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ƥ FDM
ƥ Useful bandwidth of medium exceeds required
bandwidth of channel
ƥ Each signal is modulated to a different carrier
frequency
ƥ Carrier frequencies separated so signals do not
overlap (guard bands)
ƥ e.g. broadcast radio
ƥ Channel allocated even if no data
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ƥ AT&T (USA)
ƥ Hierarchy of FDM schemes
ƥ Group
Ɯ 12 voice channels (4kHz each) = 48kHz
Ɯ Range 60kHz to 108kHz
ƥ Supergroup
Ɯ 60 channel
Ɯ FDM of 5 group signals on carriers between 420kHz and 612
kHz
ƥ Mastergroup
Ɯ 10 supergroups
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ƥ Multiple beams of light at different frequency
ƥ Carried by optical fiber
ƥ A form of FDM
ƥ Each color of light (wavelength) carries separate data
channel
ƥ 1997 Bell Labs
Ɯ 100 beams
Ɯ Each at 10 Gbps
Ɯ Giving 1 terabit per second (Tbps)
ƥ Commercial systems of 160 channels of 10 Gbps now
available
ƥ Lab systems (Alcatel) 256 channels at 39.8 Gbps each
Ɯ 10.1 Tbps
Ɯ Over 100km
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ƥ Same general architecture as other FDM
ƥ Number of sources generating laser beams at different
frequencies
ƥ Multiplexer consolidates sources for transmission over
single fiber
ƥ Optical amplifiers amplify all wavelengths
Ɯ Typically tens of km apart
ƥ Demux separates channels at the destination
ƥ Mostly 1550nm wavelength range
ƥ Was 200MHz per channel
ƥ Now 50GHz

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ƥ DWDM
ƥ No official or standard definition
ƥ Implies more channels more closely spaced that
WDM
ƥ 200GHz or less
    
 

 
 
ƥ Data rate of medium exceeds data rate of digital
signal to be transmitted
ƥ Multiple digital signals interleaved in time
ƥ May be at bit level of blocks
ƥ Time slots preassigned to sources and fixed
ƥ Time slots allocated even if no data
ƥ Time slots do not have to be evenly distributed
amongst sources
 
 
 
 

 

! " 

ƥ No headers and trailers
ƥ Data link control protocols not needed
ƥ Flow control
ƜData rate of multiplexed line is fixed
ƜIf one channel receiver can not receive data, the
others must carry on
ƜThe corresponding source must be quenched
ƜThis leaves empty slots
ƥ Error control
ƜErrors are detected and handled by individual
channel systems

! " 
 

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ƥ No flag or SYNC characters bracketing TDM
frames
ƥ Must provide synchronizing mechanism
ƥ Added digit framing
ƜOne control bit added to each TDM frame
ƥ Looks like another channel - Ơcontrol channelơ
ƜIdentifiable bit pattern used on control channel
Ɯe.g. alternating 01010101Ʀunlikely on a data channel
ƜCan compare incoming bit patterns on each channel
with sync pattern
Ã
 
ƥ Problem - Synchronizing data sources
ƥ Clocks in different sources drifting
ƥ Data rates from different sources not related by
simple rational number
ƥ Solution - Pulse Stuffing
ƜOutgoing data rate (excluding framing bits) higher
than sum of incoming rates
ƜStuff extra dummy bits or pulses into each incoming
signal until it matches local clock
ƜStuffed pulses inserted at fixed locations in frame and
removed at demultiplexer

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ƥ Hierarchy of TDM
ƥ USA/Canada/Japan use one system
ƥ ITU-T use a similar (but different) system
ƥ US system based on DS-1 format
ƥ Multiplexes 24 channels
ƥ Each frame has 8 bits per channel plus one
framing bit
ƥ 193 bits per frame

 
   #$%
ƥ For voice each channel contains one word of
digitized data (PCM, 8000 samples per sec)
ƜData rate 8000x193 = 1.544Mbps
ƜFive out of six frames have 8 bit PCM samples
ƜSixth frame is 7 bit PCM word plus signaling bit
ƜSignaling bits form stream for each channel
containing control and routing info
ƥ Same format for digital data
Ɯ23 channels of data
ƥ 7 bits per frame plus indicator bit for data or systems control
Ɯ24th channel is sync
 

ƥ DS-1 can carry mixed voice and data signals
ƥ 24 channels used
ƥ No sync byte
ƥ Can also interleave DS-1 channels
ƜDs-2 is four DS-1 giving 6.312Mbps

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 ()
*
ƥ Synchronous Optical Network (ANSI)
ƥ Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (ITU-T)
ƥ Compatible
ƥ Signal Hierarchy
ƜSynchronous Transport Signal level 1 (STS-1) or
Optical Carrier level 1 (OC-1)
Ɯ51.84Mbps
ƜCarry DS-3 or group of lower rate signals (DS1 DS1C
DS2) plus ITU-T rates (e.g. 2.048Mbps)
ƜMultiple STS-1 combined into STS-N signal
ƜITU-T lowest rate is 155.52Mbps (STM-1)
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ƥ In Synchronous TDM many slots are wasted
ƥ Statistical TDM allocates time slots dynamically
based on demand
ƥ Multiplexer scans input lines and collects data
until frame full
ƥ Data rate on line lower than aggregate rates of
input lines
  

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ƥ Output data rate less than aggregate input rates
ƥ May cause problems during peak periods
ƜBuffer inputs
ƜKeep buffer size to minimum to reduce delay
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ƥ Two channels from cable TV provider dedicated to data
transfer
Ɯ One in each direction
ƥ Each channel shared by number of subscribers
Ɯ Scheme needed to allocate capacity
Ɯ Statistical TDM

   
ƥ Downstream
Ɯ Cable scheduler delivers data in small packets
Ɯ If more than one subscriber active, each gets fraction of
downstream capacity
ƥ May get 500kbps to 1.5Mbps
Ɯ Also used to allocate upstream time slots to subscribers
ƥ Upstream
Ɯ User requests timeslots on shared upstream channel
ƥ Dedicated slots for this
Ɯ Headend scheduler sends back assignment of future tme slots
to subscriber

 
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  ! 
ƥ ADSL
ƥ Link between subscriber and network
ƜLocal loop
ƥ Uses currently installed twisted pair cable
ƜCan carry broader spectrum
Ɯ1 MHz or more
4
!
 
ƥ Asymmetric
ƜGreater capacity downstream than upstream
ƥ Frequency division multiplexing
ƜLowest 25kHz for voice
ƥ Plain old telephone service (POTS)
ƜUse echo cancellation or FDM to give two bands
ƜUse FDM within bands
ƥ Range 5.5km
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ƥ DMT
ƥ Multiple carrier signals at different frequencies
ƥ Some bits on each channel
ƥ 4kHz subchannels
ƥ Send test signal and use subchannels with
better signal to noise ratio
ƥ 256 downstream subchannels at 4kHz (60kbps)
Ɯ15.36MHz
ƜImpairments bring this down to 1.5Mbps to 9Mbps

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4

 

  

!
ƥ High data rate DSL
ƥ Single line DSL
ƥ Very high data rate DSL
ß ß 
ƥ Stallings chapter 8
ƥ Web sites on
ƜADSL
ƜSONET