Part B Properties of building materials

Fig. B Central iron-and-glass dome, Galleria Vittorio Emmanuele II, Milan, Italy, 1867,

Giuseppe Megnoni

Stone

2 Loam

3 Ceramic materials

4 Building materials with mineral binders

5 Bituminous materials

6 Wood and wood-based products

7 Metal

8 Glass

9 Synthetic materials

10 Life cycle assessments

37

Stone

B 1,1 Stonehenge, near Salisbury, UK, c. 2000 BC

B 1,2 Pont du Gard, Provence, France, 1 st century AD B 1,3 Dry stone walling, stone house near Gordes,

France

B 1.4 Padre Pia Pilgrimage Church, Foggia, Apulia, Italy, 2004, Renzo Piano

B 1,5 The resolution of mass - Gothic vaulting, Bath Abbey Church, UK, 1499

B 1,6 "Laos House", Vienna, Austria, 1910, Adolf Laos B 1,7 Translucent facade made from Dionysos marble, St Pius Church, Meggen, Switzerland, 1966, Franz Fueg

38

Besides loam and wood, stone in its natural form was one of the first materials people used for building, In the early days of civilisation, everyday objects such as weapons, simple tools and jewellery were made from stone, Besides the pyramids of Egypt, the first structures built with natural stone worked into a more or less regular shape were the so-called megalithic monuments (from Greek: megas = great + lithos = stone), and the stone circles of Stonehenge in southern England are probably the best-known examples (fig, B 1,1), But even today we are still unsure as to how these huge blocks - up to 4 m high and weighing up to 50 tonnes - were transported from a quarry more than 200 km away and erected, It was in about 2700 BC that the oldest step pyramid made from coarsely dressed limestone blocks was built in Saqqara, Egypt. The man in charge of its construction, the vizier Imhotep, is regarded as the world's first architect. Various cultures and epochs have supplied us with their own specific forms of construction, The Greeks assembled stones without mortar joints to form architectural elements such as plinths, columns, architraves and friezes, The Romans continued the development of vaulting, By the

1 st century AD it was therefore possible to erect quite sophisticated infrastructure elements such as the 50 m high Pont du Gard aqueduct (fig, B 1,2), And in the Gothic era the stonemason's art reached its zenith, The forces were concentrated in the net-like, delicate ribs of the vaulting and transferred to great pillars, The walls in between lost their loadbearing function and were transformed into translucent, lightweight surfaces (fig, B 1,5), In the 1920s the use of very thin stone slabs as cladding became a feature of modern architecture, Adolf Loos ("Marble is the cheapest wallpaper") showed us the exclusively decorative use of cladding made from Cipollino marble on the facade of his "Loos House" (fig, B 1,6),

Contemporary applications

In our modern thermally insulated facades, stone has lost its structural function, The increased requirements placed on thermal insulation and the performance of the building envelope in Central Europe means that all

B 1,1

B 1,2 mass outside the layer of thermal insulation is now generally unnecessary and leads merely to more work on site and more fixings, The stone industry has responded to this: granite slabs 15 mm thick and sandwich panels with a 6 mm thick stone facing are now available on the market (see "The building envelope", p. 110), In Berlin whole street fronts were clad with thin stone facings from allover the world with every conceivable surface treatment. In recent years stone has enjoyed an unexpected renaissance, Without doubt also due to the fact that surfaces and sensual qualities have become more important again,

The winery of Herzog & de Meuron in California, USA, as well as the thermal baths in Vals, Switzerland, by Peter Zumthor are well-known examples of how to use the specific surface qualities of natural stone, Franz Fueg had already used the light-permeable properties of marble on his St Pius Church in Meggen, Switzerland, in 1966, The sunlight transforms the smooth marble panels into illuminated, veil-like surfaces (fig, B 1,7), In his design for the Padre Pio Pilgrimage Church in Foggia, Italy, Renzo Piano devised a remarkable solution (fig, B 1.4), Blocks of the local limestone were assembled to form prestressed arches spanning more than

B 1,3

Stone

50 m. To achieve the necessary tolerance of ±0.5 mm for each element, the experience of many generations of marble stonemasons from Carrara went into the working of the stone.

Properties

There is an impressive diversity of natural stone. In Central Europe more than 500 varieties, worldwide about 5000, are offered by the trade. And as every type of stone exhibits specific properties and features, the potential applications are correspondingly diverse (fig. B 1.10). Petrography is the study of rocks. The usability of a stone is determined by its petrographical, i.e. mineralogical and chemical, features, plus a number of technical parameters.

. Petrographical properties:

structure, chemistry, mineral content (colour, crystalline structure and hardness)

• Technical parameters (fig. B 1.12):

density (true density, bulk density and porosity), strength (compressive, flexural and abrasion resistance), thermal conductivity, thermal expansion, heat resistance, freeze-thaw

behaviour, water absorption and resistance to chemicals.

Good thermal conductivity is important when stone is used as a floor covering. Stone floors are often perceived as cold because they conduct heat away from the body. However, their heat storage capacity can be a great advantage, also in conjunction with underfloor heating,

Risks specific to the material

The following properties should be considered at an early stage of the planning:

• Temperature:

The thermal expansion lies between 0.3 and 1.25 mm/m (for a temperature difference of 100 K) depending on the type of stone. Suitable joints and fixings are essential for the cladding to a facade. Water trapped in the pores and capillaries of the stone can cause damage when it freezes because its volume increases by about 9% as it turns to ice . Although the majority of igneous rocks are classed as frost-resistant, numerous aspects must be still taken into account if problems are to be avoided.

B 1.5

. Chemical stability:

Acids and airborne pollutants (e.g. S02 and CO2) can cause considerable damage to limestone and sandstone.

Effect and design

Stone stands for tradition. It is the embodiment of durability, authority and quality. Even when the modern stone facades of Central Europe are usually no more than a thin cladding, we still associate stone with stability and strength, e.g. for banks. Every type of stone has its own character derived from its grain and porosity as well as its colour. The surface treatment, e.g. bush-hammering, polishing, sandblasting, can have a fundamental effect on the appearance of a stone surface (fig. B 1.13). Although these days we can employ stone from the four corners of the Earth, stone was originally a regional material which created a clear reference to the locality (fig. B 1.3). The streetscapes of, for example, London or Paris were always characterised by a uniform, local stone.

B 1.6

39

Stone

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I Igneous I Sedimentary I Metamorphic I

Plutonic II Hypabyssal II Extrusive I Clastic Chemical I Orthorock II Pararock I
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According to our present state of knowledge, the planet Earth was formed about 4.5 billion years ago by the agglomeration of interstellar material, After the transition from the gaseous to the molten state, the first coherent crust, the Earth's surface, formed at a temperature of about 1 000-1500°C. Rocks are formed by the crystallisation of liquid magma. They consist of various minerals, primarily silicates, held together by aggregation or a binder (s.q. clay), Their genesis is a decisive feature enabling us to divide rocks into three main divisions: igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic.

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Rock divisions

We must distinguish between scientific and commercial nomenclature when classifying types of rock, Only when we know the petrographic designation of the rock group and rock type is it possible to obtain a guaranteed assessment of the properties and the potential applications (fig, B 1,8), Trade names are often arbitrary, and inaccurate designations such as

40

"Belgian granite" (actually limestone) can result in considerable damage if the real nature of the rock is not known,

Igneous rocks

These types of rock are formed directly from liquid magma and are divided into three subdivisions according to their place of origin:

Plutonic rocks

Named after the god of the underworld, these rocks are formed by the full crystallisation of "mobilised magma" in the Earth's crust. The - usually - uniform, non-directional and dense structure is due to the gradual cooling. The varying mineral composition gives rise to rock types like granite, diorite and gabbro, Almost all plutonic rocks are frost-resistant and are popular in building owing to their high compressive strength and hardwearing qualities. Some igneous rocks, e.g. granite, can exhibit above-average natural radioactivity in some circumstances.

Hypabyssal rocks

These types of rock are formed when small amounts of magma solidify within the Earth's crust in volcanic vents or fissures. Their structure is similar to the plutonic rocks but the faster cooling process results in non-uniform crystallisation with phenocrysts of other material. This subdivision includes pegmatites, aplites and lamprophyres.

Extrusive rocks

In contrast to plutonic rocks, rocks of this type, e.q. diabase, basalt or rhyolite, form at the transition between the upper mantle (crust) and the surface of the Earth. The relatively fast cooling process leaves these rocks with a fine crystalline structure, Partial melting of neighbouring rocks can lead to highly diverse appearances,

B 1.9

B 1.8

Sedimentary rocks

Sediments are mainly formed by the weathering, erosion and deposition of older rocks (igneous, sedimentary or metamorphic) which are then transported by water or glacial movements and deposited again in the form of debris, gravel or sand. These rocks frequently contain animal or plant fossils. The pressure of the overlying strata compresses the individual particles of the sediments to form a solid mass, cemented together by water containing binders (e.q, quartz, calcite, clay) circulating in the remaining voids, This process of the solidification of sediments is known as diagenesis. Clastic sediments consist of the mechanically disintegrated parts of the original rock. Depending on the grain size, we distinguish between conglomerates (:2 2 mm), sandstones (0.02-2 mm) and siltstones (,s; 0,02 mm). Chemical sediments are "precipitation" from solutions as a result of chemical reactions or biological processes which subsequently solidify under pressure. These include limestone, shelly limestone and travertine. The properties of sedimentary rocks that are interesting for building purposes vary considerably and essentially depend on the conditions during their formation (temperature, pressure) and the respective binder, Chemical sediments (e.q. onyx, petrographic name: calc-sinter) are particularly suitable for internal finishings owing to their diverse textures,

Metamorphic rocks

Metamorphic rocks are formed from existing rocks and are called orthorocks when formed from igneous rocks or pararocks when the original material is a sedimentary rock, High pressures, high temperatures or chemical influences transform the original rock or even form completely new types, They are usually easily recognised by their dense structure free from virtually all voids, their distinct texture or the clear bedding marks. Their chemical compost-

Stone

tion, appearance and uses in building vary considerably. Important metamorphic rock types are slate, marble and gneiss.

Types of stone

A selection of the most common types of stone used in building is given below.

Granite

Granite is probably the best known of the plutonic rocks (fig. B 1.11 a). Its constituents are feldspar (which determines the colour), quartz (responsible for the high mineral hardness) and mica. Granite is weather-resistant, is regarded as the most resistant of rocks, can be used almost without restriction in building work, and is unaffected by airborne pollution. Numerous colours are available: red, pink, yellow, white, grey, blue-green.

Basalt

Basalt is a dark, usually dark grey to black, extrusive rock with a dense, non-directional structure consisting mainly of feldspar and augite (fig. B 1.11 b). It exhibits a very high compressive strength, is extremely difficult to work, is weather-resistant, and is ideal for external applications. However, it can become very slippery when smooth. Weathered and aged basalt is also known as diabase. It is formed by the chemical disintegration of the mineral constituents (e.g. chlorite, serpentine).

Sandstone

Sandstone belongs to the group of clastic sedimentary rocks and consists primarily of quartz grains in the size 0.02-2 mm cemented together by a binder. Sandstones are found in many colours: red, yellow, brown, green (fig. B

1.11 c). The type of binder (quartz, calcite, clay) determines primarily the strength, water absorption and frost resistance. Sandstone is regarded as easy to work and is found on

many older buildings. However, owing to its low abrasion resistance it is not suitable for heavily trafficked floors.

a

b

Limestone

This is a chemical sedimentary rock that was formed during various geological periods, originally in water - proved by the fossils found in limestone. It consists mainly of calcium carbonate and occurs in various colours, usually yellowish, grey-brown, red or white (fig. B 1.11 d). Limestone can be used almost universally.

Only its use in areas that require frequent cleaning (e.g. entrances, public buildings) or wet areas is not recommended owing to its low resistance to the chemicals used in cleaning agents. Its abrasion resistance differs considerably depending on the particular rock deposit.

Marble

Marble, a pararock, is formed by the metamorphosis of calcareous sedimentary rocks. Pure marble is white, crystalline and free from fossils. The crystal surfaces shine in bright light (fig. B 1.11 e). This stone is ideal for sculpted work with fine contours, but is also used in building as a floor finish or wall/facade cladding.

Clayey shale

The term shale designates the splitting or cleaving properties of rocks, with the mineral inclusions (clay, chlorite, mica) indicating the degree of metamorphosis. Clayey shale exhibits a sheet-like, parallel structure. It is a very fine-grained, dense stone and usually dark grey to black in colour (fig. B 1.11f). Its good cleaving ability enables the production of thin slabs just 5-7 mm thick. Owing to the shaley structure, its strength depends on direction. Shales in the form of slates have been used for centuries as roof coverings, cladding and floor tiles.

Building with stone

Stone is usually obtained from open quarries, with only some types of marble, slate and limestone being obtained from underground mines. When exploring new sources, the extent of the deposit and the properties of the stone are estimated by way of ultrasound measurements, or samples are obtained from deep boreholes.

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Igneous rocks
Granite · · · ·
Syenite · · · ·
Diorite · · · ·
Gabbro · · · ·
Rhyolite (porphyry) · · · ·
Trachyte 0 0 0 0
Basalt 0 · · ·
Diabase 0 · · ·
Sedimentary rocks
Braccia 0 0 0 0
Conglomerate 0 0 · ·
Sandstone · · 0 0
Calcereous sandstone · · 0 0
Greywacke 0 · · ·
Volcanic tuffs 0 0 ·
Limestone · · 0 0
Shelly limestone · · 0 0
Solnhofen limestone ·
Dolomite · · · 0
Tuffaceous limestone 0 0 0
Travertine 0 · 0 0
Metamorphic rocks
Orthogneiss · · · ·
Serpentinite 0 0 0 0
Migmatite · · · ·
Paragneiss · · · ·
Quartzite 0 · · ·
Mica-schist · 0 0
Clayey shale · 0 0
Marble 0 0 · · B 1.10

B 1.8 Systematic classification of rock types

B 1.9 Art gallery, Wurth, Schwiibisch Hall, Germany, 2001, Henning Larsen

B 1.10 Applications for various types of stone in building (guide only)

B 1.11 Examples of common types of stone a Eging coarse-grained granite

b Greifensteiner basalt

c Seeberger sandstone

d Jura limestone

e White Togo marble f Moselle slate

e

B 1.11

41

Stone

Hydraulic wedges are driven between the blocks along natural cleavage planes in order to separate the blocks. Diamond-beaded steel wires and cross-cutters (sort of oversized chainsawsl) have also become common in recent years. The aim of quarrying is to obtain approximately right-angled blocks of a suitable size and in doing so to generate as little

"waste" as possible. Quarrying involves destruction of the landscape, and creates large quantities of dust and debris. New deposits may therefore only be quarried when certain official stipulations are met. Those stipulations include restoration of the landscape once the workable deposits have been exhausted.

Industrial processing

Cleaving of the stone is usually carried out directly in the quarry especially in the case of paving stones and stone for ashlar walling. Otherwise, the stone is transported to factories for further processing - it is then that we speak of dressed stone. The use of regional deposits and hence short distances between quarry and works considerably improves the life cycle assessment for natural stone.

Various methods are used to process the quarried blocks:

• Steel-shot abrasion or diamond saws:

for 20-80 mm thick slabs (the time taken to saw through a 1.20 m high block of granite is about 1-2 days)

• Taglia Blocci saws:

for stone tiles or long strips with a thickness of about 15 mm

• Gangsaws with circular blades or steel wires: for the production of coarse slabs> 80 mm thick; steel wires can also create three-dimensional workpieces.

Surface finishes

We distinguish between stonemason techniques and industrial processing, although new compressed-air tools are enabling "manual" methods to gain popularity again (fig. B 1.13). The type of surface finish satisfies both aesthetic criteria and functional requirements. For

a

b

42

example, floor coverings in public buildings must comply with non-slip grade R9.

Henning Larsen developed and used an unusual technique on the facade cladding to the art gallery in Wurth, Germany. The Crailsheimer shelly limestone he used was cut perpendicular to the cleaving plane (fig. B 1.9).

Applications

Stone in the form of aggregates for concrete and mortar or for producing mineral binders accounts for the largest share of natural stone in building. In order to establish the suitability of a type of stone for building work, the stone industry classifies stones as hard (igneous and some metamorphic rocks) or soft (sedimentary rocks). However, owing to the availability of relatively "soft" igneous rocks and very hard sedimentary rocks, the specific physical properties (compressive strength, frost resistance, abrasion resistance) should always be checked for the application when choosing a type of stone (fig. B 1.12). Generally, stone is suitable for the following applications in building:

• masonry

• gab ion walls

• facade cladding

• floor finishes

• internal linings

• roof coverings

Disposal

Natural stone can be fully reused within the total product lifecycle of quarrying, processing and disposal. Even so-called waste products that are generated during processing can still be used as aggregates. The disposal of stone in landfill sites for building debris does not cause any problems, and it is generally possible to reuse slabs and panels. The Forum Romanum is an excellent example of this - during the Renaissance it was the largest source of used natural stone!

c

d

B 1.12 Physical properties of various types of stone (guide only)

B 1.13 Various manual and machine-applied surface finishes:

a Limestone, coarse-pointed:

The surface is broken away using a hammer and a pointed chisel (pyramidal form), with the depth and angle of cut determining the grade of finish (coarse or fine). The entire surface is worked in this way.

b Limestone, pointed and ground:

Grinding the whole surface reduces the powerful texture of the first treatment.

c Limestone, comb-chiselled:

Varying blows and different chisel widths can be used to achieve different effects.

d Limestone, bush-hammered:

Fine to coarse, even surfaces can be produced with a bush hammer. The spacing of the pyramid-shaped teeth varies between

4 and 15 mm depending on the type of hammerhead.

e Limestone, bush-hammered, brushed and ground:

The superimposition of the three operations gives a finer, smoother finish to the initially coarse texture.

Limestone, diamond-sawn:

Diamond-tipped saw-blades create a relatively fine cut surface and leave behind traces of the sawing process.

g Granite, bush-hammered:

Bush-hammered granite finish achieved with

a machine. .

h Granite, fine-pitched:

The rough-split surface is worked with a 30 mm wide chisel. This vigorous finish is achieved by changing the direction and depth of the chiselling.

i Granite, flamed:

Extremely high temperatures from a torch destroy the surface structure of a crystalline stone. Only rock types containing quartz are suitable for this type of surface treatment, and the slab must also be sufficiently thick. Granite, sandblasted:

Sandblasting is suitable for creating coarse surface finishes, which vary depending on the blasting media used and its exit velocity.

k Granite, ground:

The colour and texture of a stone becomes clearly visible on finely ground surfaces. Any grit size can be chosen between C 30 (coarse) and C 500 (fine).

Granite, polished:

Polishing can be regarded as very fine grinding in which a polishing medium is used to give the surface such a high sheen that it reflects the light.

e

Stone

Type of rock Density Compressive Thermal Heat Coefficient Vapour diff. Abrasion Water Frost
strength conductivity 1 storage of thermal resistance resistance absorption resistance
index 2 expansion index 3
[kg/m3] [N/mm'] [W/mK] [kJ/m3K] [mm/mK] H [cm3/SO cm'] [% by mass]
Igneous rocks
Granite 2600-2800 130-270 2.8 (1.6-3.4) 2370-2550 0.008 10000 5-8 0.1-0.9
Syenite 2600-2800 160-240 3.5 0.008 10000 5-8 0.2-0.9
Diorite 2800-3000 170-300 3.5 0.0088 10000 5-8 0.2-0.4
Gabbro 2800-3000 170-300 3.5 0.0088 10000 5-8 0.2-0.4
Rhyolite (porphyry) 2500-2800 180-300 3.5 0.Q125 10000 5-8 0.2-0.7
Trachyte 2500-2800 180-300 3.5 0.01 10000 5-8 0.2-0.7
Basalt 2900-3000 240-400 3.5 (1.2-2.0) 2640-2730 0.009 10000 5-8 0.1-0.3
Diabase 2800-2900 180-250 3.5 n.a. 10000 5-8 0.1-0.4
Sedimentary rocks
Braccia 2600-2750 50-160 2.3 n.a. 2/250 0.5-1.0 0
Conglomerate 2200-2500 20-160 2.3 (1.2-3.4) n.a. 2/250 14-804 0.8-10
Sandstone 2000-2700 30-150 2.3 (1.2-34) 1760-2380 0.012 2/250 9-35 0.2-10 0
Quartz sandstone 2600-2700 120-200 2.3 (21) 2290-2380 n.a. 30/40 7-8 . 0.2-0.5 0
Greywacke 2600-2650 150-300 2.3 n.a. 2/250 7-8 0.2-0.5
Volcanic tuffs 1800-2000 20-30 2.3 (04-1.7) 0.004-0.01 15/20 10-35 6-15 0
Limestone 2600-2900 75-240 2.3 (2.0-34) 0.0075 200/250 15-40 0.1-3 0
Shelly limestone 2600-2900 80-180 2.3 (2.0-34) 0.003-0.006 2/250 15-40 0.2-0.6 0
Solnhofen platy limestone 2500-2700 180-260 2.3 0.0048 200/250 15 0.2-0.6
Dolomite 2600-2900 75-240 2.3 0.0075 200/250 15-40 0.1-3 0
Travertine 2400-2500 20-60 2.3 0.0068 200/250 20-45 2-5 0
Tuffaceous limestone 1700-2200 30-50 0.85-1.7 0.003-0.007 20/200 n.a. 1-10 0
Metamorphic rocks
Orthogneiss 2600-3000 100-200 3.5 (1.6-2.1) 2370-2730 0.005-0.008 10000 4-10 0.3-04
Serpentinite 2600-2800 140-250 3.5 (3.4) 0.005-0.01 10000 8-18 0.3-2.0
Migmatite 2600-3000 100-200 3.5 (1.6-2.6) 2370-2730 0.005-0.008 10000 4-10 0.3-04
Paragneiss 2600-3000 100-200 3.5 (1.6-2.1) 2370-2730 0.005-0.008 10000 4-10 0.3-04
Quartzite 2600-2700 150-300 3.5 0.0125 10000 7-8 0.2-0.5
Mica-schist 2600-2800 140-200 2.2 n.a. 800/1000 15-25 0.2-04 0
Clayey shale 2700-2800 50-80 2.2 (1.2-2.1) 2430-2520 n.a. 800/1000 n.a. 0.5-0.6
Marble 2600-2900 75-240 3.5 (2.0-2.6) 2370-2640 0.003-0.006 10000 15-40 0.1-3 0
1 Values according to general information on thermal conductivity in EN 12524 and DIN V 4108·4; values in brackets taken from trade publications.
2 The specific heat capacity of stone is specified as 1 kJ/kgK in EN 12524; in the absence of values, the heat storage index corresponds to the density.
3 Values according to EN 12524 and DIN V 4108-4.
4 Composite rock - the abrasion resistance therefore fluctuates considerably.
B 1.12 g

h

k

B 1.13

43