Kornhauser, A. A.

“Internal Combustion Engines”

The Engineering Handbook.
Ed. Richard C. Dorf
Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC, 2000

© 1998 by CRC PRESS LLC

 66
Internal Combustion Engines
66.1 Basics of Operation
66.2 Engine Classifications
66.3 Spark Ignition Engines
Idealized and Actual Cycles • Combustion, Fuels, and Emissions • Control • Advantages
66.4 Compression Ignition Engines
Idealized and Actual Cycles • Combustion, Fuels, and Emissions • Control • Advantages
66.5 Gas Exchange Systems
4-Stroke Intake and Exhaust • 2-Stroke Scavenging • Supercharging and Turbocharging
66.6 Design Details
Engine Arrangements • Valve Gear • Lubrication • Cooling
66.7 Design and Performance Data for Typical Engines

Alan A. Kornhauser
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University

An internal combustion (i.c.) engine is a heat engine in which the thermal energy comes from a
chemical reaction within the working fluid. In external combustion engines, such as steam
engines, heat is transferred to the working fluid through a solid wall and rejected to the
environment through another solid wall. In i.c. engines, heat is released by a chemical reaction in
the working fluid and rejected by exhausting the working fluid to the
environment.
Internal combustion engines have two intrinsic advantages over other engine
types:
1. They require no heat exchangers (except for auxiliary cooling). Thus, weight, volume, cost,
and complexity are reduced.
2. They require no high temperature heat transfer through walls. Thus, the maximum
temperature of the working fluid can exceed maximum allowable wall material
temperature.
They also have some intrinsic disadvantages:
1. Practically, working fluids are limited to air and products of combustion.
2. Nonfuel heat sources (waste heat, solar, nuclear) cannot be used.
3. There is little flexibility in combustion conditions because they are largely set by engine
requirements. This can make low-emissions combustion hard to attain.

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The advantages far outweigh the disadvantages. I.c. engines comprise more individual units and
more rated power than all other types of heat engines combined.
According to the definition given above, i.c. engines include reciprocating types, rotary
(Wankel) types, and gas turbines. In customary usage, however, the title "internal combustion" is
used only for the first two of these three types. A more proper designation might be "positive
displacement internal combustion" engines. These are the engines described in this
chapter.

66.1 Basics of Operation

The basic operation of an i.c. engine is shown in Fig. 66.1. The typical engine cycle is divided into
four steps:
1. Intake. Engine working volume increases. Intake valve opens to admit air or air/fuel mixture
into the working volume.
2. Compression. Engine working volume decreases. Valves are closed, and the air or mixture is
compressed. Work is done on the working fluid.
3. Combustion and expansion. Air/fuel mixture burns and releases chemical energy. If fuel was
not admitted previously, it is injected at this point. Pressure and temperature inside the
working volume increase dramatically. Working volume increases, and work (much greater
than that of compression) is done by the working fluid.
4. Exhaust. Engine working volume decreases. Exhaust valve opens to expel combustion
products from the working volume.

Figure 66.1 Operating cycle for a 4-stroke i.c. engine.

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 The engine shown is a 4-stroke reciprocating type; details would vary for 2-stroke or rotary
engines.

66.2 Engine Classifications

I.c. engines can be classified in various ways. Some important classifications
are:
Spark ignition/compression ignition. In spark ignition (s.i., gasoline, petrol, or Otto) engines,
the fuel is either mixed with the air prior to the intake stroke or shortly after inlet valve closure.
An electric spark ignites the mixture. In compression ignition (c.i., oil, or diesel) engines, the
fuel is injected after the compression process. The high temperature of the compressed gas
causes ignition.
4-stroke/2-stroke. In 4-stroke engines, the working cycle is as shown in Fig. 66.1. A complete
4-stroke cycle takes two crankshaft revolutions, with each stage (intake, compression,
expansion, exhaust) comprising about 180°. A complete 2-stroke cycle takes only one
crankshaft revolution. In a 2-stroke engine intake and exhaust strokes are eliminated: gas
exchange occurs when the piston is near bottom center position between the expansion and
compression strokes. Because the piston does not provide pumping action, some external device
is required to ensure that fresh air or mixture replaces the combustion products.

Figure 66.2 Engine arrangements.

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 Mechanical layout. Various mechanical layouts are shown in Fig. 66.2. Reciprocating i.c.
engines use multiple piston-cylinder arrangements driving a single crankshaft. The total number
of cylinders per engine ranges from 1 to 20 or more, with 1, 4, 6, and 8 the most common. The
cylinders can be arranged in line, in a vee, radially, or horizontally opposed. Rotary i.c. engines
use an approximately triangular rotor which revolves eccentrically in a lobed stator. The spaces
between the rotor and the stator go through essentially the same processes shown in Fig. 66.1. A
single rotor-stator pair is thus equivalent to three cylinders. Additional rotor-stator pairs can be
stacked on a single shaft to form larger engines.
Intake system. In naturally aspirated engines, the pumping action of the piston face draws air
into the cylinder. In crankcase scavenged engines, the pumping action of the back side of the
piston in the crankcase forces air into the cylinder. In supercharged engines, a compressor,
typically driven off the crankshaft, forces air into the cylinder. In turbocharged engines, the
compressor is driven by a turbine which recovers work from the exhaust gas.
Besides the major classifications above, engines can be classified by valve number and design
(2, 3, or 4 valves per cylinder; rocker arm or overhead cam; cross-, loop-, or uniflow-scavenged),
by fuel addition method (carbureted, fuel injected), by combustion chamber shape (tee, ell, flat,
wedge, hemisphere, bowl-in-piston), and by cylinder wall cooling method (air,
water).

66.3 Spark Ignition Engines

Idealized and Actual Cycles

The spark ignition (s.i.) engine can be idealized as an Otto cycle using an ideal gas with constant
specific heat [Fig. 66.3(a)]. The Otto cycle consists of isentropic compression, constant volume
heating (simulating combustion), isentropic expansion, and constant volume cooling (simulating
intake and exhaust). The thermal efficiency of an Otto cycle (Fig. 66.4) is ´t = 1 ¡ rº1¡° , where
rº is the compression ratio and ° is the gas specific heat ratio.

Figure 66.3 Pressure-volume diagrams for ideal and actual engine cycles.

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 Figure 66.4 Efficiency of ideal cycles and actual engines.

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 The actual engine "cycle" [Fig. 66.3(c)] differs from the Otto cycle: (1) in that heat transfer
occurs during compression and expansion; (2) in that combustion takes place gradually during
compression and expansion rather than instantaneously; (3) in the presence of intake and exhaust
processes; and (4) in the variation in gas composition and gas specific heat. For a given rº , the
efficiency of a typical s.i. engine is considerably lower than that of the ideal cycle (Fig. 66.4), and
actual engine rº is limited by combustion knock.

Combustion, Fuels, and Emissions

In an s.i. engine, air and vaporized fuel are generally premixed before they enter the cylinder.
Equivalence ratio (Á) generally ranges from about 0.7 to 1.3, with lean mixtures (low Á) giving
maximum efficiency and the rich mixtures (high Á) giving maximum power.
The mixture is heated by compression, but not enough to cause autoignition. Combustion is
initiated by an electric spark. If the engine is operating properly, a turbulent flame front travels
smoothly and rapidly across the cylinder space. It takes a 15−25° crank angle for the first 10% of
the mixture to burn, while the next 85% is burned within an additional 35−60° [Fig. 66.5(a)]. The
low numbers of these ranges correspond to Á ¼ 1, high turbulence combustion chambers, and low
engine speeds. The high numbers correspond to rich or lean mixtures, low turbulence combustion
chambers, and high engine speeds. To time the heat release optimally, the spark is typically
discharged 5° to 40° before top center, with this advance automatically varied according to engine
speed and load. Because higher engine speeds result in increased turbulence and, thus, in increased
flame speeds, the total crank angle for combustion increases only slightly as engine speed
changes.

Figure 66.5 Heat release rates for s.i. and c.i. engines.

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 Under some operating conditions, the flame does not burn smoothly. In these cases the mixture
ahead of the flame front is heated by compression and autoignites before the flame arrives. The
resulting detonation wave causes an extremely rapid pressure rise (Fig. 66.6) which is noisy and
can damage the engine. Because of the noise, the phenomenon is known as knock. Knock can be
avoided by decreasing the pressure ratio, using more knock-resistant fuels, increasing flame speed,
retarding the spark, and designing the combustion chamber to ensure that the last mixture burned
is in the coolest part of the cylinder.

Figure 66.6 Effect of knock on cylinder pressure.

S.i. engines are usually fueled with gasoline, alcohol, or natural gas, but can use other liquid or
gaseous fuels. It is important that any s.i. fuel be resistant to autoignition. This resistance is
expressed in terms of the octane number of the fuel, based on an empirical scale on which
iso-octane has been assigned a rating of 100 and n-heptane a rating of zero. Typical gasolines have
octane numbers in the 85−105 range; these octane numbers are usually obtained with the aid of
additives. Liquid s.i. engine fuels must be adequately volatile to evaporate fully prior to ignition,
but not so volatile as to cause problems with storage and transfer.
Besides carbon dioxide and water, the combustion process in s.i. engines produces several
pollutants (Fig. 66.7): carbon monoxide (CO), unburned hydrocarbons (HCs), and nitric oxide
(NO). Large amounts of CO are formed as an equilibrium product in rich mixtures, while smaller
amounts remain in the products of lean mixtures due to chemical kinetic effects. HCs are left over
from the combustion of rich mixtures and from flame quenching at walls and crevices in lean
mixtures. NO is formed from air at high temperatures, and the chemical kinetics allow it to remain
as the burned gas cools. Most contemporary engines meet CO and HC emissions standards by
running lean and using catalytic converters in their exhaust systems to complete the combustion.
NO is typically reduced by limiting flame temperature through lean operation and exhaust gas

© 1998 by CRC PRESS LLC

recirculation. Catalytic converters that can simultaneously control NO, CO, and HC are also in
use, but they require careful control of the air/fuel ratio.

Figure 66.7 Effect of equivalence ratio on s.i. engine emissions.

Control
The control system of an s.i. engine must govern engine output, but it must also regulate
equivalence ratio and spark timing. Since the ranges of Á and spark timing over which the engine
will run smoothly are limited, engine output is varied by reducing air flow while holding Á and

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timing essentially constant. Control of Á and timing is directed toward maximizing efficiency and
minimizing emissions at a given speed and torque.
Engine output is usually controlled by throttling the intake air flow with a butterfly-type throttle
valve. This reduces net output by reducing the heat release and increasing the pumping work [Fig.
66.3(d)]. Other methods (late intake valve closing, shutting down cylinders of multicylinder
engines) have been tried to reduce output with less efficiency penalty, but they are not widely
used.
There are two basic methods of mixing fuel and air for s.i. engines: carburetion and fuel
injection. A carburetor [Fig. 66.8(a)] provides intrinsic control of Á by putting fuel and air flow
through restrictions with the same differential pressure. The intrinsic control is imperfect because
air is compressible while liquid fuels are not. Various corrective methods are used to provide
near-constant lean Á over most of the air flow range, with enrichment to Á > 1 for starting and
maximum power operation. The manifold between the carburetor and the cylinder(s) must be
arranged so that fuel evaporates fully (and is evenly distributed among the cylinders). Due to the
difficulty in obtaining low emissions levels, no contemporary U.S. production automobiles use
carburetors.

Figure 66.8 S.i. engine fuel addition devices.

A fuel injector [Fig. 66.8(b)] injects a spray of fuel into the air stream. In throttle body
injection, a single injector serves for multiple cylinders; in port injection (more common), each

© 1998 by CRC PRESS LLC

cylinder has its own injector. Port injectors are timed to spray fuel while the inlet valve is closed,
to allow evaporation time. They are typically controlled by digital electronics. The volume of
injected fuel is controlled in response to various measurements, including speed, inlet manifold
vacuum, and exhaust oxygen concentration. As for carburetors, the mixture is kept lean, except for
starting and maximum power. Figure 66.8 shows carburetors and fuel injectors used for liquid
fuels; the arrangements for gaseous fuels are similar.
The high voltage (10−25 kV) for the ignition spark is provided either by interrupting current
through a choke or discharging a capacitor. The spark advance is typically regulated in response to
engine speed and manifold vacuum; high speeds and high vacuums require more advance. The
switching required for spark generation and control can be done either mechanically or
electronically. Some electronically controlled engines incorporate vibrational knock sensors to
retard the spark if required. For older designs, control is almost entirely mechanical, with the
necessary adjustments to the fuel addition and ignition systems made through pressure-driven
diaphragms, centrifugal speed sensors, and linkages. On newer designs, control is mainly through
electronic sensors, digital electronics, and solenoid actuators.

Advantages
Relative to compression ignition engines, s.i. engines have higher mass and volume power
density, lower first cost, greater fuel availability (for automotive use), and wider speed range.
Emissions are lower with use of a catalytic converter. The advantages of s.i. engines become more
pronounced for smaller sizes.

66.4 Compression Ignition Engines

Idealized and Actual Cycles

The compression ignition (c.i.) engine can be idealized as a diesel cycle using an ideal gas with
constant specific heat [Fig. 66.3(b)]. The diesel cycle consists of isentropic compression, constant
pressure heating (simulating combustion), isentropic expansion, and constant volume cooling
(simulating intake and exhaust). The thermal efficiency of a diesel cycle (Fig. 66.4) is
´t = 1 ¡ rº1¡° (rc° ¡ 1)=(rc ¡ 1)=° . The cutoff ratio, rc , idealizes the volume ratio over the fuel
addition period.
The actual engine cycle [Fig. 66.3(c)] differs from the diesel cycle (1) in that heat transfer
occurs during compression and expansion; (2) in that combustion takes place at varying rather
than constant pressure; (3) in that combustion continues after the end of fuel addition; (4) in the
presence of intake and exhaust processes; and (5) in the variation in gas composition and gas
specific heat. For a given rº and rc , the efficiency of a typical s.i. engine is considerably lower
than that of the ideal cycle (Fig. 66.4). The pressure-volume diagrams for actual s.i. and c.i.
engines are quite similar.

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Combustion, Fuels, and Emissions
In a c.i. engine, air is compressed before fuel is added. Fuel is injected as a fine spray beginning
slightly before the volume reaches a minimum and ignites after coming in contact with the hot air.
Overall equivalence ratio (Á) generally ranges from about 0.15−0.8, with lean mixtures (low Á)
corresponding to idle and low power, and rich mixtures corresponding to full power with
considerable smoke emission. Since the fuel and air are not premixed, combustion takes place at
near Á = 1, no matter what the overall Á.
C.i. engine combustion takes place in four stages [Fig. 66.5(b)]. In the ignition delay period,
fuel evaporates, mixes with the air, and reacts slowly. In the premixed combustion phase, the fuel
which evaporated and mixed during the delay period burns rapidly in a process similar to that in
s.i. knock. In the mixing−controlled combustion phase, a diffusion flame exists at the boundary
between a rich atomized fuel-air mixture and the remaining air in the cylinder. In the late
combustion phase, the pockets of fuel which so far have escaped the flame are consumed. Since
the premixed combustion has a rapid pressure rise which causes rough operation, it is desirable to
minimize the amount of fuel vaporized before it begins. This is done by minimizing ignition delay
time and evaporation rate during that time. Minimum delay is obtained by injecting at the
optimum time (10−15° before top center), with high cylinder wall temperature, high compression
ratio, and high cetane number fuel. Indirect injection (see below) gives little premixed
combustion.
The combustion process in c.i. engines does not speed up with increased turbulence as much as
the process in s.i. engines does. For large, low-speed engines, combustion is adequate when the
fuel is injected directly into the center of a relatively quiescent combustion chamber. For
medium-size, medium-speed engines, the combustion chamber must be designed for increased
turbulence in order for combustion to take place in the time available. In small, high-speed
engines, combustion is initiated in a small, hot, highly turbulent prechamber. The fuel and burned
gases from the prechamber then expand into the main combustion chamber and combine with the
remaining air. Engines with a single chamber are known as direct injection (d.i.) engines, while
those with a prechamber are known as indirect injection (i.d.i.) engines (Fig. 66.9).

Figure 66.9 C.i. engine combustionchamber types.

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 C.i. engines are fueled with petroleum oils consisting of longer-chain molecules than those in
gasolines. Depending on the engine design, oils ranging from crude to kerosene can be used. It is
important that any c.i. fuel have adequate autoignition properties. The ignition quality is expressed
in terms of the cetane number of the fuel, based on an empirical scale on which n-hexadecane
(cetane) has been assigned a rating of 100 and heptamethylnonane (iso-cetane) a rating of 15.
Typical c.i. fuels have cetane numbers in the 30−60 range. For heavy, low-cost c.i. fuels, high
pour point can be a problem. Some of these fuels must be heated before they can be
pumped.
Besides carbon dioxide and water, the combustion process in c.i. engines produces several
pollutants, the most important of which are soot (carbon plus hydrocarbons), nitric oxide (NO),
and nitrogen dioxide (NO2 ). Carbonaceous soot is formed by fuel pyrolysis in rich regions near
the flame front. Hydrocarbons then adsorb onto the soot particles during expansion and exhaust.
Soot emissions are highest at high loads. NO and NO2 are formed from air at high temperatures,
and the chemical kinetics allow them to remain as the burned gases cool. Carbon monoxide and
gaseous hydrocarbon emissions from diesel engines are relatively small.

Control
C.i. engines are not throttled, but are controlled by regulating the amount of fuel injected and the
injection timing. Because of the required high injection pressures, almost all diesel engine fuel
injectors are mechanically rather than electrically driven. Two types of systems are used: injection
pump and unit injector (Fig. 66.10). In an injection pump system, a central pump timed to the
camshaft delivers fuel to nozzles located at each cylinder. The pump typically has individual
barrels for each cylinder, but a single barrel with a fuel distributor is also used. In a unit
injector system, there is a pump and nozzle on each cylinder, driven by a shaft running over all
the cylinder heads.

Figure 66.10 C.i. fuel systems.

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 The injection start and duration are varied according to engine load and operating conditions. In
the past, the control was generally accomplished through purely mechanical means and consisted
mainly of increasing the injection duration in response to increased torque demand. In recent
years, however, electronically controlled injector pumps have become common. In these units, the
power is supplied mechanically, but fuel delivery is controlled by unloading solenoids. Electronic
control allows fuel delivery to be adjusted in response to engine operating conditions and is useful
in achieving low emissions.
Since c.i. engines are not throttled at reduced load, they do not provide engine braking. For
heavy vehicle use, c.i. engines are often fitted with auxiliary compression brakes which increase
engine pumping work.

Advantages
Relative to spark ignition engines, c.i. engines have higher thermal efficiency at full load and
much higher thermal efficiency at low load. They also are capable of using inexpensive fuels such
as heavy fuel oil.

66.5 Gas Exchange Systems

The torque of an internal combustion engine is primarily limited by the mass of air that can be
captured in the cylinder. Intake system design is therefore a major factor in determining the torque
for a given engine displacement. Since residual exhaust gas takes up space that could be used for
fresh charge, exhaust system design also affects engine output. Exhaust design is also driven by
the need to muffle the noise generated by the sudden flow acceleration at exhaust valve
opening.

4-Stroke Intake and Exhaust

Air flow into a naturally aspirated 4-stroke engine is optimized by reducing charge temperature,
reducing flow friction in the intake system, reducing residual exhaust gas, and tuning and
extended valve opening.
It has been found experimentally that engine air flow and torque are inversely proportional to
the square root of the stagnation temperature of the air entering the cylinder. In s.i. engines, torque
is increased by the cooling effect of fuel evaporation. This effect is much larger with alcohol fuels,
which are therefore used in many racing cars. Torque is adversely affected by heat transfer to the
intake air from the hot cylinder and exhaust manifold. In carbureted s.i. engines, some heat
transfer is necessary to prevent fuel from puddling in the intake manifold.
According to both experiment and theory, engine torque is proportional to the pressure of the air
entering the cylinder. This pressure is increased by minimizing the intake pressure drop. Intake
valves are thus made as large as possible. High performance engines utilize two or three intake
valves per cylinder to maximize flow area. Intake piping is normally designed for minimum
pressure drop. However, in carbureted s.i. engines, the intake manifold is often designed for
optimal fuel evaporation and distribution rather than for minimum flow friction. Intake air
cleaners are designed for minimum flow resistance consistent with adequate dirt

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removal.
Cylinder pressure just prior to exhaust valve opening is much higher than atmospheric, but
pressure falls rapidly when the exhaust valve opens. Back pressure due to exhaust system pressure
drop increases the concentration of burned gas in the charge and thus reduces torque. The effect of
exhaust system pressure drop is less than that of intake system pressure drop, but two exhaust
valves per cylinder are sometimes used to minimize pressure drop. Exhaust system pressure drop
is usually increased by the use of a muffler to reduce exhaust noise.
Good intake and exhaust system design makes use of the dynamic effects of gas acceleration
and deceleration. Most engine designs incorporate open periods well over 180° of crank angle:
intake valves open 5−30° before top center and close 45−75° after bottom center; exhaust valves
open 40−70° before bottom center and close 15−35° after top center. (The longer valve open times
correspond to high performance engines.) Valves are thus open when piston motion is in the
opposite direction from the desired gas flow. At high engine speeds, the correct flow direction is
maintained by gas inertial effects. At low engine speeds, an extended valve open period is
detrimental to performance. Some engines incorporate variable valve timing to obtain optimum
performance over a range of speeds.
The extended valve open period is generally used in combination with intake and exhaust
tuning. Intake systems are often acoustically tuned as organ-pipe resonators, Helmholtz
resonators, or more complex resonating systems. By tuning the intake to 3, 4, or 5 times the cycle
frequency, pressure at the intake valve can be increased during the critical periods near valve
opening and closing. Such tuning is usually limited to diesel, port fuel injected, or one carburetor
per cylinder engines because the design of intake manifolds for other carbureted engines and
throttle-body injected engines is dominated by the need for good fuel distribution. The tuning
penalizes performance at some speeds away from the design speed. Branched exhaust systems are
tuned so that, at design speed, expansion waves reflected from the junctions arrive at the exhaust
valve when it is near closing. Individual cylinder exhaust systems are tuned as organ-pipe
resonators. In either case, performance away from the design speed is
penalized.

2-Stroke Scavenging
In a 2-stroke engine, intake and exhaust take place simultaneously, and some means of air
pumping is needed for gas exchange (Fig. 66.11). Small s.i. engines are generally crankcase
scavengedthe bottom face of the piston is used to pump the air and oil is generally added to the
fuel to lubricate the crank bearings. Larger engines use either rotary superchargers or
turbochargers. These allow more freedom in crankcase lubrication. The cylinder and piston are
arranged to maximize inflow of fresh charge and outflow of exhaust while minimizing their
mixing. Cross-scavenging [Fig. 66.12(a)] and loop-scavenging [Fig. 66.12(b)] require only
cylinder wall ports; uniflow scavenging [Fig. 66.12(c)] requires poppet valves as well.

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 Figure 66.11 Scavenging and supercharging systems

Figure 66.12 Scavenging arrangements.

Scavenging spark ignition engines involves a trade-off between residual gas left in the cylinder
and air-fuel mixture lost out the exhaust. In compression ignition engines, only air is lost through
the exhaust. Two-stroke s.i. engines are thus used mainly where low weight and first cost are of
primary importance, while 2-stroke c.i. engines can be built to be suitable for any
service.

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 Supercharging and Turbocharging
The output of a given i.c. engine can be increased by providing an auxiliary air compressor, or
supercharger, to increase the pressure and, thus, the density of the air entering the cylinder intake.
Although it actually applies to all types of auxiliary air compression systems, the term
supercharger is generally used to describe systems driven by the engine output shaft. Air
compression systems powered by an exhaust gas-driven turbine are known as turbochargers.
When supercharging or turbocharging is added to a naturally aspirated engine, the engine is
usually modified to reduce its compression ratio. However, the overall compression ratio is
increased.
Most shaft-driven superchargers are positive displacement compressors, the most common
being the Roots blower (Fig. 66.11). Shaft-driven, positive-displacement superchargers have the
advantages of increasing their delivery in proportion to engine speed and of responding almost
instantly to speed changes. Their disadvantage is that the use of shaft power to drive the
compressor results in decreased overall thermal efficiency. Roots blowers are unacceptably
inefficient at pressure ratios greater than about 2.

66.6 Design Details

Engine Arrangements
Various engine cylinder arrangements are shown in Fig. 66.2.
In-line engines are favored for applications in which some sacrifice in compactness is justified
by mechanical simplicity and ease of maintenance. They are also used where the need for a
narrow footprint overrides length and height considerations. The in-line design is most popular for
small utility and automobile engines, small truck engines, and very large marine and stationary
engines.
Vee engines are used where compactness is important. Vee engines are used for large
automobile engines, large truck engines, locomotive engines, and medium-size marine and
stationary engines.
Opposed engines are used primarily where low height is importantin rear engine automobiles
and for small marine engines meant for below-deck installation. They are also used for some small
aircraft engines, where they allow for ease in air cooling and servicing.
Radial engines are used primarily in aircraft, where their design allows for efficient air
cooling.
Rotary (Wankel) engines have been used primarily in sports cars. They have not captured a
major share of any market sector.

Valve Gear
Poppet valves on 4-stroke and uniflow 2-stroke engines fall into one of three categories:
valve-in-block, valve-in-head/rocker arm, or valve-in-head/overhead cam. The arrangements are
illustrated in Fig. 66.13.

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 Figure 66.13 Valve arrangements.

Valve-in-block engines are the cheapest to manufacture. In an L-head arrangement, intake and
exhaust valves are on the same side of the cylinder; in a T-head engine, they are on opposite sides.
The valves are directly driven by a camshaft located in the block, gear or chain driven at half the
crankshaft speed. The performance of these engines suffers from the elongated shape of the
combustion chamber, and the designs are currently used only for inexpensive utility
engines.
Valve-in-head/rocker arm engines have the valves installed in the cylinder head while
maintaining a camshaft in the block. The design allows compact combustion chambers, but
control of valve motion suffers from the slack in the long mechanical drive train. A majority of
production automobile engines have this type of valve drive.
Valve-in-head/overhead cam engines have valves in the cylinder head directly driven by a
camshaft running over all the heads. The design allows both compact combustion chamber design
and accurate control of valve motion, but is more expensive to manufacture and more difficult to
maintain than rocker arm designs. In recent years, overhead cam designs have become
increasingly common in high-performance automobile engines.

Lubrication
The bearings of most i.c. engines are plain or grooved journal bearings. Rolling contact bearings
are rarely used. In the crankshaft bearings, a hydrodynamic film is maintained by rotation; in the
piston pin bearings, the maintenance of a film depends on the oscillating nature of the load. For
the connecting rod bearings the two effects are combined.
The most critical lubrication areas in an i.c. engine are at the piston rings, which are required to
seal the high-pressure gas in the cylinder and prevent excess oil from entering the cylinder.
Typical designs have two compression rings to seal the gases and an oil control ring to wipe oil
from the cylinder wall. Piston rings ride on a hydrodynamic film at midstroke, but are in a
boundary lubrication regime near top and bottom center. Lubrication is aided by good ring (alloy
cast iron) and cylinder wall (cast iron or chrome-plated steel) materials.

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 Low-cost engines are splash lubricated by running the crankshaft partly in an oil pan, but all
other engines have force-feed lubrication systems that deliver filtered oil to the bearings, the
cylinder walls below the piston, and the valve train. Smaller engines depend on convection from
the oil pan to cool the oil, while others have auxiliary oil coolers.

Cooling
Most large i.c. engines are liquid cooled, and most small engines are air cooled. About a third of
the energy input to a typical engine is dissipated through the cooling system. Liquid-cooled
engines use either water or an aqueous ethylene glycol solution as coolant. When the glycol is
used, it gives lower freezing and higher boiling points, but also increases the viscosity of the
coolant. Although some natural-convection cooling systems have been built, most engines have
the coolant pumped through numerous passages in the cylinder walls and heads and then into a
heat exchanger where the heat is transferred to the environment. Small marine engines are
typically cooled directly with water from the environment.
Air-cooled engines have finned external surfaces on their pistons and heads to improve heat
transfer and fans to circulate air over the engine. The larger passages needed for air require that
the cylinders be more widely spaced than for liquid-cooled engines. While most air-cooled
engines are small, many large aircraft engines have been air cooled.

66.7 Design and Performance Data for Typical Engines

Design and performance data for various engines are given in Table 66.1.

Table 66.1 Design and Performance Data for Various Internal Combustion Engines

Application and Type Cylinders/Arrangem Displ. Comp. Rated Rated Mass

ent (l) Ratio Power Speed (kg)
(kW) (rpm)
Utility, 2-stroke, s.i., 1 0:10 9.0 8.9 9000 5.0
c.s.
Marine, 2-stroke, s.i., 1 0:13 10.5 7.5 8000 6.6
c.s.
Utility, 4-stroke, s.i., 1 0:17 6.2 2.5 3600 13.9
n.a.
Motorcyclele 2-stroke, s.i., 2/in-line 0:30 7.1 19.4 7000
c.s.
Utility, 4-stroke, s.i., 1 0:45 8.7 11.9 3600 38.2
n.a.
Motorcyclele 4-stroke, s.i., 2/in-line 0:89 10.6 61 6800
n.a.
Automobilele 4-stroke, s.i., 4/in-line 2:2 9.0 73 5200
n.a.
Automobilele 4-stroke, s.i., 4/in-line 2:2 8.2 106 5600
t.c.

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 Automobilele 4-stroke, c.i., 4/in-line 2:3 23 53 4500
n.a.
Automobilele 4-stroke, c.i., 4/in-line 2:3 21 66 4150
t.c.
Aircraft 4-stroke, s.i., 4/opposed 2:8 6.3 48 2300 76
n.a.
Automobilele 4-stroke, c.i., 8/vee 5:0 8.4 100 3400
n.a.
Truck/Bus, 2-stroke, c.i., 8/vee 9:5 17 280 2100 1100
t.c.
Truck/Bus, 4-stroke, c.i., 6/in-line 10 16.3 201 1900 890
t.c.
Aircraft 4-stroke, c.i., 9/radial 30 7.21 1 140 2800 670
s.c.
Locomotiveve 2-stroke, c.i., 16/vee 172 16 2 800 950 16 700
t.c.
Locomotiveve 4-stroke, c.i., 16/vee 239 12.2 3 400 1000 25 000
t.c.
Large Marine, 2-stroke, c.i., 12/in-line 14 500 36 000 87 1:62 ¢ 106
t.c.
Based on Taylor, C. F. 1985. The Internal Combustion Engine in Theory and Practice, 2nd ed. MIT Press,
Cambridge, MA.
C.s.: crankcase scavenged; n.a.: naturally aspirated; t.c.: turbocharged.

Defining Terms
Carburetor: Controls fuel-air mixture by flowing air and fuel across restrictions with the same
differential pressure.
Catalytic converter: Uses catalyst to speed up chemical reactions, normally slow, which destroy
pollutants.
Cetane number: Empirical number quantifying ignition properties of c.i. engine
fuels.
Compression ignition engine: Fuel and air compressed separately, ignited by high air
compression temperatures.
Compression ratio: Ratio of maximum working volume to minimum working volume.
Cutoff ratio: Fraction of expansion stroke during which heat is added in diesel
cycle.
Diesel cycle: Thermodynamic idealization of compression ignition engine.
Direct injection c.i. engine: Fuel is injected directly into the main combustion
chamber.
Equivalence ratio: Fuel/air ratio relative to fuel/air ratio for stoichiometric
combustion.
Indirect injection c.i. engine: Fuel is injected into a prechamber connected to the main
combustion chamber.

© 1998 by CRC PRESS LLC

Injection pump: Delivers metered high-pressure fuel to all fuel injector nozzles of a c.i.
engine.
Fuel injector: Controls fuel-air mixture by metering fuel in proportion to measured or predicted
air flow.
Knock: Spark ignition engine phenomenon in which fuel-air mixture detonates instead of
burning smoothly.
Naturally aspirated engine: Piston face pumping action alone draws in air.
Octane number: Empirical number quantifying antiknock properties of s.i.
fuels.
Otto cycle: Thermodynamic idealization of spark ignition engine.
Overhead cam engine: Valves are in head, driven by camshaft running over top of
head.
Rocker arm engine: Valves are in head, driven from camshaft in block by push rods and rocker
arms.
Scavenging: Intake/exhaust process in 2-stroke engines.
Spark ignition engine: Fuel and air compressed together, ignited by electric
spark.
Supercharged engine: Shaft-driven air compressor forces air into cylinder.
Thermal efficiency: Engine work divided by heat input or lower heating value of fuel
used.
Tuning: Designing intake and exhaust so that flow is acoustically reinforced at design
speed.
Turbocharged engine: Air forced into cylinder by compressor driven by exhaust gas
turbine.
Unit injector: Combination pump and nozzle which delivers metered fuel to a single c.i. engine
cylinder.
Valve-in-block engine: Low-cost design in which valves are driven directly by a camshaft in the
cylinder block.
2-stroke engine: One power stroke per cylinder per revolution.
4-stroke engine: One power stroke per cylinder per two revolutions.

References
Benson, R. S. and Whitehouse, N. D. 1989. Internal Combustion Engines. Pergamon, New York.
Cummins, L. C., Jr. 1989. Internal Fire, rev. ed. Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale,
PA.
Heywood, J. B. 1988. Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals. McGraw-Hill, New York.
Obert, E. F. 1968. Internal Combustion Engines and Air Pollution, 3rd ed. Harper Collins, New
York.
Taylor, C. F. 1985. The Internal Combustion Engine in Theory and Practice, 2nd ed. MIT Press,
Cambridge, MA.

© 1998 by CRC PRESS LLC

Further Information
Internal Combustion Engines and Air Pollution by Edward F. Obert and The Internal Combustion
Engine in Theory and Practice by Charles Fayette Taylor are comprehensive and highly
readable texts on i.c. engines. Although they are somewhat dated, they are still invaluable
sources of information.
Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals by John B. Heywood is an up-to-date and
comprehensive text, but is less accessible to those with no previous i.c. engine background
than the texts above.
Internal Fire by Lyle C. Cummins, Jr., is a fascinating history of the i.c.
engine.
The Society of Automotive Engineers publishes SAE Transactions and a wide variety of books
and papers on internal combustion engines. For more information contact: SAE, 400
Commonwealth Drive, Warrendale, PA, 15096, USA. Phone (412) 776-4841.

© 1998 by CRC PRESS LLC