Chapter VIII (To Student)

Functions
Limit of a Function
Continuity
Functions and continuity
NGUYEN CANH Nam1
1 Faculty of Applied Mathematics
Department of Applied Mathematics and Informatics

Hanoi University of Technologies
namnc@mail.hut.edu.vn
HUT - 2010
NGUYEN CANH Nam Mathematics I - Chapter 8

Functions
Limit of a Function
Continuity
Agenda
1 Functions
Functions
2 Limit of a Function
Limit at a finite point
Limit at infinity
One-sided Limits
3 Continuity
Continuity at a point
Continuity on an interval
Discontinuity
Uniform continuity

Functions
Limit of a Function Functions
Continuity
Agenda
1 Functions
Functions
Limit at infinity
One-sided Limits
3 Continuity
Discontinuity
Uniform continuity

Functions
Continuity
Definition
Definition
A function if on a set D ⊆ IR into a set S ⊆ IR is mapping from
D to S.
In this definition D = D(f ) is the domain of the function f . The
range R(f ) of f is the subset of S consisting of all values f (x) of
the function.

Functions
Continuity
Operations on Functions
Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication and Division
The sum of two functions f and g, denoted f + g, is defined by:

(f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x)
The domain of f + g is the set {x | x ∈ D(f ) and x ∈ D(g)}.
The difference of two functions f and g, denoted f − g, is defined by:
(f − g)(x) = f (x) − g(x)
The domain of f − g is the set {x | xinD(f ) and x ∈ D(g)}.
The product of two functions f and g, denoted fg, is defined by:
(fg)(x) = f (x)g(x)
The domain of fg is the set {x | x ∈ D(f ) and x ∈ D(g)}.
f
The division of two functions f and g, denoted , is defined by:
g
f f (x)
(x) =
g g(x)
f
The domain of is the set {x |∈ D(f ) and x ∈ D(g) with g(x) 6= 0}.
g

Functions
Continuity
Properties of a function
Definition
Let f : D → IR be a real-valued function. f is said to be:
1. Increasing, if ∀a, b ∈ D(a ≤ b ⇒ f (a) ≤ f (b))
2. Decreasing, if ∀a, b ∈ D(a ≤ b ⇒ f (a) ≥ f (b))
3. Strictly increasing, if ∀a, b ∈ D(a < b ⇒ f (a) < f (b))
4. Strictly decreasing, if ∀a, b ∈ D(a < b ⇒ f (a) > f (b))
5. Monotone, if it is either increasing or decreasing.
6. Strictly monotone, if it is either strictly increasing or strictly
decreasing.

Functions
Continuity
Properties of a function
continue..
Definition
Let f : D → IR be a real-valued function. f is said to be:
7. Bounded above, if its range is bounded above, that is if
∃M ∈ IR : ∀x ∈ D, f (x) ≤ M
8. Bounded below, if its range is bounded below, that is if
∃m ∈ IR : ∀x ∈ D, f (x) ≥ m
9. Bounded, if it is both bounded above and below.
10. Even, if ∀x ∈ D, −x ∈ D and f (−x) = f (x)
11. Odd, if ∀x ∈ D, −x ∈ D and f (−x) = −f (x)
(
x +T ∈D
12. Periodic, if ∃T 6= 0 ∈ IR : ∀x ∈ D, and f (x + T ) = f (x).
x −T ∈D
The smallest such T is called the period of the function.

Functions
Continuity
Functions
continue...
Injection
Surjection
Bijection
Composition of functions
Inverse function

Functions Limit at a finite point
Limit of a Function Limit at infinity
Continuity One-sided Limits
Agenda
1 Functions
Functions
Limit at infinity
One-sided Limits
3 Continuity
Discontinuity
Uniform continuity

Definition
Definition
We say that lim f (x) = L or that f (x) → L as x → a if
x→a
∀ > 0, ∃δ > 0 : 0 < |x − a| < δ ⇒ |f (x) − L| < .
|x − a| represents how far x is from a. The above statement

says that f (x) can be made arbitrarily close to L simply by
taking x close enough to a.

Example
Example
Prove that lim (x + 5) = 7.
x→2
Given > 0, we must prove that there exists δ > 0 such that
0 < |x − 2| < δ ⇒ |x + 5 − 7| < . Let > 0 be given.
|x + 5 − 7| < ⇔ |x − 2| <
Thus we see that δ = will work. Indeed, given

> 0, 0 < |x − 2| < δ ⇒ |x + 5 − 7| < .

Limits equal infinity

Definition
Definition
We say that lim f (x) = ∞ or that f (x) → ∞ as x → a if
x→a
∀M > 0, ∃δ > 0 : 0 < |x − a| < δ ⇒ f (x) > M.


Example
Example
1
Prove that lim = ∞.
x→1 (x − 1)2
Given M > 0, we must prove that there exists δ > 0 such that
1
0 < |x − 1| < δ ⇒ > M.
(x − 1)2
1 1
2
> M ⇔ (x − 1)2 <
(x − 1) M
−1 1 √
⇔ √ < x − 1 < √ ⇔ |x − 1| < M
M M
1
Thus, given M > 0, δ = √ will work.
M


continue..
Definition
We say that lim f (x) = −∞ or that f (x) → −∞ as x → a if
x→a
∀M < 0, ∃δ > 0 : 0 < |x − a| < δ ⇒ f (x) < M.
Remark
In the last two definition, the vertical line x = a is a vertical
asymptote for the graph of y = f (x).
Remark
When we say that the limit of a function exists, we mean that it
exists and is finite. When the limit is infinite, it does not exist in
the sense that it is not a number. However, we know what the
function is doing, it is approaching ±∞.
Agenda
1 Functions
Functions
Limit at infinity
One-sided Limits
3 Continuity
Discontinuity
Uniform continuity

Limit at infinity
Definition
Definition
We say that lim f (x) = L or that f (x) → L as x → ∞ if
x→∞
∀ > 0, ∃w > 0 : x ≥ w ⇒ |f (x) − L| <
|f (x) − L| represents the distance between f (x) and L. The

above statement simply says that f (x) can be made as close as
one wants from L, simply by taking x large enough. Graphically,
this simply says that the line y = L is a horizontal asymptote for
the graph of y = f (x).

Limit at infinity
Example
Example
1
Prove that lim = 0.
x→∞ x
Let > 0 be given. We want to find w > 0 so that
1
x ≥ w ⇒ | − 0| < . As usual, we begin with the inequality we are
x
trying to prove.
1 1
| − 0| < ⇒ <
x |x|
Since we are considering the limit as x → ∞, we can restrict
ourselves to positive values of x. Thus, the above inequality can be
1
replaced with < which is equivalent to x > 1 . Thus we see that
x
1
given > 0, w = will work.

Limit at infinity
continue...
Definition
We say that lim f (x) = ∞ or that f (x) → ∞ as x → ∞ if
x→∞
∀M > 0, ∃w > 0 : x ≥ w ⇒ f (x) > M.
The above definition says that f (x) can be made arbitrarily

large, simply by taking x large enough.

Limit at infinity
continue...
Example
Prove that lim x 2 = ∞.
x→∞
Given M > 0, we must prove that there exists w > 0 such that
x ≥ w ⇒ x 2 > M. Since we are considering the limit as
x → ∞, we can restrict ourselves to x > 0. In this case
√
x2 > M ⇔ x > M
√
Thus, we see that given M > 0, w = M will work.

Agenda
1 Functions
Functions
Limit at infinity
One-sided Limits
3 Continuity
Discontinuity
Uniform continuity

Definitions
When we say x → a, we realize that x can approach a from two

sides.
If x approaches a from the right, that if x approaches a and is
greater than a, we write x → a+ .
Similarly, if x approaches a from the left, that is if x approaches
a and is less than a, then we write x → a− .
We can rewrite the above definition for one sided limits with
little modifications. We do it for a few of them.

Definitions
continue..
Definition
We say that lim+ f (x) = L or that f (x) → L as x → a+ if
x→a
∀ > 0, ∃δ > 0 : 0 < x − a < δ ⇒ |f (x) − L| <
Definition
We say that lim f (x) = L or that f (x) → L as x → a− if
x→a−
∀ > 0, ∃δ > 0 : 0 < a − x < δ ⇒ |f (x) − L| <

Example
Example
1
Prove that lim+ = ∞.
x→0 x
Given M > 0, we need to prove that there exists δ > 0 such that
0 < x − 0 < δ ⇒ x1 > M.
1 1
>M⇔x <
x M
1
Thus, given M > 0, we see that δ = M will work.

Theorem
Theorem
The following two conditions are equivalent
(i) lim f (x) = L
x→a
(ii) lim+ = lim = L
x→a x→a−
Remark
One way to prove that lim f (x) does not exits is to prove that
x→a
the two one-sided limits are not the same or that at least one of
them does not exist.

Elementary Theorems
Theorem
If the limit of a function exists, then it is unique.
Theorem
Suppose that f (x) ≤ g(x) ≤ h(x) in a deleted neighborhood of
a and lim f (x) = lim h(x) = L then lim g(x) = L.
x→a x→a x→a

Operations with Limits

Theorem
Assuming that lim f (x) and lim g(x) exist, the following results are true:
x→a x→a
1 lim (f (x) ± g(x)) = lim f (x) ± lim g(x)

x→a x→a x→a
2 lim (f (x)g(x)) = lim f (x) lim g(x)

x→a x→a x→a
f (x) lim f (x)

x→a
3 lim = as long as lim g(x) 6= 0
x→a g(x) lim g(x) x→a
x→a
4 lim |f (x)| = | lim f (x)|

x→a x→a
5 If f (x) ≥ 0 then lim f (x) ≥ 0

x→a
6 If f (x) ≥ g(x) then lim f (x) ≥ lim g(x)

x→a x→a
p q
7 If f (x) ≥ 0 then lim f (x) = lim f (x)
x→a x→a

Functions
Limit of a Function
Discontinuity
Continuity
Uniform continuity
Agenda
1 Functions
Functions
Limit at infinity
One-sided Limits
3 Continuity
Discontinuity
Uniform continuity

Functions
Limit of a Function
Discontinuity
Continuity
Uniform continuity
Definition
Definition
We say that a function f is continuous at an interior point c of its
domain if
lim f (x) = f (c).
x→c
If either lim x → cf (x) fails to exist, or it exists but it not equal to

f (c), then we say that f is discontinuous at c.
In graphical term, f is continuous at an interior point c of its

domain if its graph has no break in at the point (c, f (c)); in other
words, if you can draw the graph through that point without
lifting your pen from the paper.

Functions
Limit of a Function
Discontinuity
Continuity
Uniform continuity
Right continuity and left continuity
Definition
We say that f is right continuous at c if lim+ f (x) = f (c)
x→c
We say that f is right continuous at c if lim f (x) = f (c)
x→c −
Definition
We say that f is continuous at a left end point c of its domain if
it is right continuous there.
We say that f is continuous at a right end point c of its domain if
it is left continuous there.

Functions
Limit of a Function
Discontinuity
Continuity
Uniform continuity
Theorems
Theorem
If the functions f and g are both defined on an interval
containing c, and are both continuous at c, then the following
functions are also continuous at c :
The sum f + g and the difference f − g.
The product fg
The constant multiple kf , where k is any number
The quotient f /g (provided g(c) 6= 0)
The nth rooth f (x)1/n (provided f (c) > 0 if n is even)

Functions
Limit of a Function
Discontinuity
Continuity
Uniform continuity
Theorems
continue..
Theorem
If f (g(x)) is defined on an interval containing c, and if f is
continuous at L and lim g(x) = L, then
x→c
lim f (g(x)) = f (L) = f ( lim g(x)).

x→c x→c
In particular, if g is continuous at c (so L = g(c)), then the

composition f ◦ g is continuous at c :
lim f (g(x)) = f (g(c)).

x→c

Functions
Limit of a Function
Discontinuity
Continuity
Uniform continuity
Agenda
1 Functions
Functions
Limit at infinity
One-sided Limits
3 Continuity
Discontinuity
Uniform continuity

Functions
Limit of a Function
Discontinuity
Continuity
Uniform continuity
Definition
Definition
We say that function f is continuous on the interval I if it is
continuous at each point of I. In particular, we will say that f is a
continuous function if f is continuous at every point of its
domain.

Functions
Limit of a Function
Discontinuity
Continuity
Uniform continuity
Theorems
Theorem (Min-max theorem)

If f (x) is continuous on the closed, finite interval [a, b], then
there exists numbers x1 and x2 in [a, b] such that for all
x ∈ [a, b], we have
f (x1 ) ≤ f (x) ≤ f (x2 )
Thus f has the absolute minimum value m = f (x1 ), taken on at

the point x1 , and the absolute maximum value M = f (x2 ), taken
on at the point x2 .

Functions
Limit of a Function
Discontinuity
Continuity
Uniform continuity
Theorems
Theorem (Intermediate-Value theorem)

If f (x) is continuous on the interval [a, b] and if s is a number
between f (a) and f (b), then there exists a number c ∈ [a, b]
such that f (c) = s.
In particular, a continuous function defined on a closed interval

takes on all values between its minimum value m and its
maximum value M, so its range is also a closed interval [m, M].

Functions
Limit of a Function
Discontinuity
Continuity
Uniform continuity
Agenda
1 Functions
Functions
Limit at infinity
One-sided Limits
3 Continuity
Discontinuity
Uniform continuity

Functions
Limit of a Function
Discontinuity
Continuity
Uniform continuity
Definition
Definition
If a function f that is discontinuous at a point a can be redefined
at that single point so that it becomes continuous there, then
we say that f has a removable discontinuity at a. We also say
that a is a removable discontinuous point.
Example
(
x if x 6= 2
The function g(x) = has a removable
1 if x = 2
discontinuity at x = 2. To remove it, redefined g(2) = 2.

Functions
Limit of a Function
Discontinuity
Continuity
Uniform continuity
Agenda
1 Functions
Functions
Limit at infinity
One-sided Limits
3 Continuity
Discontinuity
Uniform continuity

Functions
Limit of a Function
Discontinuity
Continuity
Uniform continuity
Definition
Definition
We say that a function f is uniformly continuous on a set I ⊂ IR
if and only if
∀ > 0, ∃δ > 0∀x, y ∈ I, |x − y | < δ ⇒ |f (x) − f (y )| < .
Example
Let S = IR and f (x) = 3x + 7. Then f is uniformly continuous
on S.

Choose > 0. Let δ = . Choose x0 ∈ S. Choose x ∈ S.
3
Assume |x − x0 | < δ. Then
|f (x) − f (x0 )| = |(3x + 7) − (3x0 + 7)| = 3|x − x0 | < 3δ =
. NGUYEN CANH Nam Mathematics I - Chapter 8

Functions
Limit of a Function
Discontinuity
Continuity
Uniform continuity
Example
continue...
Example (A counter example)

The function f (x) = x 2 is continuous but not uniformly
continuous on IR.
Indeed, √ δ > 0 be arbitrary. For n ∈ IN let
√ let = 1. Let
xn = n + 1, yn = n. Then xn2 − yn2 = 1, but
√ √ √ √
( n + 1 − n)( n + 1 + n)
0 < xn − yn = √ √
n+1+ n
1 1
=√ √ ≤√ √ <δ
n+1+ n n+ n
if n > (1/2δ)2 . Thus ∃ > 0, ∀δ > 0, ∃x, y : |x − y | < δ and
|x 2 − y 2 | > .
Functions
Limit of a Function
Discontinuity
Continuity
Uniform continuity
Theorem
Theorem
If f is continuous on [a, b], then f is uniformly continuous on
[a, b].

Chapter VIII (To Student)

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Chapter VIII (To Student)

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Functions

Functions and continuity

NGUYEN CANH Nam1

1 Faculty of Applied Mathematics

Department of Applied Mathematics and Informatics

NGUYEN CANH Nam Mathematics I - Chapter 8

NGUYEN CANH Nam Mathematics I - Chapter 8

NGUYEN CANH Nam Mathematics I - Chapter 8

NGUYEN CANH Nam Mathematics I - Chapter 8

The sum of two functions f and g, denoted f + g, is defined by:

NGUYEN CANH Nam Mathematics I - Chapter 8

NGUYEN CANH Nam Mathematics I - Chapter 8

NGUYEN CANH Nam Mathematics I - Chapter 8

NGUYEN CANH Nam Mathematics I - Chapter 8

NGUYEN CANH Nam Mathematics I - Chapter 8

|x − a| represents how far x is from a. The above statement

NGUYEN CANH Nam Mathematics I - Chapter 8

Thus we see that δ =  will work. Indeed, given

NGUYEN CANH Nam Mathematics I - Chapter 8

Limits equal infinity

NGUYEN CANH Nam Mathematics I - Chapter 8

Limits equal infinity

NGUYEN CANH Nam Mathematics I - Chapter 8

Limits equal infinity

NGUYEN CANH Nam Mathematics I - Chapter 8

|f (x) − L| represents the distance between f (x) and L. The

NGUYEN CANH Nam Mathematics I - Chapter 8

The above definition says that f (x) can be made arbitrarily

NGUYEN CANH Nam Mathematics I - Chapter 8

NGUYEN CANH Nam Mathematics I - Chapter 8

NGUYEN CANH Nam Mathematics I - Chapter 8

When we say x → a, we realize that x can approach a from two

NGUYEN CANH Nam Mathematics I - Chapter 8

NGUYEN CANH Nam Mathematics I - Chapter 8

NGUYEN CANH Nam Mathematics I - Chapter 8

NGUYEN CANH Nam Mathematics I - Chapter 8

NGUYEN CANH Nam Mathematics I - Chapter 8

Operations with Limits

1 lim (f (x) ± g(x)) = lim f (x) ± lim g(x)

2 lim (f (x)g(x)) = lim f (x) lim g(x)

f (x) lim f (x)

4 lim |f (x)| = | lim f (x)|

5 If f (x) ≥ 0 then lim f (x) ≥ 0

6 If f (x) ≥ g(x) then lim f (x) ≥ lim g(x)

NGUYEN CANH Nam Mathematics I - Chapter 8

NGUYEN CANH Nam Mathematics I - Chapter 8

If either lim x → cf (x) fails to exist, or it exists but it not equal to

In graphical term, f is continuous at an interior point c of its

NGUYEN CANH Nam Mathematics I - Chapter 8

Right continuity and left continuity

NGUYEN CANH Nam Mathematics I - Chapter 8

NGUYEN CANH Nam Mathematics I - Chapter 8

lim f (g(x)) = f (L) = f ( lim g(x)).

In particular, if g is continuous at c (so L = g(c)), then the

lim f (g(x)) = f (g(c)).

NGUYEN CANH Nam Mathematics I - Chapter 8

NGUYEN CANH Nam Mathematics I - Chapter 8

NGUYEN CANH Nam Mathematics I - Chapter 8

Theorem (Min-max theorem)

f (x1 ) ≤ f (x) ≤ f (x2 )

Thus f has the absolute minimum value m = f (x1 ), taken on at

NGUYEN CANH Nam Mathematics I - Chapter 8

Theorem (Intermediate-Value theorem)

Thus we see that δ = will work. Indeed, given

∀ > 0, ∃δ > 0∀x, y ∈ I, |x − y | < δ ⇒ |f (x) − f (y )| < .

|f (x) − f (x0 )| = |(3x + 7) − (3x0 + 7)| = 3|x − x0 | < 3δ =