aterial bebavior that is actually assumed bo.oleneous (unifor.) througbout the entire speci.en.

,. If the stress-strain plot is linear, show that A .ay be calculated using the expression

in which E 1s the slope of the normal stress, normal strain plot, Figure P.i5.

P.1b

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C C
~ .~
.,., 0
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0 .:r
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~ C J;:l t"I 0 C\J 0 CP J;:l
..... E 0 t"I \0 0"- C\J L(", 0"- Il II ~ E 0
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Plot of teD.ioD test data iD 'able P.1.

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P.1S

Torsion:

We can establish the nature of the deformation

of a long slender member being twisted using the same geometric reasoning meth~dology as used for the tension test specimen, provided the member has a circular (round) cross section. otherwise, there are no elementary deformations occurring under torsional loading (see Figure 12.17). Figure P.11 shows clearly the uniformity of the elementary deformations for round specimens.

For torsion of round specimens (of homogeneous material and uniform cross section), the typical segment

is a disc, Figure P.12. Each typical disc deforms identically. consider the behavior of radial lines on each surface of

the disc when it is deformed. Each line must remain

radial and straight, with one line rotating a small angle

6e relative to the other line. (NO curved lines are

geometrically acceptable because we would have to

distinguish one surface of the disc from the other to establish the nature of the curvature.) Figure P.12(b) indicates that the material along the longitudinal axis

experiences no deformation, whereas the shear deformation

is linear with regard to the radius r from the longitudinal axis elsewhere throughout the member.

The Torsion Test:

We can use a torsion test to deduce the shear stress, shear strain relationship for a given material Just as we use a tension test to deduce the normal stress, normal

P.19

F11ure P.ii

Brittle lacquer crack •• boviDC tbe an1for.ity of tbe deformation of a torsion speci.en.

Note tbat tbe oraok. ooour at " decrees to tbe lODgita4iDal ax1 •. (RefereDce: Ret~Dyi aDd YOUDg, locatioD cited)

t r

"

',' '..__ ~ ..

~ ,- "

,'-. , ... ~ '"":.:: .

. - .. _ . . ~.

. ..

"

.. _ .. '"' "

'. ~ .

- , .

. .... '.

;:: .. c

.~

~'

.-=- ",

.~ .:. . ....

• L ._ ~'. ~, •

;,." .. ,".

, -", . .. . .. :: ~'., ...... :...

P.20

Figure P.12

Typical segment of of long slender .e.ber with a (uniform) circular cross section. A typical radial line

in one conceptual cross section remains straight and rotates through angle 66 relative to a corresponding radial line on the opposite conceptual cross section. (A typical longitudinal line forms a portion of a helix when the member is twisted. )

--Typical Radial Line

Ca) Undeformed Typical Segment

;_ Typical Longitudinal Line

..
T
Re.ains
Straight
r- and Radial
.(,
i_ (b) Deformed
Typical

Seg.ent
...
T P.21

strain relationship for that material. The uniformity implicit in a tension test is achieved in a torsion test by using a hollow round thin-walled specimen, Figure p.13. specifically, we argue that if the wall is sufficiently thin there is negligible variation in the radial direction

of the deformation (strain, stress). Then, denoting the shear stress (via) to distinguish it clearly fro. noraal stress (pia), we observe that static equilibrium requires that

(~M).~ = 0 = - T + J rave(v/a)avedA A

Hence,

in which t is the wall thickness. Also, as evident in Figure P.13(b), 6s = rave(6e). But (6s/t) is the shear strain. Hence, we may write (6s/t) = rave(6e/{), where

(6e/t) = (e/L) because e (the total twist angle of the specimen) = ~ (6e) and L (the length of the torsion specimen over which e is measured) = ~ t. The shear stress, shear strain relationship may thus be plotted by measuring T and e (in radians) and computing (v/a)ave and (6s/t).

If the shear stress, shear strain relationship

is linear, the slope of the shear stress, shear strain

plot is termed the shear modulus and denoted G. Similarly, if the normal stress, normal strain relationship is linear,

Figure P.i3

1'.22

Defor.ation of a typical "ele.ent" of

a typical segaent of a t~1n-walled torsion specimen. If tlrave is sufficiently small,

the variation in s.hear stress (v la) is n~gli~ible across thickness t, viz., (via) = (v/a)ave·

L

t

c5s

.T

p.23

the slope of the normal stress, normal strain plot is termed the elastic modulus (young's modulus) and denoted E. Refer Figure P.14. (If the stress-strain plot of interest is nonlinear, additional coefficients must be specified to

describe the plot analytically.)

Exercises:

1. state why the planar top and bottom surfaces of the typical segment in Figure P.12 must remain planar after deformation.

2. Prepare a physical model to show wby straight radial lines cannot become curved during deformation.

3. Summarize the assumptions made regarding material to develop a plot for the shear stress,shear strain relationship.

4. If we assume that the shear stress, shear strain relationship is linear, show tbat we may compute e using the expression

e = TL/GIRR where IRR = (2~r t)r2 = 2~r3 t.

ave ave ave

P.24

Figure P.14 Linear stress-strain relationsbips.

Normal Stress

(E. )'

a

(a)"

Sbear stress'

(!.)

a

(b)

'[B6t

- = \)

6.(.

•

Normal Strain

. (6,(, )

T

Shear Strain

(¥)

P.25

uniform (pure) Bending:

Figure P.15 describes the nature of the deformation of a typical segment of a long slender member with a uniform cross section that bends only in the plane of the paper under tbe action of a uniform (pure) bending .oment acting perpendicular to tbe plane of tbe paper. Since the bending .oment is invariant along tbe portion of tbe .ember being examined, we can define a typical segment of tbe

member as sbown in (a), provided tbe material is bomogeneous. Geometric compatibility arguments dictate tbat the planar ends of the typical segment remain planar after deformation, rotating slightly to intersect at the center of curvature

of the deformed member. No otber deformations are geometrically acceptable (but you might consider a few alternatives).

Exercises:

1. Show why the planar ends of the typical segment must remain planar during deformation.

2. Describe a restriction on the cross section that would reasonably cause the member to bend only in the plane of the paper if the pure imposed bending moment acts perpendicular to the plane of the paper.

3. summarize all assumptions made regarding material bebavior in reasoning tbe deformation of a typical segment.

P.2b

Figure P.i5 Detinition ot a typical segment ot a long slender .ember SUbjected to pure bending (in tbe plane of the paper) and the associated detor.ation ot tbe typical seg.ent.

Typical Segment

(a)

Undetormed Member

(b) Detormed Member ' (Bends in an arc, with the typical segment compressed on one side of the neutral axis, and stretched on the other side)

Radius = RNA

/

(C) Deformation

of Typical segment

.. .... ........

. . .

. ·.~A69~

.... '

..

. · ... t~ # ~

-

P.27

Transverse Shear Forces:

Figure P.16 shows schematically the shear deformations of a long s~ender member with a rectangular cross section experiencing (internal) transverse shear forces. The deformations are ~ uniform throughout the typical segment of the member and therefore cannot be deduced using simple geometric reasoning.

P.28

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S \ Convenient
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)
\ ~
)
\
j ~ (a) Undeformed

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. . (

)
t
I J I I
\ I I , I J
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( J
(b) Deformed

Figure P.16

schematic of shear deformations for (internal) transverse shear forces. In (b) the shear deformation at both the top and bottom surfaces is zero, and is maximum at the centerline.

P.29

INTERNAL LOADS (LONG SLENDER MEMBERS)

If a member or component can reasonably be categorized as long and slender, we can argue that the member deforms such that the shear and normal stresses

acting on any cross section perpendicular to the longitudinal axis satisfy the following relationships:

Internal Load

Axial Force Component

=

Transverse Shear Force Component

..

= S <i)dA

A

Bending Moment Component

=

Torsional Moment Component

=

! r x A

-

(;)dA

In other words, a member or component resists external

loads by developing internal loads which exactly satisfy static equilibrium conditions. Knowledge of these internal loads is requisite to stress analyses based on the elementary engineering mechanics expressions developed in this text.

P.30

Figure P.i7 illustrates the type of internal load diagrams of interest in elementary design analyses.

F is the axial force component of the internal load

xx

(the two subscripts are the same), whereas Fxy and Fxz

are the two transverse shear force components of the internal load (the subscripts differ). ~ is the torsional moment component of the internal load (the two subscripts are the same), whereas Mxy and Mxz are the two bending moment components of the internal load (the subscripts differ).

Figure p.i7 is very informative relative to searching the entire component to locate the maximum internal load (deformation, strain, stress). It is clear that the pin experiences its· maximum internal load somewhere in the vicinity of one of the three grooves. But in this pin example further analysis and discussion are required to establish

the exact location and to state the maximum internal 10ao

in terms of stress or strain.

Notation and Sign Convention:

Fi«ure P.i8 presents .odeling alternatives for the internal loads acting on so.e conceptual cross section along the .e.ber. Proper .odeling depends on the reference fraae used in analysis. One unit vector must be parallel to the longitudinal axis (and perpendicular to the conceptual cross section). The first subscript in the double subscript

notation pertains to the face on which the internal loads

P.31

Figure p.i7

Example internal load diagrams.

. • . I •.

.,'~!... ~,:J.t.. . i •

. tt 1.;1 !

,.....-.... r----I-~-2m-m-; ,,~ Il :8~~

. r .. - t h~~
, I I
.
I.
,
. r -.
, 1~_,~IJ
Schematic
of Component t; .
e.g. • Pin ! i· ..... . .. t

50mm

.. F :~: II J I I I II II I I I I I I I I 1-

!

.-. . ...

.

I ..i

. ,

+ 167.5 N

.•• 0,' _ .

,... ...................... ~.- +670 N'

p: ..... -xz

, I

-I .. "! . :

i

'1 -335 N .................. ..._ .................. __ ...........

I . !! I' I ;

-r- .. - : ... ..., ! .. r- "I' . : - , -" , .. ,

- : .. -335 N ._ ............... .._ ......

,

_ J _ ~ ... ! .... _.. .. .... -

~ .. ..

. . .

I .

-.~

;

·of •••

.- .

i

. .

.......

. ..

..

;

·M; .-

j xy

i

--~ .

I ,

- .

I

16.75 N-m

N-m

-'~z . ;-:-. 411 _ r...- r...- __ _ -:-

_. I . .

P.32

Figure P.1S

Modeling of internal load components.

Shaft Schellatic

conceptual Surface (perpendicular to longitudinal axis)

-

Fi

INTERNAL. LOAD MODELING FOR ALTERNATIVE REFERENCE FRAMES

y
(a) L
Z
OUT
- + F X A ...
F. = + F Y + F Z
1. xx xy xz
-- + MxxX ... MxzZ
Mi = + MxyY +
~~
~ IN
(c
U
-- - FvuU ... ...
Fi = - FvvV - FvwW
.. - MvuU ... A
M. = - MvvV - MvwW
1. y

1-l

i IN

(b)

Fi = - Fxxi - FxyY - FxzZ Mi = V - ~yY - MxzZ

~ ,.

W

Cd) _'»I_N

U Not Valid

P.33

act. The second subscript pertains to the direction in

which the particular component of interest acts. For example, F acts on the X face in the Y direction (and .is thus a

xy

transverse shear force component).

,

Each subscript· has an associated sign. Faces whose outward normals point in the positive coordinate directions are positive. Similarly, components pointing in the positive coordinate directions are positive. The sign of the double subscripted quantity then is establisbed by multiplying

the signs of the respective subscripts. (For example, Fvv acting on a negative V face in a negative V direction is positive, viz., is a tensile axial force component.)

The internal load components are always unknown

in internal load analyses. consequently, these load component

must be modeled in a consistent manner. Namely, internal load components are always directed in the positive coordinate directions when working with positive faces, and in the negative coordinate uirections when working with negative faces. See Figure P.18(a) through (d).

Example:

Consider the simple idler gear shaft example in Figure P.19. We shall assume that (for tbe reference frame sbown) the force -(2T)f is statically equivalent to the action of the idler gear on the shaft. The issue is how

to model tbis action (with only the information apparent

P.3lf

Figure P.19 Internal load component example.

OUT

schematic of In-line Idler Gear Shaft

Tbe resultant of tbe action of tbe mating gears on the idler gear is equal to -(2'I)Y

L/:g... ..... -(2T)f

Tbree Alternative Modeling Cases

(a) concentrated Force 2T
acting at the center
.1- of the idler gear
-Tf -Tf RR
(b) Concentrated Force T
acting at each edge
of the idler gear
-
-(2T/w)y RR
i J i * I t (C) Uniformly Distributed
Force (2T/w) across
gear bub
-
~ L

R L

Note: For each modeling alternative, RL = "'fiR = TY. (The first step in an internal load analysis is an external load ana lysis. )

p.35

in the sketch) and what are the corresponding internal load components. We show three alternative modeling cases below the idler gear shaft schematic. Lacking precise information regarding the actual contact between the gear and the shaft. these three cases (and perhaps others) should be considered before reaching an engineering decision on how to model the action of the gear on the shaft.

Case(a):

The internal loads acting within the shaft between the left hand bearing and the idler gear (viz., in the interval, 0 < x < L/2) can be determined by equilibrium analysis using eitber the free body shown in Figure p.20(a) or the remaining portion of the sbaft. For the given f~ee body, the internal loads are written as

..

F i = F xx f + F xy t + F xz· !

and

because the respective load components act on a positive X face. Static equilibrium is satisfied when

- .0' +'I't + F~ + "zy t + "zzz
J;F =
and
.. =0 - - - - --
~H = rTxT + rF xF i + Hi
1 P.36

Figure P.20

Free body diagrams for the internal load analysis pertaining to case (a) in Figure P.19.

- A
F. -2TY ,..
x L 1 (_
(a) t::f c- .... :M i '"
td FO X
Z
A OUT
TY
Mi Free Body

For 0 < x < L/2

Remaining Portion of Shaft

Internal loads refer to

the action of the remaining portion of the shaft on

the free body.

Internal loads refer to the action of the free body on this portion of the shaft.

)

-2Tt -
Mi ~
L-
r- ... -,
x /,Fi
(b) "
J C'"1 (I X
z
Tt Tt OUT
[x- (L/2) ] Free Body

For L/2 < x < L only

Remaining Portion of Shaft

)

P.37

Hence,
(t F)·X = 0 = Fxx
(t"F).Y = 0 = T + Fxy
(t F). Z = 0 = Fxz
(t'M)·x = 0 = M
xx
(t 'M).Y = 0 = Mxy
(t M). Z = 0 = -xT + Mxz --

in which t M is evaluated about the conceptual cross section

- - --

(viz., where ri = 0) so that Fi does not appear in the

expanded expression. These results are plotted in Figure P.21(a) using solid lines.

Next, consider the free body in Figure P.20(b).

Here we write (for L/2 < x < L)

and

Hence,

(L F).1 = 0 = Fxx.
(t F).f = 0 = T - 2T + Fxy
(2:; F).Z = 0 = F
xz
(2:; M).1 = 0 = M
xx
(L M).f = 0 = Mxy
(L M,).Z = 0 = -xT + 2T[X-(L/2) ] + M
xz P.38

These results are also plotted in Figure P.21(a), using dashed lines. The maximum value of the bending moment for this modeling case is LT/2, occurring at the center of the shaft.

Case (b):

The internal loads acting within the shaft for this modeling case are indentica1 to those in case (a) except for the central portion of the shaft where

(i - i) < x < (i + i)· working with the remaining portion

of the shaft to illustrate the methodology when the conceptual cross section pertains to a negative face,

we write (Figure P.22)

- --

:t F = 0 = - F xx~ - F xy r - F xz Z -TY + TY

and

- -

:t M = 0 = - ~ - ~y~ - ~zz

- [(L-x) - (i - i)]TZ + (L-x)TZ

Fxx = 0
Fxy = 0
Fxz = 0 )

)

)

P.'9

Alternative Modeling Cases (Refer Figure P.19)

(a)

F xx --_ ..... - .... --..- ... --- 0

eM __ " 0

Mxx ----.~- .... -- 0

• __ .. 0

Cb)

=--·-··~O

(0 )

-------------- 0

,

~ +T ~+T

........ 1 ill"""'l1 II-.'!"Ill r-~~ 0 III !Iii Ii f"" 0

-T -T

.-_ .. --0

-----'· ... 0

----·~ .. o

--------------0

-------------- 0

o

eft,

~O

Figure P.21

Internal load diagrams for example idler gear shaft, Figure P.19.

p.ltO

- -Tf Y
-Tf Fi
r-X J~--M" ~!

tTf -tt'~
OUT
1\ Tt
(x - (~-!.»
2 2 Pree Body

Other PortioD of Shaft

For (~ - ~) < x < (~ + ~)

2 2 2 ~

Figure P.22

Free body diagram for the internal load analysis pertaining to the central portion of the shaft in case (b) of Figure P.19.

P.41

M~ = 0
Mxy = 0
Mxz L w (Independent
= +(- - 2'T of x)
2 These results are plotted in Figure P.21(b), using dashed lines. Observe that the shaft experiences pure bending along the gear hub for the (four-point loading) modeling assumed.

It is clear that the maximum bending moment associated with (b) is less than the corresponding bending moment in (a). Thus, unless we have specific reason to believe that modeling (b) does indeed describe the physical contact between the shaft and tbe gear bub, we sbould use modeling (a) in preference to (b) because it is safer.

Case (C):

Cases (C) and (b) are similar in tbat each differs from case (a) only in tbe vicinity of tbe gear bub. Figure P.23 shows the relevant free body for determining tbe internal loads, assuming tbe action of the gear hub on the shaft may be modeled by a uniformly distributed load whose static equivalent is a force equal -(2T)f acting at the center of the gear hub. Observe tbat in equilibrium analysis we replace tbe distributed load by its static equivalent (resultant), viz.,

P.42

Free Body

For (~ - ~) < x < (~ - ~)

2 2 2 2

(L_:!» 2 2

Other Portion of Shaft

D1.tr1buted Load Re.ultaDt Equal.

IT( L W

-;- x - Cf - i»

M

i

1( L 'W)

-2 x - (- - -) 2 2

,..

(_A

~ . X·

Z

OUT

Figure p.23 Free body diagram for the internal load analysis pertaining to the central portion of the shaft in case (C) of Figure P.19.

p.43

Tt - [!!(x

w

c!! - !:»)]y 2 2

in which [~(x - (~ - ~»)] is the resultant of the distributed load acting to the left of the conceptual cross section, IUId (us ing R to denote this resul tant )

Hence equilibrium analysis indicates that

Fxx = 0
Fxy = !l(x _ L)
w 2
Fxz = 0
Mxx = 0
M = 0
xy
Mxz = xT T (L _ :!»2
- -(x -
w 2 2 -h i TL wL

• e max mum value ot Mxz is if - 11- This value occurs at

P.44

the center of the shaft, as evident in the internal load diagrams in Figure P.21(c).

Again, modeling (a) is recommended over (C) unless the latter is known to describe the physical contact between the gear hub and the shaft.

We shall now conclude this rather lengthy example by making certain comments that are intended to provide

design perspective. First, we hope tbat most students

will recognize that none of tbe three alternative modeling

cases considered exactly describe tbe internal loads in this or any otber application. Ratber, tbese models were employed in analysis to provide a basis for estimating

the actual internal loads. Ideally, we would like to bound the actual (maximum) internal loads by establishing (at least) one model more severe and (at least) one model less severe than the actual situation. If tbis bounding process does not appear practical, tben we must opt to establish

a model only slightly more severe tban the actual situation, viz., safe but as accurate as possible. But whenever there is doubt regarding tbe accuracy of the modeling, we must always choosetbe safer (safest) modeling alternative.

There is no way to refine the modeling process without comparing analytical results to the outcomes of relevant experimental stress analyses.

Wbetber the design analysis pertains to estimating external loads, internal loads, deflections, stresses, or

P.45

stress intensities, learning to develop appropriate modeling alternatives is a major part of the subtle art of design analysis. This process is not discussed in design textbooks because apparently the analyses are too detailed to permit the brriad coverage of various topics expected and demanded of textbooks. Nevertheless, designers must think in terms

of alternative models, not a single "best" or "reco_ended" or -acceptable" or "traditional" or "reasonable" .odel.

Answers are not found in textbooks •••• only the tools

that -when appropriately used will improve the probability

of discerning at least one satisfactory answer.

Exercises:

1. Verify the internal load diagrams for case (a) by reworking tbe example tro. rigbt to lett (working with a negative X face).

2. Verify the internal load diagrams for case (C) by reworking the example from rigbt to lett (working witb

a negative X tace).

CHAPTER EIGHT

STRESS, STRAIN, and STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONSHIPS

PART A: ANALYTICAL PART B: EXPERIME:r.."TAL

PART A: ANALYTICAL

Introduction

stress analyses involve three basic considerations:

,

(1) stress equilibrium

(2) strain compatibility

(3) Appropriate stress-strain relationships

When stress and strain are treated rigorously, each is defined independently of the other. Accordingly, some relationship must be introduced in analysis to relate stress

to strain and vice serva. This stress-strain relationship must be appropriate to the given material, the load history, and the environment.

Our objective in this Chapter is to provide back-

ground information regarding certain analytical and experimental aspects of stress, strain, and stress-strain relationships. Subsequ~ntly we shall use this information in design stress analyses for tension, bending, direct shear, and torsion.

8.1

STRESS (FROM AN ENGINEERING MECHANICS PERSPECTIVE)

consider Figure 8.1(a). This schematic is intended to illustrate an arbitrary continuous member experiencing an arbitrary set of external loads. The member is sliced by an

"arbitrary plane whose normal is ~. We assume that at every point P the material on each side Of the arbitrary plane

is in static equilibrium, and that each side acts on the other with a distributed local force, the resultant of which

..

for infinitesimal area a, is f in Figure 8.1(b,. Tben, by

engineering mecbanics definition,

= limit (!)

a .... o a

Normal and Sbear stress:

--

The stress vector Sn has intuitive interpretation

in terms of its normal and sbear stress components, Figure

-

8.2. Tbe normal stress component is denoted S ,where

nn

s = rs .~)~ = S ~

nn n nn

--

Similarly, tbe sbear stress component is denoted Snt' wbere

S f nt

in wbich it is assumed that unit vector f lies in tbe ~ plane and is collinear witb the projection ofirn on tbe ~ plane, viz.,

that

fJ

Figure 8.1

8.2

-

F

q

-

F

j

(a)

..

F q

p

(b)

(a) Arbitrary member experiencing arbitrary load system. (b) Resultant, ~, of local distributed forces acting on infinitesimal area a at point P on arbitrary plane whose outward normal is ~.

Figure 8.2

8.3

..

r q

Interpretation of stress of its normal stress frnn components, where

-

vector Sn in terms

- and shear stress Snt

8.4

stress Notation:

The apparent intuitive interpretation of the stress vector in terms of its shear and normal stress components makes it desirable to use .tress notation which clearly distinguishes between these tvo stress components. We accomplish this by adopting a double subscript scalar notation in wbicb like subscripts connote normal stress, different sUbscripts connote shear stress.

Tbe first subscript defines the plane on wbicb the stress component acts, wbi1e tbe second subscript defines the direction in wbich tbe stress component acts. For example, if the stress vector acting on a ~ plane bas a component in tbe f direction (wbicb lies in tbe ~ plane), tbis component is denoted Snt. Tbe sign of tbe stress component is determined by multiplying tbe signs of tbe respective subscripts (wbere a plane (face) wbose outward normal points in tbe positive coordinate direction is positive). Thus, if tbe stress

vector acting on tbe positive ~ plane has a component in the negative f direction (wbich lies in tbe ~ plane), tbis component is negative, viz., -Snt.

Exercise:

Given tbe infinitesimal stress element (parallelepiped)

below and its associated U,V,W reference frame, sketch

tbe stresses Suu,Suv,suw,svu,svv,Svw,swu,swv,sww acting

on tbe inboard (negative) faces and tbe stresses S~u,S~v' s~w,S~u'S~v,s~w'S~u's~,S~ acting on the outboard (positive) faces. (Unless the sign of tbe stress component is known

u

8.5

w

I

I J__

/' /' ,/'

/'

/'

v

8.6

from prior analysis, stress components are always directed such that the stress component is positive using the double subscript sign convention.)

Mohr's Circle Analysis (Uniaxial stress):

Consider the typical infinitesimal stress element

in Figure 8.3(b)c Elementary analysis indicates that the axial (normal) stress is equal to piA, where A is the cross sectional area of the tension specimen. The typical stress element is isolated in (C) where the axial stress is now denoted Szz for the reference frame given. If this stress element is in static equilibrium, then the portion of the element shown in (d) is also in equilibrium. Note that using the free body diagram in (d) we may now examine the normal

and shear stress acting on the a plane established by arbitrary anile ~- (measured counterclockwise by convention'. Namely, static- equilibrium requires that

(1; F) •• = 0 = + J S dA (-~·a) + J S dAnCa•a)
zz z nn
Az An
= - S A cos~ + SnnAn
zz z
and
(1; ,).t = 0 = + J SzzdAzC-~·f) + J SntdAn(t.t)
Az An
= + S A sin~ + S A
zz z nt n 8.7

Figure 8.3 Normal and shear stress component example, using a tension test specimen •

...

1P

Typical Infinitesimal stress Element

(b) Cylindrical Specimen Loaded Axially by Force "}t

(a) Example Tension Test Set-up

J S =P/A • zz

snt~ (d) ~Szz=P/A

SZZ=P/A

(c) Typical Infinitesimal stress Element With

Axial stress Szz =P /A ,

Shown

8.8

in wbicb An = Az/COS~. Thus,

P 2

5 = (-)cos ~

nn A

and

= - (1~.)sin~cos~ A

Examination of tbese expressions sbows that 5 nn its maximum value wben ~ equals zero degrees, wbereas

takes on its maximum value when ~ equals 45 degrees.

takes on

5 nt

A Mohr's circle analysis is useful in describing

the variation of 5 and 5 t with _. This circle is obtained

nn n

as follows. First, use the trigometric identities cos2~ =

(1/2)(1+coS2~) and sin_cos~ = (1/2)(sin2_) to write

and

which are the parametric equations of a circle (in terms of 2~). Then, to enhance plotting tbis circle, transpose the term (1/2)(P/A) in the first equation, square botb equations and add. This manipulation gives

The center of the circle on 5 ,5 coordinates lies at nn nt

8.9

[(.!) (E.) , OJ. Tbe radius of tbe circle is (.!)(!).

2 A 2 A

Tbere are actually tbree different (two-dimensional, Mohr's circles plotted in Figure 8.4(a'. Note that in Figure 8.3(c, we obtain tbe same two-dimensional sketch of the stress element looking down eitber tbe R or tbe e axis. Bence the respective Mobr's circles are identioa1 (and are superimposed in Figure 8.4(a". Tbe tbird (two-dimensional, Mobr's circle pertains to the stress element looking down the·Z axis. This element appears to experience no normal or sbear stress, i.e., tbe Mobr's circle bas center [0, 0] and radius zero. It is also plotted in Figure 8.4(a,.

Exericses:

1. Describe tbe surface in tbe tension specimen on wbicb Snt is .&Xi.u ••

2. Looate tbe point on tbe Mohr's circle corresponding to

~ = ~o = 45 degrees. Sketcb the segment of the stress element and make sure that the sign of Snt is correct. (Note that static equilibrium pertains to forces rather than stresses.)

8.10

(b)

Mohr's circle Snn,Snt plot describing Snn and S variation with angle 2~. nt

The Sand S versus 2~ relationship

nn nt

by direct plotting of the parametric

equations.

Figure 8.4

(a)

[0, 0] "

(2-'=180) "

S nt

(a,

(b)

8.11

state of stress:

.. .

stress S in F1gure 8.2 is a vector quantity because

n

the direction of the normal ~ which defines the orientation

of the plane containing the infinitesimal area a is assumed known. Otherwise, there are an infinite number of planes

that pass through point p. Thus, there are an infinite number of stress vectors at point p, each pertaining ~o a different planeo To specify cOllpletely the state of stress at a point we must state the stress vectors acting on any three mutually orthogonal planes, e.g., the a, p, and y planes forming the inboard (negative) faces of the parallelepiped in Figure 8.5. (We could just as well specify the state of stress relative

to the U,V,W or the X,Y,Z reference frames. Each specification leads to the salle principal state of stress.)

Given Figure 8.5, the three coordinate stress vectors at point Pare

- ... ... ...
Sa = saaa + s~p + Sayy
- ... ...
... + S~~P
SfJ = S~aQ/. + sfJyY
- ... ... ...
Sy = syaa + SypfJ + s.".,,'" Tbis state of stress is conveniently sU1ll1Barized using the lIatrix array

stress =

8.12

Figure 8.5 Infinitesimal stress element associated with the state of stress at point P.

d~

I I

dex

8.13

However, static equilibrium analysis for the stress element presented in Figure 8.5 indicates tbat Sij = Sj1' so that only six coordinate stresses, appropriately specified, define the state of stress at point P.

Most critical states of stress in design analysis occur at tbe surface of tbe member or component. Tbese surfaces are almost always free of sbeai stress (except for glued jOints); bence, the state of stress is simplified markedly, say

stress =

or

o

o

stress =

Tbese "two-dimensional" states of stress, wbere one principal stress (underlined) is known by inspection, are termed planar stress. Wben tbis known principal stress is zero, tbe state of stress is termed plane stress.

8.14

The state of stress in whicb all shear stresses are zero (viz., in which all three coordinate planes are free of shear stress) i~ termed a principal state of stress.

Principal stress =

o

o

o

Principal stresses are usually denoted by numerical subscripts.

I

Exercise:

Sketch the infinitesimal stress elements associated with the three "two-dimensionalfl states of stress, using X,Y,Z coordinates •

....,.
S S 0 S 0 Sxz S 0 0
xx xy xx xx
Syx Syy 0 0 Syy 0 0 S Syz
yy
0 0 Szz Szx 0 S 0 Szy S
zz zz 8.15

stress Equilibrium:

We shall now establish the differential equations of equilibrium for the infinitesimal stress element in Figure 8.5 and show that Sij = Sji.

The stresses acting on the outboard (positive) faces of the stress element are not shown in Figure 8.5 to avoid congestion. These stresses are related to the corresponding stresses acting on the inboard (negative)

faces as follows:
as
s' Sexcx + CXQdex
QQ = aQ
S' as~
= S cxfJ +-dcx
~ aQ
s' Say asay
= +-dQ
cry C)Q s' S + as~cx
= ~fJ dfJ
flcx fJcx
as
s~fJ = sfJfJ + ~f3dfJ
ap
as
S' = S fJ-y + fJ-YdfJ
fJ-y ofJ
C)s
S' = S + ~d-Y
-YCX -ycx
as
S' = s-yp + ~d-Y
-yfJ
Sy-y s-y-y + aSZ2::
= a-y d-y 8.16

These Taylor's series approximations (ignoring second and higher order terms) are based on the assumption that the

functions that describe the state of stress are continuous at arbitrary point P.

The stress element is in static equilibrium when

+ S ~~dCtdY - S ABdetdy + S;~ detd~ - Sy~dCtd~] + Y[S~d~dY - SCt;'d~dy + ShydCtdy -S~ydadY

and (evaluating moments about the center of the infinitesimal stress element to eliminate the cross product terms which involve normal stresses)

~ M = 0 = a[(d~/2)~ShydCtdY) + (d~/2)(S~ydCtdY) - (dY/2)(Sy~detd~)

- (dY/2) (Sy~dad~)] + ~[(dY/2 )(S~adCtd~) + (dy/2) (SyadCtd.8)

- (dCt/2)(SQy~dy) - (da/2)(SCt;'dPdy)] + y[(da/2)(Sa~d~dY)

+ (da/2)(S~d~dY) - (d~/2)(S~adadY) - (d~/2)(S~adady)]

8.17

substituting for S~ in the first vector equation and then dotting sucoessively ;~th &, i, and ~ gives

~S~Q aSfj~ ~Sya 0
- +- +- =
oa ap oy
OSaJ3 OSfJP aSy/l 0 [8.1(a)]
+- +- =
ocr o~ oy
as a')' OS/3y as yy = 0
ocr + ~/3 + oy These are the differential equations of equilibrium for cartesian coordinates stated in terms of the ~,/3,y reference frame. Any solution we obtain for tbe stress state at an arbitrary point P in a member or component sbould satisfy tbese differential equations when appropriate cbanges in notation are considered. (Separate derivations are required for polar and spherical coordinates.)

In turn, substituting for sit in the second vector

j.,. lit. A

equation, dotting successively with a, /3, and y, and then

dropping terms involving differentials (by order of magnitude

analysis) gives
S~y = S y/3
Sy~ = sa')' [8.1 .. (b']
Sa/3 = S/3a or, in general, Sij =

8.18

Exerices:

1. Derive tbe differential equations of equilibrium and sbow tbat S1'j = S using tbe X,Y,Z reference frame.

ji .

2. Derive tbe differential equations of equilibrium and sbow tbat S = S using tbe U,V,W reference frame.

ij ji

8.19

STRAIN (FROM AN ENGINEERING MECHANICS PERSPECTIVE)

Strains are defined analytically in terms of displacements. Figure 8.6 shows in two-dimensional format the general nature of the deformation of an infinitesimal element and the associated displacements of element pOints A,B,C,D. Let these displacements be denoted as follows:

u = u(x,y,z) = displacement in the X direction v = v(x,y,z) = displacement in the Y direction

w = w(x,y,Z) = displacement in the Z direction

Accordingly, the location of point A for the undeformed element is [x, y., z]. whereas its location for the deformed element is [x-su , y+v, z+w]. Assuming the displacements are continuous, the positions of the remaining three points

may be approximated using a Taylor's series (and dropping second and higher order terms), viz.,

B [x+dx, y, e ]

BI [x+u+dx+(au/ax)dx, y+v+(av/ax)dx, z+w+(aw/ax)dx]

C [x+dx, y+dy, z]

C' [x+U+dx+(au/ax)dx+(au/ay)dy, y+v+dy+(av/ax)dx+(~v/ay)dy,

z+w+(aw/aX)dx+(aw/ay)dy]

and

D [x,y+dy, [x , y+dy, z]

D' [x+u+(aU/ay)dy, y+V+dy+(av/ay)dy, z+w+(aw/ay)dy]

,

8.20

y

D' -:/1 C'
D
". ,/
....
t C JB,
dy );:.-
/41f
/
A ./ ,/
/
X dx ---t B

Y
! .... X Figure 8.6 Deformed and undeformed geometries of

an infinitesimal element and the associated displacements of points A,B,C,D.

8.21

These coordinate positions (ignoring the respective z locations) suffice to illustrate the definition of strain in terms of

displacement for the two-dimensional (plane) strain state.

(The three-dimensional analysis requires specification of

the location of four additional points on the deformed and undeformed element.)

Working only with line segments AB and AD for simplicity, we define the normal strain exx as

exx =

(B' - A')x - (B - A )x (B -A)x

=

{x+U+dx~-X-u) - (x+dx-x) (x+dx-x)

~Ud

x

=(iX

OU exx = rx

and, by analogy, for the three-dimensional strain state OV

eyy = Oy

ow =rz

In turn, we define tbe shear strains exy = eyx employing an engineering mechanics perspective (as opposed to an elasticity perspective). Namely,

8.22

(B' - A I) (D' - A I)
Y x
e = e = +
xy yx (B - A) (D - A)
x y
(y+\' I §;dX-y-V ) (~ \
x+u ey y-x-U)
= (x+dx-x ) + (y+dy-y )
eV eU
exy = eyx = rx +ry
And, by analogy, :tor the three dimensional state of strain eyz ezy ow + OV
= ='dy rz
and
ezx exz ou + ow
= =rz dx state of strain:

The general state of strain expressed in terms of the X,y,X cartesian coordinates is sU1IDDarized by the strain matrix

strain =

eyx

exx

in which, by definition, e. = e For plane strain, the

1j ji·

matrix is two-by-two, having elements exx' e ,e ,and e •

yy xy yx

8.23

compatibility Condition for Plane Strain:

We just defined three strains, e ,e ,and e (=eyx)

xx yy xy

using only two displacements, u and v. Clearly these three

strains are not independent of one another. Rather, for plane strain, tbe compatibility equation

[8.2J

must be satisfied. For three-dimensional states of strain there are six compatibilty equations relating various coordinate strains to one another.

The compatibility equations impose constraints on

the displacement functions, such that only certain functions are admissible. Consider for example, a smooth line in the arbitrary undeformed member in Figure 8.7(a). When the member is deformed, admissible deformations are continuous and single-valued.

Exercise:

Demonstrate the the plane strain compatibility equation

is satisfied (viz., that the sum of the left hand three terms is ind~ed equal to zero) by appropriate substitution.

8.24

Figure 8.7

compatibility sketches.

Typical Material Line (Smooth)

/

(a) UndeformE~d

(b) Compatible Deformation

Incompatible Deformation

8.25

Mohr's Circle for Plane Strain:

Suppose we know the state of plane strain in terms of the X,Y coordinate system in Figure 8.8 and we wish to restate this strain state in terms of the X, ,Y' coordinate system. Then, by definition,

ex•x• au'
= '&T
ey'Y' av'
= ryr
and av' au' =~+ayr

But the chain rule may be use to re-express these partial derivatives as

au' au' ax + au' ~
'Ox'" = 'dx""" dx"" dY x
ov' dV' ox ov' *'
dyT = rx- ayr + dY y
and ov' au' ov' OX ov' ~ au' OX + au' oy

Ox"" + ry-r = dX Ox"" + dy' Ox' + dX W dY 'O'fT

Z OUT

[ll1 =[ COS&

'V' .... sln.

[ UJ= [COS.

v 8ln.

Y'

y

D

C'

--:;5}

D' --- "" I

~ ",.

...

dy'

/

Xl

/

'±::;:::;"'~===td-X ~I'" _ B

,

y

\ I

x

8ln·l1 U 1

C08& "

...

[;,1 ~ c::::

8ln•ilX]

COS&) Y

-Sin.][ ll]

C08. "V.

[,OOS. 8in.

8.27

in which, for example,

au' au' au au' av Ox' = ou ax + dv' ax

In turn, evaluating the respective partial derivatives using the relationships

x = x' cos 9 - y' sin 9

y = x' sin 9 + y' cos 9

u' = u cos 9 + v sin 9

v' = - u sin 9 + v cos 9

given in Figure 8.8, we obtain the parametric equations for the Mohr's circle

exx+eyy e -e 21:
ex'x' = 2 + xx2 YYcos29 + 2 sin29
exx+en e -e ~
ey'y' = - xx 2 yy cos29 2 in29
2 e

x'y' = 2

e -e e

XX2 ITcOS29 + ~YSin29

when the factor of (1/2) is introduced on each side of the resulting shear strain expression.

8.28

The Mohr's circle is plotted in Figure 8.9. Note that the ordinate is (~)e ,not e to The coordinate strains are

'" nt n

represented on the Mohr's circle by heavy dots. If exx

> e ,the largest principal strain occurs when the last

YY . th t . . f r r bot h

two terms 1n e parame r1C express10n 0 ex'x' a e

positive. This maximum principal strain is located at angle 29 from the coordinate strain point.

p

Exercises:

1. Verify the parametric equations given for the plane strain Mohr's circle.

2. Locate coordinate strains ex'x" ey'y' , and ex'y' on the Mobr's circle in Figure 8.9.

**

3. state a simple inequality to indicate whether the maximum

shear s'train pertains to the coordinate strain circle or to the Mohr's.circle corresponding to e11 and e33 in Figure 8.9.

Engineering Mechanics Versus Elasticity Strain:

The ordinate of the Mohr's circle for strain would be e rather than (~)e if we had defined strains e = e

nt " nt xy yx

from an elasticity perspective, viz., as

e = e = ( ~ ) [!!. + ~]

xy yx "ax ay

The elasticity definition, while analytically convenient, is not widely used in elementary analysis.

8.29

, .. qC\l
,.....,
C\I
,.....,
Q)~I~
.._,
~ +
~
Q) C\I
,.....,
»
»
Q)
,....., I ~
~~C\I ~
~
Q)
"""" .._,
"""" L.....J
= Q)
~
L.....J I
J ,.....,
I ~~~
,....., /
I ~~C\I
.._,
I } I /
+01 -, i
~ ~ .~ ~
""""fC\l ~
~
," L.....J
... 10
II
tc"\
tc"\
~ •
t"'\
tc"\
s:: Q)
""""
CIS oe
J.t ~
~ «:
III
oe """"
"""" J.t """"
.... «: c;
0 Q)
III .r::. ~
"" III 0
~
~ E
"""" := Q)
CIS E ....
J.t """" 1:.1
+01 ~ J.t
III CIS...-I
E 1:.1
Qi
~ Q) a::
ct: .r::. ..
..-I +01 J.t
e, .r::.
+01 0
J.t ClSL
0 .r::.
.... ,._;l Q)
.r::.
Q) Q),._;l
..-I +01
Q 0 0
J.t Z..->
.....
~ •
,....
III ~...-I
.. ~ =
J.t Q+OI
.c J.t J.t
0 ...-I ~
~ 1:.1 ;::.. 8.30

STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONSHIPS

stress and strain, in terms of their respective engineering mechanics definitions, are independent of one another. Stress is based on equilibrium considerations,

strain on geometrical considerations. Thus, we must now introduce some stress-strain relationship to re-express

stress in terms of strain and vice versa. But there is no

mechanics theory to dictate the form of the stress-strain relationship. Rather, the relevant stress-strain relationsllip

is very complex in general, because it depends on the actual material, its processing, the load state history (with particular regard to rate of loading), and the local temperature. Accordingly, we shall only examine a few idealized stress-strain relationships that may be used to approximate the actual stressstrain behavior in certain relatively elementary applications.

one-Dimensional Material Models:

Figure 8.10(a) shows the linear spring used to model a Hookean aaterial. Tbis is tbe si.plest model used in stress analysis. Its use tacitly assumes tbat the elastic modulus E is the same in tension and compression and that the material behavior is strain rate insensitive.

Figure 8.10(b) sbows the dash pot that is used to model a Newtonian .aterial. This model is seldom used for solids per se, but is commonly used in series and/or parallel arrangements with other "elements" to form various

8.31

S nn

E

Linear Spring

I Snn

Dash Pot

S nn

(a, Hook.ean Material .Model

(b) Newtonian Material Model

E

S . nn

Linear Spring and Dash pot in Series

Linear spring and Dash Pot in Parallel

S nn

= (8 /E) + (S /11» 1

nn nn ~

(c) Maxwell Material Model

(d) Kelvin Material Model

one-dimensional material models (describing the behavior of idealized tension test specimens). (b) through (f) are viscoelastic,

(g) through (j) are nonlinear.

Figure 8.10

8.32

strain rate sensitive material models, e.g., the Maxwell material model in (c), the Kelvin (or Voight) material model in (d), tbe standard linear solid in (e" or the hybrid model in (f).

Just as tbe dash pot is the critical element in a viscoelastic material model, tbe frictional slider (g) is

the critical element in material models wbich exhibit nonlinear stress-strain bebavior. The Prandtl-Reuss elastic, perfectly plastic material model (b) finds wide use in elementary plasticity analyses, but digital computer software employing bybrid .odels, e.g., (J), oan be used to describe relatively complex bistory-dependent stress-strain bebavior.

Both viscoelastic and nonlinear material models involve temperature dependent parameters. Table 8.1 presents typical values of E for various temperatures. These data

are merely intended to indicate that temperature must be considered in establishing values for E, ~, and Sy.

Table 8.1

Typical values of E (Gpa)

Material Temperature (degrees C )
0 200 .iQ2 . 600
1020 Cold -
Rolled Steel 210 190 165 125
316 Stainless 200 185 170 150
Steel
2024-T6 70 65 55
Aluminum 8.33

f 5nn Snn
~III
E
III
E
"'.
Ell
SDD + enn/(1') = Snn/(E+E ) + S (T'E) 11 - nn

l' = ~II (t + f. )

III

(e) Standard LiDear Solid

(f) Hybrid lIIodel

8.34
'Cl
"'"
- ... c til)
c "'"
CI) J.4
1:1. 1:1. ~
~ CP «S
~ ,Q "'"
CI) J.4
~ CI)
C I +J
C C CI) «S
C I:'I.l ~ EI
I:'I.l +J
+J Co)
"'" "'"
..:l +J
II}
C ,.... IX!
C >- -:> .-I
~ I:'I.l 00 '-'Q.
C'I) .-I
.. «S
Co) "'"
"'" J.4
.. CI)
c II} +J
C «S «S
CP ~ E
CI)
Co)
Q'J "'"
Q'J +J
~ .a C = Q'J
C CP «S
C 00 ~ c ~ ~
00 I:'I.l 1:1.
;J' 'rNIv • ... ~
.. • ~ ;..

'Cl ~
C ~
«S Co)
M CP
Q., ~
c ~ J.4
C 00 ,.... CP
00 .c Q.
'-' .. ~
'C «S
"'" "'"
c til) J.4
C "'" CP
CP J.4 +J
.c - .... «S
.-4 .. ..-... II
«S "'" 'Cl "'" Q'J
C)~oo CP 0
0 0 Ul "'"
"'" J.4.c Ul "'" ..
+J CI) Q'J Ul ~ Q'J
Co) 'Cl CP CI) '-' «S
"'" "'" J.4 J.4 ~
J.4.-4.c .. C ,t:1 Q.
C 1:;i:.00l:-4oo C II
C CI.l 0 >.
CI.l '" 1""'4 1""'4
- • • ... = ..
0 0
c ~ 0 CP
C CI.l \01
CI.l - J.4
til) CI)
- Q. S Y,2

E p,t

E p,2

E

8.35

S nn

Sy,y .. -.-------. - . -

Sy,2

s y,1

Slope E

Change in Slope E 'It p,,J

Change in Slope E 2 p,

Change in Slope E 1 p,

e nn

(j) Hybrid nonlinear material

8.:56

Residual stress:

We shall now use the elastic, perfectly plastic material model to introduce the concept of residual stress (and strain). Figure 8.11(a) shows a side view of a portion of the gauge length of a sheet specimen in a tension test. The sheet aaterial is a clad aluminum (on both sides for simplicity of analysis). Assume a 12:50 aluminum alloy clad and a 2024-T4 aluminum alloy core. Geometric compatibility dictates that the strain in the clad is the same as in the core (viz., that the strain is uniform throughout the !auge length). Sketch (b) in turn displays tbe elastic, perfectly plastic stress-strain diagrams assumed for the respective materials. Tbus, if the speciaen strain enn were equal to

* -

enn in (b), the stress distribution across the thickness of

the sbeet would be that shown in tbe adjacent sketch. Note

that the clad has yielded, but the core bas not.

Now consider tbe stress-strain behavior in tbe clad and core as tbe speciaen is unloaded. Botb clad and core unload elastically (Figure 8.10 (h ,-) ,but tbe clad unloads along the dashed line in (C) whereas the core unloads along the solid line. Now suppose that when the speci.en is unloaded the strain e* in tbe clad is equal to zero. In this case, the

~ *

core would experience the tensile stress S shown in (d). But

nn

this stress state does not satisfy equilibrium and therefore

the assumption of zero strain intbe clad .ust be rejected. Next, suppose that when the specimen is unloaded the strain e* in

nn

the core is equal to zero. In this case, the clad would experience

the compressive stress S* shown in (e). Again, the stress state nn

does not satisfy equilibrium and the assumed-strain must be re-

8.37

Figure 8.11 Residual stress example.

2024-T4 aluminum alloy core

1230 aluminum alloy clad (both sides'

(a' Side view of portion of clad sheet tension specimen.

S nn

SY,2024-T4

S* nn,1230

j~ lj LLI "I j
r- ,.
~ Sy,1230

Resulting Stress Distribution Snn Across Thickness Given Strain e*

nn

e* nn

e nn

(b) Elastic, perfectly plastic stress-strain diagrams assumed for respective materials

* snn,core

*

if enn = enn ,clad

P=O (unloaded)

(d) First Assumed strain state

8.:58

~----------- SY,2024-T4

* enn,core

* enn,clad

Sy , 12:50

I

= 0

e* nn,loaded

(c) Unloading

if e* Dn

(c (

..

S~n,clad

= enn,core

= 0

,·1

. t .,' 1

P=O (unloaded)

(e) Second Assumed Strain State

8.39

jectedo However, examination of (d) and (e) indicate that the strain e* for the unloaded specimen falls between these two nn

extreme cases, viz., at some value e in (f) such

nn,unloaded

that the resulting stress state is in equilibrium. The equili-

brium stress state defines the residual stress (distribution)

that remains after the specimen is unloaded.

Residual stress results from nonuniform yielding, either associated with a uniform stress and a nonuniform strength as in this example, or associated with a nonuniform stress (as in bending) and an arbitrary strength distribution. Most members and components bave relatively large residual stresses developed during fabrication, and such residual

stresses must always be considered in deBign analyses (even

if little quantitative information is available).

Exercise:

Let S = 300 Mpa and Sy,1230 = 100 Mpa, state the

Y,2024-T4

ratio of the residual normal stresses in the clad and core for t = T/10.

8.40

* Snn,202lt-Tlt

ur~:~~::3:iJ----------~

Equilibriu1ll state of stress equals

Residual state of stress

I

.I'

•

i

e* nn,loaded

(f' strain state such that associated stress state satisfies equilibriu1Il

S Y,202lt-Tlt

sY ,1230

...

8.lt1

Three-Dimensional Material Models:

It is not a simple matter to state the three-dimensional analogues to the one-dimensional material models

just discussed. For example, the generalized (linear elastic'

stress-strain relationships for a Hookean material are
(for a X 1 'X2 'X:5 reference frame'
e = c115x x + c 5 + c 5 + c 5 + c155x x + c 65
x1x1 1 1 12 x2x2 1:5 x:5x:5 11t x1x2 2 :5 1 x:5x1
e = c 5 + c 5 + c 5 + c 5 + C 5 + c 5
x2x2 21 x1x1 22 x2x2 2:5 x:5x:5 21t x1x2 25 x2x:5 26 x:5x1
e = c 5 + c:525X2X2 + c 5 + c:5lt5 + c:555X2X:5 + C:565X:5X1
x:5x:5 :51 x1x1 :5:5 x:5x:5 x1x2
e = c 5 + clt25X2X2 + c 5 + c 5 + c It 55 + c-465
x1x2 41 x1xt 1t:5 x:5x:5 Itlt x1x2 x x:5 1
·2
e = c 5 + c 5 + c 5 + c 5 + C 5 + c 5
x2x:5 51 x1x1 52 x2x2 5:5 x:5x:5 51t x1x2 55 x2x:5 56 x:5x1
e = c 5 + c 5 + c 5 + c 5 + c 5 + c 5
x:5x1 61 x1x1 ~2 x2x2 6:5 x:5x:5 61t ~1x2 65 x2x:5 66 x:5x1 in which c = c because loading and unloading is assumed

ij ji

to take place reversibly (in a tber.odynamic sense,. But,

for orthotropic .aterials such as fiber-reinforced composites where the fiber orientation is unidirectional, the elastic

properties are independent of the direction of the coordinate axes assumed positive (eog., -interchange" + X1 with - X1', in which case the generalized relationships reduce to