,.

--

·U

y I'

r

JEAN-JACQUES ROUSSEAU 1712~1778

Jeal1J~J3~~que~ Rnusseae w;]~. tmrn iln I., 12 in the independent C'~tY·~~I:al,~of Geneva. H is mether, Su zunne Be.mant was a member et' ~he clllY' s 'e:~he, wI'! ~h~ h~ s father, ] saac R{)lIs~ea[~. W~~ II workillg-c:~ass wlltcluna'keii. W:~th~n ,a week of his birth, Il~S mm.~.cr died OI.lild widl ht'lf death yotilJiltl. .~e<lnJ-Jm:ques and his father ~ nst the.ir pi ace i In. b~gh soctely.

The Rml,,~e~u'~ position (;;I.~ even fllnlne:r whel1! lsaae W;)S le;!;.1~ed from GeJ1lev~ fCi:r ci1!iJi]l!e!ilgi illS <I s!lIpe'rior 10 a duel. Jle'Jln-J,acque~ wal' ~ak,en from ~js f'<ltherOlfld becarae ,<I ward of hi 5 mother' s brolh.er. :sen~ willi his cO!ll.'>i 1111 ~D live OIlU I"~~d!e the wal18 of Geneva. .As he reached the ag(l to lake o.n, 1IJ career, lRou&~ea:u. was all?"premiesd ~.o II. ~ow·dasseingrn:\!'eii, The ShL!<<lli,on, was so i n~olerable ~~a~ Rou SSe-atl f1~d to Haly and eVenil.tlMllly ended LIp ln the houseffilo.ld of the BJlIroness die Warens. 3 sl ight]y di sl1epllit a ble btU ggl1erous wome!l'l .. Ll nder the protection of the B ~roll(;lS~. R01ils~e.u.! was alb.le to de'velu,P bi s i HId lecw;'l~ g.ifts,

At ~:]u,e .a,ge of twellty~J;e'v~IiI., RD!JISSeElIl lefl Italy for France where be developed friendships Wilh th¢ ~earJi!!g philO.lwphers of ~he Ifre.n.ch EllJlighte:nm.erJll such as Oiderot ,and Vallaire. ne !1eXm te.n yMffiwere spent workilli,g as a seclietaary ill! Ita&y and ifw!l'lC-e lund w~.ling j[rticl~~ few D.ud~mfs E~h;.vclopf)dla-lheprern.iere work o:rr the Eildi.gb~ell!melJil.Rous8ealrn rnigl;J~ well have corni rn.'Il~d! working in :Ill si.mUar vein had ~e not had vMa~: ~e later c!i~~!ed h~$ ·'iHl!lmirn13:ti01n." W~He waruk:]1'1,11, to V ]~ce,liu'ge~ to 'I,I'~IS]t [)ideM~.Rol1sseaUi saw ~. !KlUte of <'Ill eSMli__Y oon1t~ti(io.l:I ol:l~be !:IDues~ton "Has ~he rev]ul of ~ihe artsand sciences dcae move to conuptor to pllidfy morn I s?" Co:nlrnry [0 ~hepre:vai.! img belief off the Ii me-an;(] ~he do:m~naet view of hi.s EI~cyclQl"ediu oolle!'lgue.'i-&ollsseau realjzed ~n a. flash t'h@l far f:romsJv~ng hUm3nk]!:Id,fhe arts o1I!iliCi ~cie!U.oes· were brl mgimgl'\liI.hl.. 'f:h.e mo~-e ~O~ pbistlcated lmJd ~e1l!rned society became. l'e less ]>8!PPY ,. less Vi:I1L10IJllS, :find more corn!lipt the people became, In fact. ~he fat!ionalli~srn Qfhi~desnmw~ :spoJJ,~,anI:Q.Il.$ kelli:!g§.l!lm:1 ]j!J.era$JkimlU:.i.Wml .. Moreover. [h.e 8ir~s and scien~s Ia.either rise from !:lQf lead to .m.o:rnHty. A~ Rm,ls~C'au pm ,it.

491

ASlro:m;omy wacs bom of super,MitLoIl. eloqmm~ of amibi'~ion. haln;ro.fal.~lI:toOO" ,and Hat[~~ geDmetry ,~f avar.ice;, physics (!if ~T1 n:1]~ cunosily; IiInd mornlphilo~phy" li.~e 1111 [he rest, of IU)I!luJi pr,ice" 'TIlliS Ih~ arts and ,s.ciem:les, OWll their birth to {lUr

vices.' ~--- - .

~

Ro:usseal!l nell o;oly WGmJ. the prize, II:l'ae pul)J:icatiiol'l of ~.is essay, ,DisctluJ"se all' Me Stiet!ct!s am} Ai r{s ~ ru 150h broeght hiWl~ ~[IstaJfll fi8Jme:. App~yi I:Ilg :h,is :genius, ~tlX,tl.Q rnusie, ROIiISSf.'ilIU wl)o~e th~ opera u DIeV,1/1 de Village ( l752), !I. y,r,orik ]lha:~ gl,oltfied ~lhe, ,~ta~!i<l]lIlllemecs of m.e~ody and s:impricity in i,!;S stories of ol~inBiry peop~e ,(,im COJiltrast, to the F.relllch oper;i[1c wad:iH~1li of oo,pbjslicated and oQ,mpl'ex rausie wiln sterles of k.i!ng:s and gods), Re~umillig to. Geneva, Rousseau, worked out, the im,pUcations of his :prize essay in his Di:scouFse 0.11 the Origin o/lnequ(J/& Sly (1755:)1 wffilicl:! 'e:)(plai[l~. the loss of lh.e ·'state of nature"" GO!1!tral1' to Uloma:s Hobbes. RoU!s~U! £Wi m.~d '.at vinl1aUy~omasa~~uaWife_;lmt~J~e resuh _off s.o£::i~ry!;lllfld th,d in 011 hlJie &Ulle of !'IaWre hill !:IThal'ls ar:e.!'!s- Hob'besdai'lmled., S1oli~ru-y. bUIrfn~y ru:~o hap!iY. Jre-e"aatld goodi. 11'1 h~s :n(lJ,yel he .N.ew n:e~ois:e (1 '-61 ) [\t~~~iSieaulk'l:iorlia)ized the value of 8~rn'p~.e Mfe. mm Emile (1762) ~eapp~ied his i Ill!ligh!l~ te: ed:u.:catiofl.8ippe<l~i ng for the 'Pr~tectio:n of ~~e ulll.spoi~ed cblld from the grind lr.lId]Uon8i1 educa~ion, The SOj'i.al Ct'mrmct _( !J~! most cl~arly and ro:!Ce>f~Uy IElid (Ill.( ROI]s.s~IlIl;S fol~tkiifi&eiirsamniecame one of~h~ ~:rW~l i_11f1ue~:ui<i~ boeks of aU rUme,

RoU!ss~au·~ .a:dvacacy of Ute ,si~n['l;]e, J!~~~f3.I. ~~re and _the jmpal'lml:Q~ of emotion ~-~rnlWai.m impo.rt'lrIt oontributicmlo the earJ)'Roma:nti~ !I0IYement. .IB.,U :il alse "led 11:0 a break w1ith ,hiis ElI'II:iglil~enment friends._j.(For nampT!! •. ,!I~r· fecei.",illlg a COJlYo:i D,.'~ctJuF;s:e on the Origin of In.equ'61Wy, Vol:~:(l.We Wf(!Ite R.cIL!I:llstlllJlJI 11.0 dnmk b~m ~lJr "YQUi: n~w book ,aga~l~st d~ hll!1liOU1 eace,") FW1her" more, Rousseau's often i:mp~kit--l1!!'Jd oc'~~~!ornHi)' explicit~on;demnali.on, of govr:!:mffielJit allJlhorilies eventually I,ed to a warrant for hi s arrest, Unwelcome in fD_o,ce and. Gef.l.'Ilva, Rousseau ~ook .. refuge ill:li El:I,glan.d with: David Hyrne, Row~ ever, by :now ROll!s~;,!J!j w;u. beCQmti~g pllJl1[nojd., HJe b~g!m KI aeeuse Hume .off oons,hiJli_g witiliJ h~s eaemies, 'file ,q~~ was puiO.lidzedomd RouiSse-au's, repu.la~ lima suffered. Mil:, ~v¢nllJllny remrned to Fnmce, bUl '[he a:lJJmmn.ori~~~as wen .!'IS lie pUibl ic---ow.ere fUJ' lQqeJi vet}' jn~restedilil. liti:m., H~ ~pent ~ is ~a8t yeU!! WaJ[I~ d~rlng Fr.mce be;fo:l\e dyi~g o'lb&;ur~ all~ pel!i!n iless WI'I ~ 77:8,. His C'onjesJio.rl.s ~egaR tore published postllllmoysJy in 17:82.

-: ~
t
r
~.
r
'" . ~
~
~ .'
.
"
~
I!
~~
~
,.
f·
;f
~I
'1
h
f
r;
fi
,iI'
~, Whi~:~ RQUMe3U'S .Oiscml.rse o.,~ she O"igi:,~ of I'JequaUry glves a description of .h.O'W me freedoJml. and ~:appiness of ~be sta,k:o;l" mililJUrewere lost. ~js maglllllm O,1!l:S, The Scrc.£al COllIMC/~ offers a p.rescJriptioJII for ~lunan reCl.8imaJl:i~:Il. R,o!isseau kgil!ls 'me $Dcitll Corurac,r wi. the ~~d IISsemo:n. "M.J[J_ was .bru:!!. f~ amI, !!c.eryw~~. ~ei,!) j,Hi C:!iliains." BlIDtl!ol]ssean does not think the answer lies ~n It icimd Qf ;,ularchy. The"fiLIliidam~n;l:arn preblem" as RoIls..~ea1l! sees it. ~8~O (00 alii a~roc~aliolli tHat- both defends me: "~rn! and property of every assaci-

ate" and yet still aru~ows fb:i freedom. .

11u~ iSohnion, dajms .R.ol!lsseau. is to be rou.n.d in ~~e :Wci!!~ co.ntract. But such iiI~on!lFl'IDl is neta .. Hcibbes~all'l eXdlaJl(ge of riighls for reace. As Ro~sseau ro~ms

"]!~n.jJ\:!lC'lIJlleS' R:OO=lillll.. .Di~OOjI~ OJr rIi~ S:Ci!!tl~~ ,and rlr.t JI,tU in R'tNIumrl: Scl.e.::U()H,$, e:fi:ted by

!!!' ...

";!r.

'"

o.ut. in 01ll[ goal: "'1v1!~ tellitedtrn.e R011l.ssea:u ul,lhe;i~ ~u WI'li'lesO" malwiU ~

B'liIt SIIl~ democrat. jority. A I i'he major edy unde wim tbe,~ eral w~n, SOIll "shal

It is n: b.ui0:t1fm lP0.stlhe c roots hi' the La~ ~he gef!.~

'Re befi1 pllyofR in.dud~ byWHli ~9JO) ~ anapol.t! (Boston cor1!te:l!t citdal1~ f'o:;bie' ca!' Sru 1955). W~lghJ RoItSJ:e 1'h;e& Wiru~i.a'I Rous~ RQUSSl Revoir 1961)

f.or RtmS$! Scllel'l (J,w'S 1£1110 (

(j,

~NTI1O:QUCT!ONI 49'3

out. in our seleerioa (~rrnl:\i.I,"led by Mm;Jf~~e C~:a~'!_~lcm). tnlm~luili~.y i~ not r~<lny the goa]: . 'Menl~i ~ lr<1nquiHy also i III du ngeon s: is Ih,l[ eltnugh liD make '~ht:rn COIDitf:m111i3ld1 !:~el-e~" rnstead of s'Ub~,'iuling to some t)ll'lIm ~In exchange forpoeace, Rou~l:ie<!w! ~i.'IW Ihe sod:)] ,t::~!!'Itl'.~ct as !I.n agreement alJ~Ql!Jl1i'~iUldivi.dual!ilQ.,gt\le up-The:ir ri~(r"~elnel!o1fwiL i(:1fI ~reem.ef1ll. c,rIl2l.~eiO !l sov~n .. ugn. o~H mQllliiewveife~gl'llyOr.<L king. ]~steOil,d, lh_e" .~ve'!leugll ~~. IhE: ,exp;r'~~Mol'!? l.1'l:!i:!I'I" ern.1 will which alone is sacred and ab.sollulie.

··Bliii:·~s;liiEIi .in u~(JerStIHlldi illig antle SOdili'l~ 'comraet does nor 1IIl00ke Rousseau a. de~l~r.1'!L ln I~:he ~Irsl pl;joe. 1~:M.,g~.Il.em~1 w ill is not nec:ess<lrlly tile will ofl ~e 11:13,j~A fe'w fil.l"Si ghted i,nd ~'" ~du;).I); mu:nde".;J;iidJliei"iI,:era~ -';gl( ~ui~ (.han ~l'ie .1TI<!joriily. PtJrlheflinQi'~. wiliia~ ~~, B) be' done if a g]ve ~ i rndi vidual cl!()~S ~nm .pmiP~ erly ~ nderstand tile gen6n!'~ will, or if lliiia~uml~ vk:lu:.!f ~ ownl W]]liNilfi1 ccmit! ie! with I~ihegelliefld wi II? Accord ing 10 Rousseau "wl1ge!o'CT refWlse~ HJ obey the general will !i.:bU be constrai ned to do so by the whole Itxldy, . , :- I !'I, short, tlla.t persmll "s hU ~, to-TOed to bs fre~. ~

~:t ~~.nOl dif],k: III h~o OOfl !low DOlI-! lillie gi ories and .hiOlif\Ol'li of the Frel1l.dl Revo~ulion rOLl nd resou rot!.~ i n R()I.I~sg:JJ.i!l',~ work, ~,~_~yo~ Uli'Q~Iill.!rutl()~e p"M~jhe di Y~llellighl Of, ~ng~ U) I Lber~, ft8Jlerlli,ilY ,and ~(] ua] i~y. has i 110 ~ rnJ ~l~!D~Ll;lI' -r~mnifi-T/;-;'~Si~(~f(ll C(llNI'(-~(t. So !no doe~ the hl(l(:IdJ' ~~liJPp~~siQI~ ur dissent 1.111 r~e ~1;3ler ji~;in,of the t erm~r 01:'\ Robesplere and (;I!~l1effi clai Ilmecl In b~ prumnti n!i Iheglf'l'I~ral will w~il~' they ·'mowed 1.~lle peDp:I'ejl to be nr~e.··

Tilt!':' best gel1.er.,d ~ Ililr·o.:l!tn;l.iun to 'Rou.~serlu i!i still ROIil OIII!d Grim:;.ley. The' Phfio'lo/111y of ROUif.fM~t (L.o'li'lido~n: Oxford UliliVtlriOi~y Pre·~s. 1973). Oll"ler'geillemi s[u[lies ~r.Chl!.df: H1illi3~d H0~~t'ding.Je.(Jj" Jtu:queN ROUSSl!{lU .md Hi,~ PM.h~OI}b.\·. ~1~!Ld u red by WilJ:ialn R~CI1!1f'>CilS and Leo E. Sa:tdla. (New .HilVren .. Cf: Ya.~e U~~li'V1el'sjty PI'eS~. 1930) !'!!1d1 C.ilOlr.~es Williu~ Hends], Je,~I~I-Ja('"{I.U!S .R:[m,f~:f!{iU. Monl.U.~I· (hlllli~f1"il:wiis. IN: Bebb» Mer.rm, ~934J. ~nrirlg Babbht, RlJiIJ;~·t!'<lil m~d R.{}mmtlk.'isll.! {Bas~ollL: HQughLQr! Mwm~n, 1919) is the class k w'~;II'k Of) ROUi!ii~e~1U· ~ ~ isrcrical conte)!1 wh~!1E NJ,.H. Dent, Rou.~setm: A~t llum.(li1ction to .His Ps.w:hologicol,. Socird ,(1m} PoNtic-al "i1Jec.n)' (Oxfo:Dd; B~si I B~ackwen, ~1988) Js a. more reeem s'1Judy. Forr lJiog;U"<!iPhlif;S, see Fredlltrick Ch!:lr~~s Gf\o~m, Je~'f.!-J(,lt'lJut's .Rm~sse~~~~; A. Ct,iticar Study 01 His Life QJjd Wri{bl~'S (Ca~bri,dig~; Cl].~lll!ilt:i~.gfl U1TIli\i~rililty Press, ~9.j5). lIea!ll GU.t:h~IH'IO,. Jec/'n-Ja('.qiu;!~ R,mmra,', 1!:'[JJfl~h[~: by Johrn, 3!ild DIO!'e-e11i W,eigntmmil (Lon:diol'a: ROluledge and I<!eegan Paul. ] 966)0 a!l:d J. H. H~ i.z;~ng" • . RiOIlSfe:a,u: TJi'e Self~.Made SeJim' (New York: Gro.\SIfIl.m., i 976). Mail'io iEimaudi. 'nIt' E(JrJy R,OldIsealll,hbaca, NY~ Con:tt'lU Unive:.rsily P\i.'ess,. ~96i) and Ma:~rice WiUiOlm Cramton. JeaR.JaC'qu~s: The E(jtl)' life '(M~d Work of Jetm-J(;~'Oq~lfjS RQ.liSSe"tr, nn-J754 (N~w yo:~: W. W. NOrlOI]l, 1983)si,ve i,nsigJns lnto RQusseau"s early wor.k. wh~~e wmi<!m n, BI.;lnc!liiJard,. ROU,f,H'.(U~ Wid the Spirit oj RI!~·\Q.II." A: Ps).rl/o/,og.ic(11 Study (Arm Arbor, :Mil: U[li,v.en;ity o:f Mkhigal1l Press, 1961)' .p~vides a pSiyc~.oIQ,g ic;ai e<l[,lImli nation o.f Reu sseaa,

For .l1:iener<l1 srudies o:f ROU51S'!la,tj' S ~:]~ lkll~ ph i]owphy, see J ohn C. H~~ l, ROUSS.IWU,· fil.!IUlroducli'mi 10 fii:;. Pt~lirical Phik, ... wpliy (COImbrid:g.e:, MA:

Scffilen];;itmull 191]3)1' Merle L. P,eil:idtls,. J.r(j,,-J{!('1i/IM'S RmHtJ~/'.l~ m! I!f:wlm;ti!'jdll~ii nm) SodlNy (Ux~ngl.Qn. KY: Uniive.rsity Press of Kenu!ch. IQ'7.1l· iD •• _~- Co. Lemos, R·ml.'ii,~pau·'~ .'P,.I: •. r., .,. ~ .. ".

10 I
as,
!pre
chi
}Je]
wh,.
the
for
eml
~tsh
ty.r.
hun
~'" rbrc
this
wll,
Ute
god
bef,
bon
S~3V
lwnl
iens
CiW~
fOJCI
truee
they
as I
how
king
e.tg,n
and.
had]
ah.vlt
Hen~
rabli~
eal p
.1
N.~ig1i. Crocker, Rousseau's Social Contract: An lmerpretive Essa» (Cleveland,. OH:

Case Weslem Reserve University Press. (968) and Hllail Gildin, Rousseau',!: Soda] Contract: The Design of the Argumem (Chicag(l: Uliivershy of Chicago Press, ] 983) focus 5pe<:~:fica:ny 011 our selection, while N.I.H .• Dent. The Rousseau D'icticuuuy (O)l.fb:rd: BlacckweIl, ]992) provides 8J Il&eflill resource, Recent collections of essays indude Patrick R i Ie.y. 130:.,. The Cambridge Companiou to Rousseau (<C".mbrid,ge: Carnorid.!l.e On]'II'er8lty Press, 200 I) and Lynda Lange, ed., feminist Imerpm·ta.titJl!s of Jemt-Jacques ROIl,Ssefm (College Park, PA: PenD

State Unlverslry Press. 2002). -

THE SOCIAL CONTRACT On part)

~N1RODUcrDRY NOTE

I wish to enquire whether, laking men as they are and laws as theycan be made. it I.S possible: to establi sh liOm~ j ust and cenai n rule of admin! stretion iii ci vi I affairs. ] Dl thi s investigation I shall al ways stri ve to reconcile what right permits with what interest prescribes. 80 thatjustice and utility may not be severed,

BOOK ONE

1,1':1'

l , TI~e 9!ibj~[·t of Book Olle. Mitl! was born fTl":~. and '~v~:ryw:here .he is in chains, Many a one believes hi mself the master of others, and yet he is a greater slave dum they. How has thischange ceme about? ~. do not how. What can render it legilimate? I believe that meaD settle this question.

If I considered ()lilly force and the results that proc~ed from lr, I should SElY that ~(I, long as a people h;· compelled to obey and does obey, it does well; but that, so snenas it can shEike off the y·oke and does shake it off. it doesbeaer: for • if men recover lll.eir freedom by virtl.le of the same right by which it was taken away, either titaey are jastifled In resaming lt, or there was no jl.l.sdficatio'fl for diepriving them. of it. Bld me social order ~s a sacred right w.kk:h serves as a, foul:!datiQ!! fur an others. This ri.ght, however. does not come from nature.U is therefor'!: based on convention-s. Tl'n¢ quesden is to kRO'W what: these conventioas are .. Befo:re coming to th.i!t, ~mu,st establish what I have just laid down.

2 .. The fim societies. The earliest of all societies, and the only natural one, is the family; yet children remain attached to their father only so ~ong as they have need of him for their own preservation. As ~OOI] as this Heed ceases.the natural boad ~s dissol ved, The chi.ldrem being freed from the obedIence which they owed to their fl!Jtlier, and tl'le father from the cares whi·ch he owed to his chi.ldr~!1.oocome equallyindependem, If they remain united. it is no longer naturally but voluntarily; and the familY itse~f is kept together on~y by eenventlon,

"

Jean-Jacques Rou=~. "The $oc11l:1 C:omllfl!ct"rrorn R(m~u.· S.ele.c.~im'J5. od:iklil by M!L!.!linc Cr.~l'ISWii'l (New YmJ.;:: M~cmill~m. 1'9,88).

!d,OH: ~u 's So~hi,c~,go 1[, The ce, R_¢.,

fnmifm Lallge. .. : Penn

1(110" it is ;. in thl~ imere'si

c!lains. 'e thal1 nOIre? I

I ;t ...

, . .

,

~\.~)

,

that so JOIl as r their justl- 5.QCt!11 vever,

is to ~lIve

is the ed.of ; disItiler.

THE SoCIAL CONTRAiCT i9:S

This common liberty i s a eonseqaence of man's nature. His first law is 10 attend to his own preservation, his first cares are those which he owes to himself; and a~ WOn as h~ comes to years of discretion, be mg sole jLldge of the means ad apted for b is own

preservanon, he becomes hl s own m!l~te~., .

The family is; then, i:f you will, the pd,Ln~tive model of p()~i~.ic!l~ societies; the ell ie:f is Irne ana] egue of the father. whHe the peop!~re-present the children; and all. being born free and ,equal,aiienat,e their liberty only for their own advantage. The whole differ,ence is Ih(i~,~n the filmily. the father's love fOi his children repays him for 'the care that he bestows lipOID them: while. in the State, the pleasure of mli,ng mekes up

q f~: thtl~fnllc~ of love forhispeopl~. ... ._._

- IGroti_y.srdenlCs lnll( all human ~LJ,tl!lonty IS establlshed for the benefit of tile gov-

erned.111l1fl1e cites slavery <IS an. instance .. His invarioble mode of reasomng is 10' establish right by fact," A Juster [I1,elhod might be ~mployoo, but none more favorable lQ lYT4I1tS,.

. It is doubtful, lhen, accordIng to Grottus, whether llle human race belangs to a,

hu adred men, or whether ~he$e' hl;mdl1ecl men belong to the h u mOll) race: and he' eppesrs throlil gh{]u~ hls book to i lid i ae to the former opin ion. wh i cl"! i ~ also that oCHtffil)"ti:·; In this way we have mankind divided like herds of caule, each of whk:~ :Ilasa !TI.:hter., who looks after 1t i i'I order to devour it.

J list as II herd~ man ]~ superior in nature to his herd. so chiefs, who are the herdsmen of men, are superior in nature to their people. Thus. acoording to Philo's account, the Brnperor Cahgula reasoned. inferring trulyenough from Ihis analogy that kings are

gods, or thai men 11m brutes, -

The reasoning of Caligula is tantamount to lhm of Hobbes and Grotius, Aristotle. be fore them 0111" had li kewl se said ttl at men are not. natural l y ~ ual, but thar some are' born for slavery and others for domimen.

Ad;s~otl,e was rig:lM; oul he mistook Ihe effect for the eam.e.Ev,~'ty m.m born ~n sla very is born for 51 avery; notha ng is more certai n, :s bV'~$lo::;,.e everylhi ng in their

bonds. even the desire to escape from them: th:r:y love thejr servntudie as the com pail- ~ I

ions of U IY!lses loved lheir orutu shness, * * ]f, then. there are s la yes by nature, i.t i s be-v" t.-,~ J ... '

cause there have been slave-s contrary 10 nature. The first slave:s were made such by ~fvl-.. l"'

foree; their cowardice kept them in bondage.

I have said nothing about King .Adam nor about Emperor Noah. the father of three great monarchs who shared the lIfli verse, like the children of Sam m with whom they are supposed to, be identical. [ hope that my moderation will gi ve satisfaction: for. as, I am 1'1 direct descendan! of one ofthese princes. and perhaps of the eldest branch. how do ~ know whether. by exnml nation. of titles, I mig~t not fi rid myself the 101 wful kinng otjhe hLlm,an race? Be, tlmt as H mn},. it cannot be den~ed that Adam was sovereign of the world. as Roh~l'I_s.on was of hisi:s.land, so long as he was 'its sole ]nha:bitant: and ltwas an agreeable feaUJ:ffi of that empil!e moll the monarea, secure 01'1 his throne. had nOI'tiing to' fear from rebellions, or wars, or conspirators .

.3. Tile right.~ of the st ron gest.. The strongest RUlli, is never strong enough to be always master, unless he transforms his power into right, and obedience into duty. Hence the right of the strO'nges1t-a right apparently assumed in irony. and really established in pri.ndple. But will this phrase' never be explained to lLIS? Force is 8. physical power; I do not see what morality calli result from its, effects. To yield to force is

·~Lco!Jjl1led re~clii.eil ill public lawBD't: often nothing bu~ !he histtl"!}' of IIJIciell1l ~buse:~~ ~nd! to devol.c=· mucl! l~t!oD~ to S1~d)'hi~ 'tb~m i~ !Dn'PI~. per1'i'm~.cil,~"'''' ('fu.arfSt' on ,rnt" Im.~r~,~r;s ()f,fnmc,~ I'rr ,r't:fmtuY! ~o he~ Ndg/r.boNn.. by the M~rquh d"Ar~.e:ms.on). That ts exactl}' 'Wh~t Crtil ius ditl.

~'.S« a small ueartse o-y Pluturch mlill~d rJJm .8mle~ .emp.I.,y RelUon_

an. act of nect::s's]ty., ~O'l IOf W~~~~ lt ls at m.ost 31U1 3.C~, of prudence. hI! what sense caa it. 'be a duty'?

.let us assllU'I.e fm <I, moment th~$ )reterlded ri;gbitl :say mbt r!Q~j~g: resub [HIm h butiuun:.p]kable ncnsense: fm if foeee cOllis't~unesright,. the effect changes w~th tili1,e: c!'!u~" <lind o\l!iWY klro~ whi,ell oveiI'iCo:mes ~e first sueeeeds ~:o hs .rig;h:ts. As :soon ~. :me:n cal! dioobe,y with tmp!JlniT},. tlrey mar do so l~gilb!imale~y;and since ~lliIt: s~~n~l ~s-am~ WHIYS in th:e ri,ghl, ~ffile on]y thill,lfis IlQ a:.ct i~ ~u.cilil ;'lJ wary ~al one may be 'the slro:ng~St .B'lIt what son. of 8. riglI~ ls it Ih3~ pe;ris!lles, when ~oKe: cf<lsecs':!lf it is lUIeoes~a:ry"~o (libel' tly oompliltsioT!. t~~i$ InO :need to obey [rom duty; amid ~f ~Jnl are mlO kmger fomed tn roe;}" ooii,gali;on is at an ead, We sse, then, that dlis, woorl righ~!'!dds nothing ~ fo,rce; h be~e means .rn:o~.hi",g at Olill,

Obey ---ale 'jQwers that be. If ~ihau mealllS, ,,{ie~~ to FOKe.me p.rec.epx is good bUI S!1!IperflUOI1S; I :rep~y ~h;u .i~ will nl!lv~!iibe v:i.o11llt,&L AU fOW~ oQm~sfro:m 0.00, I adllWit; bill ,every disease ceares frtt:ml ~~mtoo; does h follow ~at ~e !H1I1: poolibit«i from c<!~Wing in It physid:Sin? If a, bri,g;art~ s:h;mlld slJl!!iprlse me WIl the recesses ofa wrnld,O'I:m I bound [lOt. olilty t'fI give up myplJn,ll: when forced, blllam I also moraUy bound [0 do SO w,l!iien I might 00£1- eeal U? For. in dfecl, the pi$to~ which be ho~dsis a superior feree.

Let LIS .a:g~ee, ·~:hen. that m:igrn does iHol mate r:ight,md th!i!l we are bound w obey 1II.o.lite but ~awfIJJ3mhorit[es. Thus, my origjiilOliI! que"slio:n e'll\er' ~C1!!!iS.

4. Siave.ry" Since n.o rna hasa&_ nillltu;raJ_!!,!.~hl:td:l¥ oxer_b~s._fenm!!!:_meJTh ... and since I~rce is nOlt the roilllFCe .of rigli: ~~ttons. ~malf.1 QS ths basis _ 0.1' !!JVawM ;ii!lthOO']ly_amOlll.g Den.

U an ind~\!JldlUa:l. sa.ys 6roHus. call alienate Ilis hllen, amid become, tile: s~av~ .of a 1"" \' '. !TI!as~r.\,;hy &hOllM net a whele peop]e_be.:EI,Me ~o aUe:nate thdrs~ and becOme s'l.ibjecl. ' .. /" .' to . .i. king? In this :~he:re;ule!!if!.arilY equiYlocal terms requ:iril:1ig ~xp~alt1at~Qn; but Id U~ C(!fInne OUise~v,es. rulh:e word a][~u~e. T'D' ilHe'l1i~te ws, ~(li .g~ve 'Or sell . .Now • ill malll wlMJ be·

QO" 'e does not 'jve h,:imsen ~,he~eUslii,i rnself 13,1 the vefjf least for his

sul:iste.moe. y doos a m13tio1l1 sell .im;s~lf? So far from. a t~!lg sUNlilyifl8 his, sub-- -

jects wi~~ their SUbS]SieJJlC'e. he draws his from Ilililem: an~.accord~ii1g ro Rabe~aiJS.iI king does 110'1: HveOlil a. Unle •• [)o wbjects;, then. g~ve up their persons on tlolldmt~on ~3.tliheir pro~y also ~ha]] ~ t~i'lI:1J?' ~. do not: see what is left for them. to ~.e.eiP.

It will IDe .srud flat the, despot seeuees 10 bis sliI.'bjects civil tMc~. Bei[ so: but w~at. do th~y gail'! byl11t8!l, if ~liIe WMS wffilich hisamhinitm brings IiIpl:l1l them,~(I§e.t~.er wi* his w[JsatIilb~e peedan:d me vexations of his.admi.wisuation. h!UUS Ilem more thaJil the:k own d~sse[lsio:l'lS, wou:ld? \Vhi!'!t do they gain by it If Iris t[:lInqui]~Hy is illJe.lf one mlhefur mfuse:ries? Me~ live ib:mq~i.~!y':';[Iso ]'n dlU_lII!goo:m; ls ~a~ enougb to moW': the:m. CMlern:l'¢d th:¢re? The Greeb c.oll~oed ~n t:be cave off the Cyd.ops lived peaceful[;y

IJJlltru~ ".err nun ~me t(!l be dl!:'Ii'o.ured.

'(0 Sill)' illata man himself f~F~~!lrulH& is ~o S8iy wffila:~'s :abSU~Sffild incnn-

ocivable; S'I!!C anlQt lseglbmai:e: Ol!.JJ:d·iDv;:did, fm: me slQ1_ple ~QI:! that he wl10 PCii'" fooms it is not in ~mis ri.ghl nnd. ':l:o~~ sa_!w:_~i!ing of :lI;W~ple Ir!ation is ~ $llppO~e ~ nation of fools: .lIllcID madaess does net cAlml'ernpts .

. -If~ fCeaeh.:pemOJ:l.&Qu.I:d alien .. bi~ell'!. he >Q.op~d ItQJ~!li~nale his childrenl:, ~~li' am ~ free.lEmI,lheirU'ben:y beWoQgs WI them. <md ao Olite h~ a dglHo dJis.:[pC6e Qfil ex-

cept _ffi"~eill'es: Beroi'€: tlrey bave Il;ome to, ~Ilf diicretio'i;.,.' th.etatfiif ColJlJ. in ibm name, stiil),l1'l~1le ool);ditio:nJ8 fbI lIeiI prellefltatio[l ;;md welfare, nli not s'l.Inelldu them if' re'!focably aad IlI:lC(:md~lion:ally:. 1m su:ell .ag~fl is ICO[ltra_I)'to 11k ends of [JallUre. ucl e!l.~ 'ce~d$lhe ri_gbils of pa~emity .h! oooew. w.e[l. thalilililaJfuitrary govern:melJilmig'h~ be legit ••

\r- I V male. i~ wOlddl be n.ece-ssary '!!hal Uu.e pe~ple in eaeh gelliemtiol:l mOlllld bve the option of ~~ ~ tJ (if ~oce-ptjng O'l" rejeclIDllI.g it; but i R thin case' such BI !l;o'\l'e·mmer.1l wOUlI:d IiIO longe~'!be ~]umy.

~ ~I i

''';, ..

su

Ih

1

,uI

S~ ca S(

a: c 51 IJ

I
I
~ I
V-', /. f
l
/" ~. I
~ ..
I ~ 'cf ... r>t!. ~c;;ermu,ru::e..Q!~¢:~.Jib~.r.t¥_jsJn_mllll~rn::e_()~':"'-'IfLL<l!j_lyn$_..a JTl~n. tile righl~j!X!_d also ~ . . thf}11t1t:ies ot:JuJlm.a~ it)!, For hl In who re nou aces everyth I IfiIg ~ here is no possi ole compensa@!!o.._Sueh ~ renuncietian b illlcornpllt~bl~ WWll ma.n's I1mfllrf. for w ItIlke <lway OIU freed~rnl~o!W ~i~ "",HII i ... to 1::,I_ke ~W~y I1llmru-a~iJy. frQ_mJ_~jf.;_.=!t'~ioill~~" 1111 sHoiii:"a~el'l~O_fi wJinic~ '5l!P!i!~<L1:e,!\OJb s ,Diule lIu!Jlorlty_oll tlile Ol:l,e ~Wc.anr!lll!lllilllim~[I::d oibedience.ol!1 Ihe.91Iilter_ is va~ n and CO[U;u;:u:!!i,(;'lory. Is, il not clear that we Olfe I.IIt~r 110 obHgOlt ions wiliiI <l!lsoever IJO·

wards it mar. f n1m whom we' have J r'i,~hit to demand everylhi ng? A mid does !'lot thi ~ ~ill'lg ~e enndirien, w~thoLit eqtli vr:I],enl. w ithotlt ,excihOln,g;e, i nvolve the Ilum~y Oir the a.ei':' For wh~.n rigJiH would 1:1.1)1 slave have JJL,g~Linst me, since <III th,1t he hss belongs to me? His righss be~i"lg mine. this right of rile against myself i,.; a me<illlling~ess phrase"

Gmtius and oth[l~ derive' from war anothel' origilll for the pr,eHmd~J righ[ of S]3\1- 1 -r ery, The vicl:OJi h~viHig:. ilcooFrlinll' to them. the righr of sl.aying Ih.e vanquished, Utt:~al~e r rn~1y purchase hi.~ li~e .u the C'o[O;~ ,of his rrudJom~ mlii:lgffi~me]Jl -~o milch the morn leC i[~,m!3H':IJiI:I~ i l U!J r!ilS ~o tile ,00dvOl!l'll~,e of ~(l{th.

Illhn it is 1'l10!!.RifeM {hat this pretended rig.RI ofslaying the vanqlllished I~~ 110 w<lyre" salts (rol1i11 tile' M:OIi~e of war, ~ <lire :liIollll!ltumlly __ nIJ:!lUre.s •. ifol'l~Y tior lhe reason tbl. II iIY:i!iI1gin lhek prlrnhlve independence, th,ey ~l,[I\11e no mutual relntiolil.s ~uffi:dendy dluralb le ~iO canst ~tUIe 3. srare of peaee Oii a Slate of war . lt i ~ the lie lutinn of th i ngs [lnd net of men which con sti l!.Jte~ war: <lind si l'Iae the M~te of Wfllr canM't OIri se ff'(.)lTI si mpl~ p~r· NOlilll! relorions. bl)ll~ ol'l~'Y fi'tHH reulrel'ltloI1lS. private WaJf~\l\,'<lr between man allldlill'lIli~ C~.ul~CI'~ e"iM eithe,r in th.e S~Jte Of narure, where there b .nu seuJ·ell ownership. or in the -~oc ial s ~,OIi~e. where eve[ylh~.ng is u nlder the alJtlilmi~y ohhe 1:1 ws,

Private' >comb:l~s. dl,lell~. ",~d erlL\OuI'llJl':n: are acts. \\"hicb donm. cnJ1);t~ lUI~~ .~ state u.r war; .;:md wi'~J:1 r~g,LLrd lQ the private ~,<lIrs "IlJlthoriud by [h~ E~lllbJlish!m1~!'II(S Oil Lou is rx. Ki,ng uf France •• mJ ~ lil>penJeti by I.he Pe'l(.:e of' God. they were ab lISie~ of thefeudal govenHnem. an absurd sysrem if ever there was one, QOnl.r<l,I,·Y both to the pri.ndple.-; of natural rjghl and to fill WLlndg'Ovemn~en,t

Wflr, then. ~,S not <'I ~~ ... rion boe~w6em man :.HH! ~:mlll..t. but [l relution between State 3tld Strue; iin wlilidi Imi i'Vi,d-lI01]s .;r;-en-em ies oll1)!, ~,y O!;cCildem, nQ~ .ili~ -.fI, nor :eve!l1l ill; dli~e[l$,.'" but as soldieil's:nol as members Qf!~e fath.erland. butas its defeaders, Ww. short, each State calli have 3S ,enellil ies onl)' ot~r SUItes and ~tq]Jml.oodlual.n.le.[I • .1n0lf>" much as it. i:simpoisib.]e ~o!n.x rrlilj"'i@~rellrlion betwe~!!Jbin,g~llid;.f:fm_!]il .. ~.L~d.i.

- "FIi.sp.~iifc1PJ:e 'is also oonfo:rm<lble IiO~IDue ~tabli ~hed rnaxuns o~ "dl ages a!ldi [0 the il'lvari<lb~!e pmctlee of all cl vlli zed nm ions, Decl:a.rnUo:ns of wall" are ~.cll so much w~rnil1gs to the powers as to lhe~iJ- s ... ~. ~~he f'orei~;Iler. whelhe~ ki~! ila.li~. or pru~a;t~o~._~:I!l:_!,?bs.s~J!Y.s. or :'_~~~~~h..Cl_tll..dOChirJ.Jl.,g....w:l._ag:aills.uh~ g~\I'e~mm.ent.2..notOlin, enelil1Y~~1J' ·!tiganit....E~rdl1i o~!1 W3~ a hil$t pt.![lce, while he rigl:i~s, POS!>eSSiOllI of aU dlill belOl:ligs to the S~<lite illl <In, enemy's co,1!I~'~ • .re~~~~ _ I~lli!e persol!l__!_n.4.J!_r.!I~r.!:y_ ol.ID.di~ als; ~ resmcts ~!he mmts: on wllil ich his ow~ ;'lJre ~ed~The ~l!2r W,ar ~~!1g I~ihe deslrnclion of the hosta le Stare:e. w~ ~,!v~ ;~:r!tih~ to s~ay its,_ d~f:~effi,_!.o TE'iIF ~iuv.e ~f"iE;_~r ~~~'lili1 M soo.n as tiJ1ej I:ty 'thelNl

·The RommM wl)Q, U)l~I'!>l{H.xJ. ~!E! r.~~!S'~ t~ ri~~of l,\'Ur bo:=Ulll" ~n;;uj ,~I])' nanon ill {he wo~ld.

c~rijed !hdr scruples ~ ill mis re~e..tt Ih~! ~(lo citizen se X!;.m;.;u:!Il,llJnt~\fith(]IJl~-

in·JIL!?!:RIJ'i§I~:Ji!l~i~~~,rn~lilY. ~ncli. bx_ ~.!~um~_lI_:~ . .I~:!lil)n ill whicll C~1.o~ll: nl'!m~~r

~e Ijl~ j]~: €~m,P~lg~~)p~fI~lh'1.Vll1g bG~n l1e-rilnlT1~~l' 1JJtJ 'Lite Eltlet WfIli!t~ KI Ptlpdm~ ih:!it. If ~e ~1~Memd~, ~o :hi~ ~)il'\s CIIl<lJliiiw.i:li~ til, !i.Nl.l~ 1~11I.llli'" H1~m. i! "~~ In~lJe~~ny tool he ~~Ll1.dl ~k~ il I1i~W mi!i~~ry ()~!h. l:iecall!st:, 11'i<=' ~,~ ~in!:l~nnrn] 10il h~ 'L'UMM lito :I~~r bear ~JIID, ;jl,!:~i~~ ihe ,e~n~f (Ci~~i .. ,[)'ft OfJil:·i;.~ .1 •• 11.1), Alltl ,C\llii ~I~i w,rots Ii! I!i~, ~O!) 10 ;Ib:>;!~in froll'! ~plil'lill'i~ in kLulle untill he hilt! la~~ ~bi~ new ,wlirn. ~knD\,'; ~n;U ,i.tllli,n De po'S~jllle 10 IJ(~ .:l.giijll~ me 11!l~ !>1e'.l~ or Clusil.Ul] wHlll'!lh~rp;il11iitu liar C;.ISI!!'>; botIl 'I dte Illlw~ ,all>!!! !:I~"H~l1lS H.<i"·~ •. V_~5-J7jl ~o IiIIUilJjj h:J,~ 'trr.J.!1~I1J~.~1!! i~~, I~ws ~H~, ftrsq~!1'P!ily .lImn {~IIi!HlllmJis. ,::lind nlTIl 1!i~I~ifI!l h;l!{ hi-J,!l1 1~~I;j· I,;A .,.n.lui!"'Jit:'iJoI'!

~ ,

dOWID <limd s.~er, oeasing lO be e~~ml:es ofi.lID$tro.Jm;~lJSof the enemy • !!hey become ;lg:a.i~ simpLy men,II[1d no fine has an)' :fu.:ro1:1ew ti~~ ova lhe~r Jives. Som.glimesilis.

,pOliSi,bl.¢ ~o . e SI:ai[e wirililOm kl]]ioS II, slB,gle ' i.:tllJ;!:l;Elm~-b!.U ..... WM-C(lR-

, [10 ~~l wil1.a:t ~s, .~~ ~o ~l.S ~- _ are not ~lu.e pJl'iJ:u;;i~~es. of

O~1,mi'DlJII:bilseiJ1m-t1re ,arufiRrnly o:~ but are derived fmm.lh~n~aJlIJJ~ O"f l~ililgs" ,lmd me fou:med 0.1:1 Rasan ...

Wruth regard 11.0 the righi ef conquest, H has 1'10 olffite.r OOu.l1datio[l tltanl tile ~OI,W of the ''i~geSIt. If war does, not oo:nf~r O~ tile Vi.C~Of!l(! rigl1:t of slarying the valllql1ished. this .right, whi.ch be dloes not IX'Me8!l. caMet be lie foundation of J:lJ right [0 ~'I'I:s]av~ th:em. If 'we have II. right ~o s]ay an ,e;.ne.;m.y oni:y wihlen i,l IS ~mprus:i!bJil: 1!0 e:nsrna.ve: him, Ae rig~~ to. ,~;.~]avc himis mot «rivedl fmm.lh.e rigre.t to kill ~,im; it is, lh~fore, ;'liD lnjq~ir.Qll~ bru'g~in ro mu~ ihIim purchase bis Hf~, o'v,~r w1tioh the ",iC;OOf ~. flo ri,gh~,. ai the cost of his Hbeny • In es~]ishi Ilg th~righ'~ of ~ife Ol_n.d death upon ~he right of slavery. and! .~ right ,of sWa,ve:ry l!!pOIli me rigbt 0·' life omd death, is ~t not mmifesl ~U!il one faUsi]1JlO a vld.ou;!; ci:rde?

E\!<~if w~_gl:Mt ~.is l~mbl.e rig!u of .ki.lLi:liig ~v,~l)ibOOy,_, '~ sa;)! that.O\i! :s~3i~ made ln war" Of " CO;!iUl~1)I~redl:latial:'l,. is u.d!e:r mo ob.ljg~li()m 3:t all ttl 8!~tel" ~pl, toohitey him so far as oompeUed,ID talcl_~g an ~quivale-rn.t for his rnife lie vidol.' bas oollfern:ecl no favor an Ole slil.ve; instead of ki.lliRg him ~R.p:rofilably •.. he bas des~oyed him for hi£: oWI1J!ldva:n.tlllse,. F81i,. then.F'rom having acq:u;ired over him .3ny autilorill.y in .a:dd~ti(ln t(l lbl .of f@ro~. 1*(1 ~tat~ ,@f WaIr .slUbs~S'1lS bt:twee;n, lih.t'lm as befOU;, d1e:i~ we~!UiOl[l e\iien is the ,df~ct at iili and 1_ le',"WClSI!; (iiI ~ ri,ghit!! o[_wpr .suf~ !I.ffi1at j~fed.s, ~Qltre~LJ- o[ P.~..:,._:.1]jJey_hil.}'e maaea. :(;gWli:.~l'IIti(InklJ~rucl~ b.t!JJ:his, o~liIIv~nlio"" far fMm..~ell'mlll]jati ng the sere of w~E.osesi~s ,contil:lil!llllc~,

. Thn,. i:ir~llatl'lver way w,e'regai-d ~ffiu.i.l1igs. the riPI, o'f .s:lav~ i~ h:lYaJlid. [Jot orndy b~u~e: i~ ~s megjt.ima:~" ht b~c;allsel it Jsabsurd :and rn.~Mi~gJe.ss. 1l.ese ~enns. ,f/avery

a-d·· h··s - - ---- .d· c~ a"A mIaJrnoUy,e.x.cI'll:s'v'"' ·W~-·"'--'--TIlIAl .. .,1 b' , • -

--!l~;....c'_ue oon ,,,_1 0l)'_,,,.y, . _. __ . __ 1 __ J ....... ,nel.l~era~~resse!lJ. y III m:m.o ,a.

GHlilll, or by .iiiiin to-a-iliru:ilon. !!ucfl- ~ ~peecill as ~his w~n always k eqJUla.Hy foo][sh~"r

m.aik:e ua:gJiCemelill with YOIilI wlho~~y III youii' eltpe:nse MIdi wihoJly Mf my benefi~. ,~d 11' -

shan ·o!bse~e it as ~Ol'!g ~~ I ~]~!ISfl; while you llil.sQ shaH ob$ef'!'e it as ~O[l,g as I -. P~eotSe."

.S. 'l'ha..t it is alwa;J'3' IW£J"essary 10 gQ bad 10 a first conlraer: 1f.1 :slhoo]d eoneede .ill1]l]]mll hav~ so farrefiued,lhose w,lin fEl.vor despotism would be mo fW~ :adv;moed. Thet¢ will OOiw~:s be. aJ ~t djff~i!'Ice krw.~ sm, liiiliil~a rl1il.wLlitiUde .!rn:lmjing~iI. sec~· [lIm atS .. ;.J!!SP, owew:r m.~memuS lIey mllly rile, De s~ , ·~ed Olll.e ~~ether tD a ~~~J~~rs@g. @ilis ~~ m ~_~f.I~y...!_ c~e of ~_~er; WI __ a~.s. lilot 'of_<l n~-

1ti.Q~ ~ wls _ ~I!!n lh~- .fm:m",jj"-)'P1L~I!._@!J: >,g_fllio~!.!!.t,_~~,.!'!! ~~oc~ati.~n,. _for

~~y liiv,e neither pUbl le p~ pot !I. body c. Su;l;;ba man. had he e;nsla.ved ~a1f

~ w(\IJi]d. is ncverm.:ymlliU:ng b:~u an, ~mjJivi.dl.uIID~ his ~!Ueil'~t. sepuatedrnomthal of 1l!ae .l'fe~st, ls never 3ID'I,),milIing but a pi",:a;tc rnlen:sl. If he dii.e.s., his le«l,ilre ,alliiN IiIffim is left di:s~ ,CQruu.ected and disunited, as IlIn, oak: d:i:sso~v,es aJiI.d rbeoomes a he • of as1l~s,a~f the !itt has rotlIsllme:d it

A ~~tjQIl. says Gro1l1)l;s,. can giveitSlC!~f to a I!.1ng. Acco:rdi~g to GrotJUS, then,a na-

'llo.,.·m ~s .~!ii!;ilicm. ' .. ~fOfe.j!tg~.ve.s.-. WI'Se. J.f'OCI a.ki.mg. Thi~ ~ft.l~lfiSi'lC.iVH~c.,t,ad~ .... s a p!]bhc lel!ol'u:uo.l1. Colliisequenly. b¢fof¢ ~:l(QY~j~g ~QdllJ 'lIililC'h a Wlawi0ir eJects .i1

,!il1J&.-it wtnd~ lbepmpeli' ~o e'X~ the act b,y wihidha nation becomes III l!18.!!io\ii1l:JM:1:iifs act, king necessufu~YlmtenOI toth.e ,oilier, is Ire reaJ: fQJIJ:nIOOMB.:.aflhesflcit."J¥..

In fact:. irf '1!Ure were no 1lIn:~erior contraet, w!here, ullIDess lh~ ~~~cti(lfl 'Were u~.ani~ HlO1iUi, wouIDd be ~ obDiJ,gatimlJ upon the milinori~lO sub-milt to the dtl!clsio:n. of the majGrity? A_nd wihence do tile bU!'!dred wWlQ desire a m.asteo]l" derive IIlh.e righil 'tQ v!J!l:e on be~ hail! 0.11' ~.~WI. ~(I db no,t desire one? 1i11e !!aw 'af fie rh:ln]it)" of votes, is :i~ e,wa)]ij_~

by ~~::Iilmi~!, ,i'lI]~!J!g:S!l!l~~S 11l1iI~ 0.001:: ~lj~t _ lli,O

:r-;

."1"':EI"1

"> .~

-'"

.~

~ -.~

..,

4;

~

~

of

6. The soeia! COf1Inw'. I assume that men have reached a. polar at wih !chi the 01>~hH; le~ thm endenger the! r preservat ion in the Mate of nature overcome. by thei r res~ S,tance, the forces which each ~n,dlividlMII can exert with a view to ma~:lmli!~i]lg himselfin that state. Thefl lhi s prim i ti ve condit ion can aolonge« ~lI,IbsiM, and the hurnan race WOM ld peri~];j unless it changed itxmnde of ex istence,

Now, as mne~ eannot create anynew forces, but oniy c~)Illllbine and direct those that exist. they lrove 1'1() other meanx of self-lJ!re~ervalicm than to form by !lggn~g;Hi.ol:1 ~~ ~~~, !:);ffjyn~e$ whilm ~la.y-ffili:~fCJjmiFflIe~r6l,~aT'lte. u,q;i(If'tIle-IlWm Yi.Cfion 'oy' ,~~s~ngle motive power, !:md~o make them work ]11 concert,

Th~ ,~u~["J] of f(lIC,~5 E'£I. £~ Jll;:?;I~:~ed_.?p~.r_ ~¥..!!\e~~~,~~1Ebira~.t!~~, ~)r.m'.nY~ !tut thi;f strengt ~ and Jree_£o!l'l (}t ~,'W .. IlI!l~Il.t~~ ng_ t,~t~ll~~t IPt~~r~'.!1~~,nt~.o! .h~[. p!,~,~e:r,\lauo~ Cfuiihe 'p~edge them wit!.t0u~ i nj;I;!!:i!l$,;~ir'~~,!t r!~!q, ~H~pJ:l~. n,~g[c~l~~.!Jll.e .. ;C!l:~1i wbkh he ow~'J:Q :f!rl:!i~errrfhis 'difficulty. applied to ~ny ~~ubjt'C'l, may be expressed in th~~1! -terms: "To flnd a form of ussociation which rll~y defend! and pI'O~C~ w~th the whole

-.-r'O: ~ '" =[""'..-.' . ~.,... . r ~....,., ..••• ' .• ~.. __ I , '. ... • • • ....,. L :'''' ........

force of the. ~mm.]];~n!ty:....l~:~.M_~:r?1'I find ,e.r21l~il;tY~1.?L~V'!]], ~~:i\lCi~,t: .. al:l;~<.bx ,'!le;~f1:; ,,?r w~!~d] ."t~?~~·.e~l~!,~;1~t~g_. 'IN ~~~ .f\!t Jr.!-lIY Qey:e!l,l~le~!. Q',gt,:t,., ?!lb;, h)!1I~~ ~'" O}!1d "te'!i~!! a!i free as OOfore:' Such is the tu ndamental problem of which the sncial coat 1:1Ict fu rn ishes

[he =;;&i:;t~o~~

The clauses of til is eoruraet nre so deterrnl ",ed by the nature of the lIC'~. that tnt: ~Hgllte!\t modl~cflth:m would render' them vain <lml isetfecrual; ~Q lhm. althuugn they have never perhaiP'.~ been f[.lH!.1~.ny ei'lundated,~hey aloe everywhere ~be same, e~'el'y" where l~u:: it! Y .l(J mined and ,\eC'ogn~ zed, unti i,~ he SOiC'l nl purl bell1lg v iohuetl,eilJ.:h ma n re~ain~ hls o'rigirm:i rights and rel.:o\iers~is natural Ili.beny. WI1HSE lo~ing the cnnvent ienal liberty for whic h he renounced ill.

These ckllt"eJi..righllly II ndersrood, are reduci ble to nne o!lIy, viz. the to!,a~ ah~ n· at len to the who!~ communi [1' of each nssoclote with,~~ ~ hi s ri gtus: hTJ', in the hrs~ pl:;)I;e" . . ~i~ each ~im''>e~f_~~~~i!:.~0.~~!~~n.~~~~~.~s are ~~ll.!!-ILtq}r)l~l: J;lncJ. 1ru:.(;o.n~ntjl).I:i~ hellng e'~~ ~11 Jl~t<L~ I wlll.!1U~!il!!i,l!!l.:vJ!lle~hS.l. ,i'll,!!£!JI.:l!.ll~Jitt'H1.hIJ r.dtJ:'l,~.f'llneJQ,.oI hers,

- -_. Fulftiier. rhe ['l~ i,enl!.lj~"In be1!l£}~m(.l:~ .. whl\i.<!~~~ ,l~:i..e~Xe.:.. J L1e,:U u iq!l1 ~~4~lS__~rlt~tl~~j~ can be, and nnund~viclu~1 ussociate can IUl longer claim a~yth,j,~g: fiPr, if any righ~.~ were'1cl~ to i ~di v id uals.sjnce ~.nere WOll ld be no common su perlor who could judge between them and the p~ bl ic, each. bei rl.g nil some poi [m his own judge, would !>OGIl da unl to be so 011 all ~ the stme of nature' would s~i lit sw! b.~i~t" Oiind lheOl~sot]::qtinrri wouJd necessari Iy 1Jecome tyra 11 Ii! leal Or useless,

til short, each gi vi ng . hi m.o,;,elf to "l!hl!.~'t.J.p.i~~~JfJQJlmj~X~'!~~Jlsl:l1~.reh; .!Jill. o,~~~[ne 9yer W.iiQ!:'Ii.:I.ll'.t..cd.A.rnQj$~g~i.!!,~lme ~~tl!~ _~.!1kI:!..~~..£.q.!].~Wt.:1Mjm

( ~V.;'t!.I;~.~O,y.e., ::. ~~.r.y.t.'~',.,!-~ J.l.~, !EI_t."t.~'.jY.aI. ~"l)trr.f.", .. ILt11a~.,~e. Jo"" .orul: ~IYI"«. Pl""'-"'.JQ~, }.P.1L...., ser ....

~. ' [f, then, we se!l, aside w hOl is not of jhe eS!leIII;Ce of the seclcl eontract, we shall

r" find lh:H i~. ~~ reducible to the ~;oliowililg terms: "~~"~-putsJcn_OOlnmQll~~_QIL

!I&~ _h~y.']!.me, ~l:.rJ.llld~r.!h!! ... 'W~lJll~,_~~$.!J2!!2! i!!~_g~~~Lwj!1 ,: g~Sli!l, ~W!1,I4~·;~ receive everyWJlemb~!.;~K @)!l9jyis.it!.l~.p.ill1.9f.J!~~,-W~t;.·'

~ Foi'ttiwTiTI:~ii':slell(r of theundhdd~1id persdilmali:tle~~ of til! the. COl]Ullc~.i[lg parties, this act of a~soci[lt~orn~uc¢~ II mQJ'f)~ and coliectiyeJ;wdLy, which is eomposed of as

. " .::::' many members as the a!<~embly has voices, <too whichrecei ves from Ihi s same act its

r. ',00', f. ~~~, •. ' ~~. " " \ ul'li [Y. ' ]. ts commo, .Il.. $e~f (/,~Wi)., ,its" ~i.fe., .an. d Its WHI.,T,tru..Jl'Ub ]l,c~rso_ll. W,',lh. ie. b . i.'S .thU"~

~lI" \\~..,~, U fOm:lai, by the [Irn:lo~~~he~~:ulIY!du.a,1 mel~l~r~. fOI'[I~e!~~,~~~~,!~lliHILe of c~~ .• ~~d

\6'W e\~ L ~()W,._'~,.,.~:ru, l.h. a!._Q;t~'§Jl!~, l e .. Q~~'fJdr p:~rrlf;:'ytvllLcih ~s ca~le~ '5y Us membe'l'S. St}Jlte whe.n It

~~ ~\~ _ ... ISP8s,Slv,e" so~'el~wrw,&le[l It is acnve, r0'r1<ef whell It lS compared ~D 1-i~ml.lal' bodies, 't ' ..- ~ With regard 10 the <I~£rei~~!iBs. i:hey take colilect ively the 1ll:.l!ne of lU;'t}pie, and are called

.~ indbddually, d~i;;;ffl!i:. [I~ p[Jnidp~.Iin,g if! 'tile sovereign powm,and mbjerts., as sub-

.011- of ~ of

\Ie

1':1.1',

Iil-

re y o ~ [)

e r

' .. ;j'

, ' '-

jeeted ~o the laws of the State. B!!a;~ these ~eormsi1lreoftelil conf~sed allld M'elJliSlBell one fQr il!llothet: it is suffl,ci,ent to know howto di,stimglll ish them when they are us~d wit]] oo~leote [predsiol'Jl.

7. The .fOl1.er;ei.gn. We see fro:m, this fOITllI.!~ilI th<lllll.e aetofassecietlen ool:ltaims a. ~c:~procal ~nga:g~meru between the pulbJfc am:! ~[Id]v[~ll:aJl.s" ami ihflll eve!)' i!ndiiyidU£!I, cOrltr,a.cdng so to speak w~th himsel f.i~ll;agtldJ i~ a dcmWft !£]atioll~e:i of ~:fu.e sovere;~!. tuw,a~b'ldJJal st,:!lldasa .I!!emiber .2fJl!.~j~t~19.~~-ds!!l~!2!e.r,eiR. But we cannot ,apply he[jelfui.e :m<lxlm. of dvil ~awtb.u: 110 one is bo"U nd by elil~8ig!l~ rn.uts mOlAie w~th ~im~]f~ f'Of th~~ is a ,gr~;u d~ffernnce b~tweL'ln ~i:ngoou.~dl!O onese~f and te a whole of whi.ch one :forms parlt.

Wr!; mus~ flJirL~er observe: that the public reselatien which can bind all subjcw"lS 10 'lhe .sovereign i]1 ccesequenee of the two diffe:rel'lt 1i~]8t~O~~~ nd~F' wlilich each of ~l1e;m is regomled ~ call'mot, for a 'COJ]tRry reason, b~nd the !!Q\I~e~gl1 U)ibelf. and llia~; aoool1di" jng~y it is co.nl:l"ltl"y to the: .nature of thebOOy pol:iti.c for the so,ve.reign to rumpose: 0[1 itself a ~aw whic!l1. h I.':aflnor l:ranslgr,llss., As it Ca:I'I on~y !be omuh:hm~d un.d.er one and ~ihe 58ime r-.elati:oll, it is in the position of an in:dli vid:ual (lOnU1lctjmg whh him..se]f~ whence W~ see lI:IJElit t,bere ~s, not. nor can be" Ictl'Jly tind of fundam.elllitilil ]a;w bil'ldimg UJPO[l the: body o.f the peop~~. not ~li'~tillhe social Qorn:IDrnd. This doc"s not: .imply tha~, sm:[h, ,!iii body 'C8:1U10t, psr(wHy w,e]] elJiLef ~nto' e!!lg!,!ge~~~ts wi~ olh~rs mlli wh~l d~$!II,or dercga~ rrom ~his COIltmC'~;fu:i. with regard ~o~fcireiglilers., ~l beoo:m.es a sJIUJlf<le beil1lS. om ~[Idiv~d!UliiI~.

But thL'! body polltie or sO'vere;ign, de,rlvin,s: ~lS existeaee only from rhe sa:n.cLity of ~he cernract, Caml ~~'Ii'~ bind ~ls.elf. even to others, i.1iI1 alliythi.l1Jg lb~ derQg~tes from the origi.n..a;l act, such as aJ~e:n..1l!tiQ~ ,of ~Omi'l pMio:!'! ,of jt~lf, Of s.~bm[s8i:onl '10 :an,oller sove(·dg[l. 1'0 v~o~3te the aet by wlil ic:hi h e~ iM:Sl,!V():uld be lO .ulJllI~h~~ .. te il:se]r, alrn:di wbt is 11i00hilli,g pl'oduces Iilothi 1:I(g.

SB:. soon as 1!!;~,.;.mu hitud!. :~~ th1:l!.:c~~lt~!! JIiI.,~n~,~bQ~Y, .~. ;~sjm.pollsib;le tQ _~~jl!@..9Jl~ of tl!e me;~~.w~~110JJ.Jjl!!l_:acl!;]!)g Ji.~~~ijd!:r, ~tdll¢ss, 'to!IiIJl!!r-e We ~y wi,Lh.olill the member.; feeHng ~e ,effects. Thu,s d~tyallldil i lII'te'Ji'eosl a ~,ik.e obJige ~h:elwo cOlllmcli.l1Ig pruilil"lS I!.O gh'e mlUu;il .a~sjS!~~nce; !I'ii'ld dtL't menlhem~elves should seek!occmbine i III ~h~~ twofo~d re]atioJlsh~p aU tile a dVa..fi~gei whic:h ai[oe ,aUe;n.d<lin~ 0[1 it

Now. 1:li.e save:rejgnt, be~ng fOmle:a on~y of ~:h.e indi vidu<lilslhfll oomJlO'Sfl .it,liiel .• ther has nor can have alil1Y interest oontrmy 10 meirs; cOlIDseq,liIent~y d1;~ SOV'll:r~ig~ J'Qwer meed!s 1il0 g1W'aJlli~~~wwafdsit$ Slib$~~~S, becaus~ ~t is im~,oss;i,b~e ~hat lie bo!l!iy s!nould wi.s:h to LllIjlllre !'I]] itsmemi)ers; .. ifId W,e ~:na]~see her-eafterthi,u H can imjure no ene ,BjS aMI ~l1;di viduat The 8ove'reig;n. for~.h.e simpJe teaso:" that it ~s so, is alWElYs everythil1g that it o:ugln to be.

But this ~s. net 'l!1n.e case as .rega:rrls the re:latiolTh ef su1b<jecrs te .I!bii.~ s;oYe[¢iglll. ,",,{Iicn, l1I.orwI11lihMM'!d:iw.g, the ~Qm:!1llon ioteres.:l, 'would h:9J~ ne st(:lmr:i!ly fOll lie ~rfo.m:l;mce of 'Iffiu~i.r ~ngag~m.el]ls. unless it [u![!:n.d meal!.c$ U!' e~ijre dJek fideBty"

Indeed, every' ilildiv Jdual may, as ;'I.m.<liD. have a [particular wJ]]cmllr.ary UJ. or dl\i'erg~]1Jtlfrom, thegeneral wi]l which he has !IS 3. dt~zen;. his pri:Vaile il:l~eres~ lR'liY [prompl him qlJlte differelil.tl.y .from. mffiIe Icol'lm"io.n ililt.e.res~; ~is absollilt'eiillld lilaturaIDly ~n~ deJeIll:dlellt ~"js;I¢l:licem~y .mate ~,im. regpJ what he Qmes ~o' mile oQmmo~ c.au~~ ~ a gmlUii.tous CQntribtUionJ, the loss of w~i.ch w~n 'b!ii less hannf,UJ~ to oUwrs ~il:n the ,ay. ment ofil will be b"W'dMsome ~o him; IIlld, re,gar-dill!g 'l!I1e mo:ral persan laal censtimtes lh.e State asan imagi.!l!u-y beil!lgMCa:ll!sl!:it is [lOla rna!!, he wQUld be wi]Wi!1I!g to enjoy Il!n:e rights of a citti~~ w:i~hc:n:a:~ bfllng WiW~lllig wWilfiJU the dulies 'of a ~~bje>ct. The

proyess, ,or sudl iil1jlilsti~e: wOlilJd tU]]lg 1IDo1'u lie wi!lil ,of lI.c ~y p:>]jtic" -

In erder, ~1ilJ, that the: soda] 'pacl IlIill!Y aet be It v!'Iill f@rmo~~. it U1.citlyinc:hll.des this M.gagement. whic.h can a]o!legi.\!e tIb:rce to 'the others-l]u,at wboeve:T refuses to ~~y the ger.!I:il'aJ win ... !hall be corn5trailln~~ to do so by ~be: wbo~e bo~y;. which meams

- - 1'""-

i l

1 !, r

1

I

t

I ~ .

rml1n:ing else ~ tlllliiting every c(llnd~t~ofl mal del's. legit.ima' and s'l.lbj~t U

8. Tile,! ma:na very r'l. givi ngilis ae ,of,di • .ny su.OCt re,ga:rd~d on] ~,e~solll ~dOO' advantillge~ t ..altie-s iare e:ll.i who-teo SiOlII~ often ,d;e.grru imgtmebap~ p~d and ~gnlC

l.eHI tie s . I

t~ml- n all dlat ~.e·1 we; must d il'J~ividua!. whicb i~ lID w~:~chca~

Be$i f[i~dom,'

~, ... . . 1

~l!te ~s s:

said [00 n belong ]QI

9'. J IJ'lliIdOl~ g w'i:lic'iiI m c.~aingei' ,e1gll'l~ bl11 di"'idlJa~. beilll.& ITi! ~e:mber serves:ilJ right of

TI

came~ , [Ianne, p.roprie I:!eelil.,.!, v](ied I

l'ii.... _,"" t

!

foUo""" by an:

nnL" '''"'Itt!

n_~ a ~I~I. ~b~r

"I~I·· ~g~" me-

~ !~~ lem ~nJ.,elf un~

.h, of

Ji·

••• _-- - 111 •••••••• ,

l1olh~ng else l~iin~h:H h~: ~halll be forced ~u be tree: for IOlU::1l b 'the ~omJil,hm which. un:il,ing every cltjzen lit) hi,s IHil~\'>e l'Ulll, g;uanul~er:~ himfrnm !A 1111 p~rSU!l'll d~pelmdl!'n"e ... t!'umli~ioll Ihal !:ll~U,~_~ Ihe l.',[uHn~1 ami ~~'nI'king nf 'the rll~ilkal machine. and aione renLi~r_~ ~egil,im~ut1 C':i\';i~ e!lg;Jigemt:nu~. wh~l'h. ",,:ill1tl~l~ ir, would he ah~HnJ am~ tyru'llllilcL1.L an [j ~ubj~e t ro I he :I1HN'l ,e~m r mOLl" .1.hM_~~~_

,~, Trw ri ril.'W~/(!'_ 1'h!! p\JI 'SOJI,l!C t~'Il!H ~ he M .. I~ nf Iml t Li Ire 'to !heo ~Ii vi L~~JP-Jml!!£e_, ill In~lli!_}~ rY_.iJWruJ.;~~u4,l,e.rb~~';,LIb~LiU!.lijl~~:ul..l~~l.,j,I,i..:i!~'dwl:~~ i !lei, ~~':._..~ ~ Il~ hi So ~~m s th~~nnr;)[l.9il1aHty th~!!J l~tiI2!.'e:~I~ ~u s II;' hl:'~ked _ Iu is ulllly wih~u~ lie vu i t"~' llrillflrS,~'eeill~ rny~il'~1 impliil.;..e. <Inti 101\\' .. tI(;~·!:ed\ <lrreli~e" Ih'lIlIl1'.I!~. \I\;'h~l'tilili t[ll~.,. _- 'Id 'reg.lUll.l~tI ~mly him~el 1". N~G~ H\m he b oMi:!i!ed ~u act 011 other prillt:irle-~ .• lJild to f.:'~m~~dt hh nta~llnretilre I b::~e"i 11& ~o his ilrlt' I i mht ~ons. A h hOL!g h. in th i~, srate, Ill: 110;. Jeluh'eJI of many ,adl\"'-in~ .. tgel'> lilal h,i: deri \ t:~, t'~'nm nmure, Itle llj,;qui ire'l'> eqmJilly g re.u un!!), ~n ilei[Ui'IlI: hi ~ laeu hh:~ are e ~en.:i.:.eJ ami dev~ 11~.Jp(·tI; hi ~ i deils nre ex mmJed: ~~ i ~ ti:eliln£:,.; are enn nhk'd~ Ih i_~ \\'lllo~e ~\~~I b. eX~LheJ I.U ~lI:~h u de~reC"i'll:i{Qi. if '~he ,a~'HJ:;.e!\ ~)ii' Illiib. ncw":c;;.~n tlhl mbl ~ l ~!ell deg'l"L~e h~ In tie lu'W I III al !irmll \~'h~ch h~ hi~ls emcf~ed. he nu ~ ~'1 U 10 h I'to::.~ wi 1.11 ml I b'~H~in1i~he happy iil1nlinenl it~m~ n;:1~"N::d him I'rOlin i~ t"m ~H.·r, 1i1'lli ~ran:-ftJI'I1i.J:d him rmlll a ~lu· pld aI~d igl~onuH "inill!il,~~ inu~ an. illtemgel~~ being ami a mow,

tel ~I~ reduce this, whn~,e h~llnnt."C hl U~'rlmlS ea~,y tn "~lmr;~r-c', What man Iln~e~ LCiJ' Ihe ,\(l(,;i.~i cmHraci is hi~ im~HlJlml iiheiJ'lly ~!i1H.!I'Ul unli mlied r~l;!hl to anythin.g which !emr,t~ him and which h:L! i~ ,Ihl~ 10 anuin: whru he ~milnl> b. j,;,i, il l~ben2- anlll r~t,p~ii'ly in ,~JI til l~i II,.;: PI )~:....::s:;,C'~, ~ n L ~nk r Ilwl \\ ~ ! 11<1) I]{)I Ib~' lui ~Bl k~'I~ ~.ll'HlLlI ~ h C~(· t: ml'llp~lhat iHlh" we nrlrlhi ,dt::arl) J~:o.l~lIg.uirl>~l nutural lilJ~!1}. ~\ hich j" Iimil~',~1 nlll~' ll1Y the p',~w~r~ HI' !'Ill' i,lnlil\·it!UI~d. li!1U111 civil II~b~rly. which h Hmitcd by Ih~ !!:en~·t •• ~ will: mttl JllN;.e~"iOJ~, whi,d~ is Ilntl1ing hut tht" nt~ul~. of rnl'l_'~ or Ihe right uf li!'s;~ '~I.:(;'ura'!l~'y. trnm Im~rerty. wh leh !:'.m tit: t"lm~t! onll ¥ unu p'i.~!l.li I i \'~ li.lk

b.:~ i dc:'wi ~ h~ pn~II.:t:u i ~~~ ~ ¥Ii!C I ~. i ~I ~_ ilAJ",t ~ ... Ii :: ln •• ~"""ii,li,~.1 i ~; ... ~~::, .: ~~ :.~~:: _~~ ~ -~ ~ -.:'~ ~'H": i~'hr ~,!"r.1 i"rcclliu! n, wh i eh aJ nn'e rrt nJ!Ltr .. mUll ~ ru Iy m a ~1!;,1' of h i ~n'ol,;' 1 i": h U' ~ h~' ~ III ru 1 sc u]l' m~!'!;;' a:p' pctue ~s slavery, while dht:xl'ieIlL'~ In a ~~lr.pres~'rilh~tIlnw is, ~~bel'ty, But I have u~reac.]y ~'l,iJ ~~'ioI,) rmll'h on '~nbhcml arnl the phil{]"nrhi~'~~~nm~:inii!lg of I~c'[aln hrJ~!r1y tlti<l:~ nnl bi!hm~ r!l~ my present !!.tlbject.

9. 'The I'(.'ul dmm~hl,. :E\lel)' member o:f the 1."l(Ilmlmulili~}' lit ,the mument of ~I~ formmiongi ves h ~ rillSil!U" up !U ~t jUM aN. heuetua ~ II}' ~s,' hi mse I r aE1t~ mil h is ilf't~we'~. of w~ ieh 1 hit pr{~pe~y ~ h,'li hepossesse ~ rL.lrllll'~ p .. n _ By th ~s act, pOs,~L':ssi:tln dnlf~ ~HJ~ ~h .ntge i~~ natu re w~~en. ut ch:lnge'~ :hanJ ..... md become PJ'ope !ly ilill I hm;,e of Ime MW'~D'· ei:;rn; b~n. a2'l. the pnw,er~ of dlie State (cihJ) aile i IrlQClnrlp;U1tb I)' gTc,llef Ih~~ those (If !.Itn inJ i v idl.l~JI. public 1~~e.s~iCl:ll us also, ~Il, t~ld. more secure and more i Irn~ vocable. wi ~hoL!!n be:ing more' legi~iirmJ.te, .. t ~~ea."'1 illa res~rl of roreiglileirs~ ftil' the S~m~'. wi.lb re'g.[lrd to It:-\ members, is oWne!" ~f al I the i r priilp-eny by the M)C ia~ coni m,I: ~. which, in the S ~l]le. Ji~rW~l1~ Irlme bm;.is of a 1.1 111 ghl.s: b~l. wu Ih regard to othe r powIi:rs. it is, nwn:~r nnly by ~he ri ~h! 011 'iii r.;;1 oec !l!JI>.lmcy wlJil ic~, ~,I der:~\I\eSo frrlun 1m] uvid iii! ,d~,.

The 1'1 ~ht of Ii 1101 oo~up;mcy. [III tH)ugh more I;ealth"m I hm of the sll'~mgt?sl. ~. j;.·O~le!\ a true night 01111)' .. :flier (he ~~t:IIJIii~llmem of tha:~ of propelil)' ,. Ellery mm~ I:m.~ by .1Il;U ure [Imi,gl1i~. to. aH~Jillm ~~ 1'1j~(''e~sary ~o iii ben: blH the p(l~ it ~ve act whi:ch :1~llake~ bi III :I. pmpiiiewrof runain. p!\openy ex,,~ludeslrnuIH rron~ all ttie I"esidue. Hi~pool'lilOIl I:!a"'i~g been fiHClU~dL he ()~Ight M'I cOi"lfi JiIj~ liIi rm.ei f to i~.aD1ldl lI1Ie Ili[l" n.o furl:iiler Ir~ght to Ihe um:li· y~th;-dpmp~lly, Tlm.nb why the ril!h~ ofi:iN U~;:iC'Upalll;y. sn wt-:Jk ~l1r Ihe Ntr~le of natlll'e. ~s, 1'e);pcGteti by en,:~)' memhel' of.~ S~"11ie_ ~n Ihis ligh[ men r,tgard nm sO much whatbe-" ~nn~>; ~o 01 hem a:.~ w hal dm;:s 'limt bdm:l1!- lin lhem~.1~h,t:::s_

In oli'(k:r '~n 1t!~a]i7ie Ihe right ~~f tJr~1 Ol't:llp~nr:y 'l) .. ~r ~ily dJmnnin whm~~m~ver. 'the' t'ullowiln~ Col.lIfU:l ihtms aiFe. ~n ,£,en~n.t n~o~s.~ar:r';~ r_~~. H\~bmllilmst not yet be inh.lbited L - - ~ _ •• --~. ,-"-~,_<n... ~,mo·'., "'"" ~ """"''"'''' On I"" Ih<" ~~re.a rC'lllll i reJ ~()r hi!i ~ublii,~t!ellCt:

~~"' ~"~ . "_"~" ~ r. ~~".~~.~~ ~~~~ ...

1 '. ......

"':J" " ..

_~ "~~.;i+-

• '1/. "

thil\(~ly. he nUisl 't.tke p!lS~'f:'~~~~ml. of ~L nn~ tJy 8111 ~mpty C~!:'~lrnU1l1y, but by I.l.oor and cuttil';[lItiiml. [he 0111121 mark of nwnership which. in deWmlil of legal title, OUCht to be res~ll;'t.ed by o~ hers,

hlJeetL if we 'U;.'(..'nrd the Iliiglu u!' hrst (!cl~1!I piU1Cy ~n!'1I='o~s.:s:i 1 y and ~ abolu .. dn~\ e IW'L extend i1 ~'~ rar as, it call go'! Is, II :impns~ihle to a~~ign limrls. ~n l·llv~. right? Wil'! the mere ~eni.ng fonl un cmnmol'l grolllwtd be ~ll.tTn;t~l1t to ~j" e an immediate dil.i~l ~o the nWnership (11' it? Will !he rrm-er or tlri,-ill~ r.n~:~J' nl~cr men fmlln iL for.ll ~~mlnl!:'m ~unll1l:~ it) depri\'C: them for e\ er nf~he' righ~ (If rerarning tnit? Hn\\, ean a man or a people take 'l'K'Jo. • .;,se_~siOirn or m'l inH'I]el1~e lefr:iwry aml rnb the whnl~ ,b~HlrKLr~ race ~lr it e~n~pl by a. i):LJni~,habJ.e li~urr;ni:('m. sinee orhH men are d~rlri\>el~ or lh~ rlat'~ or re~iuiit'nce 'Lllli she susrenance \'.-hkh nature give ... In ll~cm illl ~nlljH'I1l1:lf! When Nul'iel. B'l~bn;.] U~ Ihe '~<.t. sl'wn:: ~t)o[)k ptlM~~~ion of the Pat:ilfic Ocean and of rhewhole of Smith America in the nasne of Ihe ~'n~wl1 of Cas\illl~t:'" ~\-.a~ rhis !-luilki:(:,nI In di~pus:"cs..~ allthe iinhllb:iwlllS. am:! excl ude rf"tllll1 it all tlte pliil~K'e s i n fh~ \~,"{lrh..l·! On '[In i_~ ~~upp~lsi ~ im~. such ce renmnies mught ha\'~ beeN mulli,plieJ \'.tinly e'l1It)WI~h: ~IHI the Cuhuh..:: kimig iln his I..\bin~'~ nl~gill[, hy u $ll1lgh'l stroke. hil\ e lall.~1'1 !lIM.e~),iun of the \~hn~e \n}'J~t1. unl;- ctnning 011 ;ln~r· w:!n.h from his empire what W;L~ f1re\ i:nusly m:clIpleti by other rr~llce~.

We perceive hLl"'" ~~e lam.lls of :imlj,-id:uak unitcil an~~ I..'mu~.~~ou~. become pLlhli" tel'riu)!'). rind !'ttlW rhe right ~~ F ~m'~'reig!Tly" e :o;teml:i ng illsd f i"Lllm the suh.i:e~~l~ 10 the ~mld w:l1idl. lh~: l)("CUP}. ~nn\'t:~, <It unee r~'<1~ amlllC:NH1,a!: which rlal."e' ll'n:f:' pL'l~~~~son; il,l g reuter dcpen deuce. :l.I1J IIiIl~.k~~ their U\'>' fl powers a ~ u anul1IlC"C' fHr their

t1dehty ul.;lth"11lIW:\,1:~ which aneient 11ln.lfWrc.l1S d'o 1101 1II1re''Hr [u ha\ ~ d~a~'I~ r~li"·

ceived, t1)W. ~:~~mn~ themselves uldy ki"g~ of the F\:rs,i~ul~ o~ Scy!hi.l!l~ or M .. cedonians, th~! ~Cl..'m tl~ h;l\ c l'~ga~kJ lh~'I'H~h-~~, a~ t:h~d'~ of men ~'arrhe'r th.m uS owner« uf ",-~)Lllltries. 1\:immn:h~ Ilr Ind .. y call ihem-elvc- rnurc d~wrJ) r.iup ~lf F.r;iliu~. SI)L1ill_ Eng" land. erc.: ill thu-, hn!ding: the land thL'~' an: 4uiL~ sure or liJolJiUig ~h illhabiiHLIlIIS.

The pecul i-<lri ~y nf rh j" ::II ien ;niuni,)' that I he 'mmn~unil}. in re .. -ei vi 11~ the PI' lp~ny nf imlll\ i.JIl!iak ~o lin.1t Ihml rubbing them ~lr ~I. o~ly n~~tll~~ them ll1wrul ~:wS~l:':~~iOIL uud '!:han~e" u,urpati:uI1l 'int~l Iru~ ~iighl. ,~nj,t·!Jm.:m: intu O\~ ncn,]\iip. AI~I~. the r~l"'''~~'\t1l"!o,; hei !I~ ~ ~~nl"fL,.i,d~'~R\~t I ~h" r ~I:!I :"!o!''!'!. ii r:"1 :-::.; :-.!" ~,~::; ~; ~~~-..':'~ Ii!. ~H "'~i.J!1", I ~) • 'i.LlIJ u ~~ i r n gnr' ~1!1 Jrl.~ res pee ted IY} a~1 I.hr: nl~lnt.Jtr~ ~.r the: State. 'l' \A~H ac~ nm~!U .. lucd t-} ~ull it" pt,)\\"C'r ~.<Iiun~l fllj~igll· ers, I'hey howe. as i~ were, Ib<j' a uunsfer ml'vmll,l~~'L"~lll~ In 'rile rl1b!!!:' :Iml ~tdl lblGI"J.:' l,u themselves, O1C'"'1 wli r-eil;.f;JJI~~Ih:u I hey have g iln~'n Up-~I par.uln:t 1,,\'11~!: h is easi I)' exp 1 :I~ Il~d by di ~Hl1gu is-hi ng bet ween the ri gtus \!"h ti,.J"h the sovereign nml the proprietor have IlY,N rhe s:lm~ pro~ny. ;i:s we shrl1 ~ see hel'eat'ler.

II muy ~h~l '~i]ppeill d'n.u men begln to unite befcee I.hey pt"'~~M anything. an.ti thai nftenl,lanh ()ct'~lpyung (~Irri~ory sliInl;deilt for [III, they ellljo),iltiin t'umllJl(l1l er shan: .il ~umnlil~ then:lseh~e~. either equully 0[1" i,n prnptllflltOnS fb:.tJ by lh~ M}\·eTlti,!;.ElL [n whusever wayt~ii!\ ,al.:qui~i~kUl is made, the rigiht which every individual 'h.~s over his pl'1J~rty ivalwa,Y"': illlbol'dinarre wllme ~~ghl 'w'hid~ the onmmunity h.~s o,;er .. IL \.Jlhen."i_"e! ~here w(luld, beno ~Irlhi!l.ily in the social union, and no r-eal fon:ein the exercise (d'sovereig!Hy,

~l';h:l.1I close '[h6S c]~apler am:1 this' book w~th a remark \\II-hkh Ollg.~1t to SI:p.-,e- 3S :I. basis for the whole );(x: inl s,'y~~lem :it h ~b<]1 i nstead of dest ro.y i ng. lla.tUr.1 T e<jJL.mJ i't)'. thE: f~Uldml1lilenlla1. pact. om the COiltrary. ~ub~liune" u moral ;1m! bWjflL~ eqll<l~i~)' ~or the Irhy~· ica~ lnequa! i Ill' W~i1 ich lii'lnl.ure i m.pt.."l~ed tJ pon ~nen. so~lffiI;}t.. n~.1 hmi,gh IJllequa~ i 111 $1:lre~]g.!111 o.r i Eilh·:II~1. Ihey all become' eq Llnl by corl\'emi Oil ill,d le'ga ~ lfilght~'

,

f r

~ U n~~ ~i!ltI g.o\ erl1mel!l~ ~Ili~ e'~P.I~ I il} h .m!')' ~p.~fem ii._ilu iII1l1';"_i!'~ : it ... ~~~·e.;, lj!l~~ 1\1, ~E~P Hl<: PO>!.!!" iH Ihdr mh'l."f)' mKi Ih~ rK·h im 1:1i.~if ll"Ull!il~iL'f~ •. III J'l~l. i~c~ ~ ;Lr);' all,l:~~'" ll,,~rul II, tht~ ".11~' :D'i~......:">'" ",~l iLljUri~1I;; t~1 ~ru.l<'li!" Lhl:Lt Il~\ 0.: l1.t>!h~n~: whem."~ i [ ~'oll~m ~ !h:.t~ .he "'!t!'i~1 o>!I'L1~ h :1,h;~nt~~.:111J:~ iAl men 'LlIl!~ '-I' r"r .u; Ih~~ lin h~\ o! M'ln~lhill~. illlJ n'l~,' ,lr ~lKm h~~ L .... ' mIK~,