'.

, , ,

C .. Artstotelian Ethics

Nicdmadlean Ethics

AR:~STOTlE

Aris'W~e (3&1-3,2~ B.c.) wa;s a studear o.fPl~~o·~ w,h.o. some ~hilllk.~tJ,rp;liS!ied his ~c\lcher Ito, bsenme 'ilie gw~at:es'II philc50pJter of !Ill!. His cwofkswli:l,ude Mcl4iph'lI~. CQI~goi'i~. 1'I!)'1.I~t, .;l;ncl mall)' others in adcllili,on to th.e Ni«m.i~drNfj' Ethics .

100:1<.1

I Ev~rf an arldeve~ jnq,l:!~fY, and ,run'lil .. fly ~\i'iery ,ac-

I~' ~io.n. and PUf5Uil" is m01lilglIl hll aim a:t some good; a.nd for ~h iSI\f';ason the good. has rigbrdy ~n deelared ,~o be: tlt,at a.~ w[hiih aWl. tllil.ililgs .a~m.. But ,~ eerta.i]!! diffcl\ence is found :Simo~g ,endst ~I'!l~ are ,00eti¥i!~i.c;s,. othe~s ,00r~ P!"OOW:ClS a.pa:n fm. IIthc activities dut prodlil:~C: them .. W~.efc these arc ,ends apl1f[ ffom dl~aCliQns, i't ws the nature ef me ,pfoolyctll, ~o be beltCF th::JIn '~h:eacti'l'il~es. Now, as there aft: m~ny astions. am, 3Jfid SC~efi(CS. 'llli1drc:nds also 'are G'Ul!mw!i'; the I~fld O'f the medtClI, art is hea~th.t~1l!t 'of "hip" ~Lld~ng a vessel, ~at; of stratt'pvicoo:ry. dlat of 000- rn.O'm~~ welllm. BUI!l wbeifC such a m fan undeli a single capadtf~s bridiLemaking am::! idle Mh.e,r arts ,eoncerned wh~ th:e cqu ipment of M.!'~ faJ] under t~.e an O!(f ~n;ding. and tffirui.~ and every m.~I.itall)l':ilctio:n. under st:rarcgy. in t~~ same way oiheli arts fa~l un·, de!!" yet l!Jilier~n an of tih.es:ethe eQdls of 'the roa¥ 'te.r .am 3.r,C ~o be pn:f.cfintt!l [Do all ~c ~1iIbc:rd~li'I,ate e~s; {or it is :for the sake of ehe fOrmer tha:t the bl~ k,r are pursued .. h ma.kes no. diff~Il!!'ntoC WhC3tblil:f me aJ(;bvili~ ~erw!.silves, :<lre dn.~ ends, of thee .a.oti.ons" or

F\-om. Niaim~dJ~~ Erkkl. tr.l!n~ W,ID. Rg~ Co":ri~1 e l!JlS by OX£t!l:'d Ul!i;~!ef$:ity p~~ lkpr'i!'l,t~d bey ~nDi$5iiln of ,I:b~' :p1l.'lili5Ixr.

•

$o.meil:hi~g else <!iran f!'omth,e ac~ivjci~~ .u in ca~ Qf me sdicfiCCS )ti5f ~cfl'l:iQf.lcd.

U~ ~heJ1i. there isSiOme end ,of the th~!lgs we wW1i.ch we; O!Hi I'll' .for :i~ OWIn sakct (e\'ltfll':rnling: be:ing desired fo[ the sake of this.), and if we d'o choose '~\I'ctfrlh.ing (O!f [h~ S;J,klil of somtctiliting else Sit tha~ l3[C Idle ~mxeS$ wolildgo Q.n~o 'nfinity.

dUl (IlU!j desire would 'be ern ply .aRdvail:ll). this must be: Illite good .and rbe' chid ,good. Will ,the kn.ow~edEe Glf ~t:, ~he!n, have :l!!! great :inrnl!lcnce . life? Shall. Wil n~lI. lib ardter.;, who have :i m,,~:Lt' ,

:aim at. be more li kelliy ,~o b,ill: u,PO[l wh.ol,t .ii:;. ''''''\f' ;- ...... ""<'jjIIf+ sO'. we MUS'!: uy, in (I~d~neii!t ~eall~ W d~lll:l'mwne' it is, and of wh.ich of rliLc: ~ieoGcs or capacitill5 it .

the ob~ett. ~[woU1l.d secMto belong ~o 'tIu: MOst lffilD.rita:li\'~:Jn and that which. is mon EIf~l)l !the ~ tersrt, Andpol.ilics;lp'peaJn t~. be ohh:is naiWR:; f(lf i'~ i!il. this tihail: ordains wh~(;h of dl.e scienees ~d1 be sirudiedi ~n a St3[e, and whkh ,each ,illa:ss or ze~$ ~hol,ddlear~ and up In whaltI poj!l!lf they ~llitQ.M ~t;il.rn. mem; and we see ,el;l1eo, the Mast h.ig;h1, ~ t:cc'Mcd .of c3,padti.esto fan under mis,! ~ .. g. : 'l!lccO.r:lo~i!C'&! !fhe!~oric;. now.sinu poLiti~ uses, tblll . of Ithe S(ien~cs. ~nd ~incei ae;:liHl,. h: .le.g:ilSma~, as wlTIla,! W.care ~od,o ,and whall: We are ee ,amtain the end ofltbis. seienee must :itmdlldcuooe OIf the

ers, so' tiha!!:tbi:s end ,must be du~ good fer mllin.

eve!i!l if tffilLc: co.d is thcs.am.e :liofa .iLflg.le maR and

;1J !lt3r~. 'lihat: of'th~ ,sl3.1!ese!::[RS ,i1I~ ,i!I~~ ,c\!cnU!! .

NICOMACHEANI HI-IICS

lhi~g gn:8Jtcr mui more cmn plete 'IV heIhe r h~' .'H~.1 i n o:r to p~s~ rve; '!:ht'lll:igil ~t is wm~h wJhi,II,e (0 [lJ([;I i~ the end merc~y f'o:r one m(lfl.it' i~ fiFier arul more lii:ml~ik~ ~o an[lirn,it ifur :II [utiQ:J'l O~ hj,r i:lty~~t:lt~~_ These, then, iI re t hI:' elliJ 51U which our i[1q~~i[y :I ims •. si I'IC~ U[ :~s pol ~ t~.C't1~ science. in oru: ~!::rrJ,5C .of ~hat term,

f

Ol.l!r Ji~C"u~sion ~",iJI~ be ~.dcqu.~~cuf i~ h;IS :I~ much desrness ;I~ the ~llhj~c~-m.'jL(tt'r .1IdlUi~5 Df. f'Or preci~iflllJ [s Irmt 'tD be smJ~!'It for ali ke i I'll .1111 d~M"u$ll ~un~, ;11l1,Y more It han in .['I H the [prodlJ('I~~ tlf the era r(~. Nu/!j,\,' fi I1.C 31l:J.d i ~151 .aclio:i1;li" "dl~.ch r!!]'iJi{,:I~ scienCE i nVl:~t~~at~s.. iI(hVl.i!: j ~f !ll ueh v ~]iri c:(y and fluc'[u:Jt nun of npj n ~I m, ~) thar rhC::')1 may be thLmgh [ ~n ~X!,~~ O<l~ Y by ,nrll\'em inn. and no~ h)" mlmn:. Alml ,l:::O!xh :I~iU g~\'e r,iS!L: W a SLIHi~~r nt.lCUI;ltiofl h~c;I~~~t:'~he}' hd:rn~ harrn 'tn many pcL1"" ,p~e. fl~f bd{)~ now men l1 :w(.' been undone hy rea~m oflh.cUIF wea !lh, auel orhers hy rit.1:S~ In of theie Cllur:~_ We must ~'l...::' cuntenr, rhen, inlspc;lkil1lg of such ~ub .. Je(ts a "J w if~ sueh ~lf(: fIli sses '10 i rlJ iC:'ltc~he t wtb lQ!llghl Y ;l,nd i no ou d i ~~. ;ll'!l! ~ n s~,~I.;I ng al'Mnn th i <IJ,!s whi.ch :i rc on Iyli}r the mn5l ~n ~ fIJ~ .:J nd 'W i t h pr~'mi~~es u( rhe !l,;mu: k i n.d w rt:~Ii!:-:h cone! lIsions thsr urc llI,o bem'~ ... 11m the same ~p.i;fjl. (:11ert'furre. ~twuhl t'm~h ~}'pt:" uf 5ta~~u'il eut bt, I"n~il't-d~ f~~r it i~ !·ht: 'I.~ 1:! rk ilf :I nl cdUC:lt!;'ti .~1I'I;U~ t~, !m~" fl ~r prec L~iun ill each C I ,~~~ nlrhi nJil~ i ust SI I b r :I~ the nature uf I:h~' su hi~-'("~ ;! d m i'L .. ; it ~~ t:~-~d~'JHlr ~'(iJllll'l!r f(1oI1~i~[hi fl_ aco_'p~ prtih:qhk re.i,son~ ng tirmn :~ IH;lthem"lit i.r i;U11 ;m~i ~n d~'nM nd f~ml'i1. ;1 rht'hui("i an ~tit~mi fir pn itl ~f;';.

LilI'i' NI1'1;v eaeh Ill;! n i lldf'i~'~ \\;dl rhe th i r1~' he k n [I\\''!i,

,1.t:II.d nf th!:'~t' [bi,t' ~ ~ :It )!:I kJoL.i i !Il':~'-' .':. ... ! :; ..• 1-.> m-'.~ ·t~·i III h .. ,~,bot:cJm ed ~c .. ut:tl i i'I .1 ~mbtt:'('"[ ~~, ~I ~,~];'~ I jim Il':~' uf t k~t ~[Ibi ~"tr •• 1Jnd t h~ Il}.,m \\'ho h'lS ft:et'i \.~(~ :! mll(!tl-·rt)~~nl\J~ ,~duGlt~on i Sal good ju.dg!:: in got:ne tr;! I. Hernl.{I:':I pnm~ m.:l[! i,~ !:I.[)! ,1 l'lf[)iJl:l: heal'~[ oflcn:u.rcs OJ], po~ i~im~. sdl:,fKC;. for he: :~5 ~.nexp::~·ieln(\ed ~ n~he ,neticms th;lit occu r ill lire, b~[ i ~~ d is'i!J~s~.on5 ~M n ~rQm the5!: :l mtl art: albout rbesc"aI:ndi. f ulrlh~r" '~i flC~ he' lends ~(') (U]iQIW hi~ pil;ssian~" :hi~ study wi Ii OC"'~1 ill .1JnJi lmp roti mMe, bt:. eam;e the ~!lTIl.d a iwt'd a [ ~.s, not knowl~gt: b\iU ;In~.o!)l_ A~d i~ m~kes, 110' d~ff'erC'nct:whc~hc.r he is young i iii y~.JI'S or YO'I!.uhfui i!'l character; [he defe~~ do::s not depmo on 'time, bm 0:1:1, hi~ I~", ing, ,1Ind pllll~5ui I:Ig each s.uiCceS$ivil;' objec[, as pl1$!';io.i:I dtUKCl:S. For w such perSOilS, as, to the :i:~('ominent. knowledge b!'ings EIIO pro~[; but [0 dIose who desi K and aC[ ]0 accord.] I1(C

\\1 i~ h a ra~iMa'llpfi flcili.~I,e k f1owk(]j!c ;'!hlwt ~\!d~ rnmters w.iU be of g.I::I~ benefit.

The'5C remarks aboat the s,[ud!:'m, the srm nf lU:';UnH::n~ W k ,~xp~'nCIII. and I[lit:' pur~1U"C ~,f (h~ inqu i ry. Ill:! ~I lbe taken as (lU r p,,~f;lct:_

Le,t [15 n:S1L1ImC ml,w linqlJ i ry 1I,liiItI st~ut'. in view 0 f the ~ f=lelt t h;ll[ .['IJ,i knowledge (! i'ld every P~! rsu I[ 81:1 III ~ ~n ~ SO.l~'M::gOlj("I. wh at it is that we S;!)I pnliti ca I science ;]in]~ ut and what j, the h~~hc_~t tJr all good~ nchiev able by anijl.lii. \'e,htlUy ,the~'t: i~ \·er~lgt:'nn.1L~ agm:o· men t;, ftl r ho~ h the !'(!:'I'h?r~~ ru 1'1 uf me n. ;1 fil;:iJ Iwnple nf 5,1I rcr!'~n r~·f~ nemcnt S:I}' l h;lIt i t ,~~ ~ ~ppim.e!i~. :1 In d idl:mi~)' ~i\'in!,: 1;.,''CH and tioin,!,: wc[,J u,~th ht'ang h:lppy: hut \\li'th r~lP~d 'to \\.'h;llt ~Mppi.f1lI."Sc~ i~ tlwy til i tIt' r. 11 mi the m.a.1l:J y do nm giL ve t he s,~m C ;1(,'C'[)lU 111 <IS I[hew ~~~. F ul' till.: f(lfIm: r ('11 i n l. i (i~ some rkWill ;1I11.d ob\'iullil~ th~n~.likc pka~ur,e, Wt'I'1hh. lir hlHllnl~r; diLC'j' diner, hO,""I!:\lcr, frm:n unc:'Ilnmhn-;lnll (lhl:'~.~ even rhe suru e mu n ith:On'li fj t'~ ,it wi th J i ~Wi_~ r~~m t11inJ:~, wi~h ht:'.,hh u'h~fll'nt:' isjll, wirh \~'I:;lhh when he is, pwp:r~ Imt cUIl~~("iml~ I~f [hl:'~.r ig-noran.re. tht'}' ~H I m U ITl' [hw.!." w fIn prndfl im liA"J'llILC grcalt ilh::'it~ ~h.H i ~ a.I){)~'~ dU::LIF c~lll1pn·h~·nl~inn.N'[~n- ~Im~' [bi ~u~h~ lku ;Ipan fmm!hil'~e ~1I'I:uIF1l)' guud~ rhere is ;lI'llUth'l;"f \\'hid~ i ssel f-slJI b~lq;:nt,llh I G~ U~t·~ lhe :r.=r~j~! i nt'~~ uf ;1 H t h~:,~C' ,h weilL 1'1) t::':"HniI1~ ;IH tl1('" 1 tpil'l;r,n~ that h;U'e Il\'l'J~ h!.:lli Wl"rt:' pnh"I!,~ ">flnlt'wh:n I;m~dc~~; C,ITIII.Ulg'~~ tn rx;Imi~t;; ~h~J~~' th:u ;rrt' mU"r pn'\'"h-m u.r d~;H ~n:m t.l' 'N: al[li/:1I.Uahlc.

lxt U~ nur f.li I fr I n~ ,r ~C1::. I1H\'\.·t'"x:r. t h,;ut the r~' i·~ :L l~i~rcn:nc'~ bL'I1:.wL'1:·n ilr~wlmt:llt~ from lmd ~hml" III !Iw

fi r~t. pri r'lei pit'," t ur ,h.H,'JI t' "" •• ~" ; ;.~I. ~ ;., ,r ,i, in.> th i~ ~~,u!:"5.tiun ,lm~~ a~liHg. ;~~.Iw u~,t:1 T! I dLi. ",Ir~ \'l~- Lin ~h~' '''':If timm or 1M lhc liust p.r~llcirll~S~" TJIni.:"rc ~_~ ,~t d~ff~rt'm:,e,;]S di:~re i~in :1 rm)l;;{"~Jl3Ir~ !x:U\ .... ('Jrn du' c,uuP>!.· t:mm '~h~ lud,gt'~ ~:t) dine '!U~l1Iil'lg:~~li)in~: ;;[m~ ih~· U';b}, t-;J(k For. whi~~ w~' nU~'~~. be~'un whh \vl1,H Ii s "nmvn. iI~'~" thi l'I,g~ :I r~ (~[S or k.lmi'll~\·It'd~ in ["'.'(1 SI:'IlS~S-_'>ll!H~'

~u us, :w:nm: wi~l~n:IH q 1Ll...'Llilfianion. PH:~;ul1mMy. th~n.

,r~ 't' !n ~(~t hegi!'! \\I~ [h~h~ng~ k !lO\V~ (0 tH. He.tll('1: ;. ~l y

one whO' is ~o i i5tm imd.ligt'ndy ~o lectures about w,hat

~ ~ob1( ;J1,"d JIU!il .1.nd, gene!l":IHy. ;:a'OOlit t:he SllJhl!;l~~'" of pol~li{":I!. 5'C~.ellJccm.us~ ~~u~c ~e:n bmu~IIH up i n ~O!Xlli habits. For rh~ f;lC'tti~ the S"r;m~n,!':.pt.ljnt. :I!IId if !hi,s~s filLlfficicndy :r'~lIi nlEn 11 im, he:wiU not at the stll'rtme(o

the weilOOtil , .• ~ \vd ~;, ,~nd ~h~ m .. ~wh~ i h;l~ k~~rl ~vdl

2

., _ __ --r " .. , _ __ ,~"

hrmlgliu up has Of CJ!l (;,Hsily g~( s[;ln~i'lg:-pnirw. Anti as f"Or h~!1i'1,\vh~1 neither has nor Gin ,~N them, let him nea,r t!h~ wem II~ or H{;:',~i~)(I:

Far he~[ i,~ he whHkn.nw~ nil thiflg~ hiln~,;'II; CmK:i, he ~h::tt hc-ark~llJ~ when men ,wll.n~d rjgrn~; BILU he Vi."ht~ ne ~~h~~ "nuw~. nor lu y~ w hC;i rt

,'\.n~ )thcr 's wisdom. L~ ;1 'U ~dt:~~ \\' igh L

r~~r'

I ;iiT~~:

"' ..

~''''''I

'L·-'~.f!' ...

, L.-~ [I~, hUW~'\'(,f, resume our di~c~$~io.fl rnlm rhe

rl'oim utwhjch we l~ig:rt!'~~"rI. T(JiB~I:g~' frnlH the !i\:r:~ dl;l t nl( n ] t'at [, most me 11. .. ~~ II'! d m l'11 of the mo~~ vulg:1 r tYrl<l!, seem (nut w ut lhnm some ~Wll run to i(~ en~i fy thi: g:nod, or hJ p pi Iii ess, t'''i rh pie;'! ~~m: ;\\,11 id'l i ~ the reason why they l'lw~' the ~if~ uC t.:llipymlC'l~t, Fnr ~h~f~ ~~.n:, wt' m.1Y ,~a y .~h rr:eprom i nent tr pt:$ uf m:""~~~h;l[i I!l~[ memiont'J. ~ hC-~.)I ili t UGI] ... I'll ~ (h~ rd I r the contem plut i ~T I i t~. Now tht: .m:"ls~ of mol r1Jk i nt I are e v iden ri~' q ~~i ~~ ~.~ ... vish ~ n thr:~ r u~ t,~~, prdt:Tr ~ n g .. I:it~ 511i:t:lhlC'[n l~asl~ .. hlU thc.~ p::t:( ~!)m~" gnuH'I'~ i~1'f thei r \' ut'w fml,1l the t;lCt I[ha t' IH,W}' ~.~f ~h,(1.~~ in h~gh pl!a('t:~ sh;~ rc the ta,,~tt:-~ OfS~IH~;lna~1:IHm, i\ omsider ~Hii.otl of 'the p~[)!'fIiw~n[ tn)~~ 0 r i i Ie shu\, .. ~ rh;n I p,t;:tJplt: ~ ~f ~1J pt:' fi~)r rdi nem en r ;uwl uf a ct i \'I.' cI i~rlo ~~~tion itkntif}' h;"ll)pln('~~t\"ith hunnur; h),r thi~ ~~. f"'ldg~~lr sF'Lkin~. the C-I'Id "oF the p"litica! I.ik. Hut i t seems tiI)o ~'Ljped~ .i;111 to ~ ~dl;n ~q:, ;In: In~ nl.: ~ n ,::: fu r. s ~r1.t: i ~ i ~ 'thOllg-~H ~n d,ept:-:nd n'n rho:'le ,d1O bestow hnnou:r r;~:th[!'r th.m (m him wh~1 r~l·~·i\ t:~ il', hH~ th,!: gorxl '~\'l' d I~"mr: tn. It'>e ,~I ~m l'UH ~l,1!. ~)f LJP':,I, i.v ..... ,i.i." ZI.nd ,[lot e;1 sui)l r~uk ~i I ([Hm hi In .. F m~ha, In ~'~, ~~'~' m tn pll r'~UC hOJwm in onk:r [Iu~ til c-y m ~ly b~ CISSli r~'i:1 nf th,ej r W'Jo()(~nt'5;s;;, ~.t k~.5t ~ t ~ s by mlellJ of pran ~t:ll 'wisdm.n th,u dle}l 5C'ek m be l;ollJmm:-d, ['I,Qld iimoliilg d1wi\.e w hok nm'i' them, ,~ rid on the" gmu nd of th~ u r virtu~; d~<Jrly. (lien.. accordin~ to them, at :In.}' rate, \'irtue is better" And r~rhap~, OI1~ mighl: t·\·~~ ·~t!Ppooe ~his w bE,. mtner llu~ hOnt1ur" [bit!' en,~ of Irhe pol itical li k }h.u e"en this app·t:~u:o; t;omc:wh.n i 1lJ· com pk~c:. :fDr pm;s.~SJs inn of \I i fl ~,e Su~~S "lcm;Jli I y comp,][~ble \'vith t"Jot'ing :Jilsleep, or wid\lifdmlg imllc-

II'~.' hv~(y, and. furth.cr" w~th dH! gre:ucst ~""ffe:rings :md misfortunes; hu~ a m~llJ\Vhn \1('I~S h\"ii'lg so 1'10 ()X~,t WQi~M (an happy.l[ml~ss ~e were m;]lillJmil'l~ng a t~e· sis 1H all costs, 'H:":!ird Pllm~~ (he comen1rl;H~\'e iife,

which we ~h[lil tons~dCf hner. Hm cllJou,gh of this. for lhe 5ubjt1~t has,bo!:tCfi! s~mde !lid), [rl!~ued e\:e mI ~.n th~ ,C'[I~re[!'! d i~Cll~:5·iomi.,

;

;,

,

i

Jl

r"~~ ."~ * 'ilr·-i: .n:

." .~ .... '

I~ .. '"

It- "Irlt~

.tt- .......

~ !--~.

I'"i~

I .. • ... -"':

t,.~ .... !iii: '1i:~I, .. ;t ~,' . ~

t .. IP"..l

!

! r

••

HHCS AND SOCIElY

N

The liFt! of mont:Y-111,:Iking i~ one un~l~mlk~~ un. der cum puhinn, ;mti n"t'ahh is t'~·itkflt I y nut the g(ilO(J w~ ;1 F~ ~ck i n~; t~ ~r i l i~ !U~fd yo ~~!{(' rll~ J rrd !{)Ir I[he S;;ik.e of smnet.hing dsC'" And :;':0 one migl:H r;ll[nI.::T r.lkc: tilt, ,,1 furen;nnc~, I ~Jh~~'c I:,,~ tn hoe ~ n.~h; f~~r dlt:')' an: I~m:d for themselves, Bur it is cyident tn.~u run even these ~"rt I:'lh I~; r(;'t ma fly a lT~t~m~ m~ h;n·~ hc~ n~ rh n iwn awa)' in su P'Fkl rt of them, Let ~~~ It'~~y~ til ~~ ~luh il~n. then.

m

In

Let us JJ:"II!l I"~Wm HI the r;L)'\l(~ \n: Jfe ~n:king, and: ask \I'h;.1I it (":lin be" i ~ seems tl:iff~:ralt in (~irft:r'm'[ acti~Hh arul ;un; i,t ~s tliHe:-rcnt in me~Jicin~, in mat. q;:y, ;uhi in the Iltha ml~ likewise. \Vhm then is the ~[HJoli of ~';Ich) Smd~' th.1t tjl~ \\'ho~~t:' sake cnTything else is done. ~n medicine this i~ hc-:.ith. in SH;-~teg~ "ictmr, ~ narc hli rccru 1Ft' ;]j hnll~~, ina fir nt her ,sph~rc ~tm~r:lh~ng else, al,d iI~ t:\'t:ry ;]Icrion. ;H'lI,i pUr'5!.1~l t.h~ ent.~; IClf i[ i~ f{l,r th~: sake nf thi~ that aH men do W~'-Iteve Ii ~. lse the y do. T~"'It:' re fi: ~re, ~ r the ft.:' i,,~ l~.n end f'Or ;111 [h ,I~ ~,,'e dll, ~ hi~ \.\, iH ht: ~ht: g~ J~ i.~ ; I~' hi evable h~' ;~n~lin. ;m,~ if there are mmt:" dun, one, these \\'!~~ he the gO[j"J~ achi~\';lnk hy m'~if)rl.

Su lht:' atgumt:nt lu.~ by ;,' ~~ifft~~~I~l course rC-.ldu:t:11 tlht': same rwl'~:rnt;. hut l,\'t: must rry ILl st,He thi$ ~'~~'H fl'lnr(' dl'Mly, Since ~h~'r~ MCJ;'\'i~li:'nd~' more dt;m r.ln~' t:nd, uml we dll~'j",~' ~',m~' t"f [h~':st· k,g. ~\,'~',I lth, nut~,~" a nd Ii n ~t;'"Il<" r'~'IJ I n~ t ru m~' ~u'~ l t~'f the s.ike of ~jmcthia~ ds!:'" ckady nul :"1['1 ~nJ~ ;1["(' ~'Jnl! ~'fiJd~; hut rhl' ~hid' ~[IIH,I i~ n'j,kn.d} ,om~:[hin.~ t~.,.,:, :~:.:~.:~" .. ~.: ;~" .hr •• , ;" "'lk m1," t·in;.1 ~I'HI, [h!5 w~ll h.: "h,n .,,~' .• r~' ~~,t'kin,~. ;~Ild lif l'h~·fL' .m~ mme t1"'l;m 1~n(:". tht· m,!'~. fr~n.ll1..lf tht's~ wiU l)C what w~ ;:Ire st:ekil]~. Non" \\,!;;....Gd~ tlnatt wh'ich 'i~ init~df wonh~' fJ f pm'5u~.t mf)~e_ Ii no.1 (h"lfi II'h .. ~ wh i(;Ji .~~ n"orthy (If rlUrsl~ir for ~he s;lke of sn:mcthing d~e, ~ml dl~t whuch ~.5 IrH~yer dt'sir~.blt' for the s.lik.e of ~OJn('thLrlJg d~~'lI"mte 1'~n;J1 Ithan d\c ~hi,"g); til;!l :m::- Jto~ifabk hnth in them ~I n:s ;md t~) r t hlts~l~ of (h ,u oth~[ th i rig, r1n d tht'r~ j()W~ w(: c~ll i iJ nO! ~ .\' i tlwu l qll~ h il("~· r~ollJ II:U[ w h.ich i ~ ;) I W:ly~ ll,eslfa hie in it~d fan r,I !:I.e ~~r j~~f the ~ .. kt', of ~Brnt~h i fJ1g ds~"

Nuu' such a th:ing h~mr:lt:k.~. above mil ehe. is, gLrf."' hdd [fl bt:; f~~t (b~~ w,,~uu~JJ.''''E~ ~Of .!~o1 ~H~\'€"f for tbe uk~ of smn~thing d ~. Inn hOllilO'Uf,. P~!~ ~r~.roeM.ol'!"md e\'ery ~rj;rUle \\!'e dmos.<: i ,1!:Ie-lld

.for t.ht:mm~l\!es (for if no~hi[1,g tre51.1]u:d fh)m them

\'I,',e should :sti~] ChQOfie e:lJC h of themI), butt \7!!'~ choose' th~m ~il!sn f{)w tile sakt:' or h;lPP;~t:'~~, iliJg;ng ~h:l[ ~y

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-lll~ yof dun lWg :~hic ther 'K~;:\:ef

~! is.llillt ~n:d

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~ted hem

mm: u[ by

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N~COlMACHEAN EJH~CS

di.mt to nne, t~ e other in the ,~e~ SA: or fJoOlSse~~IWl,g O:J]C and exC'[Cifii.n.g t:houg~,t" And, as, "'life of (he r,al:io:n~1 e~ ement" ,;'I~ SiO' has rwo !We,u'!]I1g:;" We m llst S;rrJJte thi;'!t li fei!:l dtc: sense of ani vity :~5 wh:lt we rn~;Hll; f~jr t11 i s see m~ tn beshe more p.roper Sense ohhcrrerm _ Now .if" ~he fUIlJCl'ton of man ~;~ an :lclu:vity of ~mJli ,.~'hich fQllbw~ orim pi ies a mrrionll~ p.ri nci ric. and i r we s~y "a ~j]'-al1{_I·-~n" .11~ d "a ~QOd ~o~llmid-51t) n have' 3. fu ncnon whiehjs tfu ~S;} me i;n kind, e-g. a~yre-ph yer ;'llm,d a ~ood ~ l!' re-player, and so wi.tholli.l qLll [Ii i fic:::niun in .1 U rases, ern iaerree in :n::S.rt:t:t of ~uoJ m::S5 bci ng :Ide! ed bl the ~ sme uf rhe f I!.lflctiOf! ((or rhe fUiilnion of a ~.yre·r~ilp:::r is to play '~hl! llyre, :I[IJd '(h;H uf J f:[K~I, ~~; re-pln yer ~ ~ to do 'so wei I k i frrhLs i 5 t.h~ GII!>'t:, II and we ~t;Heth!;' funerien (~:f:~~~11 to be 01 certai ill k i ml of life, and lhi~ to be :l:1l ::IelL\'ity (I.r· ;},lrini:l!S ~)f the ~)"l.!1 im ~'~)I illl!!: a r .. iriona ~ pri nci ph" ,1In1.d th ~ fu.na.iun of a E%,u~~J i:l'lrlltil t:o he '~h(: gOol;)(]1 any noble pufonrnrmcc of rhese, and if iI ny action is wel i ~I'IOE rfu~r m,ed \.\' he:n i t i~ pocr[D.rmcJl in aceorda nee \'II ~l~ thi e :II ppl'\opr~;He exCodh: il re: i r lh i~ i~ t~.1: (,3M::. II ~ urn n n ~r)fi(1 turns mH W be ~ cti v i~'~' .of ~1illJ1 i I'll aceord :'IIlIC~ "\1 ith virtue, ~1r!d if (hen: m"C more lh:l n ()IlJ!: \,1 rtue, ~:n accorda nee w ~[h the ileM ;}In d~,~ t,;lq 'CQ~lJ)Jptl:l(,_

Bm W(: mu s~lldd .. U~l ;] corn pk!~ ~ i t~~_ ~ F nr I me ~w;n llow d~ ~~ nut m;ll..~ ;1 ~ i.J1 in i1~ r;:f, I[lor due~ nne d~~ r~ :m d<;tl tr I'll l1I'~t· d.I~·. nr a ~h'1n t imc, l~ 1l!E'~ 1m i ,[ m;l t~ ,:11. rn .m hk:):!oc~! ;n fit II h :11,1 r~--

L:t th i~ ~tTY~ a5 an outl i ne .or th~ ,I!(!Oll: ti lr we ~ULJ~~ pn·~url!i.;lhly I'~r~t ~htrh il nm~hJy, am~ thcn i:m~r t1ii lun tht' d~t .. ik Ihn it ",ulIM sCt.'m~h'lI ;nny (J'n,r,1I i~ cr. rL~ hl('" ~::I'r le~, r ty, ~flg ~,J u ~~.J ~~~. ~ ~ I,: iL~~-!..j.~ :'IoJ~ .~~: !:~~.~. Irn,:'IS o1llce bt.'~n nod I l,Ii.I ~I i n~ll, ;ulId dM[ (~m~' i ~ :I. gnu, I thscO\!ltrer or P:'lU Be,r ~ n SlI( hit wor~; to w ni.e h f;}ct,~ d:nl: nJth:uncC's oh!fJ,t" ;Jrls ;m:' cl~e; forr any onc Gi.1ilI, nJd W~lIt is bcbllg ... And \V'e mUST ;}~SO r!!nlc~nbefWha( has bm:n ~ili:d ~for,e, and I'!JtU look for rw::c:i;sionli~, :dlthing:s J.lih. bu~ irl each d:ls~ ohh~[l~ such rr~· ci~iun :I'S, ,m,rrowd's wilh tl:ie' liubje:ct~maucr,. ::md so ~mch J~ is ;-lp~H'"O,rr[a~e rG lhe jnql!iry_ For ~, carpcl:lu:r filPl,d ,!I gcom.etcr i.nve:5t~,gatc the ~1~,!l:h~ a ngmc: :i[l d! fre'f,eliH: WolYs, ~h e furrneff d~,!; SI) i il $0 f;. f as tl1~ f iglht a.mtgle is useful fo[ his wQ.rk, wi'li It:~hc ]at~c:r i ru;~ U]K"~' Wh'l~ i[ is O~ ""h~H ron of t hi ng ~t is; {'Or he: is, aJ specrn lOr of the truth. W tt mnuM a.ct ~i~ tile s."Ulile W3y. HLim, i rI ~ii orhcr rna m: rS <1$ wen. d-I.J( ou r m~in ,t~5k nl.:il.lI' n.m Ix subordi~l'Iu:d to minor ques~ion.s. N Of must we c1 emand ~h~ cause ~n .aU m:!Uer~ ;} ]~Ike;

1l.1e,U'l5 of them "ve shul I k happy. H lIppi ness, or'l the oth~r ha nd,. no one ehooses for t~1: sa ke of ~~1t:'5C, nor, g rl ge nern I,. fo r an>, th'UllTII,!/l other [him ~tsd f

F mm dll: poi m of V~C:'!'I' of ~I f~5U Hie-icncy the ss me resu h see m:s h-, follow; for t~ r: f~n;'l~ goorJCII j~ [houg;n.t w be sel f-su ffic~ent- N QIW by sel r-~u me ien ~ woe do 001 mea n [hat W t~~,ch is sufficient ,ror :1 m an Ib,y h i~lS;d t~f;i)r onc ul':nu .~~~:es a f.Olllt.WY li Il:, hlH~ho fOir p;]f\el'm, chi~drrc:lilI, wik, and iJlll, gCllJcm~ fo:r his ;fric~d~;J'fld fen~J~~· dtizc,lil,s. s'un"'i~ .m.:m i~ hom I~H citizc:nshi,r- f!u~ SI~n1~ limit must bt" M:'t ro th~s; :for il" l,II'\e exrend ou r n::q u i rement (0 ;,!I1l('l,;stnr~ ;l nd d~~("c,nd;'lm,~ ilTHI firieli'lds' friend~ we a,rtt 'ulrn f~u an infi.n in: se ries, u!: u ~ 1:;;;1 ill'ili n e t:h ~s quc5duJ:iI, however, (lJ! .ilnmh~r oec;'! ~i~ lH ;~h~ sel r-~ufr.(~eu[ \vt: rlOW lit:-· fi ne ns trl1ll ~~'h~ chwhe IlJ isoblh_'t ~ 11~ ~~k!!s Ii fc dcsir~M~ and ~.;Jcking in mJthing: anJ stich w~~hink !lap. p~ne,~~ IU ~;, ,md flU ~h~ r \"'e [hi nlk it m.~ !~t desi n1hh: of all tbi rig,;, w~t'hO[lt he~ng ,roum!:J .;;]j~ ene gOl.ld tthing :iITWJilg ndu:rr,~-~rit wen~ foO counted itwuul:d clea ~I~' h~ nl;~,[I~ i'lwn: de~i r,;:'Ib~1; by the ,I~IJ i li un tl r even the ,~~:I.~t of gnm~~: :~or thoH \\·h.~ch is ;~ddct! be(Ome~ ... 1'1 (' XC'e~~ u(.W Klo!h,t'iIr;J J ur ~~]!I1O;1~ '~:ht" gmt:.Ht" r is ;]Ih~·;'!p mnrc d~'~iir:l.hi~_ H;lPf)i,n!:~~" then, ~.~ ~mne'[ ~ i n.,g fi ,,01'11 tmd ~d r~~UmCLt"11'1I r, ~m d i~ the end uf <"IC ~ ~lon_

Pn~~nm n h! y. howevee, W .';;::1), rhat h~l.ppi nl::S.s i ~ ~h..:eh ~d grM jfl ~el"! m ;1 pb[.i wdt", rind ,,1 clearer accou n't of what i~ is is ~[iH dc~ir~d. Th~s might p~.rh;lp~ be g~'\'C.fl. i I\n: cuuM lir'~t ;!~c~ rW i n t h~· !tmn iUrI 0 r I:ll'W. t·or 1,I!.L~l ~~~ I~JI~ L~~ ~~ ..... ,L'i.. ~.;~_, j :..: ~, .'10 ....... ~ II rj,jj'~ ~t' nr ~_ n~' ~lrrt. S!~~

;}tld. iJ~ ~t'IfH:H~~, tj!1l ~In ~hi,ll1g~ ~h.Jlt ]u~-t" it flllTlninn or ;!c(i \ ~ l}". ~ he g!')t1o[! ,:! i'ld fhl;" "'~wll"" is dll . .nlj!h l ~.~J re- 5,id~ in rile fl!l:r:lHi on, ~o li.\'ouh~ it ~~.e~ In tn II."'IC fl ~ r m;nn. if he Ims,[j fu nct.ion. ~~~~\-e the c:upenocr. dun. ,1lJil.J ~he l:l riner ,cen~ i n flmctio~~s or jJcd\"~,[ ~es. ;} i'lJ h;} s, m~m .ITIlOIllt"? h he bom withcm~ 3 timctiun? Or a5 eye. hand, {OOt, {qnd ~n w::.fl.t".ila~ each ~)f~hcpam e\iidcfldy h:lS, ~ fu:n.Nion. mon i' one' by itt do\\"~ t h:lt mOll} ~i m· ililrly h~5~. fUr1IniollJ ;]prLlll from ~J~ tht"~d Wh;!t Ilhe!l! ,Col ~ ~h i~, be? Life' ~~I:~~~ [ok 'C(j:I'II.m.on e\·~1l ~If.l 'pI:! nts, bmwc are sc:ck~ng wha.t is pC\ml~m to :m~"'" Ler Us

1!9;l~ exclude., ~h(:H f[)n:. (ill: ~'i fl: of IilJl,m-i [gun ;) fl,d g I'\r)w~h_ Nel(~ th~re wmi~ d be· 3. I if~ .of pc: fOltption" bun it also se~mS, w be coml1llLon cvcilJ Ilu t~he' hGr:s.e. dle ox., .J~.d elo'cry :m~m~]. Th!:f1e n:'.mJm :JJilU, t'neR, 11[1 IIct~yc: I ift" of II:R(,,: e~.eme ru tb::l[ h:tS.jJ rtl![ln~:I~, pr~n.ci;ple; of llh is, one :pa rt h;J~ ~lI.li;h:il pr'~nci pic in d:Jc scn~ of ki fig obe-

"_

.'

~[jIJs'" it is ~no1li.g;h ~In some C'4!f>eS, ~hillt ehe fact be wd I es~blj$hed, asiathe ease o:frh.e r. sst pd~dp~es; the fan is the prim",y rhing Or tim principle, Now of fi]'st p.riri.{;ip~es, we see some byiladu(t:lon, flome by [ler~ ception, somc:by a certain .h,abi~ua ~ion, ,and ot~c:rsroo i~ other ways. Btu eachsee of :pr9nctpi:cs we mU:s[ EWJ hi! ~nvestigale in [he naturalway, .1Ind we mus:~ t::lik,e pllillS 'to stau: ~.hcm d~r.ni~IYt since t!h.ey Dve a ,~t::ji~ i !1!f1weflce on wh;l[ CoHows. Fm til1l~ hcgiJilnlng is rh.ol!lg,ht ro be merethn n hal fof the whole, and many of rhe qtle5r~O.li'lS we askare cleared up by it.

~ We m I]S~ eeasider 11[, ~:J)wc ... er .in t~e ]~.gIH not

o.i:lly ,of OU.r lJondus.io:n. aad our Jm!M~SI!le~h bl!illta~.!i!!) of wha[ is loomLiLm.D:l!lJly 's;a id about ~l:; :f;"orw~l:~ a. true \l'ie~'V all idle data Jm,lI~moni2'e" bat '1vhh a false One !the facl8 soon dash. Now goods have been divided IIilW th ret: classes; and some ;] re described as extienlal, mherslls rebt:ung 1Q ~ll!l or to body; we eall those th,u relaee to soul rncsr proper~y and trul y good.s, .and psychi c<ll settcns jI,n.d acti viries we: class as re-

J.ning OO!ilQ11Ilt Tiher,efQr,c O!.llf aC(iount muse be ~'{'U:lnd. at ~eO!slt: accoJiding lo "his vi.~w. whie-his an oM 'One ;]nd agrO!:d 0]1 by p:h~I()l5op.l!i,e~s, lris ecrreet also in th"twe identify i~hc: end w~r!h. certain actions andacrivities; for dIm i~ falls mnong goods ohhe s.o~uJ and fI~l among exte rna] goods. Anothe r belief wh]ch na rmOf] i:zcs WI th our aceeu rlt!~ thJ t the' ha ppy roa[l ]i\-~es well ,~rI:d dCOl::SliVCU;, for we haY,e p~amic!li~iy defilnem happiness asa sorr of goud ~,~f<:lInd good ae'~i.Q[JJ. Th~ CIffilllfalc'ter~ sli~~, rhat are I . .ooked tiJ~ WI:! ~'!l!p"" pi ness seem also, aU of them, to Ibe~ong '~O wha~ we halve defined happiness 3~ b:.ing. Fors.lJn(L~ l.dt::.ifIt~fy happiness with vi ftll!e,.some w1lnpract:iciill wisdom, ot~C'rs wi~h 1:1 ki nd of p.hil.osophi~' wisdom. others w:utn these, .or one of these, accempaeied by pleasure 0',1' no! wilthou~ flieas'l!llre:; w~ile oahers jeel IJId~ ,:!II!>!!) e'xle.rn;lllpf~pe ri'ty. Now some of tfue5Jt'\I'li:WS h3VC' been h.dd by m!any me!'! <lind mea of did,. OI~hefS by a :few em i fleaiU IPct~O]1}S; aJnd ~l ws no:t prob:!lMC:lhat citn .. er of these should be en~i.fdy m,ismk:en, but rather that they should be righ~in at :~east SlOime o]])e restpeC't or eYcf~ in :mQlSt .rcspocn.

W itiliiL til'n.ose WRO ~d~tify ha:ppine5s wi.~h ",inille or so:m.e G~e v~ntle: :Otlr 3.Ct!OUAt is ~fi ~aFmon,y; (Qlr I~O vi:l:1:l:!c 'bcl.GinJgs V~Huons acci.'I'ity .. But: it ma.kes. pErh3~~" n.os:ma[~ dilfere~~ 'Whether 'We' place tffilte chief

gwd in po§ses:;;i.o.!:I o.r in usc. in stare of :mind '~:r :in activllY. For the statt:of mi~d m.ayc:xiM WllhollU Pfl)mlbl, d uci fig IiIny geod rtlluh" as in a m.~n who is ~:si«:p - or in some other wayq[lilc inactive, blLlt lhe'acti",.

i ly cal':l[1or, foit one who l'1.as the ilctivir}, wi]~ of necessit]l' be <!,ct~ng,;al~d<!:"~!lg wdl. A.nd as i.1t lite OI.yWJipic G<lm.es k ~is not the mQ~tbeaW!rtifil~ 3iil~ th~ st:mngcsl ~ha.t are cJ'Ownecl bu:~ th05iC who com..~~ (f'Or i,[ iissome of t:h:ere lllil.al are l!ictmriou.s),sOl th~e who act win, and righdy wi]])" the noble and g'ood tinings i IJJ life,

Thei.tlife 1.5 aho in ]tsdfpleaSdnt For pb$u~

is a state of roul. and lQ eaihma~ thatwb ieh be iii sa~d to !be 3. ~OVC[ of ~5 p.~cas.all'rr, c.g. nor o:Jrnly ts 01 - i:J.o.rs.ot p.lC:1:IS3I'1t ro rffia,e ~OVCf of hcrses, and 3. 5pe!Cta~ ele tothe loYc.r of ~igi~l~" btu. aL&o in. me same Wo1iJ iIU~~ aces a re p]easallitW ehe lO'i'er ofjuslioe andin genera I vi rtueus acts to the ~O"'>ef of v:irtu,e, Now for

."

mostmen their- pleasures are in eonflict wilth Qn~ ~,

another because these: .a:~'!l nm by nature p]e1l511nt, but } ehe IOl!,liers of what ~s ~oble find pleasant thetlrli~ ,~ t~hal~ are by !l:lltll!llre pleasant; aad 'II iWill:Qus, a(ilIil!:n~ a:l\c 5uciffit, so II:halt !tht:sc a~t p~:e;lJsam: C'O:r such men as wd] asin llTIteir own llalll!1~l!" Their Iife, l:heF~fo:Jrc. ~a5 ~o fl:i rlt:hC'~ aeed of pleasu reas a son. of ad veiilltiti;ol!$ charm, btu has ~I:S pleasure In its,.e,lf, Fo,r,. besides -"{ \O,.'h:J t t ... e ~,rlY~ S~ id. the man who does not rejoice i!l "',

~ oble ac~iQns lis ~Ol e'Ve~ good. si r1~e n,o one wmlM -e-e-

C,lIU a. mlll~ • iUM wlrno did . .lJJotcilliIi o~. 1I.c~~ng i'USd}'~ nor ~ ~ ~sll' .3in ,~~beulil, who du:l nm, e,UiI~oy ,~~be~al acno.ns; __ ~

a~d ~in'l~lady in an u~:her C,ilJ~~:>" ~ f ll~i.lo ~~ ~U,\·lnJL!Clw,- ~, actions .mu;!;l be in themselves p]clIIsanl:. B'LU d:ley 3~,e: ,';:; slso good ;'lfld n.()b1~ ,and have each of these arn:u~:b- _ ,~ uees in the highest degree, since the good ID~j) i lJIoges wen about these attributes; his Judgement its s1g1:c:h as we have descdbed. Happi~e~~ l,h~n is me best, noblest, a rid most pleasanr lilThingiJil rheworlcIl, and lmes!: ,i!lu~iblnes, a re !1ot~yef\ed as in [he in-

goO< .. ob.ll ,a(;d~ as H of,.. birtl l;'Jer~ chil. a.m bad fde to n ~ea! lfuo

uJ

da, tur Uu,c

m.l

Most noble is that whkh i~ius;r.e$[, and bes;~ is lleald:u; Slit pleasant.est is l[ ~Q W'.in w1.a~ we lav,c.

Fo~ aUlhc;sc pl'op:n~e5k:IQliIg to '[hc 'k-.5t ac~i¥icies; and these. 0'1 O'!l;e-----4~!e kSot~ftth.e~,. we ~derillify wilh ha:ppmm::5S.. .

Ye'~ eyi.d~ntly" as \W'; sa:id,. i'~ fiecd~, tllite e:x~l'lIlli1

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.,
y I
I~ IIl'N I g:ooo~ as well; for it i,~ i rnp0il-SiMe, Or not Ctlsy, to do nobll!lIcts without the proper equipment. Inmany i'i.cliaJits we use frJ!ends and richesand p'IJIlitica~ power as inst.rumei1lH;, and there are serne rh ings ~~H: 1 ack of which rakes the hisare from h"ppiness,:ls good birth, goodly children, beauty; for~h.e man who is vcry lIg~y in appoe,1rao,ce' Or ill,-born or solitary and ,h~ Id less hi Elm vcry 1 i kc:~y~o he ha ppy ,and ~ rhaps a man wDuM be ~til:J less likely ifhc had thorough,l}' bad chi~ d ren or friends 0 r had~Gst good ch il d re n or friends by dt't'lt:h. As we ~.1id. then, h;)!11pi ness seems to need this sort of prosperi ~y in addirion: fow w hie!:! reason so~neid enti fy happi ness wi ~h good fortune. dlOugh others id~rHWy i~ with vi n ue,

i rrational and om: has aratioll"'~ prindple"Whe~hcr these are ~epan.m,::d as the: pans of'the body 0, of anyth in,g di vl~ibk are" or ~re' d Isdr.n by ddi.n.i tion hllt hy nature il'lls.eparahte" luke eoavex and concave in the ci rc urn feJftfite of a d.lrd~,. docs not a ffectthe present quesnon,

Of the irrational ~k:mcnt om: cl ivi siQf! seems to be wide~y distributed. and vegetanve ]n i~s nature. l mean that whichcauses nutrition find growth; fOf it

is ~h is k i ml of power of tile 5oU.~ that oneITl\J~l,,~sign wall l'l1.!lr~hfl~ and to em bryos, amid this Sa rn . e POWN I ~tl~I' ~o fUU'£TOWIlJ c~eilture~; this is mote reasonable than

'I:CI, ~.!il~:i,gn some diffcrem power to them. Nuw the ex-

rei lence of dl i~ seems to boi= COmmon to 1111 5re~ies and

not ~pec ifie<lUy ~H,l!n!l!'l; for this pi} rr or filcuhy seems

W fuactien most i!'l s~eep, whil~ gpoom:-~s and had·

ness lIfC .~C1l5t man i,fest i.1i1 slee p Iwhence Gomes the sJ.ying tha.t dl(: hrlPPyan: no ootter off th<afl the wr~tcbedl for helf thei.r lives. ~l'Id ehis happens naturally CQough" since sleep i~, an in.1l:tivity ()f the seul

~Il that respect in whichi[ hi ·C"JUt.'d good or bad), un-

less perhaplS to a small e;;:~ent some 'Of the moeeme ars

."" tuaJly penetrate tJO rhe soul, ;~tld j,nl, th us r-t'spa:t tne dreams oJ g,Clod men an~ betrer d'M!l those of ordi ~ nary peopk EJ1U1Jg~1 of this su bien, however; let us leave the !1U triti ve faClllty , alone, ~,in(e ~.~ hlls byuts n;Hur-c no share in humu rI excellence,

The re seems ~o he,! ~ So a rwdH:r i rru tionaJ d(;'m~rfl[ in the: soul-s-one livni C hin (I sense, howe eer, shares in ;1 .r ~.u~.orla~ prjnci p.~(:" For We:' rrai~(:'" the ratiQfl (ll principle ot the continent mClI1 .':md jJ~' thl:: tn(nnti~ memo and tht: pan of their soul that has sueh ;! pr IIDeipi,e, since it urges ehem aright ;J~lJ rewards the Or:st objc:m, I)U~ there is found in them J lso J fIOther elemcnt naturally op posed to the ratieaal pri !'lctpl e, which f;ght~ agllinsl ilnd resists jhnt principle. For t:xlIct1y ~~, p.tIralysedlim.b~ when we intend W mQ\le" them eo the rig;h t tu rn on dl,c contrnryto the~cft: 5'0 is it with ~ he soul; the im pubes ofincolntil'len.[ people.move in CiJ'nt]!",uy directions, BUI: while ILIll the body We Set ~h.u which movesastra:y. in~h~ soul we do not. No doubt. howe"'le~. we rnusct (i))one tile .Ic~s suppasc tn,at ~.n the,soul wo th~rc: .is £oOmerhing ,oon~ tr~ ry to the r(ltioflai prind pie! re"!'it~tiflg and oppos~ ~,ngit, ~n wha~ ~!!:nst: i~ i!;, difit~nct from the other d· ements d.ooes n01I concern us. Now even this seem,s, to ha ve a 5h~re inn ratiolna] pdndpte, as we sa id;~t.

I

i: ,

..

.

·i

I~ Since happiness lS an auivity of ~()1..l1 in aecord[l.rlc-e' wi~h perfect virtue, we m.uM consider the: nalU~e ot YlHUf;, fQ~ perhaps we shall d]~ s see better di.e aarure of happiness. The ~rue student of pol i· tk~. wo, i s thougl'um ha vee swdied v i rt m: above ~~] ~h]llgs;. Cor he w~5hes N) make his fellow' citizens good and obedient to thl1:lilWS.A~ an example of tnj,s we have the IJwgivers of ehe Cr<:'[;1f1S [lml the Spa rmns. 11 rlJd any others of the k ind ehar tll~ re rna y have been, And jf this inquiry belongs to pol:itical science, clen dy ~ht' pmsu it o fi ~ wi n be i I'l a eeord an.1." with our ~J.riglnal pt~Ht" Bllt ckarl}'~h,~ virtue \~T mu~[ ~tuJy b human virtue: for the g~~IJJ we wen: seeking "'TI~ human good and the h:!ppinc~~ human happil'le~, By hum;JrlJ virtue \\'t' mean net 'that of the body but tho.lt ot the soul: J nd h01 ppi rleS~ J Iso w~ ca II an ani vuty of St)U i., BlU if this .is ~il. clen rl y ~hft student of poi ities must know somehowthe i'tl(tli aLt,u t soui! as the man who is to heal 'the eyes or the body as 11 whQ!~ must know about the eyes orthe body; and all the more since pol iti.c,s!s more pr ~ ... edand ben:cr than mro~C'i[lt:. but even among d octors the be~ted ueated spend m tlch labour on acqui I"i.ng knowledge of the body. The student of poh ties, then, must s;mdy the rou I, and must study i~ with these objects In v icw, and do so just to the; C·.:l:tcnt which is suffkiei:U For th~ que5t~on.s weare discussing; for further- precisio!l is perhaps something mo'l'e laborlot.:!s d'mn ourpu rpoiSes .require.

So:mc~hi]lgs utlsaid aoolLlt it, a.dequatdy enough. even in the d i:s.cus~iQflS outside ou r s.choQI, and we must use these. e.g. tha~ O!'le dement in~h~ smdis

'(0

any rarei n the eonti ne]IU ma n it Ci!bt;Yi the r,:ninnd~ pr~ nc~ple-'Clnd pu:s~.ma.blyiffill the tern perate a nd brave man it i~ snll more obedient; :~or in him, I[ spe;'lks. (iI~lIi I. matters, withthe sa mevoiee as th~ u,~ ti.onillprll1.c~ ple,

The refQ~e ehe im:nional dem em :l!so u PfJot:il rs m k' ~'!VQfold. Fm7 the \'egetali\l'e (;~eD.en~i[l mII.O w:ry shares in a ~at~oml~ principle, but the: app~~~tiyc and ~.11 w:nc:ra~ the des! !'~~ elemeat iltl .;J senseshares :~ri it, in so £"Ir 3S. it I istens W a rid okys il, th i ~ is the sense in which wespcak of"mking <11 erou nt" of un;e's f;)j[~ler O,r one's frie.nd~, not rhat ~n wh~ ch we ,~.pe.1Jk of ";}cGountimL,!;l;" for a lm~th~m,ntLm~. ~~rop~ny. That the i rruticnal c.~cment is j n SUl1.\le' SC[l s.e PCFSU:.U:Jie:ti by a ml~iDmI;l! pr~odp!e i~ifiJ'iGuc:d~l1iQ by t~egi,·ing: of

IIlIl' advice and by all repreof .1flfJi c"",horm~ifJJi'lI. And if ~his element also mu:.~ be: ~f1id to h~H'e: a mtio.na~ p:r·inciple. '~h;}lr wh ic~ has a rlltio.iIIal PWI[1 ciple (a~5wd I 805 ~h:1t which h;l!~ not) will be ~wofol'd. enesubdivi~~DI'l ~.a ving it i rI the striet senS!~ nlldLn i tse] f,8J,od the oth~f' ~avin:(: aJ t(:llrndencl' loobt:'~! a;~ Olil.C doe~ onc's f~~her.

\'in:l:lC too :i~ disti[l.f:ui,~hed into kill]dsi~;I(\Cm~ da [l~e with [his, differ,encc;, for we s:Jl)' that srane of the v irrues a re i ntel knu'::Il a Iil.d others moral, ph]lu. soph ic w:uroo.~ ~ nd unde r~t"I1J i ng and rr;l(ltlca! \\,L~do~~kiJi:lg inltd~t:ClIJI;]JJ, li'ocr;:lr~ty ami lt~mrer~ ~HtC(' moral, F'nr in ~pe;lkJng' ni1mJ( ;'l rnJn',~ chamcItlCr we (~E) not ~~ly shat he i~ wise o,r has under~t[lnJi,n,g hut th~lt hI;" ~~ !-O\I],(l(:II-h.::n'llpl:l'\~ld or 'lCm!'It'~,ue; yel we prai Silt the wise man also \.\" uth r,c:~p('('t to h is ~tlltle of :!illind:, a!'lJ of ~'t,~l~s Ilf mll'lll ~n: cull rhnse 'W hidl merit pnl isevirtucs.

Hook II

I V~nue', then, being of :~wo kinds, i[l[el]enl!lli;l!~ ;."Ind rno ral ,intdl«u!a~ vi rtue i rl~hc rna i n, ow~s oo[h i [s bi nli, and its ,g~OiwrhtQ lteiilC h~llg (fo~ wh~ch rea~Qn, it ~equires experience: ~nd tillJJ~C::)" whilc mom] vinuc com!!:s about 0.$ II resu h ofh~b:~(. w hel:lC't' .1.1£00 i'ts ~~Ne (J;rkK~i) lis one rilm:lIt i~ fOfIT!!I!,d by a slight va.ri.- 3tion from t'lle word .ifJ~ (1'1;1 hid. F rom ~his it is also. plain rh:u nOrle: of the mo.ml. \' i rtl:1~~ a ri£e~ in us by natll!l.rc:; fo.r !'1mb. fig dlil'~ ex~m by 11ii,au.~re can .fo~:IIIiI, .1, ha.bit CI)I1U{lry to in natlJrc .. FOor iml5tiHltttthe sUm.c

-_._-- - , - - - -- -.

EiHlCS AND SO(i fI')'

which by nature ~cn:u:wes. dawn wa rds C;!1111l0~ he h;ljD.un.mtro to move upwa rds, no~ cven if O:ITI!!: tries ~l) u;'lin ~[ by throw! !'I,g it u pten Itho'l1S8iilld times; in!).r CO;1n fi~~ be habituated ro move dow.fl'walH~s. nor C~f-I mylhing c~se th~ ~ by Jf:I:;'IUll'f behaves in one w<ly b;:. tru ined m behave in a noodle'!'. N ~hlu! by [latJU!,~. Ithe~ .~or COlfUJr"':I'Y to natu I'~ d:o thevirtues arise in U~: rather Woe are adapted oy ~ rIImrc' [0 reeei ve thClrn [I[i1 d 3 re mnd e pe rfeer by ha bi t'

AgaiJill, of a:~~. the rh i~,~s lh[lt: rome: 'lo [I~ by na rrl.U~ we: fir5t acquire [~;"e pmelHimli~y :Lnd ~.;'!t'Cr e)lhibj~ ili:.t! acri ~.j ty (rh~s ~ ~ p~a![l inthe GI,~I! of the senses; fo.r it was m~~ by of:ten ~,!::c::'i~,g or OftCJiilI ~~::iJririg tnat 'We g®~: these seI'J.~5,hlH on the ('()f!muy 'Vie had 'th~m befort:w~ u~cd Ih,cm. and J iJ not cmnt;;' lfI h"Y~ them by uSln,g 'them)~ hllu [],e\l'unu~:5. 'live ge~ by fim cxe:l'ci ~in,g them, a~ a]so ilia rpt'n~ ~ n the case of the arts aswell. .F(~r [he [hiflg~ we have to learn befo.rc we CJ.n (~P dl~tn. We le;]Jrn by Jning them, e.g:. men 1J,c,Ct11.1le il:mi.klers by buuhl i rig :md IY~!I::,·playt:.r:s. by p~,~yi ITII,I;: the Iyn:;: so too we bee>mVli!: J~~( hy (~oi~g i I.!St :JUS, temperate by di(l! "g~em plt'rat~ acts, bra \l'e by doing hr,3\'e acts.

This is con fiuiilt'ti by l,\'ha( ha pflt' rI~ i f! ~(;ues;. fer .I ill' i~g:i~ lawrs tJ,lr~]b.: d'lt! d dkl'lS g~ md hy rO.ml i ng habits

in them. Olfld [his is the 'Ii\'isn (If t:\'ny k~is];}ll'Or. and those who do ~ or efftTt • [ III i~~ th~~ I" ~~u.fl" a.nd :u~ is

in rh!~ th;1[ ::I gnod ('Imsti tm~ on d~ ffc r~, from n b~J nne ..

Aga! !~,U[ is fl'um thesn m~' causes ;,HI d hy tbe same mea ns thas ~ \l'uy V'~HUC isboth pru~1 uccd and de~lrO}'I,::-d., and ~~mil"r~}' en;~'r an, (0, it ~~ frornlplay· i 1TIIf: '[he 1 y re thar b~d:b guml a rtll Illild ~ y re-plnyers a re ~'~"" II !n'j LAnd the ('one~pn:~di n~ stateme m is trllJe uf bu i Id~~\~ ;~I'II d of all ~he rest: men wIll bt' gOlJl!l:l Qr bad blLlilders 1IS :I [e~uh of bu i.Mi ng: w~U or h~.dIt· For if [his were not $,(~. there wnuld h~vt' heenno need of :I. t~achc:::~, but ail :uneiill wo~id have been bom good or b:'ld .'Ji r fhe~ I' era ft" Til is, the 1'1, isthe case widil ~he vi Hues a ~SOI by doing the :;Jctll tn;:n we do i i:I our tTlI~ ~aCl:~ons\vitThi o~her men w,e beoomie jU5~ 0:; U nJUti~,. :lnd by doing: the lIC'lS d:mt\".e do il'l the pro·s,enct: of Jlang~r, ,and being na bima.~eJ :[0 f~e~ fc.~r or (oml,flclef~,re. we become brn ve o~' oowa.rd Iy" ThE .same i.s true of.appelitcs ~ nd feeiing:s of .. f1g-e:r; $!OlUe ,menhorome temperatu re and good "tempe.ed, Olh· cr55!C1 f~~ndu~,gc:rn ;] fie! i !'.;1Jsdble. by be~l~vi ng: ~n ,mil~

7

~ - - -- ,. - - - -- - -

---- --- --- --

\ll)SOClrry

annot be bar one tries 1O sd times; nOr a rds, not Can. I .one way be 'r by nature, rrues arise in "ecdvc them,

us by narrUJ!'e ~Ji e'xh.i bit the

senses; for it ~ tharwe got ad them be-

j I l I j

n states; fur HDJI' I mung hilbi~ , ;islator, and

rk, and it is j

from a bad I'

I I 1 t I j

I I I I

:l ha ve diem' If first exere of the arts

n before we ~.g. mel') bill'ers by pby~

ing j use acts, ve by doing

Jythe same ed arid de-

f!'om play-player:s are

l.~nt is true be gooo ~[I,r J or badly. ve been no

~ been born e case with

!' do in our

~u:sr or UJ:l~ 1 the prci>· =eei fear or .rdly. The

1ger; some lefled; orh-

ing in one

NICOMACHEAN ETHICS

way or the otherin the "'PPf'opr,lace circumstances. Thw:., in one word ,states of character arise OUl of like aniviti.,c5. This is why the activities We exhibit must be of a, certain kind; it is because the states of Chafa.c.ter eerrespond to the differences between these. It makes no smaU di fferenee, rhen, wh,ether we form habits of one kind or of another' from our very youth. it makes a very grcat difference, or ~athc:r all the diffel"en,e.

Si1

C'V'~rythlng .and does nor stand hisgiound against anything becomes a coward; and the man w ho fear:s nothing <It all but goes to meet eve'ry danger becomes rash; and si:maarly the man who indulges in every pleasure and absta.ins from hon-e becomes, :sdf·i[ldu]gent; while [he man who shuns everypleasure, as boors do. becomes in a way ~n:scns~blei~empefa.nce and COY rage, then, arc destroyed by excess and defeet, and preserved 6;, ·the mean,

But not only are the sources and causes of their origin.uioJil and growth the same as those of th,ei r destruction, bur alsothe sphere of the:lr actuali ~ilItion will be the same, fO'r thi.s is abo true of the 'rhings which are mort' evident to sense. e.g. of strength; it

is produced by takiflg much food. a.nd u.ndergoing much exertion, and II is the strong man that will be most: able to do these things. So too is it with the virtues; by abstaining fwm pleasures we become

tern perate, and ~t is when we hi! ve became so. tnat

we are most able to abstain ff\Om them; and similarly too in the case of courage, for by being h<lb~t-IIQ,H~ uated to dc-,.;,pisc thi ngs that are ~errib]c and to stand

om groulld against them We become brave, and it

is when we have become so that We shall be most able to seand 'OUIi' ground again s:t them.

\V,e must take as a sign of stares of character the 3 pleasure or pain that ensues on acts; for [he man who a bsrai [IS from bodil y pleasures and del i,gllts in thi.s very fact is temperate, while the man who is annoyed at it is self-indulgenr, and he who stands his grou rid ag;ai nst things that are terrible' and ddi,ghts in this or at least is not pained :is brave. while the: man who is pained is, .. coward. For mo.ral excellen ce is concerned w.ith pleasures and pa~.ns; II is on account of the pain mat we absaai n f[,(lim noble ones. Hence we ought toO have been brought up in a partIcula. way from our ve ry youth, 3S Plato says. so as both to delight in and to, be: pained by the th~ ngs tha~ we 'Oligh~; for this is the right educa~ion.

Again, if the virtues au C'ORcerned with actions and passions, ev,ery passion and everyaction is ac-· companied bf pleasu re and pain, for th~ reason also virtue wiU be: concerned with pleasures and pairu . This is iadieaeed allio, by the fact that punishment [5 ]nflkted by these :means; for i~ is a kind of'eure, and it is the nature of curesto be effected by contraries"

.--.....

. ..-..!,_

2 Since, tben, tile present inquiry does not aimst dleol'el-iea.1 kn.G1wledge like ~he others (for w'C "'.re in,qu:iring riot ill order jo know what virtue is, bUl in order ID become good;, since otherwise our inquiry would have been orno use)" we must examine the nature of actions, namely how we ougpt to do them; for these determine also the nature of the states ef'eharacrerthae arc produced, as we ha ... e said. Now, that we must ,,-,ct according 00 the: rig;l'lt rule as acommon principle and must be ",s~ume·d-,h will be discussed later j i.e. ooth what the righ.trule is, and h.owit is re-

II{H' b~ed 110 the other vi WJC'.lh, But this must be agreed upon before.hand.,that the whole acwunt of maners of conduct must be given if! outline and not pf\edsdy., as we sa idae the very beginni.ng that the aeeounts we demand must be in aecordsece with thc subje:n-matref; matters concerned with 'conduct and questions of what is good f'Or us' ha ve no, fillity, an)' more than matters of.health, The ,ge[ler<l!~ account be:ing of this nature. the account of particular cases is yet more lack.ing in exactness; for' they do not fallunde·r afi~' art or precept but theagems themsel ves must in each case cOllsid,er what i~ approrriatt tf) the occasien, as happens, alsoin the art of medieine or .of navigation,

Hut though our present aceoun t ~s of th is nature' we must give what help W~ can, First, then, k~ us consider ~hisj that it. is the naturc of such !things to be deseroyed by defect and excess, as we see in the case of ~trength and of health (for to gain light on things impreceptible we must use the evidence .of sensible things); both excessi v e and defeeriveexercise destroys die £,trenglh~ ~nd similarly drink or food whi~h is above or below a certain amount destroys the health. while that which lS proponionaee both produees and increases and preserv,es it. So too is ir, then, in the ease of '~empenmc,e and courage and, the other virrees, For the man who flies from and fears

• - I 1_ _ _ .~. _. • ~ ~

-

,A,gai fl. 3~ we s.3.idi bu~ Jatd:y, every st.ueof sm . .!.! n,as a ~.a[1I.! re rdiltive to' aad co:Jll!Ccrneil with ~he k~nd of thi[l,g~ by which i~ (ends to be, made wnese or bettc:r; but i ~ is by ~ca:S{!In ofp~.ea:5Ufg~<lndpO!J~l'!s ehar men beeome bad, by pUr5uin,gand a ,",oidi ng '~he:5eeiither the ,pleas!:! res :l~d pains t]];(':)I' ou,gh [ ,mol Qlr wh.cn ith~y ought not 'O~ 3:S they oug~( nee, OJI by go~mg wlrG:ng in mJil(l ohh~ ot:hersim~b~" ways thO!~ !TI.3.)l' be d~$E! nguished, Hence men even defw~)~ I~he v~:r1l:ue5 as certai [I ,Sl::U~!i of impasslvhy j'llild rest; ~O[ well, howey,er. beeaase Hilty s~k ahso]l!u~~y, anddo ~.o~ say "as one oughf'3i1Ld ":1:5 one ol!i.gh~ not" :HUJ "when one ought or Qi!lgh'~ not," and the orl'le.r t !TI~ngcS, th.al mil,}! be, ~ddcd.W e :J.s&pm.t:':, then, that ~hi~ :k'~l'Id of cx('CIJic:nce l~nds W do Wh3~ ws bc:s'l: whh ~Ci3 rd [0. pleas !llI'CS1li~d pains, a ndvioe does the cont rO! ry,

The folkmdlllig fa:ct:s also m:JY dIDw us l:n.at virtue snd 'II'~oe are ~on(iem~d wi~h these 5.aJm}~ dil~ngS,. Then: b~run.s th~ee object:!! of choicc;l!ncl rh fee of a vo.idafice. the noble. the ad \i'.1! fl'~geou£! the plca.s,. ant, a nd thei r contra ries, dle base, ehe ~!'I:iu,riOlu.~, the Pll~l~ ful, a ooutiilU of I~hcsc th~ gpod ma n. '~~nJ5 to :go righ~ a~d ~he POI!d m~!l~ogo wrong. 3m:!, espcd:dly a.l!x)!Lu ple,js~.I:~;, for tlTILis ~s commo!1l ~Q ~h e 3J'llm.;lh;, and also it .. cromp.ani.csll~:~! obj«t!;, of(Ju),~('e. (o.r even ehe itoblc aJ~.d the adva~tilgwU$ appear pleasanr,

! ! IJ~' Ag.li fI,. i t ~as g rlUWn up with 1:15 nll fn:!m our ~n·

('Inc),; this 'U~ why ~,l ~ s di fficuh to rub off ~h is pas$~ 01'1. e ~f.1 i fled .1iS i ~ i~ 1~O[lr 11f~. And W~ [niI.e:amrc even ou r a.e~ion$,rome of Ii!! ~ mote II fld O'thef5 less. by the rule of pleasure :J nd ,pai n. For til is reason, then. o~~'wh()le Il'Iqui~:y m ust be: :J'Ioout these; for 10 f'C~! ddug:ht a,mI.d p;!i!'! f~ghllyut wruugl)" has no SITH'I.~I efi'«t on allir actions.

A~a~n. i~ ~s h .. rder m .fi.gtn Vol' i~h ph::lI~1J rc thall whh angl!':r. to use H~radi~us·phr .. se. but oot~ art and V~fU!.e ,;l!K:I]W:lJYS c'O.ncenu::d 'Wi.~~ what is ~aJro!(':~; Cor e\i'~n ~he .goQd is ktter when it !~ hOI f\der. The~cfo(c for this [CaSCI]!, .al s.CI ~he wh.oie (!On(j~m both of v:i nuea~d of pc~itic:iJ1 5cien(;ci~, w:i[:h p~.eaJSY res :Jiliiid, pains;. for lh.~ m,an who !,I~e~ rhe5(': wi]~ win be good. he W~lO us~s rlliit~m. badly bad.

ThaII ~'.iJme! dlefl. b cnnoeflii1ed with pT,eas~~cs ,:lii:td p3ins, [tnd ~at by the :3;([:5. (ro_ wh ic:h in a~'ise~ i~ ~5 ·both il'lc!l'~!led and, If tky a fc d:on~ di frc.rttild:y, de~'l:roycd" 3Jnd, tha~ the: acts fmm which it;l~ .alre '~ho~ inlOlihidli it a.ct.lill.lB2!e5i~f----l.ot this be utkc.nas said.

The question In igiru be asked ,w.~.::lJt W(! nlLe~f1 b}' 11 sayi IiIg tlh,at wem.un 'bc:com>ej I]S[ by dei ng jlJ:5!1t a[~~, an,d te_pcr1UC by doing lcm,potifiitc aC'ISj fmr if Iillc,n do just and tt_pc:ralll acts, tllitey are a] r'eaJdy j'lI5l amd lempc:n.~, e.:>:acrilly ~S!> if lhey do what :is i~,ac'OOJ['. daaee w1[[h rh.e ~ aws of g~3mmOliland of mmic.th~ are gr<l mm,,:!"ia I'IS and l111!JJsic.ia IU.

.or w5lh is ~O'~ '~me even of th.c am.r 1t lspnssi'lhilc 10 do ,!ia.m.c~~iIIi fig rllila.t: is :i~ a.«oN3 f1tt with tilite law$ ofgur.1mmar, eirher by chance or ac ehe suggesrl.Q.n bf anotffil!(~r. A :man -wiU be· al g,ram ma.r:na~, then, o[lly wh.cl'lilL~ ii1as bmh done somcith~ng 1i:1l".&.mlinil!atical aJ!d d:ol'llei( gr.Ol!Pl !TI3~i.C'.:lIlly; 3 nd lih,is. mea,liS doing it il'! aoeordanee !,'fit!ru t.he g~:Jmm:0III:i(;31 lkll.owl>edg~il'l him5lC:lf.

I !

I ~

I~ I ~ I

a r.e ~!lI a:~oorda I'lC~ wil~h tllill;c vi,rnu::s ~iIIV'C themselves II

a ,('cnai n cha r.an.~.r [ir does not fo.Uow dn.a~ th~y a.!'c

d.onlc jusdy olr~emperatd;,. llIe agc'n[ olh~. m,llS['~ I'

I

in a ccnai~ cotld~tio:n when he does them; ihle lfim

pb~e he .must have knowletIl!ge. 5~OmLd Iy liite mu~t r

(~ocm: t:h~ 31::ts. lInd choose tffiacm fo.r I[hc:i~ oWn 5311:£1,. I

"!'Id t[h,i reily his a.ctiO;~ muse p~Q(ieed f:rom <! liml O!:IId ,

~nd:Th:lJ[1geaM}c cna racter, 'I'~es.e .:lJ:rC' ,Ilm[ wcdl.onod i[l n~ . l!!!$ ,o!'ld~t]ons o:hhe IP'O's!le~~~@n Qethe ares, exct!ptth.e I blln~ knowlt:dgc, but as a 'm:JlLdi ~i.ol'l on thepesses-

SIO:llJ of tfiev !HUC'S know]edge has ]~tde ~n no weight,

whi lethe oth(':~ co:JTI.ditions COllUU. not fo:r 3. I iul.c bu~

fmr cvc.rything., i .e, the ,",cry cmu:lit:i.ons wbk h r'C':suh

fr(1J'nl'i1 n:frefl doi!'ll'!' ~ ust and Item perate aets,

A(la.ons" t'.en, are called ~us~ ;lind lempeiratc whiM they aresuch as tffilLei un or the: u::mpc,ratc man would do; bu~ it i~ not t1e m<ln W~Q doesthC'S1::' th:u is i !lSi a]!d ~cmpc~alC:" but du~ main WhO:!l~50 dM5 mem.as ~u:s;~ .;I~d ~mper<!!~ me~ do ~he~. I~ is w.e.1] s:ail!l,

then, tha:~ it i:s, by doing ]Ufi~ :len d~um~hc Ju~t m;li!il

is proouced. :and by d:OLl'Ig ~emper.ateO!!ct5 'lhe 1iem-

pcn~c IDmI.anj w i~hnut d:oing dlCSC .no one would hilv~

even 3. ,PfOSpeC[ of booomlng g~.

.B'l!It mos[ people' d6 flot d.o tihese, bun lraikc refu.u in timtcory alnd ~himlk tbcyare being philosophers an.d winoocom,e g~ Wn. th~$ way, behav,ing som.ewhat: 1.1 k~ pa~i~nt:; who .1:iSI:~n atteAtivdy ~o thcii~ d00Mr~i' but do none of the ~hing$ they are ordlere:d ~o do. M

Aga iR,~he~'a se of ['he aets and ~hat of the VIrtues a[e nm sim i~lI.r; fo~ [i1n.~ prod ucrs ,of ~c arts ha\iC their goo<ifU:::SS in tlem~ebl'es, :'10 rthat it is e~oughL '[h:a:~ they $~ouM hit vc' .a C>efw,i n d:!il!rO!cter, but :~f the acts [hat

me lane,~ course 0 w,dl ~IJ :s

~ NeXit

tJurare f faclJhies" By pass~ 'cmI,vy, JOjl pity,. ane by pleas;! whicb"" becomirr ~1::n.es, oj s.rand w with .. rel ,ol-endy ~ and sirr

Nm i:Jc,cl.un~ of QUr our 'Vir mer p: man "" ~m~ mJ[

man'''' 3[1d m

UiII\' A,g

dic vi FU~lI:h

mO·\I1e.1 :iI:rt:: sa, 6c:pLa

Po

'Wc ,~r' M,ilm~

51.0]115.; ;lite' fI ten (

u; ulde~ (}fc~ T ~tsg~

NHJO~CHEAN HH!CS:

by~ ers, l~!l .rld

dlf' ~ lIt~Cf will .IiHU be made wei! i n b~ Id Y by such a oou rse of rreatm ern, the form.er w ill not be made wdl ~i n sou I by ~ uch acourse of ph i~mophv_

I ,

,

~lcx~ ","'C musl con ~idef whm vi rtue is, Si FlCt' tIl i_rl,w; (_hat ;Ire fj~t!~d inthe' soulll:oc.afd'lree kin,ds----p-.lssiom, fac"lll~i.E'i, ~~:l~~~ of character; \.~ rtue rn U~~ be 'One ,(yif these. By pas~i(ms r mea iii a rrcl'lte, a niger. fea r, cr.mfidemx. ellil\fY,. iny, fr~t"ndly Ii:di~m~;. haucd,lol1g;ing, ernularion, pity, <In:d ~II gel'le,Jt dle fttlLngs rhar nre :1ccompl1rnin'l 0.1' pleasure or rrli n; hy n1('ul~~~~ ~h~ rh ~n~s ~n ". irnH~ f.lf whichwe are i>:JI id to he ra p;1hl!~ of fed~ng t:rtr:se, ~_p;. of" bc,wmifl.!1: Jrlij!!'y Or being P[liIled or fcelun~ pitr= h~1 staees Oif ·cil;urac·[(: ~ th~ ~hi.lllg,~. i[n ~"inm:, uf",,·hi.c lli we st~nd weH or hadly with reference (0 the passions, e.g. with I"!tfer~.rn,[c to ~[lgelr\C'I"e stand b"dly ~ f we f~l ill vio!eml}' nr ll!l'llJ \'!'t~al·dJ, .1Im~ ,,'en ILf W~ fed it mod~rat~lty; :ilnd sim ihrly wid'! reference tn the other r"'~5.iun~.

Now nci til er the vi rrucs [I{]lr·the viees are .rm.<iQII';.

OcC<ltl ~~ W(: " re nf~~~' (" alled J!i:W1o[~ nlf bm ~ on the gTolm~ i of elll r p'is~i-nn~. hut ~1 re s,() (:111 r:d nn dllt' ~rf}~L!'H.1 nf 011 r ,-il1i UJ(;~. a nJ tmr vices, a flU :bixa use \""~ :J re ncitber p.r.1 i S~'t II mrr hlb I:nt:~~ f~l IT {~~ f p;~S~iu~lS U[,r ~ hr: man ,,\:h!l f{'t'b f~.Jr ~.~r ~ngt:"r ~5 [lot pm~:;t:"d, nor ~~ d'!~ 1U;1 n wh II ~ i mpl y fo:~~ 1 ~ ;iln~t' r hl,~ m~·,d. hn~ rb~· rnnn who) fC~'II, iti I' ;1 ecrtnin \\";ty), but fur ul.lr·~ irtucs ~.nd our ,·ices we er« r:raisc{11 ~ir hi,lIlu::tL

HIY~ A~;li('l, w~ t~d ~ ng:t'r ;Hljll f~ar ,.\·ithjj\.u choice, hlUl:

the \i i rWt:~ a rc ,I;n~ )llc~ uf ch~ uee uf i n\' ~ Ike rhoice. !- (Inner, 111 r't"~ ~~n 01 t ht" I'~I ~~ ~~ ~·IH. \~'t' [IOC ~H id tflo bt' mo~·~·d, b~H il' re~pt;C( Oflh~ ~'ifWt:S ;Hl.d lhr: \.'!C~~ w~ .an: s'liul nt)l h~ he mu\·t:t] hut~~J h~ di_~pt)_'ilt\d in a par· [i.(ui~l.wway "

For these re~l$~ il'1L~ a ho t hey a I'e f!(~~ fi~,·tjltiei ~ fOJ we :m~ .Ii'1.e:itlh-ew ·caned gwKi l1I.nr had, llJo:r pm·used nor blamed, ful' the simple (;Jrmc-i[y of feding (ht:" pa~s.ioml~; a~~~n. Wit h;'l\'·f' the fa,cuhi:es h~' n:Hur~. hm we a no: mn nude: gvod or bmJ' Or nja~u reo. wt: h:I\'e 51'0- ktrlJ of dli~ ~ fore.

If, th~~, [he virtues :!I'e neith.er p:!s,sions nor rae· II1hies, all ~h~H n:l1:1Ja uri 5 i~ tn~l~h~y shO!lJ:~ d Ix: ~t:tJte-~ of ch~·j~·C.t('L

,[hm we h~pl'c ~·tntl:::d what vi IF'tt!~ is ill r(t's:pt'CL of H~ .genu~-

I)' id!

1'1

II'"

o \V-It. mUSit, however, !El0l only desc~ibc",inuc' :15 a

s:t~ttQf ch:.ml(::h~ r, btu ."hoo sa:y what ~o n of sta~e it

]5. We' 1.l'l:lY remark, then.~ha! ·e"'l':r~r virtue ,nr 0:::"'"eellenee ~[h bril'1lg~~ ~fltO gond coadirionthe thing of w hie h i ~ ~s the excellence ami m ~.",e5 the:' ~~"} r k of that d'ling be done: welll: e.g. thcexrel lenee or th eo ,t:ye mar,;e:<; boeh the eye ~!1Id it~ work .(loml, ror rt is hy rheexcef ence of tn e cye ~h:u we fI~ wd L Si m ~hrrly the !ll:!i:odicn ce ofthe hone 111nI8Jkes ;!I horse oot h g-nod i fI i tsel ft'l~ d good .1 t ru nn i flP: ;,1I.f1(l J ~ (;I fry! f1j,"( i tli- ride r andat :Iwaiting the an:u;:k ofdl.t' en~'n"'lr" Thc-n::f[)rc, if th ia i ~ t me: ~ n e\·,cry cusc, the virtue of rn ~ ~l aiM) wi n ~ [h~ 5ml~ j~f ell;'! racter which nlll:! kcs a m:llll .g~~[)-c:I and ~\·hil'h rn:lke~ h~m clu ~I~~ n\\'n work well.

Huw this is tn happen we I:HIY'~ stated ~lr~;I~ly, nll~i~.~\-i II be lIla.de p~a~ 11 also illy the ,)11,0\\' G,ITII~ cun~i(ler ... [ion ~ If the ~p~ci fj C fI r~n~ re of \'1 rrue, [n C"TfY· ~h inf!; that is cnnti nUCJ!l!JJs a nd dil\' i s.iMe ir i,~. lP~ ~!';~~ hi!;' ~o t::il" c mort::. less, orarl cqlu~ I a moun r, :I 111(! ,t'h;u eit her in teUn ~ of !h~ ~h ~ fig i ~:td f [.Ir rela rjvel r tn U~; :!nd~hc equal i~ :.m intcrmc·di·~lt.e between C)i:~'I;S,~ ,qnd dt:ft:c(. fir (]w i m~ rmed iu te in the ohi l'n I rnenn tlu ~ \\' h ic.h is t'tj,u iJ ~ S tam flf(im ~;ld"l of rhe ~')Clt remes, wh ic~ is one and the s:lI.'iI:l.e fo.f a III men; hy the i:llItcrmedi.ue rd'H~\·el:)' t~) 11l~ du~ which is neid\l:r rr~l much ~(U WI') ki td~~·.and th is i ~ li1Iut (HIlC". nur the .s.;unt: fur all. Fur ilht.lnt;~·,.ir.[<;'il i~ 111."~q· and h'-I' il~ f~' ~", ~~ X IS :the uJu~,rJ n ~,d i;Hc. ta ku~ i nl terms p ~ l h t'" uhj('ct; fUf i t ~';o;("t'~'d~ ;1 nd ~ 5 t'''n:~'d'l"d hr nu t·,!.IU ul .nuount; thi~ is LnEL·~ml:Ih:.tiL· ;.Ll"L·nrding 1[0 arithlTllt'ti.ctli propor-~inm. nm the ·i.lf1I~erml)(lli:uc r(;hrh t''II\·

tf) us i s fl61!( Ul hr: l,1 k ('n ~u; i frl'n l"UltHli! h· ;1 H· H ~ 1· 1 mH"h I!··,' For a 11i:il.uicubr pcrStHli W ·e~U ;md [WOO h10 hull~., .~~ does n.o~l·f;)Un~\· dml the tralnu w~1I 'Order ~i~

pou m~~; fo.r thi ~ ;) Iso i~ p!!r hOJ jJ.S [00 much fo r den:' per·

!i-On. who is w t:!I.~.e it, orWo :~iule-too 'hule for I\. ~~] 0,

'N)O in tlch for Ilh~k~i fiI m: r ~n ;]~Metic t'x.crei 5t:~. Trh t:" same: i,~ lr~e of nmnil1.g .ilIml wresd~ng" ThlUS:l ~~~'l.~-

~.cT of:J 111)111 r~ :J ,·oi.tho C!!n:5~ a n.d dt:ft'(~, i['mt !iil\i:ks. th.c

~ n ~efj'Pedi;1 te ,jno (:ho(l$!;;~ ·th i~-dlt: i" tt:I'~!!~~'l1 ~,~l(:

not in the obrien hut ~'da'~i\lel)'w liS.

Wf it i~ [hu~ .• [1'1en., th;1I[' eVlery ~rt dOt'5it~work weU-by kj(~k~Ilg W the ~ntermt:,(~;:Ite and jHtlging it:5\V10rks by tbi~ ~m ndJ.rd! {~G' th;llt ""·e O(~~11 ~::Jr of gcodworlk.s of an thaI it is 1i'I.Ol po~sib'lc ei~h~r W ~~lke i!W;uy @r m add ,uly~hif!g, imply~tlg l.h~U elo:lce$~ ;li1!d d·efcCl (ks~lm'y du: gooom.C'i>5 ofwor1k.s of rlrl, 1i\'h~.k d1.e me.~.!"1 .~~!'esen·e~ it; :I n.d good a rl:i~ts,. :I.S we s.~y. look W ~h]s in ~hC'~1l" ,,,",ork), and i f, fmEh~r, .\.~ rtllJ.e h

,

\0

· ,,. _ - ,.,-, ~, , ..

·m ••••• ,._ ., ••••••••• ,

mete e\\i3c[ and bentT ~ha]ll any an" as na:mn: else Ls. ~hen.vi.!'i~ue must h;()j\le me ([Uiality of aiimlllg itt the i~t~ tci'ffiro'iat1!" I rm.~n~or,al vi:rtue; fQri~ i,5, 1thrus thaili is eeneefned wId. p3lS5:IOnS and :u:UOJiJJ5:, ,8ind ~n the!ie 'rnl'ln:is excess, d~efEi~t,aJnd We jn~:rrnedi,we. Fo~ in~ ~~al"llce" booth. ka.fllnd eonfidenee and .1Ippctllte lInd: aIliger aad pity and riin gcJi1eral ple.u;lliJt: and pain may be: fdt both [00 much and ~O~,) Htde, and La beth eases [lot wen; btu oor~d d:l!:m at th~ rr]gh~ times, w.it~ rtf~ erenee to the wrught obittts" towards dle ri~t people. wiith ~he righ:~ motive" andie tiliI,c ri.g;~[ way .is what is ~i~~ermediateillnd best, aad tlis is dli<lwac~efi:Si" tic of \!'~ntl~" S:im~lady with re-g;nd W :!I;ctio[ls also there is excess" defect" andl~hc intcnm<:diiate., Now i,liniUc is ooJ1J~rned wih passiens and action!, in which e}!)ce-5~ ~ :a form, of fa:iiu~e. a~d !lois def«t. wht~le thL":i~!wc:[~ mediat:e is pr.<lised:1ind! £53. f'O:r.rn ofsl:It:l1eil15; and beh:!lg praised and be!!:!!g :£ucc>essful a re hmhch"rac~eristics of vi rtue, Thcrcfon!\li.r:itl1c :is a ki nd of meaa, since, as we have SO::fiI,i~ 3i:m>s ~( whal! is i~termcdillr.e.

A;g)lli.n" il, is .ptJ;Ifis;ib]e~o fa!,1 ~n ITtallY ways (for ~\I':i[ belongs to tfl.e class of tnc; unl iml~u::d!"as the Pytl!ago:r:ea.ns ,conJectured, ,aJ~d geed to that of the Il.~~cd), whi~:e; to :S;I]OC~ lS poSli~b]e on~yi]1l .one: wall' {fo'~ w tlith reason also one is C3:SY :lnd ehe other d~F fic:ull:~ rn i5stlhe ITI<l!rk 'easy, W bit ~t d ifficu]l:)j fo~ 'rhe~ 'Kfi~nn~, 11 lso, tThi:cl1. excess and dcJeC'~8iu ehaeaUe(t1sot:ie ofvioe, a!1!;d lite meafl@f vi flue;

For men ,a~~ ,good in bur 0]111": WlIf, bu~ badin maliliIf·

l~Q'" V~rilIu:e. then, ,is a state of i;:h<!f3!C:t'e:r COllce!'rDcd

wlrh choice. lying til a. mean, i.e., d'n,e meaa reladve 10' UC5, tthl$ be~ng d!e[cf,mi~:od by a .rilltio:l<~I, p~'indple~ and by ~ha~ pdnc:i p~e hy wh ieh the man 'Of pFaC:l!:cal wisdom wOiIJild dererminc it. N o'w it isa meanbe'tweelll ~wo vkes. d:lI:n whkh dlepcJn.ds, 0;1'1, ex.cessil!nd that wbieh de'pend~ on defect. and again it is a mean because th.CV~CC5 .re5JX!b~ivdy faM slitOIf1~ of nr exceed what ~s- l!'ight :i~ both pas~~.o!'lS and actions, whi]c \I'~rH1~bm:h fI~d~ and c!l1:00s.c" ~hat which is ineernuodiate. Hence ~n K-5pcCl: of itssubstance and tle dcr.~,irn:on which st:U.es its c;s8enC~V~IfUJ.e is a mean, wirhr'cgal\d -~ what is, k~!Il :andrig,ht ~n ~.:!I.tn::m_e.

Bu:tt not ClY'Cry anion nor every pas!S]on a4m its of a _~,aJm1Ij fo:r so~e have names l~lIl alr~ady imply badneros, c:.g.sp:itc. sfullm:el.cs:s:rn:ess, envy, and in the G:!ISC of ,actions ,,,d'll~fe r)i'.thef~ m.ul'\dc rj for 31~ -of

ETHICS: AND SOCIETY .,

~'

these and ~1IlJchl.ike tih.iRgsimply hy ,their Mmes rcl1:tt t:hey .ilfe tihem~d\le;s bad, and! not the ex,CeSlSes or d~ fieieneies of t!hem. I~ is nnt ~5ihlc .. '~ht:n., C'\l\e:r ttl be: right whhregiani to, rthCffij. oae mu.:st al\l'l'3.}'::i. 'be wTong, Nmr di!x;s ,g~lne;:; 'o~ blldn;t'l\8S with ~~g~rd ~o such things depend on comm itting adu]ttry wilh tthe r:ight woman, :I,t tI:u;right cim:~, .and ~n dtc fight wO!y~ but ~!mply ttl do any of tlliaem is m gil WfOJilg. h wolLtld he cquilUyabs:u rd, ~he!IiL, ~o expect that i!il I!I~

JYst, cowardly, ,;lind V()~Uptil,wt!s action there should! I

be a mean, :an e;l;;~~llS~, a~d a. d.ef1k:icnq. rolf art dut rate - there WCllLJJl.d be a. mean of C'x.c'c$S lI:mtd ,of dC'CLenq,

an c'X0e.5;S, of C';\(tt;\I$. and a defide~.,y of de£i.cl~:a.q" _. .Btu. as the,re ~s no excess ,O!fld defi.de~;ey Df ~el:l1Jipc:r~ 'U'l(:e and courage because what ~5 i.mllTmodia~e ~~ in

a sense an. ,ex.t~tme, ~O' '~OO of the aeeiens 'we harVll; ~ientioned the~e is no ~e"n IUI~ any excess a~d, de. fidenq,. btu nowev('![ th,cy arc don.c they ate WIT!J[lg; foir in ge!IiLe(iI~ II:heweis iliLelthe.r ,ill mean of exO!ss aad de:fidenc}" nor excess <I~d d!efici.e.ncy of a mean.

We mUSiE,. however ~ Pot 0:0 Iy ro,a~be thi~ g~neral " statement, but aha apply it to tlffiLc ind ividu11Il facts. For !lm.ong st3~'ments a OOtlit ccmrduct thQ~ whidl a re general a pp]y more wide~)i'. but I;ho!OL": wh~~h are pan:ic:u]a.r a:rc more gcl:lui ne. ~,int~ romil;d~ct has tn dill wimindi"idual ca:~ afild our S[;lten1.enU ml!i.s:~ bar" mcmiz-J! wi~h th~ facts in thc=~ cases. We n."y t~kc-~ ,

[illese ,oaSei>"fliOm our :mMe. Whh regard~o ftdi:ng§ nroi~. B

of fea f and cOmlfide[l;ce '1:!011,rage; is, the mean; of the ptIDpl.~ who c:~accl. he who 'c:ltl!:ttCis imll fea~mC:5S:l1e~ ,h;liS no rl3mLe (many of the' states ha y~ no Mille), while theman who exceeds in confid:enoe is .rash, and ,he: who cx(;cc::Cis in {,ear allld f:aUssho:;~i]1l cOlIDfi~ denee is .1. eowa rd. Witb regard~o pi.easuresalld, pain~flot all of~~m! and not so much will:b ee- ~ gam 00' the: pninS-----lh.e mean IS tern peranc~, ~be ex- ! I I~I $elf-·jHd.P~Lgetnee-", .p,'e~solns d~fici~]1Lt: w.i"th tn:L~Sird, ~ .. to the plc.a5U(CS are not ()iftt:'JiI found; hence ~u'(ih. perr sons aha hav,e reeel:\lM no neme, But JC1l us ,~.U thll.m ~:inSlef.!S~Me ...

Wi~h wegard to gi.vin,g and ~aJk[flg of .money the me;a:ill is ~rubcinlilry. me cltiCe5!S and me defe(;~p~od.i· gality Sind m.ea~nes:s, In tih.eSie alE!;iOl:lspt:;opk c~c:oed and [all s.ho~~ in cm:tt~3 ry W'<l,.VS~ idle: p~oo!gal ~(i~d~ in spending and filiUs short ~n takingi, while I~C: fM~.:l1 m.lIR exceeds jill mki ng and falb ili:or~ In spend~

\\

I I ,

j

NICO~CHEAN HHICS

i 110;'

i I!,g:, " •• Wilh rcgll rd 10 m:n:>1ey t h:ewe are .! I Sit) other disrmitifjlfl~ mean, nlagni~lccnce (f:or~he mlllg' nific~nt nun (hff:i:,:I; from t:t.t: li~:n~l man; ~h~ ~or~ mer deals wi th brge ~ums, the ~;Hh~'r wi tVi sm:lll OI'Le.~:~. a fI excess, m~tclt:'s!Snt's.s all d ",0]g:J r~ 1'Y', and a de:ficienc}, •. n i~g;1 ttl.! i Irn,r;:~~; dlr:s.c' d~ff!: r fmm t hr: ~'~~I~t'''' oppol>t:d to Jlibt'W31 ity ....

W~ih regard to honeurand di~horM~!" rile mean is proper .pridt' ,~he excess I,S k n~ m:n ~ ~ ;1 :S~.l r~ of "'emJur ~'a:rnil~',,~ rind the ddicit:ncy is undue hmn'~~· lty:. 3m! aswe l>lIliJ hht:m~.i,ty "\'a.~ n:hucdl W Jf]n:l~ni:f. ~ce!'l~e, diff~fing fmmit hy dc;~~iii1$l' \dth ~rn;JI]I~ sums, so there is. asaute ~i m ib rly rel .1l,t'(11 ~nrm.Floer p:r ide, bei n~ (~lf;)i C~ rne( ~ wi rh ~m [Ill .h nnOlLH whil e th~n us wn,ctrn~1 ~\'uth We:u, Fllf ~l i,~ ~)(~~]h.te W desiee honcuras one oup:lh~. a ml mo:r~~h;,m tH'I!;' ought, ;,lInd less, alil!lth~ ma~1 \". hi l ~~c<_,t,tb in hi ~ des U ireS, is ca lh:d ambi'r~oll~., tlilt" man wrw fans short lH'l,;'imhi[~wJ~. whi~c the ~ nterrued i:.m· per~n:f1I hns no name, The d i srw~ilions ~ Isn ~'n:: mnneless, '~:o.:icelu that dut nf th,~ amrnt!.ol.l~ 111M fli~ G~Ht:'d aJ,~,~lbitiOlJ"l, H t'~~[!:' ~h,t:' 1~t:oPI.t' \\' h 0 ,1 re ;U [h~' e~ tre ~Vl:C~ la}' da~ In to the rn ~dd~ e rbo::. ~l, f1 cI \\'1.: ~m rSol'ht,~ somcri mcs r'.:l U t ht' i n:term L·· di~ut' per:-;un ,LmhitirIU~ ~md~OI.lftetilllle~ unambitious, .~I:I,d '~utint'[im'L'~ pf;li,~ot." d'lt' ,wn!l!(iuu~, !lMil,l ml_'l!rmll~'~:imcs the 1I1n;unhit iUll ~_ • _ , ~ i\:' II'~~\' k·t'U.I,~ SPC;I k oftl:~ t' ~~'m;tin.itlg S~::ilt{'~, 'l'i:cBtd~l'!g I:u th~' m~t'hml \\'hich hOi~ been infl;r~nt'~L

IIQj' W ~~ h .rqr,mJi to ;mJ;::cri~1 ~L ~ th ere i~ a Ii1 ('~ n:~~, a de-

!(ac ~~ I1(Y ~ ~I nil. I ~I ~ Ul:·~U 1,"'- ~;.~ L~ 1'I . .rIa!L~:. II ~ ~ 1'1.,' .... u ~ ~ , .... reo! ~ _~ ._..~) ~;.., :_~ ~J ~tl It" :1~,iL"'~ n.i lint:", It't ~i neewe call ~ hr' Ii urn mcd i-, ate ~ ~ ,~o~~, f':,1 JI ~~~ -(~'m i l~ H:~ ]I~t \~ ~ c~lH ~ h~' fiH-un ~l!!Hd 1DIl:'.mp~f; of th~ p~Htll~S .,1t ~h~ e~m;mcs k:I th,~' one w no C](,[t't'tJ s hee:;] Ht::d ~ m~ci Me, lAnd n!'i s v ~cci m~ ~bi]:i ty. J.l'nd l ht:' m.all who fa Hs ~hort ;) fI in i r.;~~c! bl~ ~o r l (]If per~nn, :I.m1.d th~ dcfic-ienc)! ~ ni r::~~C'i hi I ity ,

There ~ n: a 1);0 ~~ In.:t' mhl:e~ m~ns,. ",·h ic~ ~ [In' ~I cert;l!fi. i!k~n!,:'s.s to OOt: anoth~r, bm differ fW'fifI nne iill1C1'thu: for tll t:y a re aU co.lJlcer.noJ wi til ·u n t€ rccmlfsc ~ 1'1 'Word S rl m1,J ;J(tior'il~, btn J i fret in th[lt: un~' ~:s ('Oi'l,ccme~!\li:i~h l ru th in this sphere" l~.e Qthcr~wo w~th plell~3 mm:$1i; ;'lnd of til i~, OIiilC' k i mji~t'};h ibi ~C'tI ~11ii ~i\tillg amus~m~nt, the:: other in all the curcm:n~[allJ(\t's of ]1 fe, We In!J:i~t ~:h!:rd~)[t' speak of tht'sc too" t~m w~ may the bet~er ~ec th:u in .<11.11 til i rigs the m.ea n I ~ 'Pf:lJ~SC'wo:r~hy,j]liild the extn:~mc;!j, nci~her pral:l>l:'wo!!~y no~ right! but ,.,t'onby o:f M.:!W'I,e" Now n~.osl of

tJ!n~Sle statesalso :hI;]".e no names, hut we must (,11'. :l~~, i rI the O't he: r mscs, ~o in \,cn,t rra rnes ourselves ~~ I d,j[ we rn.1Y be clear ;1 nd e.hy to foJ low, W ith rC'ga rd to rruth, then, the unterm:f.',d~::ue~s .. trl,uhfu~ son of pn· 50n .. nd the meal] rnllY he c:il.II!~d~mlhfU!i ne.SJ.S, wh i lie t~].e P!'e'll::!'lC< ,.",hich eX:lrulenl[t:sls bom.~~f1!i] ITII!':SS and [he pcr:;;r]Il1' cha mw~:r:~:z-.edl hy it a ho,;Hrer. "i1d~hllt 1;li]'J ich un d~:rs[;u~~ is mock modest}' ::I1iJ.d the person eharacteeizerl by ~r Innoclk-mmle~~_ Widl rC'j!;,m,rd to ~1)1~lIianu:te5s, in the giying of amosernent ~h.e ii'lle~met] i:u~ pt: rsen i~ r't'~.dy.wiurn and the d USJXl.~~l~On n:;'!;dy wi r, d~r: ~'I;;Ct':;~ .~~ bu froane~y;!ll1d the !\Crmn (''h.~ rtlcteri zed byi ~ ;J bu ff'Oon, w h il r: th e man whu falh shortis n sort ofh~ !,ufrLnd hi~ ~n1 ee i~ooorish ness, Wi:ln K};ard to the r~!na~nil'llg: ki!'ld of pleasaamess, that which isexhi bitcd iln .~~.fe in .g~ne,r:l~, [h<'~m <liflwho i~, ~:lI:e~~'1m~n '~he riglht li\'3y is (i-i!:if1d~y ~nc1' the mean is friet~ dli nes.~,. wh He ~he man \:.\'ho exceeds is a Ul obseq[uiou:~ per5.{lrl if he has 1"10 end un view, ;1 nau~rer if he U~ aumiil~g at. hi~ own ~Hh-al'llt:JIge. and the m;ln, wl'un fa 1I~ sho:f,t arnl i~ IJ ilJl.j~t'a5.:J l1It~n ~I'JII circumsmnres is a qU;1 ~rt'lsume a n,d su ,Iy ~H:Fit n f renm1,

"[":hi en: arcnlso means i Ii1 the pn~~iorl~ ami eoncernexl with the PJls~inlfts; ~inc~ shrune us not a virrure, ;HU! ~'L't pr;list' is e~tem~,t;;,rI ~n ~nt: mod!,:'~1 man.

Ii-' ow e\'c,nl, ;un ~h.~s.: J]J,.lth: rr::;, (jn~ nuin i~ sa it!1 to ht' u 1i'I,toL~rml('.d i!:lre, ~1 fll~ ~u:nf)!h!;"f ~u ~XC!.l~'J.t~~ fur ~,u~ laJ,~,o.~

tilt' hilshfu'l man .\~Im is ashamed of ~\'ernhinlg; ~\,"h~k he who J':!H~ ~lwn tlf i:~ n~l( .~l~h,lm('~l nf .my·

.h; f' ~ 'l,t "1'1 ~ i ~ ~kmwll;,~~, • melthe in tc rmed i JUt' per-

'mn i~ uu Id~'s't. R ~!!I'1IIl:'! 11J~, ~ 11 d i~'~Hllt i! ~n i~ :1 mt';;J n be tween e IIwy a n(~ ~p~ re " a nd (11 ese ~:l,ues ;'I re cuncerned I ~L1li" with ~hc r~l~n :l.nd pleasure t:n~~~ ;uefdt ,hr ~hc t'ormnes of om m:igiliJ.rJurs; th~ man who is ch.1racter·

iz~d by • ightem,_l~ i !'Ii! igna ~~on, ~~ ~""'~! i1!!:d ,~t y ndes~ned gOt:!<I1 fimmH\ the c m"i:DI15 m:H~" .goi ng ht'yo.nd

h i ~:r!, h, pai nnl ;~~ .8IH ~(~d rQrRH'l~'. i'lnll ~he spiitt'fu ~ m:m faU~ .so fa r short of hei ng r-ni f1~t! th:lt he ewm reJoKC:ti, , , ..

I

The!'c alrc ~h r·t:'o~ kind's of d i~,posit:ion, t:~.~n.. two of ~ ~hem\:tc,es.ii~\I(lhing ,excess :lI'Id (ie(;ciel'lC'Y r~!ipe(~:ivd)'. ,[I,nd .ont: a vinu(!, viz, the- mcan., and aU arc in 01i ~ensc opros~d to a I~;, fo r th~ 'ell: ~n;:I,l' e ~l:lles are contra ry b(Ji~h to til e :ilrHt'rmed i'H~ stattc a rnd w cadl I)~hel' > .;lil~ld th,~ ~~ r~f~eIH,ue to ~ he e Xll'\eme:s:; ;!!~ the ~qmd i~ g~.uu HJ:I~i\ldf m tJle: ]css,. lC'ss rclati\l'd}l

, ,"

m the ,grC3.ler" SO the middle states are excesst ve relativdy to the de ficicncies, dcficlcm relative! y to. the excesses, both in passions lind In actions, For the: brave mall appears rash rda'tivdy to th,~ eoward, and cowardly rda.ri.v,ely to the rash mall; and similarly the tempe,rare .man appears self-indulgent relativdy to the l'Vemib:le rna n, i nse~~ib"e relati \I'd}' to the :sclf~indulg'ml, ami the liberal man prodig.al rela-, tive~y to the mean man, mc:an rdativdy to the pradigat Hence also the people a,t the extresnes push the imermed ia te ma n. each over to the other ;md the brave man is cal.led rash by tnt: coward; cowardly by tIle rash man. IIlld correspondingly in the: o1:her cases,

These stares being thus opposed EO one another, the greatest contnniet}' is tba,t of the extremes tOo each other, ratherthen to the intermediate. for these arc further from each other' mom from the ~mcFmc~ d i:.uc, iis the ,gr~1n is fu rthee from~hc ~nti'i~,1 and the small from, the gn~at than both ate from: the equal Again. to the intermediate some extremes show a certain likeness, as that of rashness to courage and that of prwigaht)l' to liberality; but the extremes :d'IOW the: gr,eatest unlikenessto each oithe~: now eont,ra!l'ie~ are defined as the thin~ that arc furthest from each other, sorh,atthings thatare further apan are mere connary.

I.IIU'f' To the mea fI in SO'llle cases the deficiency, i 11 ~oltne

the excess is more opposed ;t~.~" iI is not rashness, whkh is an excess, but cowardice. which is a deficiency that: is more opposed tn courage, a nd nor insensibility" which is. 11 deficiency, but sdf~lndllllgence, which isan excess, thae is more opposedto temperance. Thi.s happens from two rea.soflS. One 'being drawn from the thing :itsc:lf; fo:r because one extreme is nearer and I ikerto the intermedia~, we oppooc not this butt rathl;f" its contrary to [he ~mecmediate, E.g" si nee cas]uDCSl! ~s tbO'!'!!gh t [i ker and nearer to ,oouJ'age" and cowardice more unlike, we oppose n .. eher the laUcF to courage; for th~ngs that 1IFC fIl1nbc'r from the intermediate are thought more contrary to ir, This, then" ~s one cause, drawn from thething itself; another is dra wn from oursel .... c5; fO:r the things to which we oursel ves more naturaUy tend seem moreeonerary to the intermediate" .For instance, we ourselves lend more natunlUy to ple3.~ SUl"eS. and hence are more easi]y carried a way to-

wards self-lndulgcn~e than toward. propriety. W,e describeas c.'OJIU:rary re the mean, then; rather the directions in which we more often go to g:re~t ]eng;ths.; and therefore self-indulgence, which is an ClIC'eiS, ls the more: contrary to temperance,

Thilil: mar,al v:lrtlle; is a mean, lhen. and in WltaiU ~I}s.e it: IS so, and Iih.;u it is a mean between two "'ices. the one i.f1vol \i'~ng excess, t~e other deficiency., ,and that i.r ~s sueh beeause its character icS to aim at what, is in~ermedia~ in passions andin actions, has been !iiliJffici.endy stated, Hence also it is no easytssk to be good For in everything it is no easy task ~lJ And me middle;. e.g. to .find the middle of a eirele iii not for eVC:i'}' Olle but for him who knows; so, too, anyone can ge~ an,gry-rhat is tasy---or m give Of spend moOney; but to do this to the eightpesson, to the righl eli.rc[j.'~, at Ill!: [lght.~ime. with the right mmiv'e, andio the rigl-u way, tlml, is f10'~ foreivcryr one, nor is it ,ea;s}'; wherefore ,g«KI~ ness. i~, both ran: and laudable' a~d noble.

Hence he wI'! 0 ::I i ms at the i nterrnediate must fi'l'SI: depart from what is [he more centrary to ·it, a~ Ca]yp5o advises---

Hold the ship aut beyond that surf and :opi:ay.

For of rile extremes one is more erroneous, one less so; 'the refol'e, since to hir '[he ITI!:'an is hard in [he extreme, we: must as ;<I seccad best; 3S people: $l1Y, take [he ~east of 'the evU~; and thi.~ will be done best

iii the way we describe, ,

But we must comidcr the thi.ngs towards which II~

we ourselves also are easily C<!.!'rted<lwaYi ror smne :.

of us tend 'w one thing, some to another: and thi.s win be .~cognlzaMc:: from 'the pleasure and the pa:in we feeL We m use drag oarsefves a way to the CO.ll~ tr,a.y extreme; for we shall gee into the :intenllcdiate sta're by drawi ng wen away from errnr, .as people do 'in S't]"aigh:~ening nicks mat ate: befit.

Now in every[hing the p]ea$a.nt or pleasure is most to be guarded aga.inst; ('Or we do not judge' it i.mpartia]]Y . We ought. [hen, to feel towards plea~ sure as the elders of the people felt eowards Helen. and in all cireumstences repeat theil" saying; for if we dismiss pleasure thus we are less likely to go astray. It is by dojng this, then, (to sum the matter up) that we shall be .... be able to hit the mean.

w nc nil !S ar

th

.sr; m

B

dl

o d ft h

I'l n

b 11

I'

,. r. •• _.,. _ _ _ _".. • •• _. __ •• __ ~ " ••

'~~y. w~ rrhe clileiilg~h~; -x:ces:s, is

tn wha~~ "11\0 ""icr~ and th:1l ttlt is inen 511[fi-· hoe· good. m,iddlc,

• eJ'yom: ~ gp any; bm to rt, ;lJt the glnwil'Y. re gOOldI.

U.lst fi,m ~o ILt. as

ems, cne rd in the ~pl~ say, l'iI:ne' best

Is which ~I(iIj· ·.or some .a~.d l~is

me pain

the eenzermedi-

, 3~ ,pro.

~a:5u~e IS judge i~ -lls. pie,,· s Helen. ~g; ro, ~f 1)' to go e matter an.

NIIOOMACHEAJN ETHICS

I ,

r

I

,

Bu~ d'lis. I~ no doubt: di U!cu It, and cspocitliYln li:l!.d ividual cases; for It is not eas}' to det:e.r.mine OO:lfl how <Inc w.il:rn whom a nd Of! W~.OIt p;t'ovoca~ion and :~,ow ~ol'lg one shouM be an.glL}; for w'e 000 sometimes pm.iS!:' those who fa ll ShOftilifid call them good-tern pered, but sometimes we praise those who get ~.ngr}' "nd caU ~heG'J mao ]y" The man, h()'w.c::vC'r, who deviates I itde ffQrn good ~e~t> ~. nm blamed,. whethe~ me dow ~[I[he dirrtl!:ion oftne more orr ohh.e I.cSlS. but on~y the m3lrnl . who devia~cs mort: widely, for he docs not failw'be noticed. Blll~ up to wh:l~: point and m Wh.H extent a man must devialte before he becomes l)J';1!meworthyit is :mtm ~lIsy ~o dCirrcrm ine by ~a:SO:J:l i~g, any more than 3.i:lydli fig else ~&lJ8J~ is perceived by tne: s:e.i1S'es; ~!Ilc]ru ~hings depend ·on particula« fia.ct:li" and rhe dc::cjs~.o:rn rests wi til perception. Som,w:::h, th.en, I~ plat!l. d13t ~~.e i mtt~rmw~a~e ~taJ(eis i n .. ~I th I~gs ~o be pr,a~ s.ed, hut ~h3!rr we mUst i.m:i i ne sO'nTII.eri rnes tows rdsthe >C:IIC:CSS. sometimeamwa rds the deficI.cc[lcYj. for SCI sha]1 Wi!: mo~~ easily Ihi'tthe'm,ear~ and what is fjght

511

:fi:!r dIe. r pu ri ty .and: tmei r enduring1flle1!liS. and ~( i~ to be expected dut those who know win pa:scs thei rti me more p~ eas;andy thanl ~hQ51e who ~.nquirc. And the s-c.lfrsumcicncy that i.sspoken of must belong mOSt eo '~he 'OOI'il tern plJti'iole 3clriv~ty .. Fo r wh il'ea p'h.i lesepher, illS wen asa j ~St m:t:n Or cae pms!!:!>s,ing any other vi rtue, n.C':I:ds the: necessaries of Hie, when dtey arc ~"ldllciendy ,~qU!~ ppc:d w.it:h tmi ngs of ,tha[ ~Oft '~he ~u:s,t :m.an ~i!!I!!clspuiple rowa~d~wh().m ,1Ind with w:hom he sha II a.Cit i usdr, and the tel'lmper"ue maa, ~hc brave rna n, and ead, of the ethers is in the sa me case, but~he philosopher. even when by h im ~I f, Guml oolllC'.mp~ aU: truth, and the beuer the w~sef he 1:5;; he can pc:rhap,s do sobette rif Jhe h3S f~Uow~""orke~:; •

but stiU he is the most seif-suffidem. AJrnd this ac- II~ ~~ \lityii!!~ol'le would seerntebe loved for hsow~ 5aJkc:;.

for pmhing 3,r~Sle~ f r>O!lTI ~l apan from the OOn{lCmpl,uing,. wh~lc fmm, pra.C1Iica~laClruv-i'~il;s we g,ai!'l ~,ore

or leS5aJpart from tIle: action. And happin~ss ~s thougb(~o depend O!1 leisure: {o, We1liFe busythat w~maJy have leisere, ,and m a!::,e wa r d~alt we' !'I'll ay

live iiil peace, Now~he' act~".ilrry of th.e practical

\I lreues i5e)!hibi~ed in pol itieal or nillU i[awy ::tff;]lllr:s.,

bllt the actions concerned w.itn these seem to be un-

Jb SlI ,dy. W <! rlik.e act ions Me Gomp[cu:~y 5)0 {(or no

one c hooses ,~o be at wa r ,. or prolo'okes wa r ,. for [he saJt,e of bd.llIlg ;]It W;J.r, an!i' one wm.l~d seemsbsnl u~:d)' rnurde reus if he were eo ma ke enem ic::s of h isf:r.uends

in, order to brullg aboue oou~·eand 5!aug,n~e:l'}; but d;H;: aceion of [he' ~lrraU:5m;Ul li!511lso 1li.nh:-i§;IIII~dy. ,and-

;l part r;mmrhero11~ tic .. '~ <lcttOfi iueU:__a,j rns 11~ dJ~spt1tic power and hoaoars, or atall events. happi- 1Il~. for hi rn and hisfellow ci.ti zefiS-il h~ppil'lC:55 diffcrcmLl. [mimi political action, and evidently $.Q'llgh~

as bei ng diffekliu, Soif~m(J:ntg ",i:rmuom. actieas .• po· litical aJm.d m~lit.ary aetions are: dist~ngllis.hed b¥' no. bility andgrearness, arid these are un~ei~!Jn:~.y and

ai m at a 1'1 ,end and <! re not desi fa blefor thei r OW'!lI sa'kc:, but lllitc activil)i of lreason, wh~,C'h i'~H;a,liiltempla.

I[j"e, ~em~. bot~, '~o be supcrio:r 1~. S~~E(!US word] 11 nd

w a:um a~ [10 end beyond i.lself, a:lllcl 1:0 ~.:!l ve iu plea-

s!.! fie proper U! ltselHand ~h~s augf'nenrs th!e ~c;t:ivi£y).

a~d il:h~ sel f·iU fficic:mtq" :ICl~lIl~t:ruiness... lJ.[lweaf~edne~s.

(~ f~w a;~th]s ws pos5:iMe r~lr rna Ill), ;uiLd :aJI ~hc: m!mc:~ .i3Jttrihu.ue:s :i.§l[ ribcd to the iuprc:mdy ~,a_ppy m ,In are ev~deruly those COlo-neeled with tll is activi ty. ~~ fol-

lows d1i~[ thi~ will be (he cQmpleii:c h;llppi~es:s of ma:GlI,

~ I j

r I I

Book X

'1 [f b~"ppi fjles.$ is J_cllvity i n aecceda fI~e with V~UUA!. i~ is rea son:lb:~e~h.aJt i~ shou!d .~ in accorda nee wi ~h d~c: higbe$~ vi rtue; :11] d til iis win be thar of ~~'e' best t;ni ng ~n lK W hethe r h be reason or sorneth ing else t~:!It .is th.U5 element wh~.ch is I:hOl!i.gh~ 00 be OLl:W :n!lI~" uf.lim Ie ,illf1,ti gt!iJ~nJ to l.!k~ d~~yght ·of thj!'1!g:o< noble and duvine, whetherut be iuelf also d,i v inc: 01" only the 1111.051 di v inc: element ~ n us, the a('~lv~ ry of this iaaeeordance wlthi~$ preper v irlme wi! ~ be ,~rg rCel ha p~iness. That lhl~ amiyity is oonlrrcmpla.t~v'~ we ~a.\'\e!lJhcady s!liid.

Now thi.s would seem to be in lIgreement bod'n w ith what we 5a~.d befort: and w~.th dlC t ruth, For, ijr~d Y. I[his 3Cliv~~.y is dn.e ben ('since f1Qt onl y ~s rca.~OJi1l t.~e !best: th ing in us. bU'~ die: objects. of K.:i.5QO 3.re ~hc ks[ of k MwaMe oibjC(;ts); a fld,. secondl y. it is the ,mo~l conti fl1!lOUhSi nee we ca 1'1 conlem pl.aU' ~mth More co:nl~i nu:olcisly ~ha.n We Um ,do aJny(!hi;ng. A fld we ~hink ~"pp~ael~ ~!as p~eas'I!ilI~~ mi n~!edwiililil, ill, but ~he aC'l:i v ity of ph ilosophk w i~d'om IS ~,d m~u:ed]y the p.]t:a5aIl'~~st of v i rtuousllct~Yltic:s; .1t aU ,e"'en't£the ~m:rlS1l!I~t of it .is thmilglt W <!i;Iffc::r p~eas'lliln:s ma.rvd~ous

- ---- --- -- - - ---

- - .

-- - - __ - I

•• n· ••••••.••. , •••••. -

;f i~ be aHow!ld a. (lornplc~H~._j of ~~r~ (fo~ Imtone of the 3i1:EfWblll[C'Sof ha(ppinc5s is .i\l'.icom.'pI~> ..

B!.!~ sl.l:m II l.ife would ~. too' hi~ fOIi main; fOli i[ ]5 .o.m: in ~o fa.r as he ~s man Itha:t he win li Vl: ~O~ ~t in so far .as w.dhi ng div:irrte is pr'e:-s~nt ~n him; and by so much as mlsis sMpcriQr to our rom pesite ~1!J~ eure ]5 its activity sl!IIperiQr kI thai! wh.ich ~s the exeE'C'ise gf t:h.e millie!: ,Id nd of virtue, If reasen .is d~vi ne, t~~n,iml corn,l)i!I~~on with ~an. d'l;rrre- ae(lQ~ding (0

• • ~._.. - --;; • ·L L I·t:' Ii)

uJs. IIIJV:lne· tlil ,oomparw~on, wnl~ uUm:lJ1l u\~ •. u'!JJIf We

mu~{ no'l: .Iow those who adrise us, being ~eh,~o think. oJ ~h,u:man I:h~;ngs, and, Ming mO~Ir.aJI, of merti!li.things; bt!~ nilust, 50 far as We can, make oufsdve5 ~mmortal~and str.al.n e\'iCfy n.cr\''C m livc ~fI ac('Ci1.r~ dance with the best th ing in us; fo~ even wf ~t be small

U;a' in bUill, ml!l('hmo:rl; does i'l if! pow,e~ and WQfit.h ~UlW.p<tss evefyrh iflg. This wOlili.d seem, Ul!O, In Keach ,man h inlsel f~ ~ in.cci[ :is the .aJcu.uih.or~Hit:iyca!l':ld better p.an. of hi m.. J t would be S'l:f3!11lge, then. if be were~o choose no[ the life of his sel f b!l~ dl::u .of oolmletibiing e:~.s.e ••• [Tlhll.r whi.ch i;s. prope:r l1iI~a(:h mwng is by Ulllln: best <lind m,ost ple'3:s.an~fo~· eaeh thwng~ for man, '~her~fore,. the ~lfe according to ~cal/iQ~ i~ ~st

,~..:I . ...:~ .... . ,.-

'b_!.~.JI'~5;l iiIJ~,5i,rI(\e: Ka:!!n.~lIIgr~ ,til;;!J!1 a~n)'~du rig

d~~_M _m~~.::;. T~i!, life t"eu!orc i5a~so the happiest

~,But in .1. seeenda ry dc:.g:ra: tille i i fe in3cco:rnance whlliilthc o~he::r ki nd of ywnucis hOI PPll" for ~he .acrw,..~ i~ies ~fl <!(;oo.dance wi'~h II:hi:S ~fi.~ our ~:ll:maJ~, estate, j1li:st ,1IrU~ brave a(ct$, and ether \I'~rm~U!s <!Jc~,!we do ~ID fdat~on tocllch otllil.(tr. orne f'II' ing ou r fCSPCl:tID!o'C d ul:teS with fegO!lrd W ccnttrn.c~. .Siod ~~vkcs and arn~, manner OJfa~[i.QJls .a~d wi:rl:i I"ega rd to ra ~i:limsj. and .aU of dl.ese seem 'ro be l[ypic:<lUy h~mal:l. Somc of [hem, SUM Clo'cn to-arise f~o!TI ehe body, and \I'~ft;ue ofehae.,u;:ter til be: wn mllloy wafs Ml!md up witb rlh.e p;i;Sl.5:tons. PIra.ctic:3.1 w~ilom,; b)O, Is rninlk.od '~o""i:l1I:uc of d~llim£~ eer, and this to p~acci~1 wisdom" srunce the p:;i~dples of pr.actica~ w~sdom. are i~ aceordanee with rftle mora~ \l'i,rli'li!e~ al'ld ~WghtnClil:; ~Il tnQralsis in a,cco"d:Uiltt w~1iI praciUi.cal w.isdo.ml. Bd"lg c@nneo~ed with the passiq.!'l~ .<!l~ the m.oral. virne.:;. must briJor:lg~lJ our ctJ.mJ(lOI!i-

iJk; na\l[l,!lre;: a~d ~e VlKUC5. ,ofou.r (Jompoos~~e n3U.!fe aire hlJman., so, tlhe.re:ro:re, ~re t"e I~fe"nd ike halPpi:. ne~ whiCh co~!\espolld roo~. The ex~l~cn(ie of ~he ~n is.::ll thing apart:; we must be 'O'll:~ell\l[ W say th.is much aoo1,!lt ~t.ror Wo descrik h pr,ccisdy is ilitask

,

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NI(

g,r~'l,Ifer than our 'llI~lPO'Se requires. It woUld how~ell". also to n~ externa] e:quip:mciiIlt but

Or less diiillil, mor;li~Yin:ucdOOZ:5. Gran~ that li:!cth

the neeessaries, <I nd dow equililly ,.I::'\f~n if I~C _._ -'''''_li. maa's work ws the more ooncerned wilh th~ body Ithi ngs (If that ~Ql:'tj for the~e wiU be· :I~(lilc d1iiJ~~·~:l1 the(cj but in w:.h:lIt liluey need far '~he e)!.e!r;:~~ of . i!cti!,l'j~ies mel'\e win be· much difrel:ienoc. T,he nUC:nllt'l manw~n need mmil,ey fOE the do~ng of his dc~ds. and the .ilusl[ man [00 wiU ~oJtid i~ fo.r the U.!:!"fIll'lg of seni~ (for wi:shes. are ~rd to "' •• "'~~:I!.'I' and 'I:ll;'ClD ~pliC who, arc not i,ust prc[~nd to wish) act ju~dy); and the bnliv~ man w:ill fic~d power if ~S~!l a.c(!o.mphsh any ef I[hcacn Iia.a[ (lorm;po.nd

h is vi rtue, .Simd Ithe ~mptml[c man W 1]1 need - ,r-"''''''~

u.a.nitll'; fo~ how e~ is e'itbe~ ,ite .of any of I~be u ,,,,,'t.11

~o be raogmtLiudP'h IS ddmtcd, [00, whedlcf [hc er me deed is mere ,ess.e,ntlaru 'to vi rtue, which is. !)U!mcd~o in"'Q]ve ootihi it is s!l)rurd y d~.i!I~· [ha!~i\l::!l. £5(\I[ion invol.vesbolilj hu~ for dcod:s m,an.y 'lhili'l.g15 il!~ needed. and mere, thc· grea~e rand nolbler· the deecb are. !hu the man wlbi;o isoome;mJp]ati~_g ~ ~ruth [I;«d~ I'lO' ~'I!l.c:h thing,. arleast with a view ~o rnil! eili,· ercise of his aChv:i'1;, wndcod thc), a.r,e, mllC may Siif, even. ~indrSin.ccs •. Si[aJ~, c'vents to, his clJntem.plaJt~@!lj blllt in se far as he is a. mI,:;!n and ~irlo'~ wi'tth a ii1'lunoo ofpcop]c. he chooses to, do ~inu()usillct$;. ~C' wiU lffinerd"o~·e m1l~ s!I!1oh aidsto I iving a. human n~.

Itn ll:li~ pef[CC~ h,a,PiPi ness is .111 oon~mphtti vc <Ie· ti\'i~y wi I~~ O!p~~~ f:rom rffilte foUow.ing l;iom~il:illeralIDon as well, W,~ assume m:he· gpd 5 10 k a hove aU ot.n~r beings b]essed and h.1.piPY~ b~l wha1l: SQ:r~ (!Ifac!ltioo$ muM we assign to tlil~~,u) r .Au:; IliIf ilu;s)~ic~r W ~U ,,"' ........... ehe gods seem abeu I'd: wf t~el!' make COlilu"ac:ts and .wC· turn deposhs" and 00 on? Aets of a brave m~n. then, ,cDnfron~in.1il dAnger~and runesi I1I.S :r.isb~r'allsc it u .noMc [0 d050f Or ]ibc.raJ~ aCts? T,o w~o:m win me)' gi \I'd h w'irn~be $uangc: :ii they aJre I!"eO!lly to UYC monq Qr· anythiHg ·of lffite: kind. And wlliruall: WOIlMI I~hcif k:mP!l:lfa~c acts bcr Is lil'Ot sllciliil p,r.3!i~ It1l!sldc". ~j~ce they h.1ve no Nd apiP'=:l;it~s_1l If w~ wcn:to nUll ILhrough ~hem a]], Ilh£ c:i:rcum..staW1JCC5 Oif.action ~1jMI bot fQUIlid ulivial andl;mlword:!y of gods" Sril.l. ,every one suppo~ wat they lilM .and the:refo:rc maot thq :lin: a~ti:vc; we 'Cllifinm sup~~ them m .ilttp 1iklt ·E:ndy.m~on. Now ~fyou takelllway from 3.li.yingbe~

ing :aaio~, :and stili mOl\e pfodUiction, what is left:

pr of

Ul"I" WI U: is W 01 p,

o 'If Cl tJ ~ ['

·- ... ' ... __ ._-,--_ .. _. - , .. , .... - ... _-- -.,

es, h \vou,!d~rn i ui pment but ,I ild~ , "a m ~h;} ~ bQr~, n!l:ecl , even if r:JTIte ~lt.1Jtt"f>~I wirb~he body :Illd be Jin~e d'i ff'Cl"enClt hcel(t'rcise of theil" erenee. The lrib~ra~ Cling of his ~iberilr need it fot thc!'t. -e h~lr"d to discern, p,rer~nld' to wis~ to

I JiI~ed power if he .11 lit: corrt'~polild to

l, will need ()ppolr~

. a n:y 0 r the o~het!l

~, W~-l!=,ther rbe 1I\'H~' iJl'"[!.!c" \\'11 icll is asdear rll.uiu pe r-

s rna ny thi.n.gs m re 11)11 ~ 11 ohler lh,t dtl~s plating the truth

a vi~w ~o tll1e- eli:. 'lre. Ol1e' rna y say"

is ,COn ternpl'.JJtuo!ll: 1!5 wi t~ :I IUIIH ber Ol.L~ aCi!"~~ be wm ! hum 8I1l !ife. onttmpJ;;JJlrICV~ aeng con~i dcr.u~o~ ~ abm'c aU C1:rher U MIn of .:l,cl'io!l$ I.ISljC~? wm not cO!l['rac[s .md re.

~ f-1 VI.::' m:'l n, ~h(' fl. is!.:s bec:u.i!~(' i't is whom wm tJh1.!Y

e rea!])' ~) n.:l\i'C

ndwha.l WQui'd pr.1i~:e ta5~dcss, We W,~re ~El nll"l of ;]etiOI:l wouJ'd Qd~_ S tin, every re(oE't; tiha:t d'lcy 1:1. to slc:eplih 'Qm <Ii ,!~".i~g b~ ):rII, wh!lit i~ ]eft

but ennjem phu ion: The rcfo,fe the :I("[i "~I ty of God, which surpasses jl! orhers] Ii1lbl~5s~dr~~£s. m usr be wfl1t.c:mp:la t~\,'e; and of h um t'lt"l JiJC ti v !1~C.5.. the refo re, thilt wI'! ich i s most a k in to th~s m ust be most of the nature of ha ppiml,C:&s.

Th is is ind iC;'l[ed, tWll, by the r"H'~ til" ~ the ather ;ill'J.im.aJ:~ have n;r~ shere 111 hJ,ppi!)cs~, h~ing eomp.~e~ely depriveel of .5UC,~, :iI.ct~l\'i~1' .. Ftu wlh~ic' ~he wllilcdc U fe (lft~,e goch is bles..~ed.al'ld[hat of me~ tnn Ill! so far lIS UllmC likeness uf ~w::n ~ni\i'ity klomJ.!!is ~[I rhern, none ·of the mhe r ;"In ~ mals i 5 h~.ppy, since tb ey In mlW~y ~ h'Ire in eontem pb t~O!'L Hap,pi ness ~N:. !il:l'I!d.s, then, [usa so f8J.r as COIill,tC~,1,1 pl:uion does, amil' those to whom eoneem pkuiol'll more fully belon,.g~ s re more truly h'l PPY. not as ~~ mere (,Oflcmn i tant but in '\fii rtue of tlh~ eontern pbtion;, fur th:i s is 1m ~ lsc:l f pn:clO[ls .. Happi:mI (:55" ~her~l[orc:. ,mu~t be som e l~ rm of oofln:mp~;lt~o~-

BIH, I~ung rJJ 11f~an:" one w~,11 alse aeed '~lHelrn[IJ~ pwosperhy, ~(H oUr nutureis .nm sdf·~t!fficicn~ flOr the pu,~ po~ of con eem p] :iI~iu U"I,. bur ou r brn Iy a ~~(I

ii'19' rnfItlS[ be he>l~~hy and mwlSt have ~['tOCI Oli"nd o~her a'~~ llC:n~~OIlJ. Sti~.~" we my ~~~,ot ~hi~ k rh;}t t1i1l e rn nn 1;!I,,:ho i~~o 00 happy will need Imlny thiln~s or ~rt:~u tbin!=:.'i. Inl!rdy beeuu 5~ he::: en nnnt he 5U pre md l' hil PPY wi thGtlt exte rna! good,.;; fl~; -~d f~~l! 111 ciency a rid ani(m do [lot 'iml\l'ol~'~ e](CI;~~" ~~ d w,~ en n do noble :l{"lr,~, w ithout ruli ii'lf; ea nll and seu: fo r cn:n wi dlt:n mlcm (I:: ;1dv,~ntm,~es one COl n ;]jeT \' [,t~.mt!~~ r (til i~ :i ~ m;m iJCM enolJgh; fmr IJ.r.~jnHi~ pt:r:;nn~~ :lrc (ho,u~h'[ tn du wor~hy ·'lc:t~, !'II.! ~e:o;.~ d~;tn d,(;~pO[_"l-~nde::.d 'E"'~~n mflrd::. ;triO ~,~ i~, '~nul!.tgh t:h [It 'liV~ .~huu~ll h[l~-,", ~(' n~ u(' h a'~ that; for ~hc ~ife of th~ mal1! Wh1l' i_~ ~lni,'c in .1ccm·

(hlllCl: with virtue win: be h:lpPY. Solurr, ~OO. ,,,'jJS perha psskereh i n.g well the happy rn an w ~(:n he descr~ bed h~ m as nloJ~ratd}' !\U rn Isned with extiern aJ s but "a h;lV~ ng done (;;IS< SOlgn, lib oug,~iIIt) the noblest :!>C ts, andlivoo tern peratel ;'. for 'one 'rI[J,w~,dl. bUI: mll.odC.iate po~:'ies.s]ol'll~' do wha ~ one ough~. AIlJ.xag:m2l~ '1isu seems ro have suppo\Sed the happ), m [Ill not ttl be r~d:l nor 8J CI espot, when hI: ~~i d t h::l~ he would not be su rprised ~ hilt h;'l ppy man wen: to seem to rl'I(JS( f1c(Jpic a strange pcrs.on. for ~hey ~lIdge byexternsls, since lhc:5.e are 1111 rlu:y perceive. The Opill ion s of the wise s~m. Ithen. ~o ha rmnn i z:!: w~ tb our ar,glJrrll:~[iH5. Bur while el,'cnl such th~ngs carry some con \I il:[~ en, ~he truth, ! III practica I matters is, d iseerned frQm th~ f.1~l~ of life; fM these Me ~he deeisive f.m nor. \V e III list ~hc rrt:Jo,r~ Sll ney w hat we h.bV~ already Jl.3id, brin:!'l:ll1git tothe test ohn.e f~ets of lif:e,. a rid if ![ ha rmoml~ 7.~,~ wi tl1i ~he (,j,e ~s \~ m list :lCCt:jpl it. h~,u i f ~,t d:l shes wi rh themwe mlli1~t ~u rpo~e i l to he mere (henry. Nuw he who excrciaes his n:';]~lJn and ,cnh~\·<II.tes it ~~e~u-~ to be bBth ~n t~t:' lx~t state of In i nd and m.osu:h~,~ Uo thte gotk ,fCi:r ~ fl~he ,g~~ h uve ;Illly,('.1H' fm hlJlnr.rlJ [iI(fllir!i, as l~hl:y ~[t: thought w ha ve, i ~ would berea 5o<rJ.;'Ibll:' huthrhJ( d'u:y shoul d dt'light ill th;u w hie h t~':JJS nr:s.( a nd ~m)s:~ J ki n to l hem "i.,~. rem,on} .1Ind that ~he)' s'b,uu:~d rew:uxl those who IO\~lInd .honouwrhis ~lH}.~l •. as (;}r~fI~ fo,r the rhings thatare de,tr~o th~~ll ;1!f1d ~,c~in'g b~lthrig+~-dy ,~~d [iHlhly .. And th~n ; • .11 th!::"~.e lIttdln.ue~ oc!o:n,~ nm~l of ~u~1 h} thL·rhi~n'l.1Jpher ~~ m;Hl!ife~t H~, [hl!rl;.:f~lre.is the Jt'll rest to ~hc W'Jork And h.t' whn .~~ t.h:n wm IPr~~ ~'i~mJM~ he ,;tl~~c, d~c h;~~~pj~~[: so th.u if! ~h!,~ w'~r t~m ~he ph iln~[)pln:-r will ~InQr(:~h:m any ,mht:r k h;1 P'P} .

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