Wstęp Do Matematyki B Jan Kraszewski

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:=<Y798RDJIW:;FON\XY2 r
R ⇔ (p
∨ ¬q ∨ r) ∧ (¬p ∨ ¬q) ∧ (¬r ∨ q) ∧ (q ∨ r) ⇔
⇔ ((p ∨ r) ∧ ¬p) ∨ ¬q ∧ ((¬r ∧ r) ∨ q) ⇔

⇔ ((p ∧ ¬p) ∨ (r ∧ ¬p)) ∨ ¬q ∧ (0 ∨ q) ⇔

⇔ (0 ∨ (r ∧ ¬p)) ∨ ¬q ∧ q ⇔
⇔ (r ∧ ¬p ∧ q) ∨ (¬q ∧ q) ⇔ (r ∧ ¬p ∧ q) ∨ 0 ⇔
⇔ ¬p ∧ q ∧ r
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P ⇔ (¬p ∨ ¬q) ∧ (¬q ∨ ¬r) ∧ (¬r ∨ ¬p).
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DcIEXO_JPhN\462]N\462]Ng6]N<Y625I\B[VL¯K b
A ∩ (A ∪ B) = A
2 A ∪ (A ∩ B) = A.
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FON8=e\X`<TD6B[NfKRN:;>E5IWZW25<Y^SxK#>E:=FON\B=XY<>dbcY7TDJIWAaN\Y7Y^ > / ON 1 ⇒ /hB 1 ⇒ /h*X 1 ⇒ / ON 1r g 2
s 3 OW xw¥xzuwv*xw=|ï} ùW{z£ §%~;î I~ |2D¡mz{w£,v*c£ y W |2{z£ §. y ª §p ¥ ¡m~IuP!¬ O½xw=} xw§,¥xzuwv v*ª xzÀyg §p ¡m{ª =xwxz¥} xz@{=£.yy uw¥{(©W¡~; £.Q@=jæ
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/ ON 1 /hB 1@¡ KM257?B[g6<?7Y462]N,¤Er ñ / NO1MKM257Y^>WbwY7 B ⊆ A ∪ B rwkQ>E:;FON\B=XY<?>ý<fNaF[7Y^ DJI,-

AaN\<f⇒N\\buY7 A ∪ B ⊆ B r6s57`<T<fNCPiIWY7Y462]NGb6¡ KM257YB=g6<Y7Yý¤Er ñ /hgB1|2 ¤Er ÚV/ NO1|ôN\^>
A ⊆ B ⇒ A ∪ B ⊆ B ∪ B = B,
XYIA\IW6XY<?>g6ILK#VCgF[798RXY<YmY=XY2 r
/hB 1 ⇒ /h*X 10<fNCPiIWY7Y462]NKM257Y^>WbY7 A ∪ B = B bXY<?>E52 A ∩ (A ∪ B) = A ∩ B r
©3IWB=<?>E:;FONa8=e\XT<`D6B[NLK#NDcIEXO_JPhN\462]N\462]Ng6IW:;FON8;7Y^> A = A ∩ B r
/h*X 1 ⇒ / ON 1Rý<fNCPiIWY7Y462]N2¡ KM257YB=g6<Y7Y462]No¤Er VÚ / ON 1|ôN\^> A = A ∩ B ⊆ B r
1sNx<fN\A\IW6XY<Y7Y46257DcIEguN\^>pAC255AaNK@PhN\:=46IW=XY2<?KM2]e\<fN\4d>EX_<255IEX?<?>E467Y^ AaN\B;F[7Y<=-
8=N\6:=AC25^,r
¿oÁh»C¹a¼ ºd» Ò Áh» Þ ï ^#!,Xc,^lRV'OU;eS*ÊT+W,[Qd,X ¿ ¿ + [w#%XZ*ST+mXc&o a$R#.Ñ
P a!U;&¯[Qd,X¢R*\*U+(Î A B C D
#
k m
A × (B ∪ C) = (A × B) ∪ (A × C)
Ù
Ù
(B ∪ C) × A = (B × A) ∪ (C × A)
Ê
k jm
A × (B ∩ C) = (A × B) ∩ (A × C)
Ù
Ù
(B ∩ C) × A = (B × A) ∩ (C × A)
zU
k m
A × (B \ C) = (A × B) \ (A × C)
Ù
Ù
(B \ C) × A = (B × A) \ (C × A)

k m
A × (B 4 C) = (A × B) 4 (A × C)
Ù
Ù
(B 4 C) × A = (B × A) 4 (C × A)
z&
k m
(A × B) ∩ (C × D) = (A ∩ C) × (B ∩ D)
Î
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8;7Y:;FF[I`B=VLKM46IW=M<Y62IWB=VKTbaKM25mYX¢8=N\A<?KR>EAC57RX_6XY7Y^>DJIWAN\<fN\\bdY7RIWuN@<Y625IWB;>ôN8=e
F[7:[N\^77?57Y^7Y4CFU>WrwN\SdKRN\Y^>8;7Yg64uN\AcbJY7IWuNF[7<Y625IWB;>:[eo255ICXY<?>E4uN\^2!AaN\B;F[7Y=< -
8=N\6:=AC25^2 bu<fNaF[7Y^25XO_p7Y57Y^7Y4CFON\^2!:[eoDuN\B;>S6DJIWB=<fe\g6A\IK#N\467\r13257YXO_<fNaF[7Y^ hx, yi
JmYg6<Y257Tg6ILK|IW54ueDuN\B[eS6DJIWB=<fe\g6A\ILKRN\4ueGr6k0F[7YgG>
hx, yi ∈ A × (B ∪ C) ⇔ x ∈ A ∧ y ∈ B ∪ C ⇔ x ∈ A ∧ (y ∈ B ∨ y ∈ C) ⇔
⇔ (x ∈ A ∧ y ∈ B) ∨ (x ∈ A ∧ y ∈ C) ⇔
⇔ hx, yi ∈ A × B ∨ hx, yi ∈ A × C ⇔
⇔ hx, yi ∈ (A × B) ∪ (A × C)
r
C×
5 74X ª5±E¬õ
A\IWB=<?>E:;FON\525=^><g67?êu4625X98;2@255ICXY<?>E4ES0AaN\B;F[7Y<98=N\6:=AC257YZWIå/hD6257YB;KM:=<fN-2@XY<?K#N\B;FON
B=VLKM46ILKRNaY46IW=*1bg67?êu4625X98;2 :=S6^>9/hg6B=S6ZdNp2 D62]eaFONB=VKM46ILK#N\Y46IW=*1IWB[N\<oB=IW<Yg6<Y257Y¨-
46IW=XY2!A\IW4625S646AWX98;2KM<YZW5mYg67Y^N\F[7YB=4uNaFU>CKR>Wr
kN\Y467@8;7Y:;Ffb!C>ý46257A\IWD625ILKRN\J7Y<?^>E=546257DJIW<Y4uN\4d>EXO_QK#XY<?7Y[4625798`g6IK|IEg6VLKTr
`gG>Ed>E=^><fN\XY<Ym?52N\SGF[IWôNaF9>EXY<Y4627IEg,}913257YXO_ x JmYg6<Y257g6ILK|IW54d>E^7Y57Y^7Y4dF[7Y^,r
k0F[7YgG> x ∈ A × (B ∪ C) . . .ObGF[Ig6I4625XY<Y7YZWIC>E=^>x46257`g6IW:=<Y52 r
ÒÙ;
< Íàx'Y
Ö r D6B[NfKMg6<Y25\buAdF[VWB=7T<TDcIW4625Y798R<Yg67?êu4625ILK#N\4d>EX_p<Y625IWB=VLK :[e:=IW6257`B=VLKM467%b
A1 = {1, 2, 3, 4}, A2 = {{1}, {2}, {3}, {4}}, A3 = {{1, 2}, {3, 4}},
A4 = {{1, 3}, {2, 4}},
A7 = {{2, 1, 3, 4}},
A5 = {{3, 1}, {4, 2}},
A8 = {{1, 2, 3}, {4}},
A6 = {1, 4, 3, 2},
A9 = {{4, 3}, {2, 1}}
r
¤Er3¢IEguN\T7?57Y^7Y4CFU>x4uN\:;F[mYD6Sa8=e\X?>EXO_p<Y625IWB=VKEb
∅, {∅}, {{a}},
{∅, {∅}, {{∅, ∅}}, {∅, ∅, ∅}},
{{a, b}, {{b, a}}, ∅},
{1, 2, {∅}, 1}, {{{{1}}}}
b
{ψ, {ψ, ψ}, ψ, ψ, {ψ}},
{x ∈ N : x2 < 0},
h7, 10i,
{x ∈ N : x ≥ 0},
h3, 3i, {x ∈ N : x2 < 7}
{x ∈ N : x2 = 4}
b
2
{x ∈ Q : x = 4}, {x ∈ N : |3−x| < 3}, {x ∈ R : x2 +4x+4 ≤ 0},
{x ∈ Q : (x + 1)2 ≤ 0}, {x ∈ R : x2 + 1 ≥ 0}.
ÚGr313257YXO_ A = {x, {∅}}, B = {{∅, {{∅}}}, {∅}, {{{∅}}, {∅}}}.
/ ON 1zWN\AC257Y^S<Y625IWB=ILKM2!^S6:=2C>ETB=VKR467 x bud>x<fN\XO_6IEg6<Y2hPiI A ∈ B 3
/hB 1,zWN\AC257Y^S<Y625IWB=ILKM2!^S6:=2C>ETB=VKR467 x bud>x<fN\XO_6IEg6<Y2hPiI A ⊆ B 3
ñ r313257YXO_ A = {{x}, ∅}, B = {∅, {{∅}, {{∅}}}, {∅, {{∅}}}, {∅}} r
/ ON 1zWN\AC257Y^S<Y625IWB=ILKM2!^S6:=2C>ETB=VKR467 x bud>x<fN\XO_6IEg6<Y2hPiI A ∈ B 3
/hB 1,zWN\AC257Y^S<Y625IWB=ILKM2!^S6:=2C>ETB=VKR467 x bud>x<fN\XO_6IEg6<Y2hPiI A ⊆ B 3
Ý r313257YXO_ x 2 y JmYgueB=VWY467IEgQ<Y625IWB=SQD6S6:;F[7YZWI6r¢zWN\AC25^
<Y625IWB=IW^
^S6:=<feC>E
B=VLKM467 x 2 y b6C>x<fN\XO_6IEg6<Y2hP]>vDJIW4625Y:=<Y7TB=VKM46IW=XY2 r
/ ON 1 {{x, y}, {∅}} = {x, y, {{∅}}} k
/hB 1 {{x, ∅}, y} = {{∅}} r
{|<?>x<fNLKM:=<Y7R8;7Y:;F3ÎWY52~K#7@DJICguN\46257ÌEg6DJILKM257Yg6<Y2m3
ùËò6587 ³d¯w³ µ ª5³ 5 ö
åGr3¢IEguN\TD6B=<?>EA6PhN\gp<Y625IWB=SF[B=Va8;7Y57Y^7Y4dFOILK|7YZWI A FON\AC257YZWI6b6Y7AaN\YgG>8;7YZWI7Y57=-
^7Y4dF|8;7Y:;F`B=VKM46ICXY<Y7Y=46257s8;7YZWIxDJICg6<Y625IWB=7Y^ /iF[<Y4rg6]Nog6ILK|IW5467YZWI x ôN\^>
x∈A⇒x⊆A
1r
ì rRkQ>E<Y4uN\XY<?>E<Y625VWB {x ∈ Z : ¬ϕ(x)} buZWg6<Y257
/ ON 1 ϕ(x) = x > 0 ⇒ (x2 < 4 ∧ (x ≤ 3 ⇒ x > 0)) r
/hB 1 ϕ(x) = (x < 3 ⇒ (x 6= 7 ∧ x ≤ 0)) r
×Gr ã ]NDJICguN\4d>EX_lyhS646A\X98;2 <YguN\4625IK#>EX_ ϕ(x) IWD625:[N\<Y625IWB;> {x ∈ R : ϕ(x)}
/h:;F[IW:=Sa8=e\XT46DruIW<Y4uN\XY<Y7Y462]N4uND6B=<Y7Yg6<Y2]NCP]>WbuDJVEPiD6B=IW:;F[7T2F[Dr 1r
/ ON 1 x2 = 1 b
/hB 1 x = x b
/ X 1 x2 − 1 ≤ 0 b
/hBg 1 x < 7 ⇒ x = 0 b
/ 7 1 x2 < 0 ⇒ x2 = −1 b
/i;y 1 x2 = −1 ⇒ x = 7 b
/h!Z 1 x2 < 0 ⇔ x > 0 b
/hB_ 1 x2 = 4 ⇔ x = 1 r
ó rRkQ>E525XY<?>Es<Y625IWB;> A ∪ B b A ∩ B b A \ B b B \ A 2 A 4 B g6]NT4uN\:;F[mYD6Sa8=e\X?>EX_
<Y625IWB=VLK A 2 B r
/ ON 1 A = {x ∈ N : x < 3}, B = {x ∈ N : x ≥ 3} b
/hB 1 A = {x ∈ N : x < 0}, B = {x ∈ N : x = 2} b
/ X 1 A = {x ∈ R : x < 1}, B = {x ∈ N : x < 1} b
/hBg 1 A = {x ∈ R : x < 1}, B = {x ∈ R : x < 2} b
/ 7 1 A = [0, 3], B = (1, 2]
r
Öfø r313257YXO_D6B=<Y7Y:;F[B=<Y7Y462]eJmYg6<Y257v<Y625VWB Z 525XY<YlXfNCPiA\ILKM2F9>EXO_bNpDcIW4uN\gGF[I46257YX_
b b rJ¥@D625:[N\
<Y625IWB;> Ac b A ∪ B b A ∩ B b A \ B b A \ C b B ∩ C b C c b A ∩ (B \ C) b A 4 B r
A = {x ∈ Z : 2|x} B = {x ∈ Z : ¬2|x} C = {x ∈ Z : x < 20}
Ö\Ö r3¢IWAaN\<fN\\b|Y7 A ∪ B 8;7Y:;Fx4uN8;^4625798;:=<?>E^t<Y625IWB=7Y^t<fNLKM257YB[N8=e\X?>E^ B=VLKM46I,-

XY<Y7Y=46257<Y625IWB;> A 2 B r yhIWB=^SJPiILK#N\x2#S6g6ILK|IEg64625N\4uN\5IWZW2XY<Y4d>ly N\AdFg6]N
D6B=<Y7YACB=Ia8;Sp2B=VWY4625X?>Wr
Ö ¤Er313257YXO_ A = {1, 3, 5} b B = {2, 4} 2 C = {1, 5} rw4uN\5T7 ÷Y<Y625VWB X bcFON\AC2HY7
(A 4 X) 4 B = C
r
6nø 74X ª5±E¬õ
Ö ÚGr ã ]NguN\467YZWI<Y625IWB=S A IWD625:[N\#8;7YZWI<Y625VWBRDcI\F[mYZWIKR> P(A) r
/ ON 1 A = {∅, {∅}, {{∅}}} b
/hB 1 A = {{1, 2}, {3}, 1} b
/h*X 1 A = {{α, β}, ∅} b
/hBg 1 A = {b, bb, B} b
/h*7 1 A = {{{δ}}} b
/i;y 1 A = {{σ, τ, ρ}} r
Ö ñ r D6B[NfKMg6<Y25\buXY<?><fN\XO_6ICg6<Y2 <fNfKM257YB[N\46257 A ⊆ B 5S6 B ⊆ A r
/ ON 1 A = {{a}, a, ∅}, B = {a} b
/hB 1 A = {{∅}}, B = {∅, {{∅}}}
b
/h*X 1 A = {µ, {∅}}, B = {µ, ∅}
b
/hBg 1 A = {x ∈ N : x > 2}, B = {y ∈ N : y > 2} b
/h*7 1 A = {x ∈ R : x > 0}, B = {y ∈ N : y > 0} b
/i;y 1 A = {x ∈ Q : x2 ≤ 0}, B = {x ∈ Q : x6 + 7x5 − 3x = 0} r
ÖÝ r313257YXO_ A = {x ∈ Z : x2 < 7} b B = {y ∈ N : |1 − y| < 3} r
/ ON 1okQ>E<Y4uN\XY<?>E4uN\:;F[mYD6Sa8=e\XY7<Y625IWB;> b
2 r A 4 Bb
252 r ((A ∩ B) × B) \ (B × (A ∩ B)) b
25252 r P((A \ B) × (B \ A)) r
/hB 1,{|<?>25:;F[4625798;7`<Y625VWB C ⊆ Z FON\AC2 b6Y7 A 4 C = B 4 C 3
Ö åGr313257YXO_ A = {x ∈ Z : 2|x ∧ |x − 1| ≤ 4} b B = {x ∈ N : x2 < 9} r
/ ON 1okQ>E<Y4uN\XY<?>E4uN\:;F[mYD6Sa8=e\XY7<Y625IWB;> b
2 r (B \ A) × P(A \ B) b
252 r P(A 4 B) ∩ P(B) r
/hB 1,{|<?>25:;F[4625798;7`46257YD6S6:;FU>x<Y625VWB C ⊆ Z FON\AC2 bGY7 A × C = C × B 3
Öì r33g6ILK|IEg64625`DJIW<YIW:;FONCPi7TDJICg6D6S646AdF9>¡ KM257YB=g6<Y7Y4625No¤Er ÚGr
Ö ×GrRkÜD6B=<Y7Y:;F[B=<Y7Y462 N B=IW<YDuNaF[B=<Y^>xDJICg6<Y625IWB;>
A = {1, 2, 6, 7, 8}, B = {2, 3, 4, 7, 8}
2 C = {4, 5, 6, 7, 8}.
U57B=VWY4C>EXO_<Y625IWB=VLKÎWY4uNQ<Y6S6g6ILK#N\p<fNlDcIWÎEXfeIWDJ7YB[N\X98;2 ∪, ∩, c <Y7
<Y625IWB=VLK A b B 2 C 3{|<?>8;7Y:;FMKM=B=VEg,4625XO_,<Y62VWB {8}3
ùËò6587 ³d¯w³ µ ª5³ 6Bñ
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B=VLKM46IW=XY2 r
/ ON 1 A ∩ (B \ A) = ∅ b
/hB 1 A ∪ (A ∩ B) = A b
/ X 1 A ∩ (A ∪ B) = A b
/hBg 1 (A ∪ B) \ C = (A \ C) ∪ (B \ C) b
/ 7 1 A \ (B \ C) = (A \ B) ∪ (A ∩ C) b
/i;y 1 A \ (B ∪ C) = (A \ B) \ C b
/h!Z 1 A 4 B = (A ∪ B) \ (A ∩ B) r
¤ ø rszWN\Av4uN8;D6B=IW=XY25798#DJIWAaN\<fN\\buY7 A 4 (B 4 C) = (A 4 B) 4 C 3
¤ Ö r33g6ILK|IEg64625\b¢Y7og6]Ng6ILK|IW54C>EXO_DJICg6<Y625IWB=VLK A 2 B S6:;FON\5IW467D6B=<Y7Y:;F[B=<Y7Y462
X
<fN\XO_6IEg6<fe4uN\:;F[mYD6Sa8=e\XY7B=VLKM46IW=XY2 r
/ ON 1 (Ac)c = A b
/hB 1 A \ B = A ∩ B c b
/ X 1 (A ∪ B)c = Ac ∩ B c /hD6B[NLK|Ig67n,IWB=ZdN\4uON 1b
/hBg 1 (A ∩ B)c = Ac ∪ B c /hD6B[NLK|Ig67n,IWB=ZdN\4uON 1b
/ 7 1 ∅c = X b
/i;y 1 X c = ∅ r
¤\¤Er33g6ILK|IEg64625\b¢Y7og6]Ng6ILK|IW54C>EXO_DJICg6<Y625IWB=VLK A 2 B S6:;FON\5IW467D6B=<Y7Y:;F[B=<Y7Y462
X
ôN\^>
A ⊆ B ⇒ B c ⊆ Ac .
¤aÚGr D6B[NfKMg6<Y25\bRXY<?>g6]Ng6IK|IW54d>EXO_ <Y625IWB=VK A b B 2 C <fN\XO_6IEg6<fe-DJIW4625Y:=<Y7
B=VLKM46IW=XY2 rJz\7Y=5246257\buDcIEguN\TICg6DJILKM257Yg646257TD6B=<?>EA6PhN\gG>\r
/ ON 1 A \ (B ∪ C) = (A \ B) ∩ (A \ C) b
/hB 1 A ∩ (A ∪ B) = B b
/ X 1 (A ∪ B ∪ C) \ (A ∪ B) = C b
/hBg 1 A ∩ (B 4 C) = (A ∩ B) 4 (A ∩ C) b
/ 7 1 A ∪ B = (A 4 B) 4 (A ∩ B) b
/i;y 1 (A ∪ B) × C = (A ∪ C) × (B ∪ C) b
66ù 74X ª5±E¬õ
¤ ñ r ã N\467T:[e<Y625IWB;> A b B 2 C bGFON\AC257\b6Y7 A ∪ B = C rJwg67?êu4625ILK#N\T<Y625IWB;> D 2
E
FON\AC257\b6Y7 D ⊆ A b E ⊆ B b D ∩ E = ∅ 2 D ∪ E = C r
¤ Ý r ã N\467:[e<Y625IWB;> A b B 2 C r`wg67?êu462IK#N\<Y625VWB D FONaAC2 bsY7 D ⊆ A 2
D∩B =D∩C =∅
r
¤\åGr ã N\467T:[e<Y625IWB;> A 2 B rc¨MIW<?KM2]e\<fN\`B=VLKM4uN\46257 A ∪ X = B r
¤ ì r33g6ILK|IEg64625`DJIW<YIW:;FONCPi7TDJICg6D6S646AdF9>¡ KM257YB=g6<Y7Y4625No¤Er ñ r
¤\×Gr33g6ILK|IEg64625\bu?7
/ ON 1 P(A) ∩ P(B) = P(A ∩ B) b
/hB 1 P(A) ∪ P(B) ⊆ P(A ∪ B) r
¢IEguN\MD6B=<?>EA6PhN\gbCY7MKDJIEg6D6S646A\XY25Ó7 /hB 1ÎWY7M46257Rd>E3<fNLKM257YB[N\462]NsK0g6B=S6Zde
:;F[B=IW46m\r
¤ ó r D6B[NfKMg6<Y25\buXY<?>
/ ON 1 P(A \ B) = P(A) \ P(B) b
/hB 1 P(A 4 B) = P(A) 4 P(B) r
Ú ø r33g6ILK|IEg64625\bu?7
/ ON 1 A ⊆ B ⇒ P(A) ⊆ P(B) b
/hB 1 P(A) ⊆ P(B) ⇒ A ⊆ B r
Ú Ö r3¢IWAN\<fN\\bcY7Tg6]Ng6ILK|IW5467YZWI<Y625IWB=S A ^N\^> A 6= P(A) r
Úd¤Er33g6ILK|IEg64625`DJIW<YIW:;FONCPi7TDJICg6D6S646AdF9>¡ KM257YB=g6<Y7Y4625No¤Er åGr
ÚWÚGr33g6ILK|IEg64625\bu?7g6]Ng6IK|IW54d>EXO_,<Y625IWB=VK A b B b C 2 D ôN\^>
/ ON 1 A ⊆ B ∧ C ⊆ D ⇒ A \ D ⊆ B \ C b
/hB 1 A ⊆ B ⇔ B = A ∪ (B \ A) b
/h*X 1 A \ B = B \ A ⇒ A = B b
/hBg 1 A × B = B × A ⇔ (A = ∅) ∨ (B = ∅) ∨ (A = B) b
/h*7 18;7Y=52 A b B b C 2 D :[es46257YD6S6:;F[7|F[I A×B = C ×D ⇒ A = C ∧B = D r
¢IWAaN\<fN\\buY7<fNCPiIWY7Y4627T46257YD6S6:;F[IW=XY268;7Y:;F325:;F[I\F[467\r
Ú ñ r3¢IWAN\<fN\\b6Y7@46257 8;7Y:;FRD6B[NfKMgueGbGY7@g6]Ng6IK|IW54d>EXO_x<Y625IWB=VK A b B 2 C ôN\^>
(A × B) ∩ (C × D) = ∅ ⇒ A ∩ C = ∅.
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⇔ ∀x(ϕ(x) ∨ ψ(x))
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f :X→Y
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2 8;7Y=52 x ≤ 0
f (x) =
x
x+1
8;7Y=52 x ≥ 0 .
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2 8;7Y=52 x < 0
f (x) =
x
x+1
8;7Y=52 x ≥ 0 .
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idX : X → X, idX (x) = x.
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8;7Y=52 x ∈ A
χA : X → {0, 1}, χA (x) =
1
0
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πX : X × Y → X, πX (hx, yi) = x,
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n n∈N
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ñ r3¨MIW<?K#N\Y^>yhS646A\X98;m h : N × N → N IWD625:[N\4ueKM<YIWB=7Y^ h(n, k) = n2 + k2 r
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Î £Ô+W&;U;e Z ⊆ X -
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B = (1, 2)
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f [A1 ∩ A2 ] ⊆ f [A1 ] ∩ f [A2 ] f [ i∈I Ai ] ⊆ i∈I f [Ai ]
kzU m Î
f [A1 ] \ f [A2 ] ⊆ f [A1 \ A2 ]
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DJIW<YIW:;FONfKM2]N8=e\X|8=N\AWI?KM25XY<Y7Y46257\r
/ ON 113257YXO_ {A : i ∈ I} cmYg6<Y257MB=IEg6<Y254ue`DcIEg6<Y625IWB=VLK<Y625IWB=S£rd3:;FON\5^>g6ILK#IW5467
y∈Y
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i
S S
y ∈ f[ i∈I Ai ] ⇔ (∃x)(x ∈ i∈I Ai ∧ y = f (x)) ⇔
⇔ (∃x)(∃i ∈ I)(x ∈ Ai ∧ y = f (x)) ⇔
⇔ (∃i ∈ I)(∃x)(x ∈ Ai ∧ y = f (x)) ⇔
⇔ (∃i ∈SI)y ∈ f [Ai ]) ⇔
⇔ y ∈ i∈I f [Ai ]
b
D6B=<?> XY<?>E^ D6257YB;KM:=<fN2XY<?K#N\B;FONB=VLKM46ILKRN\Y46IW=KR>E4625AaN8=e0<g67?êu4625X98;2IW6B[N\<YS
<Y625IWB=Sb|g6B=S6ZdN2sD62]eaFONB=VLKM46ILK#N\Y46IW=<ýg67?êu4625X98;2@S6IWZWVW54625IW46798:=S6^><Y625IWB=VLKTb
Å² ?µ ¶C³[®
<fN\#F[B=<Y7YXY2]N /hAC5S6XY<YILK#NO1#B=VLKM46ILK#N\Y46IW=<`¡ KM257YB=g6<Y7Y462]NÚGr Ý /hB1ru¢ILK|IEPhN\46257`:=25m`4uN

N\:[N\g6mT§AC:;F[7Y46: 8;IW4uN\546IW=XY2!AWIW6XY<?>g6ILK|VEgr
/hB 1M13257YXO_ A , A ⊆ X rJ3:;FON\5^>g6ILK|IW5467 y ∈ Y ruk0F[7YgG>pD6B[NfKMg6<Y2K|7M8;7Y:;F@4uN\:-
F[mYD6Sa8=e\XY7TB=IW<Y1S6ÎL2KRN\4625%7 b
y ∈ f [A1 ∩ A2 ] ⇔ (∃x)(x ∈ A1 ∩ A2 ∧ y = f (x)) ⇔
⇔ (∃x)(x ∈ A1 ∧ x ∈ A2 ∧ y = f (x)) ⇒
⇒ (∃x)(x ∈ A1 ∧ y = f (x)) ∧ (∃x)(x ∈ A2 ∧ y = f (x)) ⇔
⇔ y ∈ f [A1 ] ∧ y ∈ f [A2 ] ⇔
⇔ y ∈ f [A1 ] ∩ f [A2 ]
b
D6B=<?>`XY<?>E^D6257YB;KM:=<fNM2\F[B=<Y7YXY2]NRB=VKM46ILK#N\Y46IW= KR>E4625ANa8=eR<g67?êu4625X98;2dIW6B[N\<YST<Y625IWB=Sb
g6B=S6ZdN2wXY<?K#N\B;FONB=VLKM46IK#N\Y46IW=`<@g67?êu4625X98;2wD6B=<Y7YACB=Ia8;Sx<Y625IWB=VKTbE<fN\|KR>E4625AaN\46257s<
¡ KM257?B[g6<?7Y462]NxÚGrØ¤Ë/h7*1r{|<?>E52H<YZWICg646257<g67?êu4625X98=eo<fNfKM257YB[N\462]N<Y625IWB=VLKg6ILK#VCgo8;7Y:;F
<fN\A\IW6XY<YIW4d>Wr
N\SdKRN\Y^>Wb6Y7TKDJILKR>EY:=<?>G^FUKM257YB=g6<Y7Y4625SKDJICg6D6S646AdFON\Xf _ /hB 1|Z2 /h*X 1#46257TguN
:=25m<fNa:=FOedD625<fNfKM257YB[N\462]NxB=VLKM46IW=XY2]eGr B=<?>EXY<?>E4uN,F[7YZWI8;7Y:;FuN\B=g6<YI,DJIEg6IW64uN8=N\A
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XY25ILK|798vB=IW<Yg6<Y257Y546IW=XY2@AdK#N\4CFU>CêuAaNaF[IWB[N-7YZW<?>E:;F[7Y46X98=N\5467YZWI-KM<?ZW5mYg67Y^ AWIW4625S646A\X98;2 r
k257Y^>WbJY7DJ7Pi4uNoB=IW<Yg6<Y257Y546IW=K F9>E^KR>EDuN\g6ACS46257<fN\XO_6IEg6<Y2 bwNoF[I8;798MKR>Eô.N -
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46798yhS646A\X98;2#2|A\IW46ACB=7?F[4C>EXO_<Y625IWB=VLKTbH46Dr f : R → R, A , A ⊆ R b¢FON\AC25XO_Y7
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1 2 1 2 i∈I i i∈I i
kjÊ m Î
f [A1 ] \ f [A2 ] = f [A1 \ A2 ]
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3:;FON\5^>xg6ILK|IW5467 y ∈ Y r6k0F[7YgG> y ∈ f [A ] ∩ f [A ] f⇔[Ay1]∩f [A2 ] ⊆ f [A1 ∩A2 ]
r
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1 2 ∈ f [A1 ] ∧ y ∈ f [A2 ]
rGs573yhS646A\X98=N f 8;7Y:;F#B=VWY146IK#N\B;1F[IW=XY225ILK#NGbG2XY<?>E2w^S6:=2wd>E x =
ruk0F[7YgG>8;7Yg64uN\A x ∈ A ∩ A 2 DJIW46257?K#N\ y = f (x) buF[I y ∈ f [A ∩ A1 ] b
f (x1 ) = y = f (x2 )
XYIA\IW6XY<?>g6ILK#VCgr
x2 = x 1 2 1 2

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f :X→Y
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#
k m
f −1 [B1 ∪ B2 ] = f −1 [B1 ] ∪ f −1 [B2 ]
¿Q`!d,^lRV+W& P f −1 [
S
Bi ] =
S
f −1 [Bi ]
Ù
i∈I i∈I
Ê
k jm
f −1 [B1 ∩ B2 ] = f −1 [B1 ] ∩ f −1 [B2 ]
¿Q`!d,^lRV+W& P f −1 [
T
Bi ] =
T
f −1 [Bi ]
Ù
i∈I i∈I
zU
k m
f −1 [B1 \ B2 ] = f −1 [B1 ] \ f −1 [B2 ]
Î
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<YIW:;FONfKM2]Na8=e\X|8=N\A\I?KM25XY<Y7Y46257\r
/hB 1@1M257YX_ B , B ⊆ Y r3:;FON\5^>,g6ILK#IW5467 x ∈ X rwk0F[7YgG>ýôN\^>,4uN\:;F[mYD6Sa8=e\X?>
XY2]eCZB=VLKM46IK#1N\Y462IW=XYW2 b
x ∈ f −1 [B1 ∩ B2 ] ⇔ f (x) ∈ B1 ∩ B2 ⇔
⇔ f (x) ∈ B1 ∧ f (x) ∈ B2 ⇔
⇔ x ∈ f −1 [B1 ] ∧ x ∈ f −1 [B1 ] ⇔
⇔ x ∈ f −1 [B1 ] ∩ f −1 [B2 ]
b
D6B=<?> XY<?>E^÷D6257YB;KM:=<fN2TF[B=<Y7YXY2]NB=VKM46ILK#N\Y46IW=lKR>E4625AaN8=e<g67?êu462X98;2D6B=<Y7YXY2K2-
IW6B[N\<YST<Y625IWB=S`<fN\ g6B=S6ZdNR2WXY<?K#N\B;FONRB=VKM46ILK#N\Y46IW= < g67?êu4625X98;2WD6B=<Y7YACB=Ia8;S<Y625IWB=VLKTr
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é £Ô+W&;U;e f :X→Y
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+ B⊆Y
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k m
A ⊆ f −1 [f [A]]
Ù
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f [f −1 [B]] ⊆ B
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f (x) ∈ f [A]
rds57R<Mg67?êu4625X98;2cD6B=<Y7YX?2K#IW6B[N\<YS<Y625IWB=SôN\^>
f −1 [f [A]] = {x ∈ X : f (x) ∈ f [A]},
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B=IW<YS6ÎLK#N\46B25%7 ⊆b Y
y ∈ f [f −1 [B]] ⇔ (∃x)(x ∈ f −1 [B] ∧ y = f (x)) ⇔
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b
D6B=<?>XY<?>E^ D6257YB;KM:=<fNýB=VLKM46IK#N\Y46IW=xKR>E4625ANý<vg67?êu4625X98;2#IW6B[N\<YS<Y625IWB=SbHg6B=S6ZdN
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(∃x) y ∈ B
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k m
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DcIW<YIW:;FONLKM2]N\^>{|<?>CF[7Y54625A\ILKM2 r
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/ ON 1 h S646AWX98=N f 8;7Y:;F3IWACB=7Y:=ILK#NGr
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/ X 1 ã I@<Y625IWB=SIWACB=7Y:=VK-yhS646A\X98;2 f 4uN\57Yfesg6ILK|IW546257 ôNCPi7|525XY<Yd>g6ICguNaF[46257\r
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8;7Y:;Fs^4625798;:=<fNIEgK#N\B;F[IW=XY2yhS646A\X98;2 g r
/ 7 1HICXY<feLKM:=<?>IEgDJ7?KM467YZWI@^25798;:=XfNRyhS646A\X98=N f D6B=<?>L8;^Sa8;7 F9>E5A\I3K#N\B;F[IW=XY2
46257YSa8;7Y^467\r
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/h!Z 1xHICXY<feLKM:=<?>,ICg,Dc7?KM467YZWIo^25798;:=XfNyhS646A\X98=N f 8;7Y:;F3:;FONCPhNGr
¤Er3¨MIW<?K#N\Y^>yhS646A\X98;m f : R → R rHN\D625:[N\:;>E^JIW525XY<Y46257DcIW4625Y:=<Y7o<YguN\462]N
/hJ7Y<TS6?>EXY2]N:;>E^JIW5S467YZWN\X98;2 ¬ 1r
/ ON 1x!25XY<YuN Ö 46257|8;7Y:;F3IWACB=7Y:=7Y^%yhS646AWX98;2 f r
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S6?>CK#N\:;>E^cIW52 a 4uNIW<Y4uN\XY<Y7Y46257`KR>EB[N\<YVKXY2]eCZWSr n n∈N
n
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n n∈N
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n n∈N
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n n∈N
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/ ON 1 {x ∈ R : (∃y ∈ R) y = x2} b
/hB 1 {hx, yi ∈ R2 : y = x2} b
/h*X 1 {hx, x2 i : x ∈ [0, +∞)} b
/hBg 1 {hx, yi ∈ R2 : y ≤ x2 ∨ y ≥ x2} b
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/ ON 1 f : R → (0, +∞), f (x) = ex b
/hB 1 f : R → R, f (x) = ex b
/h*X 1 f : Z → Z, f (x) = x2 b
/hBg 1 f : (0, +∞) → R, f (x) = 1 b
/h*7 1 f : N → N, f (n) = n + 1 b x
/i;y 1 f : Z → Z, f (n) = n + 1 b
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A
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<fN\guN\4uNKM<YIWB=7Y^ f 0(x) = f (x) 8;7Y:;Fs62 8;7YA\X98=eGr
Ö\Ö r ã ]NsguN\46798¢yhS646A\X98;2 f : R → R <YuN\guN\\b\XY<?> f 8;7Y:;FB=VWY46IK#N\B;F[IW=XY25ILK#N@2d}U4uNOr
z\7Y=52 f 462578;7Y:;F 1−1 bfKM:=AaN\<fN\ x 2 x FON\AC257\bLY7 x 6= x bN\57 f (x ) = f (x ) r
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/ ON 1 f (x) = 2x − 7 b
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/ X 1 f (x) = 2x + x b
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/ 7 1 f (x) = sin x b
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Ö ¤Er313257YXO_ f : (−∞, 0] → [0, +∞) JmYg6<Y257<fN\guN\4uNxKM<YIWB=7Y^ f (x) = x2 r 3g6,I -
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Ö ÚGr3¢IWAaN\<fN\\bCY73yhS646A\X98=N π1 : R × R → R, π1(x, y) = x 8;7Y:;F|:=S6Bh8;7YA\X98=eGbGN\57M46257
8;7Y:;F3254a8;7YA\X98=eGr
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f (ϕ, r) = hr cos ϕ, r sin ϕi
8;7Y:;F3:=S6Bh8;7YA\X98=eGbJN\57@46257#8;7Y:;F3254a8;7YA\X98=eGr
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2 F[7Y:[e:=S6Bh8;7YA\X98=N\^2 rJ{|<?>pN\4uN\5IWZW2XY<Y4d>vy N\AdF 8;7Y:;F
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f1 : A → B f 2 : A → C
Ö åGr33g6ILK|IEg64625\buY7#8;7Y=52 f : X → Y b g : Y → Z 2 h : Z → W bGF[I
(h ◦ g) ◦ f = h ◦ (g ◦ f ).
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/ ON 1 f : R → R; f (x) = x3 + 1
b
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/ X 1 h : Z → Z; h(n) = n + 5
r
×Gù ?µ ¶C³[®
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b
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b
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ÖLó r3¢IWAN\<fN\\bcY7g6]Ng6ILK#IW546798#62 8;7YAWXU8;2 f : X → Y IWB[N\<T<Y625IWB=S B ⊆ Y IW6B[N\<
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1 2 1 2
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1 2 1 2
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A ∩ f −1 [B] ⊆ f −1 [f [A] ∩ B]
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<v4uNaF[S6B[N\54ue,254dF[S625X98=eGr¢1sND6B=<?>EA6PhN\gb {1, 2, 3} ∼ {√2, √2, π} bN,yhS646A\X98;m
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√ √
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3
1 1 1
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2
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f4 : N → Z
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m b3N<fNaF[7Y^ r@z\7Y=52T<fN\ f (n) = f (m) < 0 F[I n 2 m
4 4
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n
2
= 2
n = m 4
8;7Y:=<YXY<Y73DcIWAaN\<fN\\bWY7 f 8;7Y:;F :=S6Bh8;7YAW2XU8=eGrWk F9>E2^ÊXY7Y5SK|T7 ÷Y^>g6ILK|IW5467 z ∈ Z r

z\7Y=52 z ≥ 0 bF[I 2z 8;7Y4:;FDuN\B=<?>E:;FOe525XY<Yuev4uNaF[S6B[N\54uev2 f (2z) = 2z = z r
A\IW57Y2HZWgG> z < 0 bJF[I −2z − 1 8;7Y:;F`46257YDuN\B=<?>E:;FOex525XY<Yue44uNaF[S6B[N\54ueo2 2HôN\^>
f (−2z − 1) = −(−2z−1)−1 = z
b6XYIA\IW6XY<?>g6IK|VEgr
4 2
ñCñ%6 þ \ó ² µ ±nó]ª_³ µ ±y×
Ýr /hZWg6<Y257 1r
(0, 1) ∼ (a, b)
h 6S 46AWX98=e
aE^ KR>O-
DuN\g6ACSyhS646A\X98=N`525462ILK#Ns<fN\guN\4uN3KM<YIWB=7Y^ f (x) = (b−a)x+a rW©3IWB=<?>E:;FON8=e\X
f5 : (0, 1) → (a, b)
<¡ KM257YB=g6<Y7Y462]NåGr Ö KM4625IW:=ACSa8;7Y^>:;FOe\gb!Y75 g6ILK#IW5467gGKRNxIEg6XY2546AC2I\FUK#N\B;F[7
:[eB=VKM46IW52XY<Y467\r
åGr (0, +∞) ∼ (−∞, 0) r
käIEXY<?>CKM25:;FU>:=DJIW:=VWyhS646AWX98=N f : (0, +∞) → (−∞, 0), f (x) = −x
S6:;FON\]NB=VKM46IW52XY<Y46IW=\r 6 6
ì r (0, 1) ∼ (1, +∞) r

k FU>E^KR>EDuN\g6ACSyhS646A\X98;m f : (0, 1) → (1, +∞) S6:;FON\]Na8=e\XfeRB=VLKM46IW525XY<Y46IW=
IWACB=7Y=]N\^>KM<YIWB=7Y^ f (x) =7 1 r¢©3IWB=<?>E:;FON8=e\X<DJI\D6B[<?7Yg64625X_lD6B=<?>EA6PhN\g6VLK
2DJIW46ILKM46257<¡!KM257YB=g67<Y7Y462]NpåGr xÖ g6IW:;FONa8;7Y^>Wb!Y7og6ILK|IW54d>IEg6XY2467YAýI\F9K#N\B;FU>
8;7Y:;FB=VLKM46IW525XY<Y4d><ýg6ILK#IW54ueDJVEPiD6B=IW:;FOeI\FUKRN\B;FOeIWB[N\<ýY7ýg6IK|IW5467ýgGKR257
DcVEPiD6B=IW:;F[7TI\FUKRN\B;F[7`:[e<Y7T:=IWueB=VLKM46IW525XY<Y467\r
×Gr (− π , π ) ∼ R r
¡ >E^ 2 2B[N\<Y7Y^ KR>EA\IWB=<?>E:=FON\^>g6IW6B=<Y7p<Y4uN\4ueQyhS646AWX98;m f : (− π , π ) → R b
F[Z r z\7Y:;FoIW4uNB=IW:=4ue\XYNGb Ný<fNaF[7Y^ B=VWY46ILKRNaB=F[8IW=X?25IK#2NGr 2¢IW4uN\gGF[I
f8 (x) = (x)
F[Z (x) = −∞ IWB[N\< lim F[Z (x) = +∞ 2 A\IWB=<?>E:;FONa8=e\Xo<K@PhN\: -
limx→−
46IW=XY2 ã N\B=JIWS vI\F[B=<?>E^Sa8;7Y^>\bGY7sx→yhS646AWXU8=NFONM8;7Y:;FR:=S6Bh8;7YA\X98=eGru¢IEg6IW646257 8=N\A
π
2
π
2
DcIWD6B=<Y7Yg64625IÎWY7Y^>:=FOe\gvKR>CKM462IW:=AWILK#N\\buY7@g6IK|IW54d>oIEg6X?25467YAoI\FUK#N\B;F9>2
<Y625VWB#525XY<YB=<Y7YXY<?>CKM25:;F9>EXO_:[eB[VLKM46IW525XY<Y467\r
N\SdK#N\Y^>WbCY73KR>EJVWB yhS646AWX98;2JS6:;FON\]N8=e\XY798B=VKM46IW25XY<Y46IW=3462578;7Y:;F 8;7Yg646IW<Y4uN\XY<Y4C>Wb
F[<Y4rs25:;F[4625798;7g6S6YI0B=VWY4C>EXO_62 8;7YAWX98;2DJIW^25mYg6<?> <Y625IWB[N\^2B=VLKM46IW525XY<Y4d>E^2 rs1sN
D6B=<?>EA6PhN\gX_6Xfe\X,IWACB=7Y=525xyhS646AWX98;m f : R → (−1, 1) KM<fN8;7Y^462578;7Yg646IW<Y4uN\XY<?4ue
ÎWY7Y^>S6?>E@<fN\B=VLKM46IKM<YIWB=S f (x) = 2 NaB[XFOZ (x) bL8=N\A2cKM<YIWB=S f (x) = x rG1sN
IWZWVEPuKR>E6257?BONa^>F[mR62 8;7YA\X98;m\bWAdF[VWB[N|8;7Y:;F πg6]N@4uN\:KguN\4C>E^ÊÎW^7Y46XY257#4uN1+|x| 89KR>EZWIECg -
4625798;:=<fNGr
1sNR<fN\AWIW6XY<?7Y46257 F[7YZWIMDJIEg6B=IW<Yg6<Y2]NCPiSTDcIW<Y4uN\^>@FUKM257YB=g6<Y7Y46257\bLAdF[VWB=7 cmYg6<Y257 4uN\^
:=25m`XY<YmY:;F[IoD6B=<?>EguNfK#N\TKD6B=<?>E:=<PiIW=XY2 r
¿oÁh»C¹a¼ ºd» Ò Áh»ï 5 Þ ^#!,Xc,^lRV'OU;eS*ÊT+W,[Qd,X A, B, C
+ D
"$#%"Ð'/Ô
# fÏV&;\^l+
k m
A∼B
+ C∼D
¿Z A×C ∼B×D
Î
Ê fÏV&;\^l+
k jm
A∼B
+ C∼D
,[w#*S A∩C = ∅ B∩D = ∅
+ ¿¢ A∪C ∼ B∪D
Î
zU fÏV&;\^l+
k m
A∼B
¿Z P(A) ∼ P(B)
Î
²Vòù¶74X ª5±E¬õ µ ª5®a¬dó\² µ ±nó]ª_³ µ ® ñCñ9
ãx¾E¿ ¼ 3g6IK|IEg64625^>FU>E5A\IQDJIEg6D6S646AdI F /hB 1bDJIW<YIW:;FONCPi7,DcIW<YIW:;FONLKM2]N8=e\X8=N\A\I

?KM25XY<Y7Y46257\rwý<fNCPiIWY7Y462]NKM257Y^>WbuY725:;F[4625798=eyhS646AWX98;7 f : A −→ 2 r
wg67?êu4625Sa8;7Y^>oF[7YB[N\<`yhS646AWX98;m h : A ∪ C → B ∪ D 4uN\:;F[mYD6Sa8=e\X?>E^%KM<YIWB=7Y^ b
1−1 1−1
na B g : C −→ na D
8;7Y=52 x ∈ A
h(x) =
f (x)
g(x)
8;7Y=52 x ∈ C .
N\SdKRN\Y^>WbJY7DJIW46257?K#N\<?625IWB;> A 2 C :[eoB=IW<Phe\XY<Y467\bJF[IoyhS646AWX98=N h 8;7Y:;F`g6IW6B=<Y7
/Ø8;7Yg646IW<Y4uN\XY<Y4625*7 13<Yg67?êu4625ILK#N\4uNGr D6B[NfKMg6<Y25^>F[7YB[N\<\bJY738;7Y:;F`254a8;7YA\X98=eGrcklT7 ÷Y^>,K
FU>E^%XY7Y5S,g6ILK#I\5467 x, y ∈ A ∪ C b6FON\AC257`Y7 x 6= y r eF[B=<?>xÎWY52~K#IW=XYW2 b
rGk0F[7YgG>xAWIWB=<?>E:;FON8=e\X<`B=VWY46ILKRN\B;F[IW=XY25ILK|IW=XY2yhS646AWX98;2 f I\F[B=<?>E^SC-
8;7Y^> h(x) = f (x) 6= f (y) = h(y) r
• x, y ∈ A
rws4uN\5IWZW25XY<Y46257R8=N\A,DJIWD6B=<Y7Yg64625I6bJFU>E^ B[N\<Y7Y^KR>EAWIWB=<?>E:;F[Sa8=e\XB=VW=-
46ILK#N\B;F[IW=XY25IK|IW=`yhS646A\X98;2 g r
• x, y ∈ C
I\BONa< y ∈ C rk0F[7YgG> h(x) = f (x) ∈ B 2 h(y) = g(y) ∈ D r!s57

• x∈A
B∩D =∅
bu<fNaF[7Y^ h(x) 6= h(y) r
¢IW<YIW:;FONa8;7QKR>EAaN\<fN\\b@Y7lyhS646A\X98=N h 8;7Y:;F,}U4uNOr33:;FON\5^>0K.F9>E^ XY7Y5Sg6IK|IW5467
r3z\7Y=52 z ∈ B bRF[IDcIW46257?KRN\ýyhS646AWX98=N f 8;7Y:;F}U4uNôN\^> x ∈ A b
FON\AC257Y7 f (x) = z rws57KRF[7YgG> x ∈ A ∪ C 2 h(x) = f (x) = z r!z\7Y=52 z ∈ D bcF[I
z ∈B∪D
B=IW<YS6^Sa8;7Y^>vDcIEg6IW646257\b6AWIWB=<?>E:;FON8=e\X<@F[7YZWI6buY7`yhS646A\X98=N g 8;7Y:;F3:=S6Bh8;7YAWX98=eGr
Ù < 'ÝTÆâ x'?"#~ö3$%YÝÍÞY'|Rx"
¢
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6A PhN\gG>pB=VWY4d>EX_DuNaB@46257Y:=A\IW6XY<YIW4d>EX_<Y625IWB=VKB=VLKM46IW525XY<Y4d>EXO_r1sN\guN\H46257KM257Y^>
8;7Yg64uN\Acb XY<?>ýKM:=<?>E:;F[AE257<Y625IWB;>ý46257Y:=A\IW6XY<YIW467o^Na8=evFOex:[N\ôexÎEX\r¢¥sAaN\<YSa8;7:=25m\b
Y7RFON\A46257H8;7Y:;FfrE{|ITKM25mYXY798?bdÎWY4uN`DcIEguN\MD6B=<?>EA6PhN\g46257Y:=AWIW6XY<YIW46798B[ICg6<Y254d><Y625I,-
B=VLK%46257Y:=A\IW6XY<YIW4d>EX_bFON\AC25798Y7AaN\YgG>8;7987Y57Y^7Y4dFôNý25464ueÎEX\r z\7Y:;F<fNaF[7Y^
46257Y:=A\IW6XY<Y7Y46257TKM257Y57`B=VWY4d>EXO_p46257Y:=A\IW6XY<YIW46IW=XY2 ^
N\XY<Y462 8;^>8;7Yg64uN\AICg<fN\:;FON\46ILKM257Y462]Nv:=25m\bXYIxF[Ix<Y4uN\XY<?>Wb ?7gGK#Nx<Y625IWB;> A 2
V
R +W&:[eB=VLKM46IW525XY<Y467\rExg67?êu4625X98;2\8;7Y:;F F[ITB=VKM46ILK#N\Y467346257Y25:;F[46257Y4625SyhS646A\X98;2uKM<f.N -
8;7Y^46257 8;7Yg646IW<Y4uN\XY<Y46798RDJIW^25mYg6<?>o<Y625IWB[N\^2 A 2 B rEkQ>E4625AaN:;FOe\gb6Y7@KR>EAaN\<fN\46257\b
B
25gGKRN0<Y625IWB;> 46257:[e0B=VLKM46IW525XY<Y467p8;7Y:;Fg6S6YI0F[B=S6g64625798;:=<Y7-IEgDcIWAaN\<fN\462]NGbsY7
:[eB=VLKM46IW525XY<Y467\r ¥2557vcIKM257Y^ K%XY7Y5S-S6g6ILK#ICg646257Y462]NýB=VLKM46IW525XY<Y46IW=XY2|KR>E:;FON\B -
XY<?>DJIWAaN\<fN\\bYI 7 +_(RV+W& P &62 8;7YA\X98=NDJIW^25mYg6<?>lguN\4d>E^2|<Y625IWB[N\^2 b XY<?>E52|KM:=AN\<fN\
A\IW46ACB=7?F[4C>oIW6257YAdFfbdF[IC>DJIWAN\<fN\\bEY7@462573:[eIW467sB=VKR46IW525XY<Y467MF[B=<Y7YuNS6<fN\:[N\g64625\b
YI 7 ¸*#O%R#yhS646A\X98=NlDcIW^25mYg6<?>-FU>E^2M<Y625IWB[N\^2R462578;7Y:;Fv62 8;7YA\X98=eGb XY<?>E52MKR>EA\IW4uN\
IWZWVW5467#B=IW<YS6ÎLKRN\46257\rdzWN\AWITD6B=<?>EA6PhN\gFON\AC257YZWITB=IW<YS6ÎLK#N\462]N@DJIWAN\Y7Y^>WbdY7MD6B=<Y=7 -
g6<Y2]NCP¢I\FUK#N\B;F9>v46257|8;7Y:;F3B[VLKM46IW525XY<Y4d>v<Y7T<Y625IWB=7Y^%525XY<Yx4uNaF[S6B[N\54C>EXO_g6IEguNaF[4625XO_r
ñCñp² þ \ó ² µ ±nó]ª_³ µ ±y×
¸ ¹ºWá!ÓÈÇ Àu¼ (0, 1) 6∼ N+ r
B=<?>ED6S6=Y^>JILKM257Y^46257 KMD6B=IW:;Ffb\Y7#25:;F[4625798;7 yhS646A\X98=N f : N+ −→ rW¥yhS646Ap-
X98;2 f ÎWY7Y^>,^>E=57YM8=N\AWIvIvXY2]eCZWS525XY<YB=<Y7YXY<?>CKM25:;FU>EX_r¢NCPiIW?>E525=^>xKM25mYX\bwY7
1−1
na (0, 1)
AN\YguNM525XY<YuNR< ICg6XY2546AaN (0, 1) KR>E:;F[mYD6Sa8;7 KlF9>E^XY2]eCZWSrYk>ED625:=<Y^>ÀC255AN#KR>EB[N\<YVLK
F[7YZWIXY2]eCZW@S b
f (1) = 0, a11 a12 a13 a14 . . . a1n . . .
f (2) = 0, a21 a22 a23 a24 . . . a2n . . .
f (3) = 0, a31 a32 a33 a34 . . . a3n . . .
2IWZWVW546257
f (n) = 0, an1 an2 an3 an4 . . . ann . . . ,
WZ g6<Y257 ak 8;7Y:;F m- FOeX?>CyhB[eDJI0D6B=<Y7YXY2546ACS K B=IW<?KM254625mYXY25Sg6<Y257Y:=25m?F[4d>E^ k- F[7YZWI
KR>EB[N\<YSm4uN\:=<Y7YZWIlXY2]eCZWSå/hg6]NýS64625AC4625mYXY2]Ný4625798;7Yg646IW<Y4uN\XY<Y46IW=XY23B=IW<?KRN\YN\^>F9>E5A\I
B=IW<?KM254625mYXY2]NTg6<Y257Y:=25m?F[467s<Y7s:=A\IW6XY<YIW4ue255IW=XY2]eTX?>CyhB ó 1rGwg67?êu4625Sa8;7Y^>F[7YB[N\<sDJ7?KM4ue
525XY<Ycm b ∈ (0, 1) K4uN\:;F[mYD6Sa8=e\X?>:=DcIW:=VW@ b
b = 0, b1 b2 b3 b4 . . . bn . . . ,
ZWg6<Y257 b¢XY<?>E52 - FOe,X?>CyhB=mvDJIpD6B=<Y7YXY2546ACSK B=IW<?KM254625mYXY25Slg6<Y257Y:=25m?F[4d>E^µ525XY<YC>
RK >E6257YB[bN\m^>`KFON\mAC2E:=DJIW:=VWbad> b 6= am IWB[N\TF[IsIEXY<?>Ob-
KM25=XY257<YB=IW625¯4,<fNfKM:=<Y7ôN\^>,mg6IxgG>E:=mDJIW<?>EX98;2wm8;7Y:=<YXY<Y7:=m257Yg67Y^ X?>CyhBYr N\SdK#N\Y^>Wb
Y7TIW:;FONaF[46257`gGK#NK#N\B=S646AC2 <fN\DJ7?KM4625Na8=eGb6Y7 b 6= 0 2 b 6= 1 r
¢IW46257?KRNayhS646A\X98=N f 8;7Y:;FT}U4uNObF[I,25:;F[4625798;7 n ∈ N+ FON\AC257\b!Y7 f (n) = b r!k
:=<YXY<Y7YZWVW546IW=XY2HôN\^>WbuY7 an = b bJXYIvDcIW<YIW:;FONa8;7K:=D6B=<Y7YXY<Y46IW[XY2<^7?F[ICgueAWIW4C-
:;F[B=S6ILK#N\462]N525XY<Yd> b r¢NaF[7Yn^
46257n 25:;F[4625798;7yhS646A\X98=N f : N+ −→ b!XYI,AWIW6XY<?>
g6ILK|VEgr
1−1
na (0, 1)
n,7?F[IEguNsKR>EA\IWB=<?>E:=FON\4uN@KDJILKR>EY:=<Y>E^ÆD6B=<?>EA6PhN\g6<Y257R46IW:=2G4uN\<?K#mE"& %'c[wS.&Ñ
)pa%(RV+W,Xc& P ruz\7Y=52!cIKM257?^%DJIW^>E=525^>oIX?>CyhB[N\XO_ k 8=N\A\II7Y57Y^7Y4CFON\XO_46257Y:=AWIWC -
XY<YIW46798RFON\6525X?>Wb6F[Io525XY<?Jm b A\IW46:;F[B=S6IK#N\525=^>o}U25guae\mXTDcIoD6B=<Y7YAaeaF[46798MF[798RFON\6525X?>v2
4uN,AaN\YgG>E^ ACB=IWACSICg6B=VWY462]Na8=e\X:=25mIEgA\IW5798;467YZWI,KR>EB[N\<YSXY2]eCZWS rn,7?F[IEguN,FON
ôNKM257Y57`<fN\:;F[IW:=ILKRN\b\8;7Yg64d>E^<T4625XO_8;7Y:;F34uN\:;F[mYD6Sa8=e\XY7AC5N\:;>EXY<Y467TfF9KM257YB=g6<Y7Y46257\r
¿oÁh»C¹a¼ ºd» Ò Áh»ï 5Ì ÏxÀ ÒJÇ ¾c/ ¹ Ð ^#!,Xc,^lR&i`!ÍS*ÊT+W,[= A "$#%"Ð' |A| 6= |P(A)| Î
ãx¾E¿ ¼ NCPiV\Y^>o46257@KMD6B=IW:;FfbcY7T25:;F[4625798;7@yhS646A\X98=N
1−1
f : A −→
na P(A).
\z 7Y:;FHF[Is<fNaF[7Y^ yhS646A\X98=NGbaAdF[VWB[N3AN\Yg67Y^S7Y57Y^7Y4CF[ILKM2C<Y625IWB=S A D6B=<?>EDJIWB=<fe\g6A\ILKMSa8;7
DcIEg6<Y625VWBR<Y625IWB=S A rJn,IWY7Y^>vKM25mYXT<Yg67?êu4625ILK#N\4uNa:=F[mYD6Sa8=eaX?><Y625VWB
Z = {x ∈ A : x 6∈ f (x)}.
²Vò65 «#±C¬dóW² µ õu²s³ µ ª5®°±V³*õý X 5ª ±E¬dó\² ñCñ Å
¢IW46257?KRNa Z 8;7Y:;F`DJIEg6<Y625IWB=7Y^<Y625IWB=S A b!NoyhS646A\X98=N f 8;7Y:;F@}U4uNObJ25:;F[4625798;7<fNaF[7Y^

a∈A
FON\AC2 b6Y7 f (a) = Z rJN\:;FON\46VLKM^>v:=25m\buXY<?> a ∈ Z r egGKM257TÎWY52~K#IW=XY2Wb
• a∈Z
rGk0F[7YgG><Tg67?êu4625X98;2<Y625IWB=S Z
ôN\^> a 6∈ f (a) = Z
r D6B[<?7YXY<Y46IW[\r
ruk0F[7YgG>,<g67?êu4625X98;2¢<Y625IWB=S ôN\^> bcXY<?>E52 r
¢IW46ILKM46257T:=D6B=<Y7YXY<Y46IW=Wr
• a 6∈ Z Z ¬a 6∈ f (a) = Z a∈Z
¥sF[B=<?>EôN\467T:=D6B=<Y7YXY<Y46IW=XY2¢<Y4uN\XY<feGbuY7T46257T25:;F[4625798;7syhS646AWX98=N f : A −→1−1 r
na P(A)
,DcIKR>EY:=<Y7YZWIF9KM257YB=g6<Y7Y462]NTÎWY7Y^>KR>CKM4625IW:=A\ILK#N\\bGY7325:;F[4625798;7346257?:[A\IW6XY<Y7=-
46257RKM257?57MB=VWY4d>EXO_v46257Y:=A\IW6XY<YIW46IW=XY2 bCcIg6]N`g6IK|IW5467YZWIT<Y625IWB=AS /h46257Y:=A\IW6XY<YIW467YZW!I 1
8;7YZWIp<Y625VWBDJI\F[mYZWILKR>QôN,IEgl46257YZWI,KM25mYXY7987Y57Y^7Y4dF[VK 2 DcIKRFON\B=<fN8=e\XoIWDc7YB[N\X98;m
6B[N\462]N<Y625IWB=SDJI\F[mYZWILK|7YZWIg6IW:;FON8;7Y^>-<Y625IWB;>}UXYIWB[N\<,uN\B=g6<Y2579846257Y:=AWIW6XY<YIW467Or
z\7Y:;F F[ITB=IW<YS6ÎK#N\46257#DJIWD6B[NfKM467\bCY7Yd>@8;7Yg64uN\Ag6IW6B=<Y78;7M:;yhIWB=ôN\52<YILK#N\R^S6:=25^>
4uN8;D6257YB;KDcIKM257Yg6<Y257?\buXYIF[I<Y4uN\XY<?>v}U^257YsKM25mYXY798R7Y57Y^7Y4dF[VK#Or
Ù; ô ÝT~ö3$%Ðâ$Æx'?" Ý©ZâÜ\¢,'ÝT~öM$

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|A| ≤ |B| ⇔ ∃C(C ⊆ B ∧ A ∼ C).

k >E462AaN:;FOe\gIEXY<?>CKM25=XY257IEgB[N\<YSb|Y78;7Y=52 A ⊆ B b F[I |A| ≤ |B| r sd>
Q
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ÎEX`4625`<Y625VWB B r
ñCñp× þ \ó ² µ ±nó]ª_³ µ ±y×
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#
k m
|A| ≤ |B|
Ù
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k jm 1−1
f : A −→ B
Ù
zU +_(RV+W& P &1v;CRn)OU P #
k m na
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Î
ãx¾E¿ ¼ B=<?>EDJIW^462 8;^>WbJY7g6<Y25mYAC2HD6B=<Y7YX_6ICg64625IW=XY225^D62AaN\X98;2!KR>E:;FON\B=XY<?>ýDJI,-
AN\<fN\\bcY7/ NO1 ⇒ /hB 1 ⇒ /h*X 1 ⇒ / ON 1r
/ NO1 /hB1rG¢IW46257?K#N\ bCKM25mYXs<sg67?êu4625X98;2J25:;F[4625798;7 C ⊆ B FON\AC2 bCY7 A ∼ C r
¥@<Y4u⇒N\XY<fN,F[I6b Y7o25:;F[4625|A| 798;7≤yhS6|B|
46AWX98=N f : A −→ rHn,IWY7Y^>x8=e,DcI\F[B[N\AdF[IK#N\`8=N\AWI
yhS646A\X98;mID6B=<Y7YXY2KMg6<Y257Yg6<Y2546257 B 2wKRF[7YgG> f : A −→ r
1−1
na C
1−1
B
/hB 1 ⇒ /h*X 1r!Q<fNCPiIWY7Y462]NKM257Y^>WbcY725:;F[4625798;7 f : A −→ r¥@XY<?>CKM25=XY257yhS646AWX98=NoIECg -
KMB=I\F[4uN f −1 : B=46Z (f ) → A 8;7Y:;FT:=S6Bh8;7YA\X98= e / Nv4uNfK#7?F`62 8;7YAWX98=Oe 1bJKR>E:;FON\B=XY<?>o8=eo<f.N -
1−1
B
F[7Y^ B=IW<?:[<?7YB=<?>Glg6I-yhS646AWX98;2 g IWACB=7Y=5IW467984uN-XfNCP]>E^ <Y625IWB=<Y7 B rRköF9>E^ X?7Y5S
KR>E6257YB=<Y^>,g6ILK#IW467 a ∈ A /Ø8;7Y:;FsF[IoÎWY52K|7\bccIv<Y625VWB A 8;7Y:;F@46257YD6S6:;FUË> 132 g6]N
g6ILK|IW5467YZWI b ∈ B IWACB=7Y0=5^> g(b) 4uN\:;F[mYD6Sa8=e\X?>E^%KM<YIWB=7Y^ b
−1 8;7Y=52 b ∈ B=46Z (f )
g(b) =
f (b)
a0
8;7Y=52 b 6∈ B=46Z (f ) .
B=IW:;FU>E^?KM25XY<Y7Y46257Y^%DJIW<YIW:;FON8;7T:=D6B[NfKMg6<Y7Y46257\bcY7 g : B −→ na
A
r
/h*X 1 ⇒ / ON 1rdNCPiVWY^>WbY7 g : B −→ r <YSGAaN\^>F[7YB[N\< FON\AC257YZWI@DJICg6<Y625IWB=S C <Y625IWB=S
bWC>yhS646A\X98=NTIWJXY25m?FON g C C>uPhN`62 8;7YAWX98=eGrdHI\46257?KRN\RyhS646A\X98=N g 8;7Y:;F}U4uNObW<fNaF[7Y^
na
A
B
g6]NAaN\Yg67YZWI a ∈ A <Y625VWB g−1[a] /Ø8;7Y:;F#F[I<Y625VWB FU>EXO_7Y57Y^7Y4dF[VLK<Y625IWB=S B bGAdF[VWB=7
D6B=<Y7YXO_6IEg6<fe34uN a1E8;7Y:;F¢46257YD6S6:;F9>Wr\z\7Y=52WKM25mYXK|T7 ÷Y^257Y^>@FON\Ad2C<Y625VWB C ⊆ B bLAdF[VWB;>T<
AN\YgG>E^<Y625IWB=7Y^ g−1[a] ôNRg6IWA6PhN\g6462578;7Yg67Y4D6S646AdF¢KM:=DJVW54d > /iFON\AC2C<Y625VWB!4uN\<?>CK#N
:=25m:=7Y57YAdF[IWB=7Y^µB=IEg6<Y254d> −1[a] : a ∈ A}1b!F[I,y N\AdFU>EXY<Y46257 g C : C −→ /Ø8;7Y:;F
F[I<Y46VLK0D6B=IW:;F[73?KM25XY<Y7Y4625{g 7 4F[I6bdY73g6I<Y625IWB=S C KR>E6257YB[N\^>7Y57Y^7Y4CFU>na<3AaAN\Yg67YZWI
1−1
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8;7Yg6467YZWI`g 7Y57Y[a]^7Y4dF[S<fN\DJ7?KM46264uN\^B=VWY46IK#N\B;F[IW=XY25ILK|IW=* 1rCvg67?êu4625X98;2GôN\^><fNaF[7Y^
|A| ≤ |B|
buXYIA\IW6XY<?>,g6ILK|VEgr
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8;7Y:;F3B=7Y]N\X98=eDJIWB=<fe\g6ACSr h IWB=ôNa54627@B=<Y7YXY<625IWB[e\X@FON\Av4627#8;7Y:;FfbuDJIW46257?K#N\ /hDcIEg6IWC -
462578=N\AB=VKM46IW525XY<?46IW=s<Y625IWB=VLoK 1462578;7Y:;F|F[IB=7Y]N\X98=NTK=XY25:P]>E^ :=7Y46:=2573F[7YZWI:PiILK#N
4D6B=<Y7YXY257Y@:[N\ÎDcI\8;mYXY2573ÎEX?><Y625IWB=I S /hXY<?>E52J255IW=XY2\8;7YZWI7Y57?^7Y4CF[VLoK 146257s<YIW:;FONCPiI
:;yhIWB=ôN\52<YILK#N\4672HDJIW<YIW:;FON8;7254CF[S625X?>L8;467\rw¡ >E^
46257Y^46257983<fN\57YY46IW=FONvôNoK@PhN\: -
46IW=XY2 b6AdF[VWB;>EXO_pIEXY<Y7YAC2K#N\525d>E=^>xICg,B=7Y]N\X98;2DJI\B[<Ye\g6ACSr
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+ C
"$#%"Ð'
Ù
• |A| ≤ |A|
• (|A| ≤ |B| ∧ |B| ≤ |C|) ⇒ |A| ≤ |C|

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åGr ñ h/ B1IWB[N\<y N\AdF[VLKTbY7 yhS646A\X98=N325g67Y4dFU>EXY<Y46IW=XY25ILKRN8;7Y:;F¢254a8;7YAWX98=eM2d<PiIWY7Y46257 254a8;7YAWX98;2
8;7Y:;F3254a8;7YA\X98=eGr
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K@PhN\:=46IW=XY2s:PhN\J798oN\4dFU>E:;>E^7?F[B=252 r|{|_6XY257Y525d>E=^>\b d><,y N\AdF[Sb Y7ÎCXp<Y625IWB=S
8;7Y:;F`46257KM25mYAC:=<fNx2HB=VLKM46IEXY<Y7Y=4625746257^4625798;:=<fNv4625ÎEX<Y625IWB=S B KR>E4625ANCPiI6bwYA7
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^2]N\B[ey N\AdFMF[B;>CKM2]N\54Cù > /Ø8=N\AxÎWZEPiIWd>v:=25m`KR>EguNLK#N\* 1rz\7YZWIg6ILK#VCg8;7Y:;F 8;7Yg64d>E^<
4uN89F[B=S6g64625798;:=<?>EX_ g6ILK#ICg6VK
<fNLK#N\B;FU>EXO_ K F9>E^ :=ACB;>EDcXY257l2@K.<?KM25e\<YACS <FU>E^
<YIW:;FON\46257`<fN\D6B=7Y<Y7Y4CF[ILK#N\4d>K ¨MIW<Yg6<Y2]N\57 ó r
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|A| ≤ |B| |B| ≤ |A|
+ ¿Z |A| = |B|
Î
¡ KM257YB=g6<Y7Y46257{#N\4dF[IWB[.N -9q|7YB=46:;F[7Y254uN /hXY<YmY:;F[I0K DcIEPhe\XY<Y7Y4625S<¡ KM257YB=g6<Y7Y46257Y^
Gå r ñ 1 DJIW<?K#N\]N4uN\^æ<Y4uN\XY<Y46257@S6D6B=IW=XY25@g6IK|IEgG>WbEK AdF[VWB;>EXO_ôN\^>KR>EAN\<fN\TB=VLK2-
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<fN\^2]N\:;FAWI\46:=F[B=S6ILK#N\462]Nl62 8;7YAWX98;2 f : A −→ KR>E:;FON\B=XY<?>KM:=AaN\<fN\46Dr gGKM257
254a8;7YA\X98;7 f : A −→ 2 bWXYI`KKM257Y5SKR>EDuN\g6AaN\XO_T8;7Y:;F g6S6YITD6B=IW:;F[:=<Y7\r
1−1
na B
1−1 1−1
1 B f2 : B −→ A
¸¹ºWá!ÈÓ Ç Àu¼ (0, 1) ∼ [0, 1] r
kQ>E:;FON\B=XY<?><fN\SdK#N\?>E\bY7 (0, 1) ⊆ [0, 1] ⊆ (−1, 2) rw¢IW4uN\gGF[IoKD6B=<?>EA6PhN\g6<Y2574uN
:;F[B=IW46257 ÖWÖ ñ S6<fN\:[N\g64625525=^>WbY7#g6ILK|IW5467#gGK#N@D6B=<Y7Yg6<Y2]NdP]>I\F9K#N\B;F[7|:[e@B=VLKM46IW525XY<Y467\r
k257Y^>v:;FOe\gbuY7
|(0, 1)| ≤ |[0, 1]| ≤ |(−1, 2)| = |(0, 1)|.
N\:;F[IW:=ILKRN\46257`¡ KM257?B[g6<?7Y462]No{#N\4dF[IWB[N.-9q|7YB=46:;F[7Y254uNA\IW6XY<?>g6ILK|VEgr
¥@XY<?>CKM25=XY257\bJÎWY4uNJ7Y<YDcIW=B=7Yg64u25Iv<Yg67?êu4625ILK#N\62 8;7YAWX98;m f : (0, 1) → [0, 1] bW8;7YgC-
4uN\A@8;7Y:;F#F[I<Yg67YX?>Eg6ILK#N\46257ùN\B=g6<Y25798 S6X?2]e\Y52K#734625MKR>EA\IW4uN\46257@DJILKR>EY:=<Y7fZWIB=IW<YSC-
ÎLKRN\4625NGr
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ÎEXfN\^2C<Y625IWB=VLK-^2]NCPhNRF[7Y|K@PhN\:=46IW=R:=DJVa8;46IW=XY2 baF[<Y4r\d>g6]Nsg6ILK#IW4C>EXO_<Y625IWB=VLK
2 N\5JI A ^2]NCPH46257KM25mYXY798s7Y57Y^7Y4dF[VLK4625 B bwN\5JI B 46257KM25mYXY798 A rJ¡HN\ACY7
K0FU>E^ KR>EDuN\g6ACSxIWAN\<YSa8;7@:=25m\bCY7@DcIW:;F[S6]NaF F[7Y48;7Y:;F#:=DJ7Pi4625IW4d>WbL8;7Yg64uN\AFON\A:ONaÎ6b
A B
ñdù!ø þ \ó ² µ ±nó]ª_³ µ ±y×
8=N\AKD6B=<?>EDuN\g6ACS¡!KM257YB=g6<Y7Y462]N-{#N\4dF[IWB[N.-9q|7YB=46:;F[7Y254uNl254dF[S625X98=NGb Y78;7Y:;FvF[Ily N\AdF
ICXY<?>CKM25:;F9>2|uN\4uN\54d>,8;7Y:;FZEPimYJI\AWIýJPimYg64uNGr ¢IEg6IW646278=N\AlDcIWD6B=<Y7Yg64625I6bg6ILK|VEg
<YIW:;FON\46257`DJICguN\4C>vK ¨MIW<Yg6<Y2]N\57 ó r
¿oÁh»C¹a¼ ºd» Ò Áh»ï ð ^#!,Xc,^lRV'OU;eS*ÊT+W,[Qd,X + "$#%"Ð'
A B
|A| ≤ |B| ∨ |B| ≤ |A|.

k 257Yg6<fe\XM8;S6g6IWA6PhN\g646257\bcXYIoF[Io<Y4uN\XY<?>WbwY7<Y625VWB A ôNÎEX46257TKM25mYAC:=<fevICg

ÎCX?>x<Y625IWB=S B b6ÎWY7Y^>vDcIKM257Yg6<Y257Y\b6XYIF[I<Y4uN\XY<?>WbcY7TôNÎEX`^462798;:=<feGr
ãx»dè Ò Á Ðî?À £Ô+W&;U;e A + B Ê=QOa!,Xc,^lRV',"Ð+«S*ÊT+W,[w#%"Ð+(Î d,X¢+m"Ð'*¿È¸.&ÔS*ÊT+Wd,[ A "$#
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|A| < |B| ⇔ |A| ≤ |B| ∧ |A| 6= |B|.

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g6S6YI:=2554625798;:=<fNI/h2H4uNxIWZWVEPg6S6YIxF[B=S6g64625798;A:=<fNxg6IS6<?>E:=AN\462]NO1s4625254GyhIWB=ôNaX9B8=NGbJY7
<Y625VWB A ôNÎEX46257KM25mYAC:=<fel4625,<Y625VWB B r|¥ 2557JILKM257Y^ g6IDcIWAaN\<fN\462]NGb Y7
KR>E:;FON\B=XY<?>,46Dr6<Y4uN\57Y<Y257Y4625$7 /Ø8;7Yg646798?buA\IW46ACB=7?F[4679Q8 1|yhS646AWX98;2 b
F[IC>vDJIWAaN\<fN\\buY7 |A| < |B| F[B=<Y7YuN@8;7Y:=<YXY<Y7S6g6ILK|IEg64625\b6Y7T46257`25:;F[46f2579:8;7sAyhS6−→ 46A\X9B8=N
1−1
|A| ≤ |B|
g : B −→ 1−1
A
buXYI6b\8=N\AT8;S6T^VLKM2552=^>WbEKR>EôN\ZdNIWZWVW5467YZWIB=IW<YS6ÎLK#N\462]NGr
Ö r |N| < |R| r
¢IW46257?K#N\ N ⊆ R b?KM25mYX |N| ≤ |R| rL¢IW4uN\gGF[IM<D6B=<?>EA6PhN\g6VLK4uNR:;F[B=IW4uN\XO_ ÖWÖ Ú
2 ÖWÖ ñ KM257Y^>WbcY7 N ∼ N+ 2 (0, 1) ∼ R bJN<D6B=<?>EA6PhN\g6Sý4uN:;F[B=IW46257 ÖWÖ åGbuY7
|N+ | 6= |(0, 1)|
r6k>E4625AaN:;FOe\gbuY7 |N| 6= |R| buXYIAWIW6XY<?>g6ILK|VEgr
¤Er ã ]Ng6IK|IW5467YZWI<Y625IWB=S A ôN\^> |A| < |P(A)| r
Ê¡ KM257YB=g6<Y7Y462]N0{#N\4CF[IWB[NKM257Y^>WbsY7 |A| 6= |P(A)| r`ÊAWIW7Y246257?F[B=S6g646I
:=D6B[NfKMg6<Y25\b Y7yhS646A\X98=N f : A → P(A) <fN\guN\4uNxKM<YIWB=7Y^ f (a) = {a} 8;7Y:;F
254a8;7YA\X98=eGbEXY<?>E52w<@¡ KM257YB=g6<Y7Y462]NåGr ñ g6IW:;FON8;7Y^>WbGY7 |A| ≤ |P(A)| bEXYIA\IW6XY<?>
g6ILK|VEgr
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=B VLKM46IW525XY<Y467\bcF[IvN\5JI |A| < |B| bN\5cI |B| < |A| rQAWIW57Y2¢A\IWB=<?>E:;FON8=Ae\XB<¡ KM257YB-
g6<Y7Y462]N,{#N\4dF[IWB[N.-9q|7YB=46:;F[7Y254uNvÎWY4uNxDJI\AaN\<fN\\b!Y7}UB=7Y]NaX98=N < 8;7?:=FTD6B=<Y7YXO_6IEg6462]NGb
XY<?>E52
(|A| < |B| ∧ |B| < |C|) ⇒ |A| < |C|,
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g6ILK#IW5467?ZWI<Y625IWB=S A ôN\^>
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Ùy < Íàx'Y
Ö r ã ]NDJIEguN\4d>EXO_<Y625IWB=VK A 2 B <Y4uN\5T7 ÷YyhS646A\X98;mS6:;FON\]Na8=e\XfeB=VLKM46IW525XY<Y46IW=
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/ ON 1 A = {3n + 1 : n ∈ N}, B = N k
/hB 1 A = N, B = {n ∈ N : (∃k ∈ N) n = 5k} k
/ X 1 A = {n ∈ N : 2|n}, B = {n ∈ Z : ¬2|n} k
/hBg 1 A = {hx, yi ∈ R2 : x + y = 1}, B = R k
/ 7 1 A = [0, 1], B = [0, 1) r
¤Er33g6ILK|IEg64625T¡ KM257YB=g6<Y7Y46257åGrØË¤ / ON 1|ï2 /h*X 1r
ÚGr F[IW:=Sa8=e\XT^7?F[ICg6mTD6B=<Y7YAeaF[4625IK#eS6g6ILK|IEg64625\buY7 N 6∼ NN r
ñ rs¥<Y625IWB[N\XO_ A 2 B KM257Y^>\buY7 |A ∩ B| = |A ∪ B| ruHIWAN\<fN\\bcY7 A ∼ B r
Ý rswuN\guN\\bcXY<?>g6]Ng6IK|IW54d>EXO_46257Y:=A\IW6XY<YIW4d>EX_<Y625IWB=VK A, B, C 2 D D6B[NLK2-
g6<Y2K|7T:[eDJI\4625Y:=<Y7<YguN\462]NGr
/ ON 1zW7?[2!25:;FO462798;7`yhS646A\X98=NB=VWY46IK#N\B;F[IW=XY25ILK#N f : A −→ buAdF[VWB[N46257|8;7Y:;F
}U4uNObGF[I |A| < |B| r
1−1
B
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/ 7 1,zW7?[2 |A| < |C| 2 |B| ≤ |D| F[I |A × B| < |C × D| r
/i;y 1zW7?[2 |A| < |B| 2 C 6= ∅ bGF[I |A × C| < |B × C| r
ñdùEù þ \ó ² µ ±nó]ª_³ µ ±y×
åGr ã ]Ng6IK|IW54d>EX_,<?625IWB=VK A, B C
2 DJIWAN\<fN\\bcY7
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ì r313257YXO_ hAn : n ∈ Ni JmYg6<Y257TXY2]eCZW257Y^j<Y625IWB=VLK FON\AC25^,b6Y7g6]NAN\Yg6798M525XY<YC>
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q
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A
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0
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0
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0
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0
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62 8;7YA\X98=N f : N −→ rU464d>E^2M:PiILKR>Wb yhS646A\X98=N f 4CS6^7YB=Sa8;77Y57Y^7Y4CFU><Y625IWB=S
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1−1
na A
A
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B=<Y798;nËg ÷Y^>vF[7YB[N\<Tg6ID6257YB;KM:=<Y7YZWIFUKM257YB=g6<Y7Y462]NGr
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ãx¾E¿ ¼ 13257YXO_ A 2 B cmYgueg6ILK|IW54C>E^23<Y625IWB[N\^23D6B=<Y7Y525XY<fN\54d>E^2 r U:;F[4625798=e

<fNaF[7Y^Æ62 8;7YA\X98;7 f : N −→ 2 rCwg67?êu4625Sa8;^>yhS646A\X98;m h : N → A ∪ B
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1−1 1−1
na A g : N −→ na B
8;7Y=52 n = 2k g6]NDc7?KM467YZWI k ∈ N
h(n) =
f (k)
g(k)
8;7Y=52 n = 2k + 1 g6]NDc7?KM467YZWI k ∈ N.
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Y7 5S6 raz\7Y=52 ∈ A bfF[I3DJIW4627?KRN\yhS646A\X98=N f : N → A 8;7Y:;F¢:=S6Bh8;7YAWX98=eGb
KM25mYyX ∈8;7YA:;F m ∈y N∈bBFON\AC257 Y7 yf (m) ras57 KRF[7YgG> h(2m) = f (m) = y raHICg6IW646257\b
8;7Y=52 y ∈ B b|F[IA\IWB=<?>E:;FONa8=e\X<F[7YZWI6b#Y7yhS646AWX98=N g : N → B 8;7Y:;F,:=S6Bh8;7YA\X98=e
=y
<Y4uN8;g6Sa8;7Y^> m ∈ N b!FON\AC257Y7 g(m) = y 2KRF[7YgG> h(2m + 1) = g(m) = y r
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<fNCPiIWY7Y462]Ng6IW:;FON8;7Y^>
|N| = |A| ≤ |A ∪ B| ≤ |N|.
F[IW:=Sa8=e\X¡ KM257YB=g6<Y7Y46257Q{#N\4dF[IWB[N.-9q|7YB=46:;F[7Y254uNI\F[B=<?>E^Sa8;7Y^> |A ∪ B| = |N| b|XYI
A\IW6XY<?>g6IK|VEgr
¥@gGK#IEPiSa8=e\XM:=25m3g6I254CF[S625X98;2E}US6:;FONfKM2]N\462]N@K0XY2]eCZaObWDcIKR>EY:=<?>og6ILK|VEgoÎWY4uNTd>
IWD625:[N\o4uN\:;F[mYD6Sa8=e\XYI6r w625IWB;> A 2 B S6:;FONLKM2]N\^>KæXY2]eCZWW2 b A = {a , a , a , . . .} b
0 1 2
ñdù!² 74X ª5±E¬õ > ¬YL®pó]ª_³³!ó µ ®oª µ ª5® > ¬Y®%ó]ª_³³!ó µ ®
/hIEg6DcIKM2]N\guN8=e<fNF[IyhS646AWX98;7 2 1bwN4uN\:;F[mYD646257T}UD6B=<Y7YD6]N.-
FON\^>d|8;7`<Y7T:=IWueð/iFON\Avg6<Y2]NCPhNyhS646A\X98=N h1|g6IW:;FON8=e\X f g
B = {b0 , b1 , b2 , . . .}
A ∪ B = {a0 , b0 , a1 , b1 , a2 , b2 , . . .}.
k UF >E^æXY2]eCZWSvDc7?KM467`KR>EB[N\<?>vÎWZde:=25m@DcIKRFON\B=<fN\Ò/hcI<Y625IWB;> A 2 B 46257s^S6:=<fe
d>E B=IW<Phe\XY<?467*1baN\574uNRDJ7?KM46I8;7Y:;F¢K4625^ 46257Y:=A\IW6XY<Y7Y46257 KM257Y57B=VWY4d>EXO_KR>EB[N\<YVLKTb
XYIAWIW6XY<?>g6ILK|VEgr
ÃÊÒ Áh¾ Å »CÓð é ABC"$#Ð%Xcd*U;eÍS*ÊT+W,[Qd,XÃU;¯R# P X¢' ¸.& P [wS.&^l+WUQS*#%^lRV'OU;e P &;¢U;¯R# P X¢',Ñ
¸.& P [wS.&^l+WUQS*#%^lR#OÎ
ãx¾E¿ ¼ N\SdK#N\Y^>Wb Y7ý4uNlÎEX?>¡ KM257YB=g6<Y7Y4625N-åEr ñ <Y625VWBT8;7Y:;FxXYI4uN89KR>EY798
D6B=<Y7Y525XY<fN\54d>WbJZWgG>p25:;F[4625798;7:=S6Bh8;7YA\X98=Nx<Y7<Y625IWB=S525XY<Y4uNaF[S6B[N\54C>EXO_ý4uNoF[7Y4ý<Y625VWBYr
¢IW46257?K#N\@K g6ILK|IEg6<Y257`¡ KM27YB=g6<Y7Y462]N ì r Ú46257@AWIWB=<?>E:;FON\525=^>o<@F[7YZWI6bGY7@yhS646A\X98;7 f
2 g :[eB=VWY46ILK#N\B;F[IW=XY25ILK#7\bG<fNaF[7Y^ KR>E:;FON\B=XY<?>xIWD6S6=XY25@IW:;FNFO462wN\AaN\D62F|K g6ILK#ICg6<Y257
F[7YZWIFUKM257YB=g6<Y7Y462]NGbud>xI\F[B=<?>EôN\`g6IK|VEgxKM4625IW:=ACSr
DJIW:;F[B=<Y7YY7Y46257TS6XY<?>E4625IW467TD6B=<Y7YgX_dKM25]eK g6ILK|IEg6<Y257@kl4625IW:=ACS ì r ñ JmYg6<Y257Y^>
8;7Y:=<YXY<Y7ýKR>EA\IWB=<?>E:=FU>CKRN\ýKF9>E^ B=IW<Yg6<Y2]N\57\b|d><ýS6g6ILK|IEg64625IW4d>EXO_0F9KM257YB=g6<Y7YI
<Y625IWB[N\XO_ýD6B=<Y7?525XY<fN\54C>EXO_KR>EXY2]edZdN\KM4625IW:=AC2Iv<Y625IWB[N\XO_ýXYIx4uN89KR>EY798`D6B=<Y7Y52XY<fN\¨ -
4d>EXO_rW{|<?>CF[7Y54625AWILKM2CDJIW<YIW:;FONfKM2]N\^>TDcIWAaN\<fN\46257 25464d>EXO_K#7YB=:h8;2CDJILKR>EY:=<f7YZWIsKM4625IW: -
ACSb 46Dr¢:=S6ôN<Y625IWB=SlD6B=<Y7Y525XY<fN\5467YZWI2 <Y625IWB=SlXYIp4uN89KR>EY798D6B[<?7Y525XY<fN\5467YZWI8;7Y:;F
D6B=<Y7Y525XY<fN\54uNEr
3g6ILK#ICg64625^>F[7YB[N\<A\IW5798;4C>ý<fN\:=AN\ACSa8=e\X?>y N\AdFfb!Y7DuN\ B /hS6DcIWB=<fe\g6AWILK#N\4d>EXB_ 1
525XY<Y`4uNaF[S6B[N\54d>EXO_#8;7Y:;F FU>E57:[N\ÎMX?I3525XY<Y`4uNaF[S6B[N\54d>EXO_r FOe\gR8;S6|PhNaFUK|IRKR>CKM4625IW: -
ACSa8;7Y^>WbuY7`525XY<YxKR>E^257YB=4d>EXO_F[7Y#8;7Y:;F3D6B=<Y7Y52XY<fN\546257sKM257Y57\ruN\4625^æD6B=<?>E:;FedD625^>
g6IyhIWB=ôN\5467YZWIxg6IK|IEg6Sb <fN\D625:=<Y^>DuN\B;>ý525XY<YQ4uNaF[S6B[N\54d>EX_K /h46257Y:=A\IW6XY<YIW4679Q8 1
FON\6525X?>o2!:=D6B=VW6Sa8;^>xS6:;FONfKM25#8;7@KXY2]eCZ6r
h0, 0i → h0, 1i h0, 2i → h0, 3i ...
↓ ↑ ↓
h1, 0i ← h1, 1i h1, 2i h1, 3i ...
↓ ↑ ↓
h2, 0i → h2, 1i → h2, 2i h2, 3i ...
↓
rrr
h3, 0i ← h3, 1i ← h3, 2i ← h3, 3i rrr rrr . . .
↓
13257#8;7Y:;F3F[B=S6g646Io<fN\SdKRN\?>E\bJY725gue\XTKF[7Y4p:=DcIW:=VW,}UICgGKM257Yg6<Y25^>dÀN\YgG>,7Y57=-
^7Y4dF FON\6525X?>`2dKg6ICguNaF[ACS<YB=IW625^>@F[IMFU>E5AWI3B[N\<\bXY<?>E52CDcIKR>EY:=<fNs^7?F[IEguNMIWD625:=Sa8;7
Dc7?KM4ue62 8;7YA\X98;m`DJIW^25mYg6<?>o<Y625IWB[N\^2 N 2 N × N rc¥@XY<?>CKM25=XY257\bu46257 8;7Y:;FRF[Is8;7YgG>E4uN
Å ò½ñ 74X ª5±E¬õ > ¬Y®%ó]ª_³³!ó µ ® ñdù Å
ÎWY52K#N,62 8;7YA\X98=NGb¢Kjg6ICguNaF[ACSF[B=S6g646Iýd>uPiIWC>,8=ep<fN\D625:[N\oKM<YIWB=7Y^,r ã ]NaF[7YZWIpK

DJIW4625Y:=<?>E^g6ILK#ICg6<Y257S6?>L8;7Y^>p62 8;7YA\X98;2 bcAdFOV\BONoICg6DJILKM2]N\guNS6:=FONfKM2]N\4625SpDJIvA\IW57Y2
65IWA\VK FU>EXO_pDuN\BYbGKAdF[VWB;>EX_KM:=DJVEPiB=<YmYg6467guNa8=eFOe:[N\ôe:=S6^m\b6F[<Y4r
N × N = {h0, 0i, h0, 1i, h1, 0i, h0, 2i, h1, 1i, h2, 0i, h0, 3i, . . .}.
¿ Áh»C¹a¼ ºd» Ò Áh»ýð Õ |N × N| = |N| Î
o
ãx¾E¿ ¼ ¨MIW<?K#N\Y^>vyhS646A\X98;m f : N × N → N <fN\guN\4ueKM<YIWB=7Y^
(x + y)(x + y + 1)
f (x, y) = + x.
2
¢ IWAaN\Y7Y^>Wb!Y7s8;7Y:;FIW4uNoKM<fN8;7Y^46257s8;7Yg646IW<Y4uN\XY<Y4uNGrkQ>EA\IWB=<?>E:;FON\^>KFU>E^
XY7Y5S
DJIWÎCXY4625XY<fe`yhS646A\X98;m ϕ : N → N /hXY<?>E52cXY2]edZ525XY<Y4uNaF[S6B[N\54d>EX_B1<fN\guN\4ue`KM<YIWB=7Y^
rEN\SdKRN\Y^>WbdY78;7Y:;F|IW4u
N /h=XY25=5*7 1B=IW:=4ue\XfNT2uB=IW<Y6257YY4uNTg6I46257Y:=A\IWC -
XY<YIW46IW=XY2 IWB[2N\<`Y7 f (x, y) = ϕ(x + y) + x r
ϕ(n) = n(n+1)
klT7 ÷Y^>F[7YB[N\<gGKM257B=VWY467DuN\B;>p525XY<Yý4uNaF[S6B[N\54d>EXO_ hx, yi 2 hx0, y0i r exgGKM257
ÎWY52K|IW=XY2 r
Ö r x + y = x0 + y0 rGkQ>E4625AN:;FOe\gbGY7 x 6= x0 /hcIZWgG>Ed> x = x0 bGF[I y = y0 b6XYI
8;7Y:;F346257YÎWY52~K|7\b6ZWgG>E hx, yi 6= hx0, y0i1rus57@KRF[7YgG>
f (x, y) = ϕ(x + y) + x 6= ϕ(x + y) + x0 = ϕ(x0 + y 0 ) + x0 = f (x0 , y 0 ).
¤Er rq|7Y<0<Y^4625798;:=<Y7Y462]NIWZWVW546IW=XY2oÎWY7Y^>Æ<fNCPiIW>E\bY7
x + y 6= x0 + y 0
b XY<?>E52 x + y + 1 ≤ x0 + y0 r|©sI\B[<>E:=FON8=e\Xp<pF[7YZ\I6b Y7 ϕ
8;7Y:;F3B=IW:=4ue\XfNI\F[B=<?>E^Sa8;7Y^>
x + y < x0 + y 0
f (x, y) < ϕ(x + y) + x + y + 1 = ϕ(x + y + 1) ≤ ϕ(x0 + y 0 ) ≤ f (x0 , y 0 ).

|{ <?>E52!2wK F9>E^jKR>EDuN\g6ACSpôN\^> f (x, y) 6= f (x0, y0) r
¢IWAaN\<fN\525=^>v<fNaF[7Y^buY7`yhS646A\X98=N f 8;7Y:;F3B=VWY46ILK#N\B;F[IW=XY25ILKRNGr
13257YX_F[7YB[N\< m ∈ N JmYg6<Y257xg6ILK|IW54ue525XY<?ue4uNaF[S6B[N\54ueGrH¢IW46257?K#N\vyhS646A\X98=N
8;7Y:;F,B=IW:=4ue\XfN2`B=IW<Y627YY4uN-g6I46257Y:=AWIW6XY<YIW46IW=XY2 b#KM25mYXx8;7Y:;F k ∈ N FON\AC257\bRY7
ϕ
rB=<?>L8;^2 8;^> x = m − ϕ(k) 2 y = k − x r¢IW46257?KRN\
ϕ(k) ≤ m < ϕ(k + 1)
ϕ(k + 1) − ϕ(k) = k + 1
bGF[I 0 ≤ x ≤ k buXY<?>E52 x, y ∈ N rJnpN\^>oKRF[7YgG>
f (x, y) = ϕ(x + y) + x = ϕ(k) + (m − ϕ(k)) = m.
{|<?>E52yhS646A\X98=N f
8;7Y:;FM}U4uNLOb6XYIA\IW6XY<?>g6ILK#VCgr
ñdù!× 74X ª5±E¬õ > ¬YL®pó]ª_³³!ó µ ®oª µ ª5® > ¬Y®%ó]ª_³³!ó µ ®
ã ILK#VCgDcIW4625Y:=<Y7YZWIpD6B=<?>EguNaF[467YZWIpKM4625IW:=ACSlDJIW<YIW:;FONfKM2]N\^>o8=N\A\IpD6B=IW:;F[7?KM2¨-
YX <Y7Y46257\r
ÃÊÒ Áh¾ Å »CÓð ï=^_*UQST',RI)p#%[=&QS P #KÓn;),+c%Xcd*U;e k(;)O®ÓUQS.&RV+W&ÍX¢+W&^l)mÒS*ÊT+W,[Qd,X¼[wS.&^l+mÑ
UQS*#%^lRV'OU;e P &;ÈS*ÊT+W,[Q&"Â[wS.&^l+WUQS*#%^lRV',"$Î
n N\^>l8;S6ýF[7YB[N\<KM:=<?>E:=F[AC257QDJIaFOB=<Y7?6467Q4uN\B=<YmYg6<Y2]N-g6I-DJIWAN\<fN\462]NGb#Y7Q25XY<Y
p
KR>E^257YB=4d>EXO_8;7Y:;FD6B=<Y7Y525XY<fN\546257,KM257Y57\b|XYI-ÎWY7ýD6B=<Y7YXY<?>EQ254dF[S625X98;2 b Y7o8;7Y:;F,25XO_
}Ug6S6YIaKDJIWB=VLKM4uN\4625Sg6Il525XY<Y4uNaF[S6B[N\54d>EXO_r#N\SdK#N\Y^>ý8;7Yg64uN\Acb Y7p254dF[S625X98=N
FONx6257YB=<Y7:=25m<K@PhN\:=46IW=XY2 DcIWB=<fe\g6AWILKR>EXO _ 4p<Y625VWB`525XY<YýKR>E^257YB=4d>EX_x8;7Y:;FZWmY:;F9>
K <Y625IWB=<Y7525XY<YQB=<Y7YXY<?>CKM25:;F9>EXO5 _ /hXY<?>E52 DcIW^25mYg6<?>g6ILK|IW54C>E^2B=VWY4C>E^2525XY<YuN\^2
B=<Y7YXY<?>CKM25:;FU>E^2E<Y4uNa8;g6<Y257Y^>T525XY<YJmKR>E^257YB=4uOe 1bLXYI 8;7Y:;F¢KIWDJIW<?>EX98;2Eg6IM}UB=<fN\g6A\IW=XY2~
<Y625IWB=S525XY<Y4uNaF[S6B[N\54d>EX_rDJIW4625Y:=<Y7YZWIF9KR257YB=g6<Y7Y462]NpKR>E4625AaN<fNaF[7Y^,bHY7v<Y625VWB
}Ug6S6?>d`K8;7?g64C>E^:=7Y46:=257TÎWY7`d>E`}UôNCP]>dsK25464d>E^,r
¿oÁh»C¹a¼ ºd» Ò Áh»ýð ð Î
|Q| = ℵ0
ãx¾E¿ ¼ N\XY<Y462 8;^>oICg<Yg67?êu4625ILK#N\462]NyhS646A\X98;2
KM<YIWB=7Y^ f (k, l) = k rHI\46257?KRN\vAaNaYguNý525XY<YuN,KRf>E^: N257YB=×4uNN8;7Y:;→FSJ{qPhN\^∈ ACQ257Y:^,qb!≥KM250} mYX
+
yhS646A\X98=N f 8;7Y:;FR}U4uNOrcý¡ KM257YB=g6<Y7Y462]NåGr ñ ôN\^>o<fNaF[7Y^

l
|{q ∈ Q : q ≥ 0}| ≤ |N × N+ |.
ã N\5798?b g6<Y25mYAC2 ¡ KM257YB=g6<Y7Y4625SåGrØ¤Ë/ NO1`ôN\^> |N × N+| = |N × N| /hJIpKM257Y^>Wb Y7
1ru¢IW4uN\gGF[IIEXY<?>CKM25=XY257 N ⊆ {q ∈ Q : q ≥ 0} r6©3IWB=<?>E:;FONa8=e\X`<@¡ KM257YB=g6<Y7=-
462]N ì r Ý I\F[B=<?>E^Sa8;7Y^>
N ∼ N+
|N| = |N × N| = |N × N+ | ≥ |{q ∈ Q : q ≥ 0}| ≥ |N|.

¡ KM257YB=g6<Y7Y462]N{#N\4dF[IWB[N.-9q|7YB=46:;F[7Y254uNKR>E4625AaN<fNaF[7Y^,bGY7T<Y62VWBR52XY<YvKR>E^257YB=4d>EX_

46257YSa8;7Y^4d>EXO_8;7Y:;FD6B=<Y7Y525XY<fN\54C>\rMk XY7Y5S<fN\AWIW6XY<Y7Y462]Ng6IK|IEg6S<fN\SCK#N\Y^>WbsY7
{q ∈ Q : q ≥ 0} ∼ {q ∈ Q : q ≤ 0}
rc¢IW46257?KRN\
Q = {q ∈ Q : q ≥ 0} ∪ {q ∈ Q : q ≤ 0},
KM25mYX`4uNÎEX?>v¡ KM257YB=g6<Y7Y462]N ì r Ú<Y625VWB#525XY<YxKR>E^257YB=4d>EXO_8;7Y:;F3D6B=<Y7Y525XY<fN\54d>Wr
DJILKR>EY:=<Y7fZWI-FUKM257YB=g6<Y7Y462]NlKR>E4625AaNICgB[N\<YS254dF[7YB=7Y:=Sa8=e\X?>KM4625I\:[7?AcbRAdF[VWB;>
^VLKM2w4uN\^,bEY7`525XY<Yx46257?KR>E^257YB=4d>EXO_8;7Y:;FRKM25mYXY798|4625@525XY<YvKR>E^27YB=4C>EXO_b6XYIB=VL2K -
46257Y@ÎWY7@46257@d>E`254dFOS62X?>L8;46257sIEXY<?>CKM25:;F[7\b\8=N\A\IY7`<@525XY<YuN\^2cKR>E^257YB=4d>E^2w:=DJ,I -
FU>EAaN\^>l:=25moXY<YmY=XY25798?r¢k guN\5:=<Y798XY<YmY=XY2#F[7YZWIB=IW<Yg6<Y2]NCPiSDcIWAaN\Y7Y^>8;7Y:=<YXY<Y72546467
KR>E4625AC2!D6B=<Y7YXY<fe\XY7TF[7YZWIFU>ED6S,254CF[S625X98;I\^,r
Å ò½ñ 74X ª5±E¬õ > ¬Y®%ó]ª_³³!ó µ ® ñdù ö
ÃÆÒ Áh¾ Å »CÓð Â õ äÈÊT+Wd,[E^l+WUQS*ÊÍRV+W&X¢',"Ð+W&[=RV'OU;e P &;ZRV+W&[wS.&^l+WUQS*#%^lRV'pÎ

ãx¾E¿ ¼ NCPiVWY^>p46257KMD6B=IW:;Ffb!Y7<Y625VWB@525XY<Yý46257?KR>E^257YB=4d>EX_ R \ Q 4625738;7Y:;F
46257YD6B=<Y7Y525XY<fN\54d>Wb XY<?>E52!8;7Y:;FXYI4uN89KR>EY798D6B=<Y7Y525XY<fN\54d>Wr¢HIW46257?K#N\KM257Y^>x8;S6\b¢Y7
<Y625VWB@525XY<YKR>E^257YB=4d>EX_ Q 8;7Y:;FTD6B=<Y7Y525XY<fN\54d>Wbw<fNaF[7Y^
<YZWIEg646257<kQ4625IW:=AC257Y^ ì r ñ
<Y625VWB (R \ Q) ∪ Q = R 8;7Y:;FoD6B=<Y7Y52XY<fN\54C>Wr¡ Ix8;7Yg64uN\A462578;7Y:;FÎWY52~K#ù 7 /hDuNaF[B=<
D6B=<?>EA6PhN\gp4uN:;F[B=IW46257 Ö ¤ ø 1ru3<?>E:=AaN\4uN:=D6B=<Y7YXY<Y46IW=A\IW6XY<?>g6IK|VEgr
¨MIW<?KRN\Y^>F[7YB[N\<4uN\:;F[mYD6Sa8=e\XY7ogGK#N25:;F[I\F[467D6B=<?>EA6PhN\gG>Wb¢AdF[VWB=7DJIWAN\fe,4uN\^,b
8=N\AvÎ\Y4uNS6<fN\:[N\g6462]N\TD6B=<Y7Y525XY<fN\546IW=`Dc7?KM4C>EXO_<Y625IWB=VLKTr
Ö rsw625VWB S KM:=<?>E:;F[AC25X_D6B=<Y7?g6<Y2]NCPiV5 K /hI\F9K#N\B;FU>EXOB_ 1 IsIW6SA\IW6XfN\XO_KR>E^27YB=4C>EXO_
8;7Y:;F3D6B=<Y7Y525XY<fN\54d>Wr
¨MIW<YDuNaF[B=<Y^>-yhS646A\X98;m f : S → Q2 <fN\guNa4uelKM<?IWB=7Y^ f ((a, b)) = ha, bi r
zWN\APhNaFUK|I<fN\SCK#N\?>Ev8;7Y:;FxF[I254a8;7YA\X98=NGb#XY<?>E52s4uNÎCX?>¡ KM257YB=g6<Y7Y462]NåGr ñ
ôN\^> |S| ≤ |Q2| rJk257Y^>F[7Yg6<Y25mYAC2H¡ KM257YB=g6<Y7Y4625S ì r ì 2 kl4625IW:=AWILKM2 ì r åGb
Y7 |Q2| = ℵ r
xg6B=S6ZW25798:;F[0B=IW4d>IWACB=7Y=5^>yhS646A\X98;m g : N → S KM<YIWB=7Y^ g(n) = (n, n + 1) r
3KÆF9>E^
KR>EDuN\g6ACSPhNaFUK#I,DcIWAaN\<fN\\b Y7yhS646AWX98=N g 8;7Y:;F254a8;7YAWX98=eGb!XY<?>E52FON\A
8=N\ADJIWD6B=<Y7Yg64625IôN\^> |S| ≥ |N| = ℵ r#¡¢7?BONa<ýKR>E:;FON\B=XY<?>0<fN\:;F[IW:=ILKRN\
¡ KM257YB=g6<Y7Y46257{#N\4dF[IWB[.N -9q|7YB=46:;F[7Y254uNGb6C>xI\F[B=0<?>EôN\ |S| = ℵ r
0
¤Er ã ILK|IW54C><Y625VWBDuN\B[N\^2GB=IW<Phe\XY<Y4d>EXO_D6B=<Y7Yg6<Y2]NCPiVLÁ K /hI\F9K#N\B;FU>EXOB_ 1J8;7Y:;F XYI`4uNa8 -
KR>EY798MD6B=<Y7Y525XY<fN\54d>Wr
13257YXO_ cmYg6<Y257 <Y625IWB=7Y^ DuN\B[N\^2WB=IW<Phe\XY<Y4d>EXO_D6B=<Y7Yg6<Y2]NCPiVLKI\FUKRN\B;FU>EXO_r ã ]N
AaNaYg67YZWTIsD6B=<Y7Yg6<Y25NCPiS I ∈ T KR>E6257YB=<Y^>`DJ7?KM4ueMA\IW46ACB=7?F[4ue3525XY<YcmKR>E^257YB=4ue
<#F[7YZWITD6B=<Y7Yg6<Y2]NCPið S /iKM27Y^>Wb\Y7RFON\A\ILK#N`25:;F[4625798;7\bdN@4uNfK#7?FfbWY78;7Y:;F 25XO_uN\B=g6<YI
g6S6YI6b|N\57,^>KR>E6257YB[N\^>-F9>E5A\I8;7Yg64uOe 1234uN\<?KM2 8;^>ý8=e r#wg67?êu4625Sa8;^>
F[7YB[N\<,yhS646A\X98;m h : T → Q KM<YIWB=7Y^ h(I) = q r#N\SCK#N\qYI^>Wb Y78;7Y:;FoF[I
yhS646A\X98=NB=VWY46IK#N\B;F[IW=XY25ILK#NGr|U:;F[I\F[46257\b!8;7Y=52sôN\Î> I , I ∈ T , I 6= I b
F[I<<fNCPiIWY7Y462]NlKM257Y^>Wb Y7 I ∩ I = ∅ r#HIW4627?KRN\ 1h(I2 ) = q 1 ∈ I 2 2
bJF[Ix^S6:=2d>E1 h(I2 ) 6= h(I ) r!NaF[7Y^<1¡ KM257YB=g6I<Y7Y462]NxåG1 r ñ
1
KR>E4625AN |T | ≤ |Q| = ℵ b6XYIA\IW6XY<?>1g6ILK#VCgr 2

h(I2 ) = qI ∈ I2
2
0
@¥ AaN\<YSa8;7o:=25mab Y7o¡ KM257YB=g6<Y7Y46257 ì r Ú,ÎWY4uNS6IWZWVW546254uN,:=S6^mKM25mYAC:=<Y798255IW=XY2
<Y625IWB=VLKTr
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RV'OU;e P &;@[wS.&^l+WUQS*#%^lR#OÎ
ñ/5Cø 74X ª5±E¬õ > ¬YL®pó]ª_³³!ó µ ®oª µ ª5® > ¬Y®%ó]ª_³³!ó µ ®
ãx¾E¿ ¼ ¨MIW<?K#N\Y^>B=IEg6<Y2546mx<Y62IWB=VK FON\AC25X_bHY7
6g ]NoAaN\Yg6798@525XY<Yd>4uNaF[S6B[N\546798 n rwk <?KM2]e\<Y{A
ACSn <: FUn>E^ ∈ g6N}
]NvAN\Yg67YZWI n ∈|ANn|ô=N\^ℵ> 0
yhS646A\X98;m f : N −→ 1−1
A
rc13257YXO_
n na n
[
A= An .
n∈N
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ÎWY4uN:;FUKM257YB=g6<Y25\bcY7M8;7Y:;Fs25XO_pg6IWA6PhN\g646257D6B=<Y7Y525XY<fNa546257`KM257Y57\buJIÎWY7:=25m<YguN.-
B=<?>E\bCY73K0B=ICg6<Y2546257 {A : n ∈ N} 8;7Y:;F FU>E5AWI:=A\IW6XY<Y7Y462573KM257Y57MB=VWY4d>EX_o<Y625IWB=VKTb
ZWgG>E`F[7Y4,:[N\^%<Y625VWBRÎWnY7`:=25m`DJILKRFON\B=<fN\`KM257Y5IWACB=I\F[46257@<TB=VWY4d>E^2!2546g67YAC:[N\^2 r
ã 7?êu4625Sa8;7Y^>pF[7YB[N\<yhS646A\X98;m KM<YIWB=7Y^ /Ø8;7Y=52
D6B=<?>L8;^257Y^>WbfY7yhS646A\X98=N f 4ES6^f7YB=Sa: 8;N7 5×25XY<YNuN\→^2\A4uNaF[S6B[N\54d>E^f2W(n,
<Y625k)VWB =A fbfnF[(k)
I f (n, k)
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K|T7 ÷Y^>g6IK|IW5467 x ∈ A ruk0F[7YgG>n25:;F[4625798;7`525XY<YuN4uNaF[S6B[N\54uN n buFON\ANY7 x ∈ A r
s57RyhS646AWX98=N f 8;7Y:;F }U4uNObd<fNaF[7Y^8;7Y:;F k ∈ N bdFON\AC2573Y7 x = f0 (k ) = f (n , kn) b 0
XYI4uN\57YfNCPiIDJnIWAN\<fN\\r
0
0 n 0
0 0 0
©3IWB=<?>E:;FONa8=e\XT<`¡ KM257YB=g6<Y7YåGr ñ 2 ì r Ý IWB[N\<@F[7YZWI6buY7 A ⊆ A I\F[B=<?>E^Sa8;7Y^>

0
|N| = |A0 | ≤ |A| ≤ |N × N| = |N|

2S6?>EXY257¡!KM257YB=g6<Y7Y462]No{#N\4dF[IWB[N.-9q|7YB=46:;F[7Y254uNAWIW6XY<?>g6ILK|VEgr
s4uN\5IWZW25XY<Y46257 8=N\AKD6B=<?>EDuN\g6ACSo¡ KM257YB=g6<Y7?462]N ì r ÚGbWÎWY7Y^>KR>E:=4ES634uN\:;F[mYD6SC-
8=e\XY7@KM4625IW:=AC2 buAdF[VWB;>EXO_,S6<fN\:[N\g646257Y46257TDJIW<YIW:;FONfKM2]N\^>8=N\A\ID6B=IW:;F[7T?KM25XY<Y7Y46257\r
ÃÊÒ Áh¾ Å »CÓð ÍCÂ ABC"$#[wS.&^l+WUQS*#%^lRV+W&X¢+W&^lùS*ÊT+W,[Qd,X [wS.&^l+WUQS*#%^lRV'OU;e P &;Z[wS.&^l+mÑ
UQS*#%^lR#OÎ
ÃÊÒ Áh¾ Å »CÓð cÍ Í BA C"$# U;¾RB# P X¢' ¸.& P [wS.&^l+WUQS*#%^lRV+W&ùX¢+W&^l9S*ÊT+W,[Qd,X U;¾R# P X¢' ¸.& P
[wS.&^l+WUQS*#%^lRV'OU;e P &;U;ÒR# P X¢' ¸.& P [wS.&^l+WUQS*#%^lR#OÎ
ÃÊÒ Áh¾ Å »CÓð EÍ Þ BA C"$#Í[wS.&^l+WUQS*#%^lRV+W&ÍX¢+W&^lYS*ÊT+W,[Qd,XåU;R# P X¢' ¸.& P [wS.&^l+WUQS*#%^lRV'OU;e
P &;@[wS.&^ +WUQS*#%^lR#OÎ
Wz N\A\IoD6B=IW:;F[7<fN\:;F[IW:=ILK#N\46257DcIKR>EY:=<?>EX_pF9KM257YB=g6<Y7YpB=IW<YDuNaF[B=<Y^>x4uN\:;F[mYD6Sa8=e\X?>
D6B=<?>EA6PhN\gr
¸¹ºWá!ÈÓ Ç Àu¼jw625VWB KM:=<?>E:;F[AE25XO_KM257Y5IW^25N\46VLKIsKM:=DcVEPiXY<?>E4u4625AN\X_XfNCPiA\ILKM2F9>EXO_
8;7Y:;F3D6B=<Y7Y525XY<fN\54d>Wr W
13257YXO_ W IW<Y4uN\XY<fN-<Y625VWBoKM:=<?>E:=F[AC25XO_ KM257Y5IW^25N\46VLK:;F[IWD6462]N n IKM:=DJVEPiXY<?>E4C-
4625AN\X_XfNCnPiA\ILKM2FU>EX_rHIW46257?K#N\ AaN\YgG>`KM257Y5IW^25N\4 a xn +a xn−1 +. . .+a x+a
n n−1 1 0
Å òù¶74X ª5±E¬õ°±V³*õI³± µn: ª µV?? ° ñ/5Vñ
ÎWY4uNsSGF[IWY:[N\^25 <#XY2]edZW257Y^ 525XY<YXfNCPiA\ILKM2FU>EX_ ba<fNaF[7Y^J7Y<

F[B=S6g6S,ÎWY7Y^>vS6g6ILK#ICg64625\buY7 |W | = ℵ r6s57@haKMn25,7Ya^n−1
>\buY, 7 . . . , a1, a0i
n 0
[
W= Wn ,
n∈N
KM25mYXT:;F[IW:=Sa8=e\X`kl4625IW:=7YA ì r ÖLø g6IW:;FON8;7Y^> |W| = ℵ r

0
B=<?>EDJIW^462 8;^>WbcY7525XY<YuNB=<Y7YXY<?>CKM25:;FON a 4uN\<?>CK#Nv:=25m#%^ `!& ÊT[Q#%+WUQSTRBaWba8;7Y=52¢25:;Fz-

4625798;7 KM257Y5IW^25N\
4 /h:;F[IWD6462]N3XYIs4uNa8;^4625798!D6257YB;KM:=<Y7YZWI!1 I3KM:=DJVEPiXY<?>E464625AaN\XO_XfNCPiA\IKM2¨-
FU>EX_ W (x) bdFON\AC2cY7 W (a) = 0 rE!25XY<YJm3B=<Y7YXY<?>CKM25:;FOeGbEAdF[VWB[N462578;7Y:;FRN\5ZW7Y6B[N\25XY<Y4uN
4uN\<?>CK#N\^ù > [wS.&;Ra\r¢!25XY<YuN\^2 N\5ZW7Y6B[N\25XY<Y4d>E^2 :[ep<fNaF[7Y^µ525XY<Yd>KR>E^257YB=467\b
NFON\ACY7TD6257YB;KM2]N\:;F[AC2N\B;>CF[^7?FU>EXY<Y467Tg6ILK#IW5467YZWI:;F[IWD6462]N<@525XY<YvKR>E^257YB=4d>EX_r6UC4 -
4d>E^2:PiILKR>Wb6KM25mYAC:=<YI\[T525XY<YbG<ÀdF[VWB;>E^2w:=25m@4uNXYIg6<Y257Yx:=DJI\FU>EAaN\^>vF[IK@PhN\=46257
525XY<Yd>xN\5ZW7Y6B[N\25XY<Y467\rc¥@AaN\<YSa8;7T:=25m|8;7Yg64uN\AcbcY7T25XO_xF[7Y#8;7Y:;F346257?KM257Y57\r
¸¹ºWá!ÈÓ Ç Àu¼w625VWB#525XY<YN\5ZW7Y6B[N\25XY<Y4C>EXO_ A 8;7Y:;F3D6B=<Y7Y525XY<fN\54d>Wr
N\SdKRN\Y^>Wb6Y7
[
A = {a ∈ R : (∃W ∈ W) W (a) = 0} = {a ∈ R : W (a) = 0},
W ∈W
ZWg6<Y257 8;7Y:;F<Y625IWB=7Y^.KM:=<?>E:;F[AC25X_KM257Y5IW^2]Na46VKÆIpKM:=DJVEPiXY<?>E464625AaN\XO_-XfNCPiA\IKM¨2 -
UF >EX_rk W DJIWD6B=<Y7Yg64625^ D6B=<?>EA6PhN\g6<Y257DJIWAaN\<fN\525=^>WbwY7<Y625V\B W 8;7Y:;FTD6B=<Y7Y525XY<fN\54d>Wb
KM257Y^>lDcIW4uN\gGF[I6bHY7xAN\YgG>KR257Y5IW^2]Na4lôNp:=AWIW6XY<Y7Y46257vKM257Y57o^25798;:=Xo<Y7YB=IKR>EXO_r
NaF[7Y^j4uNÎEX?>okl4625IW:=ACS ì r Ö ¤g6IW:;FON8;7Y^>WbuY7 |A| = ℵ r
0
¨MIW<YS6^Sa8=e\X#DcIEg6IW646257\b?8=N\ATK#7#kl4625IW:=ACS ì r ×@ÎWY7Y^>DcIWAaN\<fN\\bWY7M<Y625VWB525XY<Y
D6B=<Y7Y:;F[mYD64d>GXO_x8;7Y:;F`46257YD6B=<Y7?525XY<fN\54C>Wrwz\7Y:;F`25XO_<fNaF[7Y^KM25mYXY798s4625525XY<YýN\5ZW7Y6B[N\25XY=< -
4d>EX_r¡ 7Y4ýy N\AdF`ÎWY7F[7YD6B=<Y7?XY<?>G254dF[S625X98;2 buJIvK<fN\:[N\g6<Y25738;7YgG>E4d>E^2525XY<YuN\^2
D6B=<Y7Y:;F[mYD64d>G^2 XY<Ym?[X?25798M:=DJI\FU>EAaN\4d>E^2 :[e e 2 π r
Ù < 'ÝTÆâ ÝÊZâ c ÝÐÜ 'Y$ÛîÛ\
¢
ã IF[798|DcIWB;>vDcIW<Y4uN\525=^>AC255AaND6B=<?>EA6PhNag6VK <Y625IWB=VLK 46257YD6B=<Y7Y525XY<fN\54d>EXO_ruN8 -

^257Y^>ý:=25mF[7YB[N\<DJ7?KM4uepAC]N\:[e,<?625IWB=VKÆ46257YD6B=<Y7Y525XY<fN\54d>EX_b N,^2]N\46ILKM25XY27<Y625I,-
B[N\^26B=VKM46IW525XY<Y4d>E^26<Y73<Y625IWB=7Y^Æ525XY<YB=<Y7YXY<?>CKM25:;FU>EX_ R rG¥FON\AC25XO_<Y625IWB[N\XO_^V,-
KM25^>Wb\Y7R:[e`ÎCX?>XYIW4dF[254CS6S6^ /Ø8;7Y=52 A 8;7Y:;FFON\AC25^<Y625IWB=7Y^,bF[I`D625:=<Y7Y^> |A| = c1r
1sNa8;D6257YB;K-8;7Yg64uN\AvS6g6ILK#ICg64625^>v57YôNaFfr
ü »E½lÀ Ç ð ÍEÌ ^#!,Xc,^lR&i`!ÍS*ÊT+W,[ "$#%"Ð' P(A) ∼ {0, 1}A Î
A
ñ/5Gù 74X ª5±E¬õ > ¬YL®pó]ª_³³!ó µ ®oª µ ª5® > ¬Y®%ó]ª_³³!ó µ ®
ãx¾E¿ ¼ wg67?êu4625Sa8;^>-yhS646A\X98;m F : P(A) → {0, 1}A KM<YIWB=7Y^ F (B) = χ
/hD6B=<?>EDcIW^462 8;^>WbWY7 χ F[IyhS646A\X98=NXO_uN\B[N\AdF[7YB;>E:;F9>EXY<Y4cN<Y625IWB=S B 1r D6B[NfKMg6<Y7Y46257\Bb
Y7 F 8;7Y:;FH62 8;7YA\X98=e8;7Y:;FHBD6B=IW:;F9>E^ ?KM25XY<Y7Y46257Y^bAdF[VWB=7 DJIW<YIW:;FONfKM2]N\^>T{|<?>CF[7Y54625A\IKM2 r

yhIWB=^SJPiSa8;7Y^>F[7YB[N\<TZEPiVLKM467`FUKM257YB=g6<Y7Y46257`F[7YZWIDJIEg6B=IW<Yg6<Y2]NCPiSr
¿oÁh»C¹a¼ ºd» Ò Áh»ýð Í é Î
|R| = |{0, 1}N | = |NN | = |P(N)|
ãx¾E¿ ¼ ã ILK|VEg,D6B=<Y7YD6B=ILK#N\g6<Y25^>vKD6S646AdFON\XO_r
Ö rs!7YôNaF[S ì r Ö ÚK#>E4625AaNGbuY7 |P(N)| = |{0, 1}N| r
¤Er3¢IW46257?K#N\ÀaN\YgG>xXY2]eCZ<Y7YBM2E8;7YgG>E467YA8;7Y:;F3XY2]edZW257Y^æ525XY<Yx4uNaF[S6B[N\54d>EXO_bGKM25mYX
r¢HIW4uN\gGF[I8;7Y=52 f ∈ NN b F[Ip<g67?êu4625X98;2 yhS646A\X98;2 KR>E4625AaNGb¢Y7
{0, 1}N ⊆ NN
rW{|<?>E52 NN ⊆ P(N×N) rW¡ KM257YB=g6<Y7YåErØË¤ /h*X 1 2 ì r Ý KM4625IW:=ACSa8;7Y^>Wb
Y7 P(N × N) ∼ P(N)
f ⊆ N×N
ru <fNaF[7Y^%ôN\^>
|{0, 1}N | ≤ |NN | ≤ |P(N × N)| = |P(N)|.
ã <Y25mYAC2uDJIEg6D6S646AdF[ILKM2cD6257YB;KM:=<Y7Y^So2u¡ KM257YB=g6<Y7Y4625Sv{#N\4CF[IWB[N.-9q|7YB=46:;F[7Y254uN`g6I,-
;: FON8;7Y^> |{0, 1}N| = |NN| = |P(N)| r
ÚGr3¢IWAN\Y7Y^>F[7YB[N\<\b Y7 |R| ≤ |P(N)| r HICg6IW6462578=N\AD6B=<Y7YgXO_dKM25]eGbg6<Y25mYAC2
KR>EA\IWB=<?>E:;FON\4625S ¡ KM257YB=g6<Y7YåErØ¤Ë/hX*1o2 ì r ì KR>E:;FON\B=XY<?>4uN\^S6g6IK|IEg64625\b#Y7
rJk FU>E^XY7Y5Sý<Yg67?êu4625Sa8;^>yhS646AWX98;m f : R → P(Q) KM<YIWB=7Y^
|R| ≤ |P(Q)|
rJN\SCK#N\Y^>WbcY7 f 8;7Y:;FsB=VWY46ILKRN\B;F[IW=XY25ILK#NGrcU:;F[I\zF -
46257\b46257YXO_ x, y ∈ R, x 6= y r q|7Y<<Y^4625798;:=<Y7Y462]NxIWZWVW546IW=XY2HÎWZWm<fNCPiIW?>E\b
f (x) = {q ∈ Q : q < x}
Y7 x < y r#¢IW46257?K#N\DJIW^25mYg6<?>g6IK|IW54d>E^23gGKM257YôNlB=VWY4d>E^2s525XY<YuN\^2
B=<Y7YXY<?>CKM25:;FU>E^2M<fNfKM:=<Y7,ÎWY7Y^><Y4uN\5T7 ÷Y525XY<YJmvKR>E^257YB=4ueGbHKM25mYXx25:;F[4625798;7
b!FNaAC257oY7 x < q < y r s57KRF[7YgG> q 6∈ f (x) 2 q ∈ f (y) b¢XY<?>E52
q0 ∈ Q
f (x) 6= f (y)
rJNa:=F[IW:=ILK#N\046257`¡ KM257YB=g6<Y7Y462]NåGr ñ 0guN8;7Tfe\guN\4ue0 46257YB=VKM46IW=\r
ñ r ã I`<fN\AWIW6XY<Y7Y4625NTg6ILK|IEg6S6B[N\ACSa8;7R4uN\^8;7Y:=<YXY<Y78;7Yg64679846257YB=VLKM46IW=XY2 bdN@^2].N -
46ILKM25XY257 |{0, 1}N| ≤ |R| rq >lF[I<YB=IW625\bHAN\Yg67Y^SXY2]eCZWILKM2 <Y7YB2 8;7YgG>E467YA
D6B=<?>ED625:=<Y7Y^>525XY<YcmvB=<Y7YXY<?>CKM25:;FOeGbAdF[VWB=798A\IW5798;467vX?>CyhB;>B=IW<?KM254625mYXY2]N,g6<Y25=7 -
:=25m?F[467YZWI-<YZdN\g6<fN8=e:[2m<A\IW5798;4d>E^2sKR>EB[N\<fN\^2`4uN\:=<Y7YZWIXY2]edZWSrRq#N\B=g6<Y25798
yhIWB=ôN\4627\bGg67?êu4625Sa8;7Y^>oyhS646AWX98;m f : {0, 1}N → R KM<YIWB=7Y^
f (han : n ∈ Ni) = 0, a0 a1 a2 a3 . . . .
\z 7Y:;F@F[Ixg6IW6B=<Y7IWACB=7Y=5IW4uNoyhS646A\X98=NxB=VWY46ILK#N\B;F[IW=XY25ILKRNGbJJIxB=VWY467XY2]eCZW2¢<fN.-
guN8=eB=VWY467B=IW<?KM254625mYXY2]Ng6<Y257Y:=25m?F[467\bJNF[7<A\IW57Y2!KR>E<Y4uN\XY<fNa8=eoB=VWY467525XY<Yd>
Å òù¶74X ª5±E¬õ°±V³*õI³± µn: ª µV?? ° ñ/5y5
B=<Y7YXY<?>CKM25:;F[¯7 /hgGK#N3B=VWY467|B=IW<?KM254625mYXY2]NRg6<Y257Y:=25m?F[467 ÎWZdeRKMD6B[NfKMg6<Y257|<fN\guNfK#N\

FOe:[N\ôe525XY<YJm@B=<Y7YXY<?>CKM25:;FOeGbcN\573F9>E5A\IZWgG>oK-8;7Yg64C>E^j<`4625X_xIEgxDJ7?KM467YZWI
^25798;:=XfN,KR>E:;F[mYD6Sa8;7,X?>CyhB[N ó bHXYIýKæ4uN\:=<?>E^ KR>EDuN\g6ACSIEXY<?>CKM25=XY257x46257vôN
^25798;:=XfON 1r6©sIWB=<?>E:;FON8=e\XT<T¡ KM257YB=g6<Y7Y462]NåEr ñ I\F[B=<?>E^Sa8;7Y^>vfe\guN\4C>vKR>E4625Acr
N\:;F[IW:=ILKRN\46257¡!KM257YB=g6<Y7Y462]N{#N\4dF[IWB[.N -9q|7YB=46:;F[7Y254uN-g6I-KR>E4625AWVLK.<QDJICg6D6S646AdF[VK
F[B=<Y7YXY257YZWI2MXY<?KRN\B;F[7YZWI /hD6B=<?>-KR>EAWIWB=<?>E:;FON\4625SKR>E4625ACS0<pDcIEg6D6S646AdF[S0g6B=S6ZW257YZW!I 1
A\IW6XY<?>g6IK|VEgr
N\:=AaN\ACSa8=e\X?>E^ KM4625IW:=AC257Y^ <F[7YZWI-FUKM257YB=g6<Y7Y462]Ný8;7Y:;F,y N\AdFfbMY7QD6S646AdF[VLKµ4uN
D6B=IW:;F[798H8;7Y:;FRF9>E57`:[N\Î6bGXYID6S646AdF[VLK4uNDJPhN\:=<YXY<?C> ÷Y4u25 7 /hIW6:=7YB;KRN\X98=NFNKR>CK#IEPhNCPhN
:=DJIWB=7ýA\IW4CF[B=ILK|7YB=:h8;7ýKM=B=VEg ôNFO7?ôNaF9>EA\VLK DcIEgA\IW46257YX£@ £.KM257YACBS 1r ã I8;7YZWI
g6ILK#ICg6S,JmYg6<Y257Y^>xDJI\F[B=<Y7YcIK#N\gGK#N57YôNaFU>Wr
ü »E½lÀ Ç ð Í Õ ^#!,Xc,^lRV'OU;eS*ÊT+W,[Qd,X + ¿ P &;\^l+ B ∼ C ¿ï
A, B C
AB ∼ A C .
ãx¾E¿ ¼ 31 257YX_ ϕ : B −→ JmYg6<Y2573yhS646AWX98=eS6:;FON\]Na8=e\XfeB=VLKM46IW525XY<Y46IW=\r6wg67?ên-
4625Sa8;7Y^>@yhS646AWX98;m F : AB → AC KM<YIWB=7Y^ F (f ) = f ◦ϕ−1 r ã ]NMg6IK|IW54d>EXO_yhS646A\X98;2
1−1
na C
FON\AC25XO_bcY7 f 6= f 8;7Y:;F x ∈ B bcg6]NAdF[VWB=7YZWI f (x) 6= f (x) rcs57
ôN\^> ϕ(x) = y ∈ C 2guN\5798 1 2
f1 , f 2 : B → A 1 2
f1 ◦ ϕ−1 (y) = f1 (x) 6= f2 (x) = f2 ◦ ϕ−1 (y),

XY<?>E52 F (f ) 6= F (f ) rJNaF[7Y^æyhS646A\X98=N F 8;7Y:;F3B=VWY46ILK#N\B;F[IW=XY25ILKRNGr
z\7Y=52HF[17YB[N\<ôN\^2 >pg6ILK#IW5467 g : C → A bwF[Ig67?êu4625Sa8=e\X f : B → A KM<YIWB=7Y^
g6IW:;FONa8;7Y^> F (f ) = (g ◦ ϕ) ◦ ϕ−1 = g rJ{|<?>E52yhS646A\X98=N F 8;7Y:;FM}U4uNOb
XYIA\IW6XY<?>g6ILK#VCgr
f (x) = g ◦ ϕ

ü »E½lÀ Ç ð Í ï ^#!,Xc,^lRV'OU;eS*ÊT+W,[Qd,X + ¿ P &;\^l+ B ∩ C = ∅ ¿Z
A, B C
AB × AC ∼ AB∪C .
ãx¾E¿ ¼ ¨MIW<YDuNaF[B=<Y^>oyhS646AWX98;m F : AB∪C → AB × AC
<fN\guN\4ueKM<YIWB=7Y^
F (f ) = hf B, f Ci.
hIWACS6B=467YA\=X95258=TNIEFOg6N,Dc8;I7YKM:;F g6IW6B=<Y7ý<Yg67?êu4625ILK#N\4uNGb#JIg6IW^ (f ) = B ∪ C b KM25mYXýÎ\Y7Y^>

257Yg64627IWcXY25mYXY2]NGrc¢IWAaN\Y7Y^>WbcY7TyhS646A\X98=N F ;8 7Y:;Fs62 8;7YAWX98=eGr6kl7T÷Y^>
K%FU>E^tXY7Y5SgGKM257xyhS646AWX98;7 f , f : B ∪ C → A bFON\AC257Y7 f 6= f r|¥@<Y4uN\XY<fN
F[I6b¢Y78;7Y:;F x ∈ B ∪ C FON\AC2 b¢1 Y7 2 f (x) 6= f (x) rz\7Y=52 F[7YB[N\< x1 ∈ B2b¢F[IôN\^>
b!N8;7Y=52 x ∈ C bwF[Iv1 KRF[7YgG> f2 C 6= f C rwk IW6SýKR>EDuN\g6AaN\XO_
ôN\^> F (f ) 6= F (f ) buXY<>E52yhS646AWX98=N F 8;7Y:;F31254a8;7YA\X98=eGr 2
f1 B 6= f2 B
1 2
ñ/5!6 74X ª5±E¬õ > ¬YL®pó]ª_³³!ó µ ®oª µ ª5® > ¬Y®%ó]ª_³³!ó µ ®
3:;FON\5^>F[7YB[N\<g6IK|IW5467 hg, hi ∈ AB × AC r|npN\^><fNaF[7Y^ g : B → A 2
h:C→A
rJwg67?êu462Sa8;^>oF[7YB[N\< f : B ∪ C → A KM<YIWB=7Y^
8;7Y=52 x ∈ B
f (x) =
g(x)
h(x)
8;7Y=52 x ∈ C .
h N\Ad2 Ffb!Yr 7`¢8;IW7Y4u:;N\FTgGFOF[II,g6D6IWB=6IWB=:;<YFU>E7^.<Yg67?êu4625IK#N\4uNxyhS646AWX98=NKR>E462AaN,<B=IW<Phe\XY<Y46IW=XY2 <Y625IWB=VLK
B[N\X_CS646AC257Y^.ÎWY7Y^>ý:=D6B[NfKMg6<Y25\b Y7 F (f ) = hg, hi r
B C
{|<?>E52yhS646A\X98=N F 8;7Y:;F3:=S6Bh8;7YA\X98=eGbcXYIA\IW6XY<?>g6ILK#VCgr
¿oÁh»C¹a¼ ºd» Ò Áh»ýð Í ð Î
|R × R| = |R|
ãx¾E¿ ¼ ¥@<Y4uN\XY<Y^>0D6B=<Y7Y< <Y625VWBv525XY<Y04uNaF[S6B[N\54d>EXO_DuN\B=<?>E:;F9>EXO_rRk257Y^>
8;S6\bY7 |P | = |N \ P | = |N| r P!7YôNaF[S ì r ÖÝ 2#¡ KM257YB=g6<Y7Y462]N ì r Ö ñ ôN\^>l<f.N -
F[7Y^ |{0, 1}P | = |{0, 1}N\P | = |{0, 1}N| = |R| rW¡¢7YB[N\<Mg6<Y25mYAC2u¡ KM257YB=g6<Y7Y4625SoåGrØË¤ / ON 1
2!!7YôNaF[IKR2 ì r Ö åg6IW:;FON8;7Y^>
R × R ∼ {0, 1}P × {0, 1}N\P ∼ {0, 1}P ∪(N\P ) = {0, 1}N ∼ R,
XYI4uN\57YfNCPiIg6ILKM257Y=\r
¢IEg6IW64625738=N\AKKR>EDuN\g6ACSýkl4625IW:=ACS ì r åGbJFON\ACY72¢F[7Y4ýDJIW4625Y:=<?>ôNo4uNaFU>EXO_C-
^2]N\:;F[ILKR>vg6ILK|VEgr
ÃÊÒ Áh¾ Å »CÓð Í õ =^_*UQST',Rð)p#%[=&QS P #KÓn;),+Z%Xcd*U;e¯k(;)O®ÓUQS.&RV+W&¯X¢+W&^l)mÐS*ÊT+W,[Qd,X "*U'
U;,RV(+mRVCC" P &;S*ÊT+W,[Q&"J"*U'U;,RV(+mRVCC"$Î
k 257Y^>M8;S6\bdY7R<Y625VWB525XY<Y46257?KR>E^257YB=4d>EXO_@8;7Y:;F 46257YD6B=<Y7Y525XY<fN\54d>Wrd¥sAaN\<YSa8;7M:=25m\b

Y7|ÎWY4uN3DJIWAN\<fN\|KM25mYXY798?ba^2]N\46ILKM25XY27\bLY7¢8;7Y:;FIW4ÎCX?>XYIW4dF[254CS6S6^,r ã IK|VEg38;7Y:;F
8;7Yg64uN\Av25:;F[I\F[46257sF[B=S6g64625798;:=<?>ICg,g6ILK|IEg6S,46257YD6B=<Y7Y525XY<fN\546IW=XY2wF[7YZWI<Y625IWB=Sr
¿oÁh»C¹a¼ ºd» Ò Áh»ýð ÍEâ äÈÊT+Wd,[E^l+WUQS*ÊÀRV+W&X¢',"Ð+W&[=RV'OU;e P &;Z"*U'U;%RËW+mRËCC"$Î
ãx¾E¿ ¼ 3:;FON\5^>4uN8;D6257YB;KÊg6IK|IW54uex62 8;7?AWX98;m /h25:;F[4625798;7IW4uN

4uNÎEX?>¡ KM257YB=g6<Y7Y462]N ì r Öì 1rC13257YX_ A = f [Q] rG¥@XYf<?>C: KMR25=→ XY257 R|A|×=Rℵ < |R| IWB[N\<
r 0
¨MIW<?K#N\Y^>vF[7YB[N\<`yhS646A\X98;mB=<YSGF[ILKRN\462]N4uND6257YB;KM:=<feIW
|R \ Q| = |f [R \ Q]| = |(R × R) \ A|
na
π : R × R −→ R, π(x, y) = x.
¢IW46257?K#N\ ub KM25mYX 2 25:;F[4625798;7 rck0F[7YgG>
|π[A]| ≤ |A| < |R|
{x0 } × R ⊆ (R × R) \ A
rc{|<?>E52 π[A] 6= R x0 ∈ R \ π[A]
c = |{x0 } × R| ≤ |(R × R) \ A| ≤ |R × R| = c.
Å òù¶74X ª5±E¬õ°±V³*õI³± µn: ª µV?? ° ñ/5.9
ã <Y25mYAC2H¡ KM257YB=g6<Y7Y4625SQ{#N\4dF[IWB[N.-9q|7YB=46:;F[7Y254uNoôN\^> |R \ Q| = |(R × R) \ A| = c b
XYI4uN\57YfNCPiIg6ILKM257Y=\r
ã ]NA\IW4dF[B[N\:;F[SDcIWAaN\Y7Y^>WbJY725464d>uN\B=g6<YIoXY<YmY:;F[Iv:=DJI\FU>EAaN\4d>¼/h<?K@PhN\:=<YXY<fNv4uN
KR>EA6PhN\g6<Y257M<Rs4uN\525<?>nNFO7?ôNaF9>EXY<Y4679Q8 1<Y625VWB46257YD6B=<Y7Y525XY<fN\54d>46257H8;7Y:;F ÎEX?>XYIWC4 -
F[254CS6S6^,r {|_6IEg6<Y23Il<Y625VWB RR KM:=<?>E:;F[AC25X_yhS646AWX98;23B=<Y7YXY<?>CKM25:;FU>EX_r|U:;F[I\F[46257\b <f.N -
XO_6IEg6<Y2!4uN\:;F[mYD6Sa8=e\XY7TF9KM27YB=g6<Y7Y46257\r
¿oÁh»C¹a¼ ºd» Ò Áh»ýð 5ÞuÂ Î
|RR | = |P(R)| > c
ãx¾E¿ ¼ 3B[Z\S6^7Y4CF[Sa8=e\Xpg6IWA6PhN\g646257FON\A:[N\ÎGb!8=N\AKg6IK|IEg6<Y257pD6257YB;KM:=<?>EXO_
gGK|VEXO_pDcIEg6D6S646AdF[VLK ¡ KM257YB=g6<Y7Y462]N ì r Ö ñ I\F[B=<?>E^Sa8;7Y^>
|P(R)| = |{0, 1}R | ≤ |RR | ≤ |P(R × R)| = |P(R)|.
N\:;F[IW:=ILKRN\46257@¡ KM257YB=g6<Y7Y462]N{#N\4CF[IWB[N.-9q|7YB=46:;F[7Y254uNî/h2¡ KM257YB=g6<Y7Y462]No{#N\4dF[IWB[NO1|A\IWC-
XY<?>g6ILK|VEgr
<fNaF[7Y^ yhS646A\X98;2JB=<Y7YXY<?>CKM25:;F9>EXO_8;7Y:;F|KM25mYXY798 46253525X?<YoB=<Y7?XY<?>CK325:;FU>EX_ruz\7Yg64uN\A
2 F[SýXY<?7YAaNx4uNo4uN\:sDJ7?KM4uNv46257Y:=DJICg6<Y2]N\46AaNGrw1sNos4uN\525<Y257npNaF[7YôNaF9>EXY<Y46798suN\B=g6<YI
XY<YmY:;F[IQDcI\8=NfKM2]N8=e:=25moyhS646A\X98;7XY2]eCZEPi7\bHXYIýÎWY7x:=S6ZW7YB=ILK#N\\bY7x:[eýIW467vKæKM25mYpA -
:=<YIW=XY2|KM=B=VCgKM:=<?>E:;F[AE25XO_yhS646A\X98;2|B=<Y7YXY<?>CKM25:;FU>EX_r ¥@AaN\<YSa8;7v:=25m\b¢Y7o2 FONp254dF[S625X98=N
8;7Y:;F@JPimYg64uÐN 4vyhS646A\X98;2¢XY2]eCZEP]>EXO_8;7Y:;FsFU>E5AWIXYIW4CF[254CS6S6^,buXY<?>E52 FON\Ax4uN\D6B[NfKMg6mô.N -
5SGF[A\IoKDcIWB=VKR4uN\4625Sg6Iv255IW=XY2!KM:=<?>E:=F[AC25XO_ýyhS646A\X98;2HB=<Y7YXY<?>CK325:;FU>EX_r ã ILK#VCgF[7YZWI
y N\AdF[S,DcIW<YIW:;FONLKM25^>8=N\A\I<fN\guNa46257Tg6]N<fN\254CF[7YB=7Y:=ILK#N\4d>EX_ý{|<?>CF[7Y54625A\VLKTr
1sNT<fN\AWIW6XY<Y7Y46257MF[7YZWIB=IW<Yg6<Y2]NCPiSDJIW:;FONfKM^>:=IW62578;7Y:=<YXY<Y7 8;7Yg646IDd>CFON\46257\rGzWN\A
<fN\SdKRN\>E525=^>WbHKM:=<?>E:;F[AC257,DcI\8=NfKM2]N8=e\XY7x:=25mxg6IýF[798DJIWB;><Y625IWB;>46257YD6B=<Y7Y525XY<fN\5467
^2]NCP]>ÎEXlXYI04uNa8;^4625798XYIW4CF[254CS6S6^,r@{|<?><fNaF[7Y^ÜÎWY4uN<Y4uN\5T7 ÷Y<?625VWB4625=7 -
D6B=<Y7Y525XY<fN\54d>vÎEX?A > "ÒRË+W& P QS.& P 4625`XYIW4dFO24ES6S6
^ 3N\SdK#N\Y^>WbuY7ZWgG>Ed>xFON\AC2!<Y625V\B
4625725:;F[462]NCPUbcFOIxAaN\?gG>ýDJIEg6<Y625VWB@<Y625IWB=Sý525XY<YýB=<Y7YXY<?>CKM25:;F9>EXO_ld>uPiC>XYI4uNa89KR>EY798
D6B=<Y7Y525XY<fN\54d>xN\5JI^2]NCP!ÎEX`XYIW4dF[254ES6S6^,r
¦325DJI\F[7Y<Ym\bRY7ýFON\AK@PhN\=46257v8;7Y:;FfbRXY<?>E52 b#Y7AaN\YgG>046257YD6B=<Y7Y525XY<fN\54C>DJICg6<Y625VWB
<Y625IWB=ST525XY<Y`B=<Y7YXY<?>CKM25:;FU>EX_ôN#ÎEXXYIW4dF[254CS6S6^ :;yhIWB=^SJPiILK#NCPdKl£@ £KM257YACS{#N\4C-
F[IWB@2H4uNa<?KRNCP8=î e ÌÔ+ B,&QS*aò[Z,RV(+mRVCC"rB=<Y7Y<KM257Y57]NaF@D6B=VWJILK#N\46I8;798sg6ILKM257Y=
N\5JI38=eIWuN\525\bE<Y4uN8;g6Sa8=e\X`46257YD6B=<Y7Y525XY<fN\54d>oDcIEg6<Y625VWB#<Y625IWB=Sx525XY<YxB=<Y7YXY<>CK325:;FU>EX_
ÎEX?>Q^4625798;:=<Y7984625oXYIW4dF[254ES6S6^,r!kl:=<?>E:;F[AE257oF[7vD6B=VWd>lIWAaN\<fNCP]>l:=25moJ7Y<YILK|IEXY467\r
¢IQ]NaFON\XO_IWAaN\<fNCPiI:=25m\bY7D6B=<?>EXY<?>E4C>F9>EXO_46257YDJILK|IEg6<Y7Y:[euN\B=g6<YIZEPimYJIWAC257\r
¢IWAaN\<fN\46IJILKM257Y^,bdY734uNZWB=S646XY257MDJILKM:=<Y7YXO_64u257sD6B=<?>L8;m?F[798yhIWB=ôN\52<fN\X98;26ôNaF[7Yô.N -
FU>EAC¢2 /hIAdFOV\B[7U8 4uNF9>E^ KR>EA6PhN\g6<Y257@462573^VLKM25^Ë> 14uNTF[IDd>CFON\46257sDJID6B=IW:;F[Sx4627sguN
:=25mIEg6DcIKM257Yg6<Y257YarHn,VLKM2]e\XIW6B[N\<YILK#I6b!:[exFON\AC257}U;KM2]NaFU>ýôNaF[7YôNaFU>EXY<Y467Ob!ZWg6<Y257
XfNCPhN}U<?KR>EA6PhN,ôNaF[7YôNaF9>EANv8;7Y:;FFON\AaNGb8=N\Aex8=e<Y4uN\^>-2RFON\AC257<Y625IWB;>-4625725:;Fz-
4625798=A e /hXY<?>E2H¦325DJI\F[7Y<fNv{|IW4dF[254CS6S6^Æ8;7Y:;F@D6B[NfKMg6<Y2K#ON 1bwN\57:[eF[7Y2546467\bc<4uN\:=<Y7YZWI
ñ/5C² 74X ª5±E¬õ > ¬YL®pó]ª_³³!ó µ ®oª µ ª5® > ¬Y®%ó]ª_³³!ó µ ®
D6S646AdF[SvKM2g6<Y7Y462]NB=VLKM46257sg6IW6B=7M}U;KM2]NaFU>dObCZWg6<Y257MFON\AC257s<Y625IWB;>:[eY/hXY<?>E52w¦325DJI\F[7Y<fN
{|IW4dF[254CS6S6^æ8;7Y:;F`y NCPi:=<?>CKRON 1rk <?KM2]e\<YACSQ<FU>E^
46257guNx:=25mS6g6<Y257Y525fN\g646798|8;7YCg -
46IW<Y4uN\XY<Y46798¢IEg6DcIKM257Yg6<Y2C4uN3Dd>CFON\46257 IsD6B[NLKMg6<?2K#IW=#¦325DcI\F[7Y<?>{|IW4dF[254CS6S6^,bAdF[VWB[N
IWcIKM2]e\<?>CK#NCPhN\d>vK|7TKM:=<?>E:;F[AC25XO_,}U;KM2]NaFON\XO_EOr
Ù; < Íàx'Y
Ö r33g6ILK|IEg64625\bu?7TyhS646A\X98=N f :N×N→N
<fN\guN\4uNKM<YIWB=7Y^
f (x, y) = 2x (2y + 1) − 1
;8 7Y:;F362 8;7YA\X98=eGr
¤Er3¢IWAN\<fN\\bGY7@:=S6ôN<Y625I\B[SoD6B=<Y7Y525XY<fN\5467YZWI2J<Y62IWB=SvXYI4uN89KR>EY798#D6B=<Y7Y52XY<fN\¨-
467YZWI@8;7Y:;F3<Y625IWB=7Y^%D6B=<Y7Y525XY<fNa54C>E^,r
ÚGr33g6ILK|IEg64625@kl4625IW:=7YA ì r åGr
ñ r3¢IWAN\<fN\\bEY73IW6B[N\<3<Y625IWB=SD6B=<Y7Y525XY<fN\5467YZWI`KM<YZW5mYg67Y^ g6ILK|IW546798yhS646AWX98;2W8;7Y:;F
<Y625IWB=7Y^XYI,4uN89KR>EY798`D6B=<Y7Y525XY<fN\54d>E^,r!{|<?>F[I:[N\ÎxÎWY4uNxDcIKM257Yg6<Y257YI
D6B=<Y7YXY2K|IW6B[N\<Y257*3
Ý r33g6ILK|IEg64625@kl4625IW:=7YA ì r ÖLø r
åGr33g6ILK|IEg64625@kl4625IW:=7YA ì r ÖWÖ r
ì r33g6ILK|IEg64625@kl4625IW:=7YA ì r Ö ¤Er
×Gr313257YXO_ P = {2n : n ∈ N} r6kl:=AaNa<fN\<Y625VWB X ⊆ N bGFON\AC2!Y7
|P ∩ X| = |X \ P | = |N \ X| = ℵ0 .
ó r3¢IWAN\<fN\\bcY7TDJIW4625Y:=<Y7T<Y625IWB;>v:[eXYI4uN89KR>EY798MD6B=<Y7Y525XY<fN\5467\r
/ ON 1w625VWB S KM:=<?>E:;F[AE25XO_AWVEP64uNsDJPhN\:=<YXY<?C> ÷Y46257#I@D6B=IW^257Y462]N\XO_TKR>E^257YB=4d>EX_
2!=B=IEg6AN\XO_,KD6S646AdFON\XO_pIIW6SKM:=DJVEPiB=<YmYg64d>EX_,KR>E^257YB=4d>EX_r
/hB 1 (Q × Z) \ (Q × N) r
/h*X 1,w625VWB#DuN\B[N\^2B=IW<Phe\XY<Y4d>EXO_pAWVEP¢4uNDJPhN\:=<YXY<?C> ÷Y46257\r
/hBg 1,w625VWB#:=AWIW6XY<YI\4C>EX_pXY2]eCZWVLK 525XY<Yx4uNaF[S6B[N\54C>EXO_r
/h*7 1,w625VWBKM:=<?>E:;F[AE2X_%KR257Y5IW^2]Na46VKIKM:=DJVEPiXY<?>E464625AaN\XO_XfNCPiA\ILKM2F9>EXO_
:;F[IWD6462]N Ý r
/i;y 1w625VWB#D6S646AdF[VK46257YXY2]eCZEPiIW=XY2wÎW46I\F[IW4625XY<Y46798|yhS646A\X98;2 f : R → R r
Å ò6587 ³d¯w³ µ ª5³ ñ/5 Å
/hZ!1w625VWB#KM:=<?>E:;F[AC25XO_:=A\IW6XY<YIW4d>EX_pDJIEg6<Y625IWB=VLK <Y625IWB=SD6B=<Y7Y525XY<fN\5467YZWI6r
/h_B 1 w625VWBRDuN\B[N\^2wB=IW<Phe\XY<Y4d>EX_p52F[7YB#¡ 4uN\B;>E:[ILK#N\4d>EX_p4uNDJPhN\:=<YXY<>C÷f46257\r
©@F[VWB=7`<`FU>EX_,<Y625IWB=VLK :[ND6B=<Y7Y525XY<fN\5467*3 ©@F[VWB=7`ÎWZded>ED6B=<Y7Y525XY<fN\5467*3
Öfø r3¢IWAaN\<fN\\b6Y7`<Y625VWB|KM:=<?>E:;F[AC25XO_KM257Y5IW^25N\46VLKIKM:=DJVEPiXY<?>E464625AaN\XO_,XfNCPiA\IKM2¨-
UF >EX_,S6:;FON\5IW467YZWI:;F[IWD6462]N n 8;7Y:;F3D6B=<Y7Y525XY<fN\54d>Wr
Ö\Ö r313257YXO_ f : N → N rHHIWAN\<fN\\bY7 |B=46Z (f )| = ℵ0 5S625:;F[4625798;7FON\AaNp525XY<YuN
4uNaF[S6B[N\54uN n buY7 |f −1[n]| = ℵ r
0
Ö ¤ErszWN\Avg6S6Y798RÎEX?>vÎWY7`C>ETB=IEg6<Y254uN A ⊆ P(N) FON\AaNGbuY7
(∀A, B ∈ A)(A ⊆ B ∨ B ⊆ A)?
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|X 0 | < |X| = n
FON\ACY7`K X r
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30n < 2n + 110. (∗)
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/hB 1,N\A6PhN\guN\^>F[7YB[N\<\b Y7 30n < 2n + 110 r|3g6ILK|IEg64625^>46257YB=VLKM46IW=
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8;30(n
7Y^> + 1) < 2 + 110
n+1
b
30(n + 1) = 30n + 30 < 2n + 110 + 30 = 2n+1 + 110 + 30 − 2n <
< 2n+1 + 110
.©W|= £.y { ϕ(n) = (∀X)(|X| = n ⇒ (∃a ∈ X)(∀x ∈ X)¬(a < x))

jü iBy {z©W xz}x¢£.y ¥Ô§p*¥..v*xzyOxz{x.y ©W~; v*©whN,.¬À©W~I. {z
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Y7
g6]N n = 1 ôN\^> 30 < 21 + 110 = 112 b
g6]N n = 2 ôN\^> 60 < 22 + 110 = 114 b
g6]N n = 3 ôN\^> 90 < 23 + 110 = 118 b
g6]N n = 4 ôN\^> 120 < 24 + 110 = 126 r
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a∈X
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a0 = A 0
.
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√ √ n √ n
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√ √ √ √
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=
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b
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1−1
An
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1−1
An
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c
r M
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X98=Y
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0
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1−1
X ⊆N X
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rdM:=FON\^>g6IK|IW5467 b ∈ X \ {g(0), . . . , g(n
n
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/ ON 1 1 + 5 + 9 + . . . + (4n − 3) = n(2n − 1) k
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n∈N
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.
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r
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n
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hAn in∈N
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.
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n
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1−1 1−1
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⇒ g[Y \ f [A]] ⊇ g[Y \ f [A0 ]] ⇒
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b
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DcIEg6798;=XY2]NÎWY4uNDJIWZWIEg6<Y25`DcIEg6IW646257|8=N\AoK<fN\guN\4625S ó <¨MIW<Yg6<Y2]NCPiS ñ r
F Ýàx#'Y'¡ ;
Ö rRkt46257YAdF[VWB;>EXO_KR>EDuN\g6AN\X_DJIW4625Y:=<Y7#ICg6DJILKM257Yg6<Y2G46257 :[e 8;7YgG>E4d>E^2GDcIWD6B[NLK2-

4d>E^2 r
/ ON 1 x 6= y ⇒ x < y ∨ y < x k
/hB 1 ¬∀n(¬2|n ⇒ 3|n) k
/h*X 1 (∀x ∈ R) x2 ≥ 0 k
/hBg 1 x2 ≤ 0 ⇒ x = 0 k
/h*7 1 n ≥ 2 ⇒ ¬(∃x, y, z ∈ N) xn + yn = z n k
/i;y 1 (∀x ∈ Q) x2 6= 2 k
/h!Z 1 (∀x ∈ R)(|x| = x ∨ |x| = −x) k
/hB_ 1 n ∈ N ⇒ (∀k ∈ N) nk ∈ N k
/hm2 1 (∃x ∈ Z)(∃k ∈ Z) x = 3k + 1 5S6 (∃x ∈ Z) 3|(x − 1) k
/ØQ8 1 (∀A 6= ∅)(¬(∃x, y, z ∈ A)(x 6= y ∧ x 6= z ∧ y 6= z)) k
/hnA 1 (∀x ∈ R) x · 1 = x k
/hm 1 (∃y ∈ R)(∀x ∈ R) xy = x k
/h ^ 1 (∀n ∈ N)(∃k ∈ N) k > n k
/hB4 1 ∀n(2 6 | n ⇒ ∃k(2 6 | k ∧ k > n)) k
/h!I 1 (∃y ∈ R) x + y = 0 k
/hBD 1 (∀x ∈ R \ {0})(∃y ∈ R) xy = 1 k
/n1 A 6= ∅ ⇒ (∃B) B A
k
h/ B;1 (∀A)(∃B) A B
k
h/ :;1 x ≥ 0 ⇒ (∀y < 0) y < x
k
ñ9 ö
/iF=1 ¬(∃x ∈ R)(∀y ∈ R) y ≤ x k

/hSB1 (∀A 6= ∅)(∃B)(B ⊆ A ∨ A ∩ B = ∅) k
/ Ë1 k
(∀A ⊆ R)(A 6= ∅ ⇒ (∃B 6= ∅) B A)
/iKo1 (∃x ∈ Z)(x ≤ 0 ∧ (∀y ∈ Z)(y ≤ 0 ⇒ y ≤ x)) k
/ V1
∀A(A = ∅ ∨ ∅ ⊆ A)
r
ÚGr / ON 1 ã 5N3AaN\Yg6798H525X?<YC>TB=<Y7YXY<?>CKM25:;F[798J8;7?:=F525XY<YuNM4uNaF[S6B[N\54uN3ICg4625798!KM25mYAC:=<fN
/ Na:ONaguNsB=X_625^7Yg67Y:[NO1 r
h/ Bx 1 13257T2:=F[46257U8;7`4uNa8;^4625798;:=<fN525XY<YuNB=<Y7YXY<>CK325:;FONGr
/ X x 1 9:;F[4625798;7`4uNa8;^4625798;:=<fN525XY<YuN4uNaF[S6B[N\54uNGr
h/ gB1 ã 5NAaN\Yg6798R525XY<YC>vXfNCPiA\ILKM2F[798#25:;FO462798;7`525XY<YuNg6I4625798#D6B=<Y7YXY2KM4uNGr
/ 7 , 1 AaN\Yg6798x525XY<Yd>B=<Y7YXY<?>CKM25:;F[79846257YSa8;7Y^46798oÎWY4uNKR>EXY2]edZW4ue\D6257YB-
MK 2]N\:;F[7YAxAdK#N\g6B[NaF[ILKR>Wr
/iy;1xHIW^25mYg6<?>vgGKM257YôNB=VWY4d>E^2525XY<YuN\^2wB=<Y7YXY<>CK325:;FU>E^2!<fNLKM:=<Y7Î\Y4uN
<Y4uN\5T7 ÷YT525XY<YJm@KR>E^257YB=4ueGr
åGr313Dr ϕ(x) = (x = 0) 2 ψ(x) = (x = 1) buZWg6<Y257 x ∈ R r
×GrJ/hBg 1 (∃x, y ∈ R)(x < y ∧ (∀q ∈ Q)(g ≤ x ∨ y ≤ q))
/i;y 1 (∀x)(x ≥ 3 ∧ (∃y > x) y < 3)
/h!Z 1 (∃x)(x 6= 2 ∧ (∃z) z < x) ∧ (∀y)(y = 2 ∧ (∀t) y ≤ t)
ó Àr / ON 1 FON\A /hB 1|46257 /h*X 1#46257 /hBg 1|FON\A
Ö\Ö r31sN\57Y?>:=AWIWB=<?>E:;FON\,<g67?êu4625X98;2RAdK#N\4dF9>CêuANaF[IWB=VK%IWZWB[N\4625XY<YIW4C>EXO_2#¡ KM257YB -
g6<Y7Y462]NÚGr ñ r
Ö ¤Er31sND6B=<?>EA6PhN\g
/ ON 1 ϕ(x) = (x > 0) 2 ψ(x) = (x2 = −1) b
/hB 1 ϕ(x) = (x = 0) 2 ψ(x) = (x 6= 0) b
/ X 1 ϕ(x) = (x = 0) 2 ψ(x) = (x = 1) r
Ö ÚGr31sND6B=<?>EA6PhN\g
/ ON 1 ϕ(x, y) = (x 6= y) /hB 1 ϕ(x, y) = (x = y)
Ö ñ r313257YXO_ S = S Ai 2 P = T Ai r6k0F[7YgG>
/ ON 1 S = R
i∈I i∈I
P =∅
ñp²Cø 5 ¯ > ±\²ª5®a¯waªHª¢² 8 ¶W³dhó\²¯¶cªH¯w±³d¯w³!·
/hB1 S = (2, 4) P = {3}
h/ X*1 S=R P =∅
/hgB1 S = [0, 3] P = [1, 2]
h/ 7*1 S = (−1, 2) P = {1}
i/ y;1 S = [0, +∞) P = [1, 2)
h/ Z!1 S = ( 12 , 9] P = (2, 4]
/h_B1 S = [0, 2) P =∅
h/ 2m1 S = {1} ∪ [2, +∞) P =∅
Ø/ 8Q1 S = {hx, yi ∈ R2 : x > 0 ∨ y < 0} ∪ {h0, 0i}
P = {hx, yi ∈ R2 : x ≤ 0 ∧ y ≤ 0}
/hAn1 S = {hx, yi ∈ R2 : xy > 0} ∪ {h0, 0i}
P = {h0, 0i}
Ö ×Gr3¢IEg6IW646257|8=N\AK<fN\guN\4625S ÖWÖ <T¨MIW<Yg6<Y2]NCPiSp¤Er
ÖLó rsnpN\^> S ∅ = ∅ buJI
[
x∈ ∅ ⇔ (∃A ∈ ∅) x ∈ A,
XYI6ba8=N\AoKM257Y^>Wb646257`<fN\X_6ICg6<Y2 g6]NfN\g6467YZWI x r
1sNaF[IW^25N\:;F T ∅ d>uPiC>o<Y625IWB=7Y^ KM:=<?>E:;F[AC25X_<Y625IWB=VLKN/hIAdF[VWB;>E^ KM257Y^>WbEY7
46257`25:;F[4625798;*7 1bGJI
\
x∈ ∅ ⇔ (∀A ∈ ∅) x ∈ A,
YX I<TA\IW57Y2G8;7Y:;F3D6B[NfKMgueg6]Ng6IK|IW5467YZWI x r
¤ ø r313257YXO_ A = {x ∈ B : p|x} g6]N p ∈ P r6k0F[7YgG>xÎWY4uNDJIWAaN\<fNa\bcY7
p
A = {Ap : p ∈ P }.
F Ýàx#'Y'¡
k 46257YAdF[VWB;>EXO_DJICg6D6S646AdFON\X_<fN\guN\ Ö 4 Ý DJIEguN\467 IEg6DcIKR257Yg6<Y2C46257:[e8;7YgG>E4C>E^2

DcIWD6B[NLKM4d>E^2 r
Ö r / ON 1 (∃t > 0)(∀x ∈ R) f (x + t) = f (x)
/hB 1 (∃M ∈ R)(∀x ∈ R) |f (x)| ≤ M
/h*X 1 (∀s > 0)(∃t > 0)(t < s ∧ (∀x ∈ R) f (x + t) = f (x))
ñp²Vñ
/hgB1 (∀x ∈ R)(∃y ≥ x) f (y) < g(y)

/ 7 1 (∃x ∈ R)(∀y ≥ x) f (x) ≥ 0
i/ y;1 (∀M ∈ R)(∃x < M ) f (x) = 0
h/ Z!1
5S6
(∃x ∈ R)(∀y1 , y2 )(y1 ≥ x ∧ y2 ≥ x ⇒ f (y1 ) = f (y2 ))
(∃x ∈ R)(∃c ∈ R)(∀y ≥ x) f (y) = c
¤Er / NO1 (∃x ∈ R) f (x) 6= f (x + 1)
/hB1 (∃x ∈ R) f (x) > 1
/ X 1 (∀M ∈ R)(∃x ∈ R) f (x) < M
/hBg 1 (∃x1 , x2 ∈ R)(x1 < x2 ∧ f (x1 ) > f (x2 ))
ÚGr / ON 1 (∃M ∈ R)(∀n ∈ N) |an | ≤ M
/hB 1 (∀m, n ∈ N)(m < n ⇒ am < an ) ∨
∨ (∀m, n ∈ N)(m < n ⇒ am > an )
/ X 1 (∀M ∈ R)(∃n ∈ N) a ≥ M
/hgB1 (∀n ∈ N)(∃m ≥ n) a n > 0
/ 7 1 (∃n ∈ N)(∀m, k ∈ N)(n m
≤ m ∧ m < k ⇒ a m < ak )
ñr / ON 1 {x ∈ R : f (x) < 0}
/hB1 {x ∈ R : f (x) = 0}
/ X 1 {t ∈ R : t > 0 ∧ (∀x ∈ R) f (x + t) = f (x)}
/hgB1 {M ∈ R : (∀x ∈ R) f (x) ≤ M }
Ýr / NO1 (∀n ∈ N)(∃x ∈ R) f (x) = a
/hB1 (∀n ∈ N) f (a ) > 0 n
/ X 1 {x ∈ R : f (x)n = 0 ∧ (∃n ∈ N) x = a }
/hgB1 {M ∈ R : (∀x ∈ R) f (x) ≥ M ∧ (∃nn∈ N) a < M }
n
ìr / NO|1 46257 /hB1 FON\A /hX*1|FON\A /hgB1#46257 /h7*1|FON\A
×Gr / NO1 (0, +∞) /hB1 (0, +∞) /hX*1 {n2 : n ∈ N}
/hgB1 (0, +∞) h/ 7*1 N+ i/ y;1 Z
/hZ!1 {2} h/ _B1 N h/ 2m1 P(N)
ó r31sN\57Y?>vB[I\<YDuNaF[B=<?>ETyhS646A\X98;m
Y
F : Ai → A 1 × A 2
<fN\guN\4ueKM<YIWB=7Y^ r
i∈{1,2}
F (f ) = hf (1), f (2)i
ñp²Gù 5 ¯ > ±\²ª5®a¯waªHª¢² 8 ¶W³dhó\²¯¶cªH¯w±³d¯w³!·
ÖWÖ r / NO18;7Y:;F 1 − 1 bu46257|8;7Y:;FR}U4uNOb6B=46Z (f ) = (7, +∞)
/hB1x46257|8;7Y:;F 1 − 1 b646257|8;7Y:;FR}U4uNOb6B=46Z (f ) = [1, +∞)
/h*X 18;7Y:;F 1 − 1 /hJI8;7Y:;F /h=XY25=57*1B=IW:=4ue\XfNO1b!8;7Y:;F}U4uN¼/hJIlôNK@PhN\:=46IW=
ã N\B=JIWS V1
/hBg 1x46257|8;7Y:;F 1 − 1 ba8;7Y:;FR}U4uN$ /hJIôNK@PhN\:=46IW= ã N\B=JIWS V1
/h*7 1x46257|8;7Y:;F 1 − 1 b646257|8;7Y:;FR}U4uNOb6B=46Z (f ) = [−1, 1]
/i;y 1v46257|8;7Y:;F 1 − 1 b646257|8;7Y:;FR}U4uNOb6B=46Z (f ) = [−1, +∞)
ÖÝ rs0y N\AdF[Sb Y7yhS646AWX98=N f : A → B × C 8;7Y:;Fo254a8;7YA\X98=eQ46257xKR>E4625ANGb Y78;798
:=A6PhN\g6ILK|7TF[7YT:[e254a8;7YA\X98=N\^2 r
Ö ×Gr 1 − 1 }U4uN f [A] f −1 [B]
/ ON 1 46257 46257 [2, 6) [−1, 1] \ {0}
/hB 1 FON\A 46257 ( 1 , 2) [0, 2]
/h*X 1 46257 FON\A N2+ {h0, 3i, h1, 2i, h2, 1i h3, 0i}
/hBg 1x46257 FON\A {2n : n ∈ N} {2n + 1 : n ∈ N}2
/h*7 1x46257 FON\A {n2 : n ∈ N} Z × {0} ∪ {0} × Z
/i;y 1 46257 FON\A Z {hn, n2 i : n ∈ Z}
/h!Z 1 FON\A 46257 {h4n, −4ni : n ∈ Z} {0}
/hB_ 1 FON\A FON\A {hx, xi : x ∈ R} {hx, xi : x ∈ R}
¤ Ö r31sN\57??>B=IW<?K#N\?>E46DrHyhS646A\X98;m<fN\guN\4uepKM<YIWB=7Y^ f (x) = x2 5S6g6ILK|IW54ue
25464ueGbGAdF[VWB[N46257|8;7Y:;F3254a8;7YA\X98=ð e /h46Dr f : {1, 2} → {1}1r
¤ Ý r31sN\57??>B=IW<?K#N\?>E46DrHyhS646A\X98;m<fN\guN\4uepKM<YIWB=7Y^ f (x) = x2 5S6g6ILK|IW54ue
25464ueGbGAdFOV\BON46257|8;7Y:;F3254a8;7YAWX98=eN\462!:=S6Bh8;7YA\X98=A e /h46Dr f : {1, 2} → {1, 2} b6FON\Aae
Y7 f (1) = f (2) = 11r
¤\åGr31sN\57??>vKR>EAWI\4uN\B=IW<YS6ÎK#N\46257`46257@KMD6B=IW:;Ffr
¤\×Gr / ON 1|46257 /hB 1 FON\A /h*X 1 FON\A
¤ ó r ã ]Ng6IK|IW5467YZWI7Y57Y^7Y4dF[S x ôN\^>
x ∈ A ∩ f −1 [B] ⇔ x ∈ A ∧ f (x) ∈ B ⇒ f (x) ∈ f [A] ∧ f (x) ∈ B ⇔
⇔ f (x) ∈ f [A] ∩ B ⇔ x ∈ f −1 [f [A] ∩ B]
r
w4uN\57Y<?257Y46257#D6B=<?>EA6PhN\g6SDJIWAaN\<YSa8=e\XY7YZ\I6bdY7MÎWY7R46257#C>EMB=VLKM46IW=XY26KR>EôN\ZdN
B=IW<YDuNaF[B=<Y7Y462]NyhS646A\X98;2!46257`JmYgue\XY798M254a8;7YA\X98=eGr
ñp²y5
Ú Ö r313257YXO_ y , y ∈ Y 2 y 6= y r¢IW46257?K#N\vyhS646A\X98=N f 8;7Y:;F}U4uNOb¢F[Iý25:;F[4625798=e

1 2
bFON\AC257xY7 1 f (x )2 = y 2 f (x ) = y r ¥@XY<?>CKM25=XY257\b x 6= x r
A\IWB=IyhS646A\X98=N g ◦ f 8;7Y:;F 11− 1 b6F[I 1 g ◦ f (x2 ) 6= g2◦ f (x ) rus57@F[IIW1 <Y4uN\XY<f2N
x1 , x 2 ∈ X
g6IWA6PhN\g646257\b6Y7 y 6= y b6XYI4uN\57YfNCPiIg6IKM257Y=1\r 2
1 2
ÚW¤Er31sN\57Y?>oKR>EAWIW4uN\DcIEg6IW6467TB=IW<YS6ÎK#N\46257\ba8=NaAoKDJIWD6B=<Y7Yg64625^%<fN\guN\4625Sr
Ú\ÚGr / ON 1xHIW46257?K#N\oyhS646A\X98=N f N b¢KM2mYXoKR>E:;FON\B=XY<?>B=IW<YDuNaF[B=<?>EvFON\Aae,yhS646AWX98;m
g:Z→Z
b6AdF[VWB[N@8;7Y:;F 1 − 1 2!B=46Z (g) ⊆ N r
/hB 1v46257
Ú ñ Àr / ON 1#13Dr N × {0}. /hB 1R13Dr D = {0} r
Ú Ý r313257YXO_ x , x ∈ X 2 x 6= x rR`gG>Ed>C>uPiI f (x ) = f (x ) b F[IlKRF[7YgG>
1 2 1
r#s57ý2F[I8;7Y:;Fp46257YÎWY52K|7\b#1 cI25g67Y4dF92>EXY<Y46IW=x8;7Y:;F
B=VWY46ILK#N\B;F[IW=XY25IK#NGrcNaF[7Y^jyhS646A\X98=N f 8;7Y:;F 1 − 1 r
g ◦ f (x1 ) = g ◦ f (x2 )
13257YXO_xF[7YB[N\< x ∈ X rEk0F[7YgG> x = g(f (x)) 2 f (x) ∈ Y b6XY<?>E52wyhS646A\X98=N g 8;7Y:;F

}U4uNOr
F Ýàx#'Y'¡ A
ÚGrsn,IWY4uNDcIW:PiS6?>E:=25m^7?F[ICguexIWD625:=SB=7Y]N\X98;24uNx<Y625IWB=<Y7:=A\IW6XY<YIW4d>E^µD6B=<?>
DJIWÎCX?>vFON\c7Y5AC2 b646Dr
/ ON 1 X = {a, b, c}
a b c
a × ×
R=
b × × ×
c × ×
YX <?>E52 R = {ha, ai, hb, bi, hc, ci, ha, bi, hb, ai, hb, ci, hc, bi} r
ñ r313257\b T \ T 8;7Y:;F3B=7Y]N\X98=eD6B=<Y7YXY2KM<?KMB=I\F[4ueGr
1 2
Öfø r / ON 1 FON\A /hB1 FON\A /hX*1#46257 /hgB1#46257 /h7*1#46257
/i;y 1 FON\A /h!Z 1|46257 /hB_ 1#46257 /hm2 1 FON\A /ØQ8 1 FON\A
w625IWB;>o255IWB[N\<YILK#7\r
/ ON 1 {A , A , A , A , A } b6ZWg6<Y257
0 1 2 3 4
Ai = {x ∈ N : (∃k ∈ N) x = 5k + i} = [i]R
g6]N i ∈ {0, 1, 2, 3, 4} k
/hB 1 {P, N } buZWg6<Y257 P = {x ∈ Z : 2|x} b N = {x ∈ Z : 2 6 | x} k
ñp²!6 5 ¯ > ±\²ª5®a¯waªHª¢² 8 ¶W³dhó\²¯¶cªH¯w±³d¯w³!·
/iy;1 {A : c ∈ R} buZWg6<Y257 A = {hc, yi : y ∈ R} k
h/ 2m1 {Ac : z ∈ Z} b6ZWg6<Y257 Ac = {hn, mi ∈ N2 : n − m = z} k
Ø/ 8Q1 {Az , A } b6ZWg6<Y257 A = z{−4, −3, −2, −1} b A = {1, 2, 3, 4} r
1 2 1 2
ÖWÖ r/hB1 xRy ⇔ [x] = [y] buZWg6<Y257 [x] IW<Y4uN\XY<fNXY<YmY=XfNCPiA\ILKM2FON<T525XY<Yd> x
k
h/ X*1 hx, yiRhz, ti ⇔ y − x = t − z k
h/ gB1 hx, yiRhz, ti ⇔ x2 + y2 = z2 + t2 r
Ö ¤Er / NO1 R 4FON\Acb S, T 4v46257
h/ B1 2 r {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} 252 r {3, 15}
h/ X*v 1 FON\A
Ö ÚGr f< NfKM:=<Y7#8;7Y:;F3B=7Y]N\X98=eB=VLKM46IK#N\Y46IW=XY2 buN ÎWY7@46257@C>E`B=7Y]N\X98=e
B=VLKM46ILK#N\Y46IW=XY2 r
R∩S R∪S
Ö ñ r/hB 1 {2, 3, 7, 8}
/h*X 1 {A , A , A } b6ZWg6<Y257
0 1 2
A0 = {0, 5, 10}, A1 = {1, 4, 6, 9}, A2 = {2, 3, 7, 8}
/hgB1vFON\A
ÖÝ r / NO1 R = R−1
h/ X*1 {h2, 2i, h2, 3i, h2, 4i, h3, 2i, h4, 2i}
/hgB1 {A , A , A , A } buZWg6<Y257
1 2 3 4
Ai = {hx, yi : min(x, y) = i}
g6]N i ∈ {1, 2, 3, 4}
Ö åGrM46257
Öì r X×Y /T = {[x]R × [y]S : x ∈ X ∧ y ∈ Y }
Ö ×Gr N /T = {Ak : k ∈ N} buZWg6<Y257 Ak = {hanin∈N : a0 = k} g6]N k ∈ N
N
ÖLó r T = R ∩ S
¤ ø r [0] = {A ⊆ N : A 4:=A\IW6XY<YIW4d> }
∗ =
¤W¤ErRkt46257YAdF[VWB;>EXO_KR>EDuN\g6AN\X_DJIW4625Y:=<Y7#ICg6DJILKM257Yg6<Y2G46257 :[e 8;7YgG>E4d>E^2GDcIWD6B[NLK2-
4d>E^2 r
/ ON 1 (∀x ∈ X)(∃y ∈ X) y < x
/hB 1 (∃a ∈ X)(∀y ∈ X) y ≤ a
/h*X 1 (∃a ∈ X)(∀x ∈ A)(a ≤ x) ∧ (∃a ∈ X)(∀x ∈ A)(x ≤ a)
ñp².9
/hgB1 (∀x ∈ A)(∃y ∈ B) x < y

/ 7 1 ¬(∃x ∈ B)(∀y ∈ A) x ≤ y
i/ y;1 (∀x ∈ A)(∀y ∈ B) x ≤ y
h/ Z!1 (∀x ∈ B)(∀y ∈ X)(y ≤ x ⇒ y = x)
¤ ñ r / NO1 /hB1 /hX*1
/hgB1 /h7*1 /iy;1
/hZ!1 /h_B1 hN, i, x y ⇔ x|y

h/ 2m1 hN × N, i,
hx, yiRhz, ti ⇔ x = z ∧ y ≤ t
¡¢£
h{2n : n ∈ N} ∪ {3}, i
b
x y ⇔ y|x
¤ Ý r h{2n : n ∈ N} ∪ {6}, i, x y ⇔ x|y
¤a×Gr / NO1x§57Y^7Y4CFM4uN8;^4625798;:=<?>oF[IyhS646A\X98=N f ∈ NN <fN\guNa4uNKM<YIWB=7Y^ f (n) = 0
/ X?<?>E523yhS646A\X98=N:;FON\57pB=VLKM4uN<Y7YB=!I 1r#§57Y^7?4CFU>ôN\AC:;>EôN\5467p46257p25:;Fz-
4625798=eGr
/hB 1 {f : k ∈ N} baZWg6<Y257 yhS646A\X98=N f 8;7Y:;F<fN\guN\4uNsKM<YIWB=7Y^ f (n) = k /hXY<?>E52
8;7Y:;kF3F[IB=ICg6<Y254uNyhS646A\X98;2 :;FONCP]>EXOkB_ 1r k
F Ýàx#'Y'¡
Ö r / NO1 f : B → A, f (n) = 3n + 1
ñp²C² 5 ¯ > ±\²ª5®a¯waªHª¢² 8 ¶W³dhó\²¯¶cªH¯w±³d¯w³!·
/hB1 f : A → B, f (n) = 5n
/hX*1
n ZWgG>
f : A → B, f (n) = 2
+1
− n2
ZWgG> 4|n
4|(n − 2)
/hgB1 f : B → A, f (x) = hx, 1 − xi
/h7*1
x WZ gG> g6]NDJ7?KM467YZWI n ∈ N
f : A → B, f (x) = 2
x
x = ( 21 )n
KD6B=<Y7YXY2KM4d>E^%KR>EDuN\g6ACS
¤Er / NO1z\7Y=52 f : A −→ 2 bwF[IvyhS646A\X98=N h : A × C → B × D
<fN\guN\4uNKM<YIWB=7Y^ h(a, c) = hf (a), g(c)i 8;7Y:;F362 8;7YA\X98=eGr
1−1 1−1
na B g : C −→ na D
/hX*1,z\7Y=52 f : A −→ bJF[IvyhS646A\X98=N F : P(A) → P(B) <fN\guN\4uNoKM<YIWB=7Y^

na8;7Y:;B
3
F 6
2 8;7YA\X98=eGr
1−1
F (A) = f [A]
ñ rRk>E:;FNaB[X?<?>:=A\IWB=<?>E:;FON\|< F[7YZWI6bLY7 A∩B ⊆ A ⊆ A∪B 2 A∩B ⊆ B ⊆ A∪B
IWB[N\<`<T¡ KM257YB=g6<Y7Y462]N{#N\4CF[IWB[.N -9q|7?B[46:;F[7Y254uNEr
Ý r / ON 1|46257 /hB 1 FON\A /h*X 1|46257
/hBg 1 FON\A /h*7 1|46257 /i;y 1|46257
ì rs¥@<Y4uN\X?<Y^> A = S An r`¥@XY<?>CKM25=XY257\bsg6]NAaN\Yg67?ZWI m ∈ N <fN\XO_6IEg6<Y2
rwNCPiVWY^> n∈N 4627TKMD6B=IW:;FfbJY7M8;7Y:;F buFON\AC257Y7 r
s57@KM257Y^>Wb6Y7 |A | < |A | buX?<?>E52 |A| m<0|A∈ N | r D6B=<Y7YX?|A<Y46mIW[|\=r |A|
|Am | ≤ |A| 0
m0 m0 +1 m0 +1
F Ýàx#'Y'¡
Ö rsz\7Y=52 f (x, y) = f (x0, y0) bHF[Iý<Y4uN\XY<?>WbY7 2x(2y + 1) = 2x (2y0 + 1) rs57

KRF[7YgG> 2x|2x (2y0 + 1) 2 2x |2x(2y + 1) bJXY<?>E52 2x = 2x r g FOe\g8;S6:=<?>E6A\I
0
g6IW:;FON8;7Y^>WbuY7 x = x0 2 y = y0 rJNaF[7Y^æyhS646AWX98=N f 8;7Y:;F3254a8;7YA\X98=eGr

0 0 0
3:;FON\5^>vF[7YB[N\<g6ILK|IW5467 rJ13257YX_ JmYg6<Y2574uN89KM25mYAC:=<feo525XY<Yue4uNaF[SC-

B[N\54ue@FON\AaeGbCY7 2x|(n + 1)nrG1M∈257YNX_ y = 1 (xn+1 − 1) rG¢IW46257?K#N\ n+1 ^S6:=2cC>E
525XY<?ue46257YDuN\B=<?>E:;FOeGbHF[I y ∈ N r Ú NaFUK|2I:=2D6B[NfKMg6<Y25\bY7 f (x, y)2 = n bX?<?>E52
x x
yhS646A\X98=N f 8;7Y:;F3:=S6Bh8;7YA\X98=eGr
×Gr313Dr X = {4n : n ∈ N} ∪ {2n + 1 : n ∈ N} r
ó r / ON 1x1sN\57Y?>xB=IW<?K#N\?>ETyhS646A\X98;m f : S → Q3 <fN\guN\4ueKM<YIWB=7Y^
f (K(ha, bi, r)) = ha, b, ri.
si¬À} £.y WÔxcmy {z©iv*xz{z£.y . W~©W{c|2~Qy_Oz{¡m{w¤( y ¡m{ ¢ y ¥x §.y {z©W x x y y xzþ uwv*£.y {
§.y {z©W xz} |2ª yO y ¥x,=|2yO£,;W.©i= £ } ª |2yOy p|xy *W p|x h pp|y
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] N\^>D6SS646AdF ha , b i ∈ K bJFON\AC2HY7 a , b ∈ Q rw¡¢7YB[N\<KB=IW∈<?K#SN\fN\^>
yhS646AWX98;m K K K K
f : S → Q2 , f (K) = haK , bK i.
/hgB1x13257YX_ S
cmYg6<Y257TB=IW<?KRN\fN\4d>E^<Y625IWB=7Y^,rEk0F[7YgG>
[
S= Sn ,
ZWg6<Y257 ;8 7Y:;F`<Y625IWB=7Y^XY2]eCZWVLK525XY<Y4uNaF[S6B[N\54d>EXO_ýIvgJPiS6ZWIW=XY2 n rJs57

n∈N
Sn
Sn = N n
buXYIKR>E:;FON\B=XY<fNg6I:=A\IW6XY<Y7Y462]Ng6IK|IEg6Sr
/iy;1xq|7Y<-<Y^4625798;:=<Y7Y462]NIWZWVW546IW=XY2ÎWY7Y^><fNCPiIW?>E\b`Y7yhS646A\X98=N f 8;7Y:;F
/ =XY2[7*1B=IW:=4ue\XfNGr ¥@<Y4uNaXY<Y^>D6B=<Y7Y< <Y625VWBs8;798D6S646AdF[VLK46257YXY2]eCZ,-
PiIW=XY2 r6k0F[7YgG>xg6]NAN\Yg67YZWI a ∈ D 25:;DF[46f25798=egGKR257TZWB[N\4625XY7
2 g = lim f (x)
f
da = lim f (x) a
2!ôN\^> d < g ru13257YXO_ I = (d , g ) r6k0F[7YgG>vyhS646AWX98=N

−
x→a x→a +
a a a a a
F : Df → {Ia : a ∈ Df }, F (a) = Ia
8;7Y:;F62 8;7YA\X98=eGbaN {I : a ∈ D } 8;7Y:;FB=IEg6<Y254ueMDuN\B[N\^2dB=IW<Phe\XY<?4C>EXO_D6B[<?7=-
g6<Y2]NCPiVK I\FUK#N\B;F9>EXOa_r f
/hZ!1x13257YX_ |A| = ℵ 2 S = {X ⊆ A : |X| < ℵ } r6k0F[7YgG>

0 0
S=
[
S ,
W
Z 6
g Y
< 5
2 7 S = {X ⊆ A : |X| = n}
g6]N n ∈ N.
n n
s 57 |S | ≤ |An| r
n∈N
/h_B1x13257YX_ nS JmYg6<Y257B=IW<?K#N\fN\4d>E^µ<Y62IWB=7Y^,r -AN\Ygue52F[7YB[e T ∈ S KM2]e.-

Y7Y^>F[B=<?>D6S646AdFU> T T 2 T bWAN\YgG>IÌW6SKM:=DcVEPiB=<YmYg64C>EXO_KR>E^257YB-
4C>EXO_buK:=DJI\:[V\pIWD6p25:[1N\,4dp>x2 4uNp3DJIW4625Y:=<?>E^%B;>E:=S646ACS
pT3
¤
pT1 §
¥ ¦ pT
2
k0F[7YgG>xyhS646A\X98=N
f : S → Q6 , f (T ) = hxT1 , y1T , xT2 , y2T , xT3 , y3T i,
ZWg6<Y257 pTi = hxTi , yiT i
g6]N i ∈ {1, 2, 3}
b\8;7Y:;F3254a8;7YAWX98=eGr
ñp²C× 5 ¯ > ±\²ª5®a¯waªHª¢² 8 ¶W³dhó\²¯¶cªH¯w±³d¯w³!·
ÖWÖ r3¢IW46257?K#N\
g6IW^ [
−1
N= (f ) =
n∈
©W£.þ (f ) f [n],
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:=D6B=<Y7YXY<Y46IW=XY2 r 0 0
Ö ¤Er |A| ≤ ℵ0 /h<fN\SdKRN\?^>WbY7 A 8;7Y:;FvPhN\6XYS6X_67?^ Kj<?625IWB=<Y7xXY<YmY=XY25ILK#IS6DJI,-

B=<fe\g6A\ILK#N\4C>E^ hP(N), ⊆i1r
Ö ÚGrs{|I4uNa89KR>EY798RD6B=<Y7Y525XY<fN\54uNGr
Ö ñ rM46257
Öì r / ON 1z\7Y=52 f : A −→ 1−1 2
B g : C −→ 1−1
D
b6F[IyhS646A\X98=N
na na
F : AC → B D , F (ϕ) = f ◦ ϕ ◦ g −1
8;7Y:;F362 8;7YAWXU8=eGr
/hB1 h S646A\X98=N F : (A×B)C → AC ×B C <fN\guNa4uNRKM<YIWB=7Y^ F (ϕ) = hϕ , ϕ i b
ZWg6<Y257 ϕ 8;7Y:;F i- FOe:=A6PhN\g6ILKReyhS646A\X98;2 ϕ b\8;7Y:;F362 8;7YA\X98=eGr 1 2
/hX*1 h S646A\X98;m F : (AB )C → AB×C g67?êu4625Sa8;7Y^>x4uN\:;F[mYD6Sa8=e\XYI6r

i
F (ϕ)(b, c) = ϕ(c)(b)
g6]N b ∈ B 2 c ∈ C.
N\SdKRN\Y^>WbHY7xg67?êu4625X98=N8;7Y:;FDJIWD6B[NfKM4uNGbcI F (ϕ) : B × C → A bN
ϕ(c) : B → A h
r S646AWX98=N F 8;7Y:;F362 8;7YA\X98=eGr
Ö ×Gr3¢IEg6IW646257|8=N\Ao¡ KM257YB=g6<Y7Y46257 ì r ÖLó r
ÖLó rÀ/hm2 1 RN ∼ (NN)N ∼ NN×N ∼ NN ∼ R
¤ ø rsz\7Y=52 f : A −→ 1−1
C
b6F[I
na
1−1
f (A \ B) : A \ B −→
na f [A \ B] = f [A] \ f [B] = C \ f [B].
s 57 f [B] ∼ B ∼ D b6XY<?>E52 C \ f [B] ∼ C \ D /hcI f [B], D ⊆ C 1r

¤ Ö r3©3IWB=<?>E:;FON\^><y N\AdF[SbY7s8;7Y=52¢yhS646A\X98;7 f, g : R → R :[evXY2]eCZEPi72¢FON\AC257\bwY7
bF[I f = g r¢¥@<Y4uN\XY<fNF[I6bY7yhS646A\X98=N F : A → RQ <fNaguN\4uN
KM<YIWB=7Y^ F (f ) = f Q 8;7?:=F3254a8;7?AWX98=eGr6s57 RQ ∼ RN ∼ R r
f Q = gQ
ñp² ö
¤\¤ErMU:;F[4625798;7 KM257Y57 AWIW46:;F[B=S6A\X98;2GB=IEg6<Y254d>I3FU>EXO_K@PhN\:=46IW=XY2]N\XO_rW¥sF[I 8;7Yg64uNs<|4625XO_r

k257Y^>8;S6,<,<fN\guN\462]N ó /hgB1b Y7,<Y625VWB :=A\IW6XY<YIW4d>EX_0XY2]eCZWVLK%525XY<Y4uN.-
F[S6B[N\54d>EXO_8;7Y:;FD6B=<Y7Y525XY<fN\54d>Wr#3:;FON\5^>Sg6IK|IW54uel62 8;7YAWX98;m ϕ : N −→ r
N\SdK#N\Y^>WbwY7:=AWIWB=I N 8;7Y:;F/h46257Y:=A\IW6XY<YIW4d>E^1@XY2]edZW257Y^525XY<Y4uNaF[SC-
1−1
na S
B[N\54d>EXO_bJF[Ivg6]NAaN\Yg67YfZWI ∈nN∈ N 8;7YZ\IxIWcXY25mYXY257 f {0, 1, . . . , n} 8;7Y:;F`:=A\IWC -
XY<YIW4d>E^µXY2]eCZW257Y^
525XY<YQ4uNaF[S6B[N\54d>EXO_ /Ø8;7Y:;FF[I n + 1 D6257YB;KM:=<?>EX_lKR>EB[N\<YVK
XY2]eCZWS f 1r
ã ]NAN\Yg67YZWI f ∈ NN B=IW<KRN\Y^>x<Y625VWB
Af = {f {0, 1, . . . , n} : n ∈ N}.
@¥ XY<?>CKM25=XY257\b A 8;7Y:;FD6B=<Y7Y525XY<fN\54d>TIWB[N\<!8;7Y=52 f 6= g bLF[I A 6= A rW{|I3KM25mYXY798?b
8;7Y=52 k ∈ N 8;7Y:;fF34uNa8;^4625798;:=<fe525XY<YueFON\AeGbuY7 f (k) 6= g(k) f
b6F[I g
Af ∩ Ag = {f {0, 1, . . . , n} : n < k}
/Ø8;7Y=52 k=0
Eb F[I A ∩ A = ∅1bG<fNaF[7Y^ A f ∩ Ag
8;7Y:;FR<Y625IWB=7Y^æ:=A\IW6XY<YIW4d>G^,r
wg67?êu4625Sa8;^>oF[7YB[N\<
f g
A = {ϕ−1 [Af ] : f ∈ NN }.
¢IW46257?K#N\
f 6= g ⇒ Af 6= Ag ⇒ ϕ−1 [Af ] 6= ϕ−1 [Ag ]
/hcI ϕ
;8 7Y:;F362 8;7YA\X98=eO1 ,
F[I |A| = |NN | = c
rc¢IW4uN\gGF[I |ϕ−1 [Af ]| = |Af | = ℵ0
IWB[N\<
|ϕ−1 [Af ] ∩ ϕ−1 [Ag ]| = |ϕ−1 [Af ∩ Ag ]| = |Af ∩ Ag | < ℵ0 ,
XYIAWIW6XY<?>A\IW46:;F[B=S6AWX98;m\r
a¤ ÚGr ã ILK|VEgF[7YZWIy N\AdF[SxKR>EAWIWB=<?>E:;F[Sa8;7A\IW46:;F[B=S6A\X98;mB=7YACS6B=7Y46X?>L8;4ue%jr
3:;FON\5^>g6ILK|IW54ue62 8;7YA\X98;m ϕ : N → N × N r6N\SdK#N\Y^>4uN8;D6257YB;KTbCY7 8;7Y=52
8;7Y:;FoD6257YB;KM:=<feQ:=A6PhN\g6ILK#eyhS646AWXU8;2 ϕ bF[IQg6]NAN\Yg67YZWI n ∈ N
ôN\^> |ϕ−1[n]| = ℵ /hcI ϕ 8;7Y:;F62 8;7YA\X98=Oe 1r wg67?êu4625Sa8;7Y^>pF[7YB[N\<B=7YACS6B=7Y4C-
ϕ1 : N → N
X?>L8;46257TXY2]ed1Z525XY<Yx4uNaF[0S6B[N\54C>EXO_ ha i r
13257YXO_ a ∈ A cmYg6<Y257g6ILK|IW5467\r¢NCPiVWY^>pF[7YB[N\<\b!Y7ôN\^>8;S6KR>E6B[N\467
n n∈N
525XY<Yd> a0 g6]N i0≤ n rGk0F[7YgG>xKR>E6257YB[N\^>

i
an+1 ∈ Aϕ1 (n+1) \ {ai : 0 ≤ i ≤ n}.

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ñÅø 5 ¯ > ±\²ª5®a¯waªHª¢² 8 ¶W³dhó\²¯¶cªH¯w±³d¯w³!·
z\7Y:;F F[I3<fNfKM:=<Y7|ÎWY52~K|7\bfJI3<Y625VWB!< AdF[VWB=7YZWIMKR>E6257YB[N\^> b=8=N\AWIMB=VWY4625XfN
<Y625IWB=S46257Y:=A\IW6XY<YIW467YZWI2`:=A\IW6XY<YIW467YZWI6b8;7Y:;F,<fNfKM:=<Y7l46a257Yn+1
D6S6:;FU>Â/ N4uNLK|7?F
46257Y:=A\IW6XY<YIW4dË> 1r
wg67?êu4625Sa8;^>oF[7YB[N\<Tg65NAaN\Yg67YZWI n ∈ N
Bn = {ai : i ∈ ϕ−1
1 [n]}.
N\SdK#N\Y^>WbCY73<MAWI\46:=F[B=S6A\X98;2cKR>E4625ANGbCY7MKR>EB[N\<?>XY2]edZWS :[eDuN\B[N\^2
=B VWY467\rNaF[7Y^,buDJIW46257?K#N\ |ϕ−1[n]| = ℵ bcF[I |B | = ℵ r haã nN\i5n∈N 798?bcg6]Ng6ILK#IW¨-
4d>EXO_ n, m ∈ N bd8;7Y=52 n 6= m1bcF[I B ∩ 0B = ∅nbcJI ϕ0−1[n] ∩ ϕ−1[m] = ∅ r
kQB=7Y:=<YXY257\b8;7Y=52 a ∈ B bF[I ϕ (i) n= n bmXY<?>E52Í/h<xAWIW461 :;F[B=S6A\X98;2m1 1 a ∈ A r
NaF[7Y^ B ⊆ A r i n 1 i n
n n
F Ýàx#'Y'¡
Ö rÀ/h7*1 AWIWB=<?>E:;FON\<Y7T:=XO_67YôNaF[S
ϕ(0) ∧ ϕ(1) ∧ ϕ(2) ∧ ϕ(3) ∧
r
∧ (∀n ≥ 1)(ϕ(2n) ⇒ ϕ(2n + 2) ∧ ϕ(2n + 1) ⇒ ϕ(2n + 3)) ⇒
⇒ (∀n ∈ N) ϕ(n)
¤Er ã ]N n = 0 2 n = 1 8;7Y:;F3g6IW6B=<Y7\rwNCPiVWY^>vY7 a · a − a2 = (−1)n+1 r
{|_6XY7Y^>0DcIWAaN\<fN\\bRY7 a · a − a2 = n+2 n+2 r#s57<ý<fNCPiIWY7Y462]N
n n+1
2546g6S6A\X?>L8;467YZWIKR>E4625AaNGbuY7
n+3 n+1 n+2 (−1)
an+3 · an+1 − a2n+2 = −(an+2 · an − a2n+1 ) ⇔

⇔ an+3 · an+1 − a2n+1 = a2n+2 − an+2 · an ⇔
⇔ an+1 (an+3 − an+1 ) = an+2 (an+2 − an ) ⇔
⇔ an+1 · an+2 = an+2 · an+1 ,
XYIQAWIW6XY<?>g6ILK|VEgACB=IWACS2546g6S6A\X?>L8;467YZWI /hIW:;FONaF[462]NB=VLKM46ILKRN\Y46IW=,KR>EA\I,-
B=<?>E:;F[Sa8;7g67?êu4625X98;mTXY2]edZWS h 25JIW4uNaXYXY257YZW!I 1r
Ý rÀ/h*X 1TkQ>E:;FON\B=XY<?>Wbd> B = U IWB[N\<oyhS646A\X98=N f d>uPhN62 8;7YAWX98=eGbN\57o46257v25g67Y4C-
FU>EXY<Y46IW=XY2]eGr¢k0F[7YgG>ôN\^> (∀n ∈ N) A = U bHXY<?>E52 T A = U bHN\57
25:;F[4625798;7 x ∈ U b6FON\AC2Y7 f (x) 6= x r n n∈N n

Wstęp Do Matematyki B Jan Kraszewski

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Wstęp Do Matematyki B Jan Kraszewski

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k 25g6<Y25^>o<fNaF[7Y^b6Y7`I\F[B=<?>E^oN\525=^>B=VWY467`<Y625IWB;>Wr£Ô+W& P &;ï P &Q%R#.)$!,Xcd .¿

k0F[7YgG><Y625IWB;> A = {0, 1, 3, 4} b 2 :[eg6IW6B;>E^

/ ON 1 /hB 1@¡ KM257?B[g6<?7Y462]N,¤Er ñ / NO1MKM257Y^>WbwY7 B ⊆ A ∪ B rwkQ>E:;FON\B=XY<?>ý<fNaF[7Y^ DJI,-

Ö\Ö r3¢IWAaN\<fN\\b|Y7 A ∪ B 8;7Y:;Fx4uN8;^4625798;:=<?>E^t<Y625IWB=7Y^t<fNLKM257YB[N8=e\X?>E^ B=VLKM46I,-

Öfó r33g6ILK|IEg64625\bJY7g6]Ng6ILK|IW54d>EX_<Y625IWB=VLK A b B 2 C <fN\XO_6IEg6<feo4uN\:;F[mYD6Sa8=e\XY7

• (∀x ∈ {1, 2, 3}) ϕ(x) ⇔ ϕ(1) ∧ ϕ(2) ∧ ϕ(3)

(∀  > 0)(∃δ > 0)(∀x)(|x − x0 | < δ ⇒ |f (x) − f (x0 ) < |).

ÚGrsN\D625:=<Y7Y^>F[7YB[N\<ýyhS646A\X98;m<YguN\4625ILKRe ϕ(x) =} x 8;7Y:;F,525XY<YueD6257YB;KM:=<feI

Dψ = {hx, yi ∈ X × Y : ψ(x, y)}.

∃x(ϕ(x) ∨ ψ(x)) ⇔ Dϕ∨ψ 6= ∅ ⇔ Dϕ ∪ Dψ 6= ∅ ⇔ Dϕ 6= ∅ ∨ Dψ 6= ∅ ⇔

∀x ϕ(x) ∨ ∀x ψ(x) ⇔ Dϕ = X ∨ Dψ = X ⇒ Dϕ ∪ Dψ = X ⇔ Dϕ∨ψ = X ⇔

• ¬(∃x ∈ A) ϕ(x) ⇔ (∀x ∈ A) ¬ϕ(x)

 ¿oÁh»C¹a¼ ºd» Ò Áh» Ì éÈ£Ô+W&;U;e Ê=Q*ST+W&I!,Xc,^lR¼

NCPiVWY^>Wb!Y7D6B[NfKMg6<Y2K#7`8;7Y:;F<YguN\46257 ∃x∀y ϕ(x, y) rH¥@<Y4uN\XY<fNF[I6b!Y7o25:;F[4625798;7

ãx»dè Ò Á Ðî?À .S+mRÔS*ÊT+W,[Qd,X {A : i ∈ I} R#*ST',XZ#%"Ð'B&*éyr/wíp®r/+¢í ki^lËÊ@ç&*ç} ì

(∀i, j ∈ I)(Ai 6= Aj ⇒ Ai ∩ Aj = ∅).

HICg6IW646257`8=N\AKÆKR>EDuN\g6ACS<?KR>EA6P]>EX_IWDJ7YB[N\X98;2 :=S6^>2 D6B=<Y7YACB=Ia8;Sb¢^IWY7Y^>

ãx¾E¿ ¼  \z 7Y:;FýF[I0:;FON\46guN\B=g6ILK|7B=IW<YS6^ILKRN\46257lIWDuN\B;F[7I Na:ONag6m-§ AC:;F[7Y46:h8;I,-

ãx¾E¿ ¼  ¨MIW<YS6^ILK#N\462]N3:[e`N\4uN\5IWZW2XY<Y467|g6IsF9>EXO_<#¡ KM257YB=g6<Y7Y462]N`ÚGr åGbFU>E^B[N\<Y7Y^

¸¹ºWá!ÓÈÇ Àu¼ 3<fN\:[N\g64625^>Wb6Y7

/ ON 1 ∃x(ϕ(x) ⇒ ψ(x)) ⇒ (∃x ϕ(x) ⇒ ∃x ψ(x)) k

/ ON 1 ∃x∃y ϕ(x, y) ⇒ ∃x ϕ(x, x) k

/hB1 ∀ ϕ(x, x) ⇒ ∀x∀yϕ(x, y)

Ø/ 8Q1 I = (0, +∞), Ai = {hx, yi ∈ R2 : y ≤ i · x}

/hB1 (∀i ∈ I)(Ai ⊆ A) ⇒

Ö ×Gr3¢IWAN\<fN\\bY7 S Ai 8;7Y:;FT4uN8;^4625798;:=<?>E^ /iK:=7Y46:=257<fNfKM257YB[N\462]ON 1M<?625IWB=7Y^,b

f = {hx, yi ∈ X × Y : f (x) = y},

\z 7Y:;FRF[I4uN8;XY<YmY=XY25798#KR>EA\IWB=<?>E:;F9>CKRN\4d>WbcXO_6IE`46257|8;7YgG>E4d>x:=DJIW:=VWr  N\^ [wS.&+_T4uN

525<Y27npNaF[7Y^oNaFU>EXY<Y46798`S6?>CK#N:=25m (a ) n 1r ã 7?êu4625Sa8=e\XA\IW46nACB=n∈N 7?F[4d>ýXY2]eCZx4uN

¸¹ºWá!ÈÓ Ç Àu¼ h S646A\X98=egGK#VCX_x<Y^257Y464d>EXO_8;7Y:;F|yhS646AWX98=N plus : R × R → R <fN\guN\4uN

(∀y ∈ Y )(∃x ∈ X) y = f (x).

 N\SdKRN\Y^>Wb Y7,yhS646A\X98=N f 8;7Y:;F}U4uNxKRF[7YgG>2RFU>E5A\IQKRF[7YgG>Wb|AC257?gG>ý8;798<Y625VWB

ÚGr313257YXO_ π : R × R → R, π (x, y) = x cmYg6<Y257`B=<YSGF[7Y^æ4uND6257YB;KM:=<feIWYruzWN\A

ãx»dè Ò Á Ðî?å À ÏV&;\^l+ f : X −→ 1−1 ¿ n è4+bopqKÒét*,&*éVæj+¢íY!bv;CRn)OU P + f !&Dì¢RV+m P &"Ð'

B=VWY46ILK#N\B;F[IW=XY25ILK#798 r k0F[7YgG>cmYg6<Y257Y^>^257Y2 −1 B=46Z b K#N\B=S6467YA

YÙ 2 xTcâ '|xH#"P|'$áÝ x

ãx»dè Ò Á Ðî?À¤£Ô+W&;U;e f : X → Y ,[w#*S A ⊆ X + B ⊆ Y Î

f [A] = {y ∈ Y : (∃x ∈ A)y = f (x)} = {f (x) : x ∈ A}.

f −1 [B] = {x ∈ X : f (x) ∈ B}.

ã ]NS6D6B=IW:=<YXY<Y7Y462]N<fN\^2]N\:;FD625:[N\ f [{a}] 2 f −1[{a}] JmYg6<Y257Y^>D625:[N\ f [a] 2

g −1 [B] = {hn, ki ∈ N2 : g(n, k) ∈ {0, 1, 2}} =

<fN\#F[B=<Y7YXY2]N /hAC5S6XY<YILK#NO1#B=VLKM46ILK#N\Y46IW=<`¡ KM257YB=g6<Y7Y462]NÚGr Ý /hB1ru¢ILK|IEPhN\46257`:=25m`4uN

8;f7Y[A g64d1>E] ^ ∩ f:[APiILK|2]7Y6⊆^ fKR[A>E^o1 ∩N\ZWAN2]KM:=AaN\<fN\462]NA\IW4dF[B=D6B=<?>EA6PhN\g6Sb XYIQDcIW<YIW:;FONLKR2]N\^>8=N\AWI

/hBg 1x13257Y:=AWIW6XY<Y7Y46257`KM257Y57@KR>EB[N\<YVLK XY2]eCZWS ha i 8;7Y:;F3g6ICguNaF[4625X_r

¤ ó r313257YXO_ f : X → Y IWB[N\< A ⊆ X, B ⊆ Y ru3g6IK|IEg64625\b6Y7

Ú ñ r3¨MIW<?K#N\Y^>vyhS646A\X98;m f : N2 → N guN\4ueKM<YIWB=7Y^ f (n, k) = n2 + k2 r

 NaF[7Y^ R 8;7Y:;F B=7Y5N\X98=e`DcIW^25mYg6<?>7Y57Y^7Y4dFNa^2G<Y625IWB=S X N`7Y57Y^7Y4dFON\^2G<Y625IWB=S

N\SdKRN\Y^>WbaY7 yhIWB=^oN\54627 B=<Y7YXY<#625IWB[e\X AN\YguNsyhS646A\X98=N 8;7Y:;FB=7Y]N\X98=e

AÒÙTØ  W YÝ§Ø|'H"ÞY f'

¢ IEg6IW646257\bw8=NaAlK%D6B=<?>EDuN\g6ACSyhS646AWX98;2 bB=7Y]N\X98;7x^IWY4uNý:=A6PhN\guN\\b ICgGKMB[N\XfN\2

{|7Y57Y^KR>EA6PhN\g6S<Y 7 !"$#%&"$#%('*),+H8;7Y:;F`D6B=<Y7Yg67KM:=<?>E:;F[AC25^ <fN\<Y4u.N -

FON\AN@Y7 a = 2c rakVLK|XY<fN\: 2b2 = (2c)2 b\XY<?>E52 b2 = 2c2 rW¢IEg6IW646257 8=N\ADJIWD6B=<Y7Yg64625I

s1 N3<fNaAWIW6XY<Y7Y46257 F[7YZWI3B=IW<Yg6<Y2]NCPiSTKR>E^257Y4625^>sKRN\Y4625798;:=<Y7 FON\SGF[IW5IWZW272CDcIEguN\^>

ñ r313257YXO_ a 2 b cmYgueg6IK|IW54d>E^2525XY<YuN\^2wB=<Y7YXY<>CK325:;FU>E^2 rJn,IWY7Y^>x<Yg67?êu4625I,-

ãx¾E¿ ¼ npN\^>DJIWAaN\<fN\\b\Y7 b\XY<?>E52GY7#AaN\YgG>7Y57?^7Y4CF A 8;7Y:;F7Y57Y^7Y4dF[7Y^

zWN\A^I\Y4uN,<fN\SdKRN\?>E\bH<fNfKM257YB[N\462572 B=IW<Phe\XY<?46IW=v<Y625IWB=VLK :[eK@PhN\:=46IW=XY2]N\^2

ãx»dè Ò Á Ðî?ÀÈ¬Ðç&hèé&hr!íftoBéÍç+¢íA&^_&"&RVd,X a + b STR#!UQS#%"Ð'Z[wS.&QS ha, bi Î g ú

:=IWd>Wr`FON\AQ46Dr¢F[B=Va8;AaNpS6DJIWB=<fe\g6A\IK#N\4uN ha, b, ci F[IN\5cIIW6257YAdFB=IW<YB=VWY462]N8=e\X?>

k 25g6<Y25^>o<fNaF[7Y^b6Y7`I\F[B=<?>E^oN\525=^>B=VWY467`<Y625IWB;>Wr£Ô+W& P &;ï P &Q%R#.)$!,Xcd .¿

k0F[7YgG><Y625IWB;> A = {0, 1, 3, 4} b 2 :[eg6IW6B;>E^

/ ON 1 /hB 1@¡ KM257?B[g6<?7Y462]N,¤Er ñ / NO1MKM257Y^>WbwY7 B ⊆ A ∪ B rwkQ>E:;FON\B=XY<?>ý<fNaF[7Y^ DJI,-

Ö\Ö r3¢IWAaN\<fN\\b|Y7 A ∪ B 8;7Y:;Fx4uN8;^4625798;:=<?>E^t<Y625IWB=7Y^t<fNLKM257YB[N8=e\X?>E^ B=VLKM46I,-

Öfó r33g6ILK|IEg64625\bJY7g6]Ng6ILK|IW54d>EX_<Y625IWB=VLK A b B 2 C <fN\XO_6IEg6<feo4uN\:;F[mYD6Sa8=e\XY7

(∀ > 0)(∃δ > 0)(∀x)(|x − x0 | < δ ⇒ |f (x) − f (x0 ) < |).

ÚGrsN\D625:=<Y7Y^>F[7YB[N\<ýyhS646A\X98;m<YguN\4625ILKRe ϕ(x) =} x 8;7Y:;F,525XY<YueD6257YB;KM:=<feI

¿oÁh»C¹a¼ ºd» Ò Áh» Ì éÈ£Ô+W&;U;e Ê=Q*ST+W&I!,Xc,^lR¼

NCPiVWY^>Wb!Y7D6B[NfKMg6<Y2K#7`8;7Y:;F<YguN\46257 ∃x∀y ϕ(x, y) rH¥@<Y4uN\XY<fNF[I6b!Y7o25:;F[4625798;7

ãx»dè Ò Á Ðî?À .S+mRÔSÊT+W,[Qd,X {A : i ∈ I} R#ST',XZ#%"Ð'B&éyr/wíp®r/+¢í ki^lËÊ@ç&ç} ì

HICg6IW646257`8=N\AKÆKR>EDuN\g6ACS<?KR>EA6P]>EX_IWDJ7YB[N\X98;2 :=S6^>2 D6B=<Y7YACB=Ia8;Sb¢^IWY7Y^>

ãx¾E¿ ¼ \z 7Y:;FýF[I0:;FON\46guN\B=g6ILK|7B=IW<YS6^ILKRN\46257lIWDuN\B;F[7I Na:ONag6m-§AC:;F[7Y46:h8;I,-

ãx¾E¿ ¼ ¨MIW<YS6^ILK#N\462]N3:[e`N\4uN\5IWZW2XY<Y467|g6IsF9>EXO_<#¡ KM257YB=g6<Y7Y462]N`ÚGr åGbFU>E^B[N\<Y7Y^

¸¹ºWá!ÓÈÇ Àu¼ 3<fN\:[N\g64625^>Wb6Y7

/hB1 ∀ ϕ(x, x) ⇒ ∀x∀yϕ(x, y)

/hB1 (∀i ∈ I)(Ai ⊆ A) ⇒

Ö ×Gr3¢IWAN\<fN\\bY7 S Ai 8;7Y:;FT4uN8;^4625798;:=<?>E^ /iK:=7Y46:=257<fNfKM257YB[N\462]ON 1M<?625IWB=7Y^,b

\z 7Y:;FRF[I4uN8;XY<YmY=XY25798#KR>EA\IWB=<?>E:;F9>CKRN\4d>WbcXO_6IE`46257|8;7YgG>E4d>x:=DJIW:=VWr N\^ [wS.&+_T4uN

525<Y27npNaF[7Y^oNaFU>EXY<Y46798`S6?>CK#N:=25m (a ) n 1r ã 7?êu4625Sa8=e\XA\IW46nACB=n∈N 7?F[4d>ýXY2]eCZx4uN

¸¹ºWá!ÈÓ Ç Àu¼ h S646A\X98=egGK#VCX_x<Y^257Y464d>EXO_8;7Y:;F|yhS646AWX98=N plus : R × R → R <fN\guN\4uN

N\SdKRN\Y^>Wb Y7,yhS646A\X98=N f 8;7Y:;F}U4uNxKRF[7YgG>2RFU>E5A\IQKRF[7YgG>Wb|AC257?gG>ý8;798<Y625VWB

ÚGr313257YXO_ π : R × R → R, π (x, y) = x cmYg6<Y257`B=<YSGF[7Y^æ4uND6257YB;KM:=<feIWYruzWN\A

ãx»dè Ò Á Ðî?å À ÏV&;\^l+ f : X −→ 1−1 ¿ n è4+bopqKÒét,&éVæj+¢íY!bv;CRn)OU P + f !&Dì¢RV+m P &"Ð'

B=VWY46ILK#N\B;F[IW=XY25ILK#798 r k0F[7YgG>cmYg6<Y257Y^>^257Y2 −1 B=46Z b K#N\B=S6467YA

YÙ 2 xTcâ '|xH#"P|'$áÝ x

ãx»dè Ò Á Ðî?À¤£Ô+W&;U;e f : X → Y ,[w#*S A ⊆ X + B ⊆ Y Î

ã ]NS6D6B=IW:=<YXY<Y7Y462]N<fN\^2]N\:;FD625:[N\ f [{a}] 2 f −1[{a}] JmYg6<Y257Y^>D625:[N\ f [a] 2

<fN\#F[B=<Y7YXY2]N /hAC5S6XY<YILK#NO1#B=VLKM46ILK#N\Y46IW=<`¡ KM257YB=g6<Y7Y462]NÚGr Ý /hB1ru¢ILK|IEPhN\46257`:=25m`4uN

8;f7Y[A g64d1>E] ^ ∩ f:[APiILK|2]7Y6⊆^ fKR[A>E^o1 ∩N\ZWAN2]KM:=AaN\<fN\462]NA\IW4dF[B=D6B=<?>EA6PhN\g6Sb XYIQDcIW<YIW:;FONLKR2]N\^>8=N\AWI

/hBg 1x13257Y:=AWIW6XY<Y7Y46257`KM257Y57@KR>EB[N\<YVLK XY2]eCZWS ha i 8;7Y:;F3g6ICguNaF[4625X_r

¤ ó r313257YXO_ f : X → Y IWB[N\< A ⊆ X, B ⊆ Y ru3g6IK|IEg64625\b6Y7

Ú ñ r3¨MIW<?K#N\Y^>vyhS646A\X98;m f : N2 → N guN\4ueKM<YIWB=7Y^ f (n, k) = n2 + k2 r

NaF[7Y^ R 8;7Y:;F B=7Y5N\X98=e`DcIW^25mYg6<?>7Y57Y^7Y4dFNa^2G<Y625IWB=S X N`7Y57Y^7Y4dFON\^2G<Y625IWB=S

N\SdKRN\Y^>WbaY7 yhIWB=^oN\54627 B=<Y7YXY<#625IWB[e\X AN\YguNsyhS646A\X98=N 8;7Y:;FB=7Y]N\X98=e

AÒÙTØ W YÝ§Ø|'H"ÞY f'

¢ IEg6IW646257\bw8=NaAlK%D6B=<?>EDuN\g6ACSyhS646AWX98;2 bB=7Y]N\X98;7x^IWY4uNý:=A6PhN\guN\\b ICgGKMB[N\XfN\2

ãx»dè Ò Á Ðî?À ÏV&;\^l+ R ⊆ X × Y + S ⊆ Y × Z aA[Q&^#!U P #%"Ð+_¿oA+WU;eIS=º ¸.&RV+W&"

ãx»dè Ò Á Ðî?À ÏV&;\^l+ R P &;Ô[Q&^#!U P aðR#îSÊT+W,[wS.& X ,[w#S Y ⊆ X ð[Q&^#!U P R Y

k N\B=S646AC2 F[7g6IW6B=<Y7<YZdN\g6<fNa8=e:=25m<4uN\:=<?>E^2 IEXY<Y7YAC2K#N\462]N\^2WbAN\YgG>QIW6257YAdF

ÚGrsw625VWB P({1, 2, . . . , n}) b S = {A : 0 ≤ k ≤ n} buZWg6<Y257

¿oÁh»C¹a¼ ºd» Ò Áh»Õ 5Þ ÏV&;\^l+ P &;[Q&^#!U P a [Qd,X¢R,XZ#¸TR\U+ZR# RV+W&O('," SÊT+W,[wS.&

ãx¾E¿ ¼ wZWIEg64627`<Tg67?êu4625X98=e:;yhIWB=^SJPiILK#N\4ueK¡ KM27YB=g6<Y7Y4625S Ý rØ¤^oN\^>

z\7Y=52 ≤i 8;7Y:;F<Y625IWB=7Y^XY<YmY=XY25IK|I`S6DJIWB=<fe\g6A\IK#N\4d>E^,b x, y ∈ X 2 x ≤ y baF[I

\z 7Y=52 ≤ 8;7Y:;F525462IK#>E^ DJIWB=<fe\g6AC257?^ <Y625IWB=S X bHF[IDuN\B=m hX, ≤i 4uN\<?>CKRN\^>

¥@XY<?>CKM25=XY257\b#K XY<YmY=XY25IKR>E^ DJIWB=<fe\g6ACS ^ IWY7ýd>EýFON\ACY7ýKM257Y577Y57Y^7Y4dF[VKTb

s1 NB;>E:=S646ACSvFU>E^ ACB=IWD6AC2cIEg6DJILKM2]N\guN8=eT7Y57Y^7Y4dF[IW^ <Y625IWB=S P({0, 1}) bC:;F[B=<fNCP_-

¬(a < x) ⇔ (a ≥ x ∨ a x W

ãx¾E¿ ¼ 31 257YXO_ a ∈ X Jm?g6<Y257M8;7YgG>E4d>E^7Y57Y^7Y4dF[7Y^^oN\AC:;>E^oN\54d>E^,rcNCPiVWY^>

DJIWB=<fe\g67YAcbwXYIx<Y625VWB 1 ú bNoACB=7Y:`g6IW54d>,<Y625IWB=S 8;7Y:;F`7Y57Y^7Y4dF[7Y^4uN89KM25mYAC:=<?>E^

ãx¾E¿ ¼ s C>xDJIWAaN\<fN\\bcY7 a = sup A buF[B=<Y7YuNS6<fN\:[N\g64625\bcY7 a 8;7Y:;FsI\ZWB[N\4625XY<Y7=-

k0F[7YgG><Y625VWB ^oNRgGKRNMIWZWB[N\4625XY<Y7Y462]NRZWVWB=46%7 b Ö ¤R2 Ö ×Gr eMIW467!8;7Yg64uN\A

p %ìwínëy P &;\^l+ P &;Z`!;('A,[w#SÀ)p#¸*%' P &i`!RV+W&O('ÀV SÊT+Wd,[ÒQ`%[w#%RV+WUQS.,RV'ÒS

\z 7Y=52 8;7Y:;Fpg6IW6B;>E^ DcIWB=<fe\g6AC257Y^ <Y625IWB=S b#F[I-DuN\B=m hX, ≤i 4uN\<?>CK#N\^>

^oNaF[7Y^oNaFU>EXY<Y4d>E^2 b AdF[VWB;>E^2 b!46257Y:;F[7?FU>WbH46257cmYg6<Y257o4uN\^µguN\467o<fNa8=eao:=25m4uN,FU>E^

Ö ñ r3¨MIW<?K#N\Y^>B=7Y]N\X98;7 R 2 S 4uN<Y625IWB=<Y7 A = {x ∈ N : x ≤ 10} <Yg67?êu4625IK#N\467

/hgB, 1 {|<?> R ∩ S 8;7Y:;F3B=7Y]N\X98=eB=VKM46ILK#N\Y46IW=XY2m3

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Ö åGrs{|<?>25:;F[4625798;7:=DcV\8;4uNB=7Y]N\X98=NvB=VKM46ILK#N\Y46IW=XY2 4uN<Y625IWB=<Y7 N b!^oN8=e\XfNxgGKM257

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