10

subject and verb (1)

If a sentence has a singular snbjecr it is followed by IT singular verb. and if it has a plural subject it is followed by a plural verb; that is, the verb agreus with the subject. Compare:

D She liues in China. and 0 More people liue in Asia than in <my other continent.

When the subject of the sentence is complex the' following verb must agree wirh the main noun in the subject. In tnt; examples below the subject is underliued and the main noun is circled. NOtice how the verb. in iralics, agrees w.irh the main noun:

o Many leadin~~of the opposition party h(JI/I! criticised the delay. D The ()oJy~thar hegflye {OJ his actions WIB that be was tired.

The verb must agree with rhe subject when the subject follows the verb (see nirs 99 E!. 10D):

o Among the people invited was the mayor. (compare The mayor was among .... )

o Displayed on the bOHn1 were the exam results .. icompare The exam results were displayed ... )

If the subject is Q. cla use, we usually u (' a singular verb: o To keep Ihess: yoyng people in prison is inhuman.

'0 HU.YlOg overall respclnsibili.t)' for the course means that I have a lot of meetings,

o Whoever took them remains a mystery.

o That R<wgers won both marches was a great achievement.

However. if we use a IlIhat.-clause as subject (see Uni.t 9fm), we usc a singular verb if the following main noun is singular, and either a singular or tI plural. verb if the foU()wing main noun is plural (alrhcugh a plural verb is preferred in more formal contexts):

o What worries us is the poor selection process.

o What is needed are additional resources. (or more colloqlli!l11y ... needed is ... )

Some nouns with a singular form, referring to groups of some kind, can be used with either a singular or plural form of the verb:

o The council has (or have) postponed a decision on the [lew road.

We use a singular verb if the focus ison the instirurionor organisation as a whole unit, and a plural verb if the focus is. on a collection of individuals. Ofren you (an usc either with very little difference in meaning, although in formal contexts (suchas academic writing) it is more common ro use a singular verb. Other words like this, sometimes called colleaiue nouns, include army. association, audience, class, club. collegc,comminee. community, company, crowd, deparrmenr, electorarevenerrry, family, generation. government, STOup. jury, opposition, orchestra. population, press. public, school. team, university, and the names of specific organisations such as the Bank of England, the BBC,. lBM, Sony, the United Nations.

In some contexts a plural form of the verb is needed. We would say:

o Thecommittee usually raise their hands to vote 'Yes', (nof, The cornmitcee usually raises irs hands ... )

as this is something that the individuals do, nor the curnrnirtee as a whole, In others. a singular form is preferred. We would say:

o The school IS to dose next year. (not The school are to dose ... )

as we are talking about something which happens to the school as> a building or institution, not to the individuals in the school.

When names and titles ending in ~.S refer to a single unit we. use asingular verb. Examples include countries; newspapers; titles of bonks, films, erc.; and quoted plural words or phrases: o At this time VI rhe year the Netherlands is one hour ahead of the UK.

n The Los Angf'!es Times lists Derek, Jones as. the fifth richest man in the world.

o The Machin!! GII/mers was one of Robert Westall's most successful boob ..

o . Daps' is rhc word used in the south west of the country for sports. shoes.

6raml11!lr review"" H I-H3

Exercises

Unit 40

~O.l Complete the sentences with a singular or plural form of the verb in brackets. Use present tense forms. (A a B)

1 Keeping large animals as pets in a small house , cruel (be)

2 An investigation of the circumstances surrounding her death that she was

murdered. (suggest)

3 What amazes me his ability to hie the ball so hard. (be)

4 The main reasons for his. lack of progress £0 be his poor motivation and

inability to concentrate. (appear)

5 The cost of housing in the southern parts of the country risen dramatically UI.

the last year. (have)

6 That he was the best of the many talented golfers of his generation indisputable.

(seem)

7 The village's first new houses for 20 years to be built next to Grove Farm. (be)

8 Among the many valuable paintings in the gallery a self-portrait by Picasso. (be)

9 What 1 particularly enjoy about the film the scenes in Australia. (be)

40.2 Complete the sentences with one of the following nouns and an appropriate form .of the verb in brackets. If a singular and plural verb form are possible. give both. (C)

audience class crew jury orchestra

press ~ the United Nations university

1 The ~ .J).(4!:J!P.~~ its firSt match of the season at its home ground. (play)

2 If the " ., .. to host the conference, I just don't know where we will

be able to hold it. (refuse)

3 The world-wide television for tomorrow's cup final expected

to be 200 million. (be)

4 The classical concerts throughout the year. {perform}

5 The Waterman's Junior Book Prize , three adults and three

children. (include)

6 The all passed. the end-of-year exam. (have)

7 The a picture of chaos in our schools, but it's just not like that

at all, (present)

8 _ _ ordered an investigation of the capture of members of its

peace-keeping force in eastern Africa, (have)

0.3 Correct any mistakes in these sentences or write ./ if the.y are already correct. (A-D)

1 The United States come top of the list of countries ranked by economic performance, 2 The people I know who have seen the film say that it's really good.

3 A report in the Sunday Times detail the crimes of a 14-year-old boy in Souehcasrle, 4 Northern Lights are one of Suzanne's favourite books.

5 The stairs leading to the fi.rst floor were steep and poorly lit. 6 Chequers is the country house of the British Prime Minister. 7 Whoever made all the mess in the kitchen have to dear it up.

S The phrase 'men in white coats' are used to talk about psychiatrists.

9 The public needs to be kept informed about progress in the peace talks.

10 Musical chairs area party game where everyone dashes for a seat when the music stops.

81

82

Withahhe majority flf"l number of, .1 lor of, pienry of, aU (00, or some (of) and a plural noun/pronou n we usea plurtt! verb, But if we say the number of, we use :1. sirrgulnr verb.

With unv of, each of. either of, neither of. or none of and a plural noun/pronoun we can 11'~ a singular or plura! verb. HO\VBwr, we art' more Ii kclv [0 usc .a singular verb in earefulwrirren Engli h.

o ldori't think any of them 1:1'O'!.(.1$ (pr knolll) where rhe money is' hidden.

11 Ncirher of rhe French athletes 110$ (or bauc) won this year:

[1 A number of refngees 1Ji1/Je been turned back at the herder,

o The number of honk.s in the lihrnry has risen mover five million.

After one of and a plural rronn/pronoun wr lise' a singular verb. However, after oneuf + plural noun/pronoun + whowe can often use either a singular or plural verb, al.dH)llgh :l p.lur:1i verb is more grnmmarical.

----+-----

With any of, none of, the majority of, 1I lor

of, plenry of, ;IU lon, some (of) and all uncounrahle noun we usc a singulmf verb.

With every Pi each and a singular noun Of co-ordinated noun (x aud yl we usc :1 singular verb, (for each of, see above.]

u All rhe furninue was destroyed in the fire,

o None of rhecquiprnent illllleal'S ro he damaged.

- -

[1 Everyroom looh« over rhe harbour.

o Every hoy and girl takes parr .in rhe activity. [) Each child 1M.:> drawn n picrure. bUI

o The children have each drawn fI picture. ----+

D Pru rically everyone tl:;hd.!.s rhar Phil

shotdd be gillen the iob.

Wirh everyone, everybody, everyrhing (and simi lar words heginfl i ng: any-, some- and no-) we LIse a sm,l!,lI/ar verb.

[J One of the reasons I rook the joh U'<lS [hat I could work rrolTl home,

o He's one o] those reachers who illsis,tJ insists on pupi Is sifting sHenrly in class.

When a subject has two or more items joined by and,we usually LIse a plural verb: o Jean and David art! moving back to Ausrralia.

However. phrases connected by and can also be followed by singular verbs if we think of them as milking up a single item:

o Meat pie and peas is Tom's favourite at the moment, (or ... are ... )

o The lorry, irs car-go and passengers .C/cighs Hound :~S tonne's. (or ... weigh ... )

When a subject is made LIp of two or more items joined by (either) ... or .. , or (ncither) ... nor ... we use a singular verb if the last item is singular (a lrheugh a plural verb is sometimes used in informal English), and a plural verb if the last irern is plural:

o Either the station: or the cinema is a good place to meet. (or ... are ... ininformal English)

o The President or his representatives aw to attend the meeting.

[f the last item IS singular and previous item pILlr~11. we can use a singular or plural verb;

o Either the teachers or the principal is to blame for the accident. (or ... ate [,0 blame ... )

In there + be/have (see Unit 9" ) we usea singular verb funn with singular and uncountable nouns and n plural form with plural nouns. However; in informal speech we often use a shortened singular form of be Of have (= There's) with plural nouns:

o Over the Last lew years there have been manvimprovernents in cal' _<lfery.

o There's been lots of good films on lately. (or Therc've been ... )

We often do the same with how/here/where ... be/have:

o How's your mum and dad these days? (or How are ... ?)

Exercises

Unit 41

41.1

For each set of sentences, choose <In appropriate noun or phrase from 0), and a verb from lii). Use the pres 'Ill simpl for the verb. active or passive as appropriate. If both singular and plural vrro forms :ltr po sibk, give' them both. fA} (i)

his carly paintings

(ii)

.nl·y-Ghila[~I1- the food

know

taste

remain

Dr J OIl as's acq uaintances

I (I I'd be surprised i.f cui)' of .. _m~ .. ~tg4!.:gn .. x~?m.b.g.l._rw.~.k§r..~ __ . my hirrhday,

b It's unlikely that ;my of _._" _ _ .. _ .. * • It seems rhut he destroyed most of the

work he produced during the 19305.

c I don't think any of _ _ _ .. _.;_ _ .. ~ __ ._ particularly good. In taCt, the restaumnx is

rather- disappointing.

dAn investigationi underway to discover whether a ny of _ _ _ _._ , where

he is.

(i)

(jj)

exceed

other museums victims

charge

expect

relieve

vegerarrans medicines

2 II Mainly lrecauseof rhe recent health scares involving beef and chicken, the number of •. _ ..... ~-._................. rl) rise drnmatica lIy in the nexr fi-ve years.

b Yo» can still ~!'I into the National Museum fur fn:e., nlthough n number of _. " .• """' .

the capital . __ . _ .. ~.~ .. __ .. people for entry,

c A number of ~ __ .. ~ the sy-rnproms of influeuzn, bur flCI11C' can cure it.

d I t :is estimated that the ITum her of •........ __ _ of the floodll1g __ -v- _ a hundred

thousand, and further deaths are anriciparsd,

(i) I I ·1

payer t 1C cars

these factors

(ii)

try

influence

last

the pieces

test

.3 a The whole concert includes 20 sherr items from young musicians. Each of

... _ _ _ about - minutes,

h There ~ItC four major influences on exchange rates: price levels, rariffs, preference f(el[ imported gu()d:;., and productivity. Here we inve.stip3tc huw each of

................. _ ...... _ .... ~ ... _ .... _ ..... _ ... _ .. _~ t he exch a nge fa te,

e The aim of the ga.ll1.e is quire simple. Each _ .. __ .. _ _._.< to buy as many

propcrrics on. the board as pcssibls,

d E.1Ch of _ .. ~. __ , .. _ _ , for safety, fuel economy and reliability ..

4'1.2 Complete the entences wlLh presenl ~implt: fonns of lhe v rb in urack .ts, If both a slnqular and plural lnrmarc possible, givr thr;;n1 both .. (A-D)

1 Plenty of" European football dubs .... " ... inrerested in signing Nilsen from Rowhani

Ciry, but rhe Rowham manager has sa id rhar rio-one at the cl ub __ Nilsen ro Jeave.

(ba/ wantl

2 The majority of those q uestioncd .'- ,., _ thin the gO\rfUnmem's economic polices have

tailed, alrhough neither the Prime Minister nor the Education Minister .. _ ...... d •• _'" ..... ~",,~ indicated rhnt these policies will change. (I"IJillkl has)

3 "It' the first rime that either of us ~ * ". been to China, bur everyone we've met

hen: , .. _ been vcr)' welcoming and helpful." (hava/ helve)

4 Professor Smith and Dr Peters _ _ that the wreck of the ship and its: cargo

~_ .... ". __ ..... _ ....•.... _. a danger to local people lis.hing near die island. (riail-'nl constitute)

5 "Oh, good, sausages and chips my fa vourite." "Sorry, all the sausages

.. "_ _ , " .. _ gone, bur there _ .. _." _ ,. __ ._ plenty of chips left jf you. want some."

(V(I/ bas! be)

83

Some nouns are usually plural and take a plural verb. These include belongings, clothes, congrarularions, earnings,goods, outskirts, overheads, particulars I= inforrnarion], premises

(= building), riches, savings. staira.surreundings, thanks. The noun whereabouts ca n be used with either a singular or a plural verb. The nouns police and people always take 3 plural verb, and the noun staff usually does:

o The company's earnings have increased for the last flv!:: yean.

o Police befieuethar Thomas is in Brazil, although his exaer whereabouts are/is unknown,

o Staff say t11M the new computer system has led to greater levels of stress in their work.

Some nouns always end In -s and look as if they are plural, but when we, lise them as the subject they have a singular verb:

o The news from the Middle East seems veryencouraging,

Other words like this include means (.:; 'method' or 'moncv'); some academic disciplines, e.g, economics, linguistics, marhematics, phonetics, physics. politics, statistics: some SpMtS, e.g. athletics, gymnastics; and some diseases, e.g, diabetes, measles, rabies. However, compare:

o Economics .11115 unly recently been recognised as 11 scicnri tic study,

academic sublee«

general lise

[J Her politics me borderi Ilg on the fascisr. (= polirical belief)

o Statistics, was alw3y~ n~y worst subject.

o Srarisrics are :l blc to prove a nyrhing you wnnt rhein to. (;-- nurnerl ~I inforrnatlonl

U The economics behind rheir pulicics lire unreasonable. 1;= the nnllllciol system)

~ -L ___

Although the words data and media [= newspaper, television, etc.iare plural (with SiJ1g11Lar forms datum and medium), they are commonly used with a singular verb. However, in formal contexts such as academic writing a plural verb is preferred. Notice that Other similar plurals such as criteria and phenomena (with singular forms criterion and phenomenon) are always used with plural verbs. Compare:

o AIJ the data is available for public inspection. (or .... are. available ... ) and

o [agree that the cnteriasre not of equal importance. (;wt , .. the crircria is not ... J

With a phrase referring to a measurcrnenr, arnounr or quantity we usually prefer a singular verb:

o Only three metres separates the runners in first and second places. (r,Uher dum ... separate ... )

o The fifty pouads he gave me was soon spent. irather lImn ... were ... )

and a sing-ular verb must he used when the complement is a singular noun phrase (e.g. a long time):

o Three hours seems a long rime to rake on the homework. (nnt Three hours seem ... J

After per cent (also percent Dr %) (of) we use a singular verb if the per cent phrase refers to a singular or uncountable noun and a plural verb if il refers to a plural noun. Compare:

n An inflation rate of only 2 per cent makes a big difference LO exports. and

o I would say that about so per Cent of the houses need major repairs.

However, where we use a singular noun that can be thought of as either a. whole unit or a collection of individuals, we can use either a singular or plural verb:

'] Soma 80 per cenr of the. electorate .is expected to vote. (or ... lIT(! expected .. ,)

Exercises

Unit 42

42.1 MO'1ke any ncces ary corrections '1'0 the und rllnerl verbs. (A-D)

I. Dr Jones' whereabouts ~ been kept a CLosely guarded secret by his family. 2 Bill Clinton' politics was inspired by John Kennedy,

3 Phenomena such as sun sPOtS have puzzled scientists fotc.enruries. 4 iome 3.0 per cent of the milk drunk in rhe country ~ imported.

5 \Vbe" the soldiers got lost in the jungle; their only means of survival were to eat berries, 6 Over the last decade the company's overheads has increased dramatically.

7 The research data wa,swllecte,d during the period 12th_29fh July 2002.

S You don't need much sugar for this pudding; ten grams all'' enough.

9 Modern linguistics is. ofren said to have begun at the start ofthe 20th century. 10 Congratularions ~oe~ co Richard Branch for his excellenr exam results.

11 The coastal surroundings of the village is parricularly attractive,

12 Nowadays politics Seem to be more about saving money than changing society for the. better. ]3 He feels [nat the media have criticised him unfairly.

14 I know people often have to wait for hosplral treatment, but two years seems

ridlculously long.

15 Measles have killed a large number of children in the Nagola region. I G Further partinda rs about the house are available from the owner.

17 Around 90 per cent of the concert. audience was over 60 years old. 18 Ten ki lornerers ll.!1!: a long way to run if you're nor fit.

19 lfathietics ar.:: neglected in schools, this will have a big impact on funrce naeicnal reams. 20 People saYS the house IS haunted.

21 Recent srarisrics Uf.pvide finn evidence of a rapid increase i 0 living standards in Asia.

n Abour60 percent of rhe people questioned wants 'Gars to be banned from the town centre,

42.2 Com plete these extracts from newspaper articles with a singular UI' plura] form of the verbs in brackets, If both singular and plural fOrlnsal'c possible, give them both. IA-D; also Unit 40)

l Theoutskirts of our cities " ,... (halle) benefited from the new out-of-rown shopping

-.:emres that ...... , •. _ .... __ ,"" __ ." (hat/e) recently been built.

2 On average, IS litres of wate-r '"....." (be) used each day by each household and it is

antieiparedthar asthe population " '_ .. _'_ .. " (expect) higher living standards, this figure

will rise.

3 It has been found that some 30 per een! of the office 'space in London .,,, ,, ', ,, (be)

presently empty and the Departmenrof Employment _ .. _ , ,,,, (blame) hjgh property

prices.

4 Thr~'C' centimetres ,~,,_., .. _ ,~ (be) all that separated the first tWO runners in last night'S

10,000 metres and the sports dub ""_,, .. ,_ (have) declared the race a dead-heat.

5 The research gronp now _'_., .. " , __ (adm'£t) that the criteria rhey used in the work

................ _ , , .. (be) nor tota lly relia ble.

6 Following last week's major art theft from the Arcon Art Ga.l!ery, the premises '. ''0 .. " , .

(be) searched by police lssr rughr and theowner's belongings «", .. _ (have) been taken

away for fu ether inspection.

7 A survey of the opinions of British students .... ,.",'.,_" ... ,_,.-', ... (show) that economics

.... ", ••. , .. _ ..... (be) rhe Ieasr popular subject studied at university. However, 90 per cent of all

those economics students surveyed " , (believe) that their courses are well raughr.

S Sufferers tron] diabetes .. _ .. _ .. ~ __ (halJe) welcomed she launch by Federex of a new drug to

combat [he disease. The company ._ _. '" "'" ...... " .... - (say) that earnings from the d.rug

_, __ , __ ,,_,,_ .. _" ... _ (6e) to be put back into further research.

85

158

Adverbial clauses of time

As. whe.n and while

We «In often use as, when or while to mean 'during rhe time that', to talk about something that happens when something else rakes place:

o As/WhenfWhile Dave was eating, the doorbell rang.

We lise when (not as or while) to introduce a clause which talks about -

-h anevenr that takes place at the same time as SQIne longer event {in the main clause): .J They were playing in the garden when they heard a SCream,

* the circumstances in which theevenr in the main dame happens:

.J Wben they are fully grown these snakes con be over two metreslong.

We also usc when to mean 'every time':

] I still feel tired when I wake lip in the morning,

and we prefer when to talk about past periods of our lives: "1 His mother called him Robbie when he 'was a baby.

We prefes when tn emphasise that one event happens immediately after another; particularly if one causes the other:

n You·11 see my houseon the right. when you cross the bridge. CI When the lights went OUI, I lit some candles.

In the firsrsentence.vas' or 'while' would suggest 'during the time rhar' and rhe continuous would be more likely (· ... as/while you are crossing ... .'}, b) the second sentence 'as' OJ 'while' would be very unlikely because lights usually go out instantaneously.

We prefer as to 'Say that when one thing changes, another thing changes at the same rime:

o As thecheese matures, its flavour improves. (rather than When the cheese ... )

We can also us.>: 'WIlLle ... ', particularly with a continuous rense:'WhiJe the cheese is maturing ... '.

We prefer while or as (rather than when) to talk about two longer actions that go on at the same time, although while is more ~01111110n than asin informal speech:

..J I wenr shopping while Linda cleaned the bouse. (ot .... 35 Linda cleaned ... )

We use while or when (rather than as) to avoid ambiguity where 'as' could mean 'because':

;] While you were playing golf, I 'went to the cinema. (' As you were playing golf .. .' could mean 'Because you were playing golf...')

Before. after and until

'We use before orafror to talk about an event happening earlier or later than another eventi

[] I put 011 my mar before I went out, 0 The message arrived after I'd left.

We can often use either until 0.[ before when asiruarion continues to. happen lip roa time indicated in the adverbial clause:

r. I hadto wait six weeks until/before the parcel arrived.

We lise until to talk nbour an action that continues to a particular time and then stops:

r They S,H on the beach unril rbe sun sank below the horizon, and then rheywenr horne. and when the adverbial clau Q describes. rhe result of an action in the main clause:

U He cleaned his shoe until they shone. ('snining'is the result of 'cleaning'.)

Hardly. no sooner. scarcely

When we say that one event happened immediately after another we can lise sentences with hardly, no sooner, and scarcely (sec also nit 1(0). After hardly and scarcely the second clause begins with when or before; after no sooner it begins with than or when:

C The concert had hardly b(:[full before all the lights went out. e I had no sooner lit the barbecue thanlw}n'!I i r starred to min.

We often use a past perfect in the clause with hardly, no sooner or scarcely and a past simple in the Other.

Grammar review -- Ml-MElI

Exercises

Unit 79

79.1 Choose as, when or white, whichever is correct ur more I ikely, to complete these sen tences, If there is mnre thall one possible answer, write them both and nonce any differences in meaning. (Al

She fell over ...... _.,,_._ .. _ .... __ ._ ..... she kicked the ball.

1. ."_.'' .. _ .. we were younger our pa rents had to pay for om music lessons.

J _ _ _, .. 'o •• _ (speak Spani h, I talk slowly co help people understand me.

4 _..... I carefully packed ;lll the old books into boxes, Emily wrote down their titles in

a notebook,

5 She sta)'ed at home watching television .,~ _ _ .. her brotherwas ;_It school.

6 Where did you live _ __ _ __ you gl'lt married?

7 ,~_ _ ~ _. I'm older I'd love to be a dancer.

S

the results started to come in, it became clear tho t President Como had lost the

election.

9: The humidity starred to increase * the day wore on.

1.0 __ _ .. _ the boy watched in fascination,. the ants picked 'lip the dead hcet\cand carried it

oFf to their nest.

I I The fan 111<3 kes u screeching sound _. _._ I switch the cnrnpu rer on.

12 .. _ _ ._ the meeting continued, it beca llle clear rhar the rwo sides would J]()[ reach an

agreement.

J.3 _ _._,.. __ ._ .. the C<I r wenr hy, 50meone waved [0 rncrhrough rhe window.

14 ",,*_ ..• __ .... _ _.*__ Kingsley had finished, he tid ied up the room and left.

.1 S Til e so ow was getting deeper il nd deeper _ _ ._ we wa i ted for the de la yed tra i ii TO

arrive.

16 I wa in the shower _ _._._ the phone rang.

17 .,_ .. -._ ._. the p.a int dries it changes from a light to a deep red.

79.2 Here are some extractsfrom a talk about the life and work of Professor Johannes Wichmann.

Write before or until in the spares or beforc}ulltil it both are possible. (B)

1 He continued [0 work at London University _. .. " _._ be retired in 1978,.

2 he left his native country, he learned Engiish by listening "to the radio.

3 lr wasn't long _ s __ _ .,. .•. be was appointed Professor (l,r Chemistry.

4 He married Martha __ ._ _ he moved 'to England in 1935.

5 _ _ _. he came- 'to England he worked in his- farhcr'sgrocery shop.

6 He kept applying For university research positions .. __ 4.~_ ••• __ , _ .. "'_ h-e was appointed to a post at

London University,

7 He Was almost unknown outside his specialised field _. __ .. _ .. _ he W;lS awarded the

Nebel Prize.

8 He would work in his laborarory for days. at a time _ he had gathered. the results

he needed.

79.3 Complete the entenccs in (lny appropr.nte way. (C]

I The· paint on the sirting room wall had scarcely dried ...

...... b.~:k-re:_.J~M .... ~.9.b~~ ... pY-t ... _h_e_( ~H ... ~~r14:~ .. _~ll: .. _.9"':'.~.r._ .. ~~, .. __

2 David had 00 sooner recovered from :3 broken ankle ....

J l-ie had h,Hdly put down the phone ...

4 We bad no 'sooner eaten, ..

5 Maggie had h'llrdl)f finished speaking ...

6 I had scarcely driven [{J the end of the street ...

159

160

Giving reasons: as, because. etc.: for and with

We can begin a clause with as, because, seeing that, seeing as, or since to give <1 reason for a pa rricular situation:

o As it UJIlS getting fate, I decided [ should go home.

D We must be near [he heath, because I can hear 1hl! uiaues.

o Since he was gDill:g 10 be !ivins in Sweden [or some. time, be thought he should read something about the country.

L..J We could go and visit Sue, seeing rhat we haue to drive past her house Ct11JIIl fly.

Notice rhat ~

* It is also common andacceprable for because to begin ~1 sentence, as in:

LJ Because ever}'thing( looked diffrm:mt, I had no idea where to go.

1'1 to give reasonsin spoken English, we most often use because .. So is a lso common ly used to express a "similar meaning lsee ;J\SO Unit H.l). Compare:

o Because my mother'S arrived, J won't be it! bit:' tomeet you. ('bec:l use' introduces the reason] and

o My mothers arriued; sol won't be able tn meet you. ('so' introduces the result .. )

* whenit me,1I1. 'because', since is father forma'!' It is uncom l110n inconver at/on, but is frequently used in this way in academic writing:

(] I had to go outside because T was feeling awful, ('since' is unlikely in an informal context

o The results of rob analysis can beeasily compared to future observations since satellite coverage will remain continuous. (more likel'Y than 'because' in this formal context.)

n seeing that is usedInirrforrnul English. SOl11e people also use seeing as In informal speech:'

U Ken just had [Q apologise, seeing that/as he knew he'd made a mistake.

In formal or literary written Englfsh we can also introduce reasons with for, in that, or, less commonly, inasmuch as. For is a Formal alternative ro tbecause': in that and inasmuch as introduce clauses which clarify what has been said by adding detail;

o The 61111 is unusual in that u features onty (our actl.Jl'S. {or ln that.", the film is .... )

o Clara and r have quire an ()<lSY li fe, inasmuch as neither of HS has to work too hard bill Eve earn quite a lot ofllwney.(or lnasrnuch as ... , Clara and L.,)

o We must Ix·gill planning now, for the future may bring Ul1ext)cated dJemges. (not For the future .•.. , we must ... - where 'tor' llle<1rts 'because'i)

The prepositions because of, due to, and owing to can also be used before <1 noun or noun phrase to give a re~lS0J1 for something:

o We were delayed because of an accident.

o he wa unable to fun owing to/due to <1 leg injury. (:: because oJ 1\ leg injury.)

o We have tess money to spend owing to/due [0 hudger curs. ('" because of budget cuts.) Notice rhat we don't use because alone before a rroun or noun phrase.

OWe were-delayed because there was an accident. (not ... hecausean accidenr.]

ln current English W(; usually avoid owing to directly after a form of be:

o The company's succe s ts due to the new director. (11M ."is owing to ... )

However, owing to is, used afrer be + a degree adverb such as entirely, largely, mainly, partly: o The low elccrion tumour was partly due eo/owing to the bad weather.

We C.'1n often usc either it was due ro ... thar or it was owing to ... that:

o It was owing to his encouragement tha: she applied for the job. (or 11 was due to ... that)

·W" can usc for and with f()llowed by a noun phrase to give ri reason. For has a similar meaning to ';)S II result of' and is common in most stylesof English (compare B above):

D he was looking all the better for her stay in hospital.

With has II sim ilar meaning to 'as " result ofthere being':

n With 0 rBany people in, I've decided to cancel the meeting.

Exercises

Unit 80

80.1

Complete the s eotence frames. wi lh an i tern trorn (1J and an item from (iiI. iii an appropriate, order, as in 1. [A)

(i)

(ii.I ·pa-ssefl·!jief5-wt'1'e-gi"'i±fl-IiI-ktll-r-e.f.ll-llfl-

2 Angela agreed to book tickers for

lIS all

3 ['II buy youlunch

4 I've given .11' dairv produces

5 we were recommended ro buy the

textbook econd hand

6 the gl!~t lecturer was lute 7 we get On: so well

8 you should never walk under a ladder

, a it's, your birthday

b it was heridea n) go ro the theatre

c Dr Jone-s spoke about his research instead d a new copy would be very expensive

e l suggested we all go on holiday together F -lifHHFai;:;-cwacs-tk!a-y-e-tl for more Fhan-a-&-

hOUT-

g it's supposed to he unlucky h l'rn trying to lose weight

L + f Sin ee .m'n~.~ ... qg.i!':1. .. f::l.~?'n:4~A:f:l::!1'~_nf2L.rn..q.r:::~, ... ~J::!.W_nn~.n;~9\:';.r.ln.Pg§_~.~r.g~1."',s. ... ,.L.':-!,q~, .. 9~Y.!2~_,"e-::, ... . ,_"fult.:t::~i:0D.4,:.".,

2 _ as

3 Seeing as .n."·· .. _._ · •• _ .. .-· ~., .. _.-. .. _ _._ .. _,.,_ -. __ ~ .. _ _ __ .. n' ··_.··" __ n·_ . .- _ ,_._ .. ·,·'.'.·.n·_"._ ·_ . .,._-n".- ••• , ,- _.

4 Beca U sc , ···_ .. _ __ , _ "· n" •• ' ,,., ., ••••• "., ••• _ ,.,", ••• " ,."., '_, _ ~ _._, _," ,,-._,.~"'_ , , ,.,'.,.," •••• , ," ,,, , , _.

5 _ _ _ .. " .. , , , _ __ , _ .. _'_ " .. _ Slncc .. " , " .. , .. ,., .. , _ _,., _ " _, _ _ , .. _ ..

6 A_s , ~.'._.n .. __ ._"' , .. " ".''"'' ''.'' " .. , •• , .. , ,_, .. ,,,_. ._, .. ~ .. __ _._. ._,~._. __ "". __ .. __ .,."'.,."., ,', " •• , , " .. ,."., •• " .••• , " , _' .. '_._.,,'< __ , __ ._ .

1 ._, , __ ."._ .. _.".,.,._._ .. _, , , , , ,'"' ., _., .. _ <0 •••• _ •••• seeing that .,"', ,'" .. , ,.,,,., , .. ,,.,.,, ,,.,,, .. , ,'_" "" ,._ ,,, ..

8 ._._.-._,,"._ .. _n.-.. ·""'_ .. _ .. __ __ ' __ .. _·_·'·~ __ " .• _ __ __ ._ .. __ .. _._,,_, .•. because _-."_ .. _"_, ,,._ _,, __ , -. .. _-. _. .. ,._._._ _ .. _. __ _.---._ .. .

80.2 Complete these sentences using due to or owing to with one of these phrases. If both due to und owing to are possible, write them both. (C)

lack of interest -5'N'esrat-WQ(-k-- heavy cloud its central location human error

1 She claims her illness is entirely ... "4!-<.!i- ... _i:P..!2,Nkt.9 1=!?" .. ?tr~s..;;t:l;t: __ h!9!~_.;,,._

2 The cancellation of the cornpetirinn is " ........ ".""" _' ... _. __ .. ,,,.,,._,, ,,,, .. ,, .

3 Th~ populariry of the restaurant is largely .. " __ "._.". " , " " _ "

4 It's likely that the mistake wal> n •• •• " • .- •• •• _ ,_._ •••

5 We couldn't, see lasr night's eclipse of the moon .,~~,_..,..._ _ .. _" _~."_~ .. _._ .. ' __ ..

Nc)w cnrnph 1.1:: these sentenc ·sus! ng because or because of + one of these phrases .. (C)

his age

[he brightsunlight

his phone W:\S engaged there was a fly in it

local opposition

6 I had to drive in dark glasses .. __ " , .. __

7 I couldn't speak to Tom _ " _ __ ..

8 The council had to withdraw irs plan to close the swimming pool .. " ""."" .. "" _ , ..

9 My grandfather couldn't do a sponsored parachute jump .. _ .. " _ .. ,,'" _._ _ .

:I 0 HI: sent r he S!J II P hac k "" ,-'--- .-~--- .. ""--~"

80.3 Hewri te the c sen t .nees using for or with instead of because (of). Give <11 tern a tives where possible. (OJ

i I. got a job as a srrecr sweeper because my money W::IS running om .

..... ~@:l., .. :~.!1 .... rtlg:'0~ ... l":(,(.!~.1:').0;9-.,P.\'!:.t.J,'.J., .. :q,0.~, .. ~..JQ~ ... ~ .... :~ ... ,~,\::I:~.I}t..n-:;.VJ_~.~_, or

,."L.,g~t.0:_"jeb.", ,,9c~,.,,~, .. §k.~ "'~~.~¥.".J~.L#:r .. ,,:~li .. ,,~q_r1,~li ... ~,~r:!.tl.i!1.g .. " c>'~.t., .. ,

2 ] couldn't hear what Sue was saying because of the. noise.

3 Jane went to stay with her aunr because her father was in hospiral. 4 J felt a lot firter because of ~11l the exercise I was doing.

5 Because the train drivers. are on strike tomorrow, I don't think I'Il ~o to London after all.

161

162

Purposes and results: in order to, so as to, etc.

In order/so as + to-infinitive

To talk about the purpose of an action we can use ill order/so as + to-infinitive: [l 'He too k tilt' l:OU r 'C in order toget a better jo b.

r Trees arc being planted by the roadside so as (0 reduce traffic noise.

In spoken English in particular it is much more cornmonsimply to use aro-iafinitive withour 'in order' or 'SO .H~' roexpress the same meaning.

o He took the course to get a better [ob.

We rarely use just 'not + zo-infinitive', but instead use so :IS not 10 Or in order not to:

[J He kept rile speech vague in order not to comrnit himselfto one side or the other. (!lot .... v.ague nor to commit himself, .. )

[j The land was bought quickly so as nor to delay the building work. (/lot, .. quickly [lot to delay ... J

However.in contrastive entenceswecan use not + to-infinitive, but +- to-infinitive asin:

LJ I came to -see you not (in order/so as) to complain, but (in order/so as) to a[JOfogise.

Notice thor we can put in order/so as before the to-infinitives in sentences like this.

In order that and .50 that

We also use ill order that and so that to talk about a purpose. Compare: [1 She stayed at work Late in order/so as to complcre the report. and

[J She stayed at work late in order that/so that she could complete the report. (not ... in order thur/so dun to complete the report.l

So that is mOTC common than In order that, and is used In less Formal situations. Note that informally we can leave out that after so, but we always include it after in order.

A present tense verb in the main clause is usually followed by a present tense verb (or .a modal with .present or fllt1.!re reference - can, will, erc.J in the' clause beginning in order that/sothat. A past tense verb in the main clause is usually followed hy a pa ttense verb (or a modal with past reference - could, would, etc.) in the clause beginning in order that/so that. Modal verbs arc very ofren used after in order that/so that:

LJ Regular checks {He made in order that safety standards are maintained. [l Advice is giue« in order that srudenrs am choose the best course.

U Did you give up you joh so that you could take care of your mother? o I hid the presents 80 that Jackiewuftldn'1 Hnd them.

Such that and in such a way that; such ... that

In formal contexts, such as academicwriring, we cow lise such that to introduce a. result:

u The model W;15 designed such that rho value of x could he calculated. ~=;'in a Way that has the resul r that .. .'; or ... in order that ... i ur ... so that., .. J

Less Formally we C(1 n also use in such a way that or in such a way as + to-infinitive with a similar meaning:

r The advertisement is primed in sucha way rharrwo very cliffe-relIt pictures C;'I,n be seen depending OIl how you look at it.

L In fact, the t<l' cuts have been designed in . uch a w.ay as to leave our the verv people it is supposed to help.

'We can abo use such + noun phrase + that to introduce a result:

j It i such a popular _pIa), that the performance was soldout after the first day. (For so + adjective/adverb + that, see Unit.)

Exercises

Unit 81

8.1.1 Combine the two sentences in the most appropriate way using ill order (not) + to-infinitive or so as [nut] + to-infinitive. [AJ

I [had to borrow money from cite bank. a This was done to encourage people to use

2 He packed his suitcase wit." tbe bonks public transporr.

ar the borrom, b We wanted to prevent people walking across

3 Bus fares in. the city are being cur. the grass.

-4 We crept quietly towards the deer, c r didn't wanr FO damage the growing crops,

j) l walked around rhc outside of [he field. d +-d:tcl-tnis-ro--ser-up-t-he-bl1S'ifleSS:

6 We pur up ,] fence. e They didn't want to disrupt traffic roo lJ~lIc:h.

7 She looked down at the book in from f We didn't want to frighten them aW<ly..

8' The roadworkswerecarriedourat nighr. g She wanted to avoid his gaze.

of her. h He didn't want to crush his clothes.

]_ + d .J .... ,hAA .. J9.. ~Q!I!?":l.,.f119~.g,1I .... fr.Qf!I ... Jhs,. .... P..M.~ .... ~tI .. pr4~t.J.p: .... ~1t ... 0P .. Jh:~ .... ~ .. ~.~.~n~?:;." .. ,. (or

...... , ... ,~~ ~ .. j;9 .. ,,?.~ ~.P,·,-"' ... )

81.2 Look .again at the' sentence you wrotein 81.1.1$ it also possible to use onlva to-infinitive, withoutin order ur su as? Write'; or .X. (A)

1 ... J.J1%.tq .... ~Q.r:~9\'t.tI:Q~J~.frQrl1 ... I?Jf.:l?Clrjk_ ... I:fi .. ~eL.~ P_.~b.e:by.~l:I'.1e.~~.:.,_{_ .. _

81.3 CI100::.t: une of these items In complete each sentence .. Deeide which of tile underlined parts of

the item isco-rcct, (8]

it win! wayld let enough light ill it won't! wogld,n'( take upa lot of computer memory

mosquitoes can'llcouldn'tgel in nobody wHl! WQuld, know it was there

~ple"EiInt .(HIJ.d.-wll~k~f9Ufld-fhe,.gt1nleJlS- we canl could see the view flyer the city

ihe)' have an open day at their house each year so that,P',~,.@l? .. sy~ .. :~rJJ.;k:",t!!.g~~.4.Jn~

.. 9.~£\..!?!'J.~.,.. .

2 (put a IUg. over the stain 00 the carpet so that _ ,_._ .. _ , _ _ ,_" __ _, ~.".,., .. _ .

3 There weT'e screens on all the windows so that "_" " .. , .. , ".,, , .

4 The sofrwareis designed so rhat .. _. __ .,_ ,,,.,, _ ,,., .. , , ,,,, _ , •.. , .. ,,'._ _ ~, .. __ , _" _ , .

5 We went IIp to the top floor so that , """" , .. ,............"" ,......", .. ".,,, , ' .. ,"_ .

6 The c.l!1lenl aperture needs ro be wide on dull days so rhar .... 'T" , '.., ... ~-.'-' .. _~"''' _,'' _,'' ,

81.4 Rewrite each sentence less formally In two ways: one usi 119 in such a w.aV that and the other using in such .;1 wavas to. (C)

1 The factory demolition was planned such that any risk to the public was avoided.

, ... ,Th~.,:fuf::~rH, . .i:,~.()4J:t9~ ... !.>J~".P~l;'.\'1.~4_.,Y'1 ,:;tA~ .... 0:, :~."'!j .. ,.i;J;l."-* .. O"'~.!j ... r!,~,k .. ,tg,'~.~, .. p.~b~.,. ~;cx.,:>.,."

_._~y._~0.&4.:. _ _l._.I}:1 .. ~ .. fu&.tQ!ll._4.~.Q.~!1-.!'-l~ pJ~D.D.~.j,!! .... ~.\1SdL.~.Jy0H ... <?:§. .. t.Q .... ~'(9..~4 .... ~IJ .. r~~:k._ ..

. ... w. .... !*!.g, .. J~~E4~., .....

2. The meeting room is designed such that everyone's voice can be beard without the use of In ina phones .

.3 The documents are written such rhar tlley are easi ly comprehensible.

4 lfthe dial is rotated such rhar the number I is .at the rap, rhe valve Qpr::ns.

163

i C

164

Although and though

We use although or (less formally) though to say that there is a surprising contrast between what happened in the main clqllseand what happened in the aduerhiQl clause:

o Although/Theugh Reid failed to score himself, he helped Jones to score two goals.

With 11 similar meaning, we can use despite the fact that/in spite of the fact that (e.g, 'Despite the faetthat/ln spite of the fact that Reid failed to score himself ... ') or despite/in spite of + -ing (e.g. 'Despite/In spite of Reid failing to score hirnself., ,').

Notice rhar we can use though, but notalrhough, at the end of a clause:

o I cat most dairy products. I'm not keen on yogurt, though.

We can give special emphasis to an adjective by putting it before though in the pattern adjective + though + noun/pronoun + verb (usually a linking verb such as appear, be, become, fed, look, seem, sound, prove •. ere, ) .. As can be used instead of though, but notice that YOLI can't use although. Compare:

o Hot though (or as) the nigh~ air was, they slept soundly. and D AlthoughfThough the night air was hot, they slept soundly ..

aJILi;IJ!i'. although and though; even _ugh/if; while, whilst, and whereas

----~

Even though and even if

We call use eventhough (bitt 'lot.'tVen althcmgh') ro mean 'despite the fact that' and even if to mean 'whether or 110(. Compare:

o Even though Tom doesn't speak -pani~h, r think he should still, visit iadrid.

~ De pire the fact that

he doesn't speak Spanish

i.e. thespeaker knows rh at Tom d oesn 'r speak Spanish

= WheTher or nor be ~ peaks Spanish

o Even! f 1 '0 m d ors1,'r s peak Spanislr, I think he should rill Visit Madrid.

i .e, the speaker cine n'r know definitely whether Tom speaks Spanish or not

__________ ~ ~ __ J

While, whilst and whereas

In formal contexts we can u "{! while or whilst with a meaning similar to 'although to introduce something that qualifies what is said in the main clause or something that may seem to conflict with it. In this case.jhe while/whilst clause comes before or within the main dame, but not after it:

C1 While/Whilst there is no evidence that Peter cheated, we were all astonished rhar he passed the exam. (flat We: were all astonished that be passed the exnrn, while ... )

o The diesel mudd of the car, while/whilst more expensive is better value for money.

NOte that whilst is a rather literary word and some. people avoid using it.

We can use while or whereas (or less often whilst) to say that something contrasts With something in [he main clause. The while/whereas clause may come before or after the main clause:

LJ Dave gets lots of homework from school, while/whereas Sue gets very little.

n While/Whereas I always felt I would passthe exam, I never thought I would get an A grade,

We don't use whereas where what is said III the subordinate clause makes what is said in the main clause unexpc(tcd:

D AltboughlWhilc Sophie's father is From Spain, she doesn't speak Spanish, (IiDt Whereas .... )

We can use -ing and past participle (-cd) clauses after although. though, while and whilst, and also clau es wirh the subject and verb left ourtsee nit ::;I.)[)):

o (AJlthough not huge, the garden needs constant attention. (= (Aljthough it is not huge ... ) n While welcoming rhe gClVermnem's new funding for the health service, doctors are still unbappj abour working conditions. (~ While they welcome ... )

o Some writers, whilst convinced that Herningson supported the rebels, have questioned how involved he was ill [he fighring. (= whilst they are convinced ... )

Exercises

Unit 82

82.1 Match the sentence halves and give special emphasis to the adjective by moving it to tilt' front of the sen renee, as in 1. Use either though or as. (A)

1 it may seem amazing ,I' they were very useful when I looked at them

2 she was frightened in derail

3 food became scarce b she forced herself to pick up the snake

4 the climbers were experienced c they had never faced such severe cond irions

5 the instructions first appeared confusing before

6 it looked disgusting d the company is still in financia I difficulties

7 she Ielrconfidenr o they always found enough to share with me

8 their new products have proved successful f she knew the exam inaticn would not be easy g -my-1M-6f~~wei'l-Fhe-kH~)'-"

h it was actually quite tasty

1 +g ._A.m.~~rlg .... ~~ .. Ql:j8h._J~_J:l_l~_.~~mL..r'I;-HPtp:1:\!;~ .... ~.Qh_!'). __ n:(}-?j\1::?.t .. ~.9n"_tb_~_Lp.t.t&ry"" .. _ (or ..... :6!!l.~YY3 ..... 0§. .... ~._:D:.~, .. ?"~.::;· ... _. )

82.2 Expand the notes and rewrite the sen teuces L!sing In spite of + ~i ng in 1-3 and In spite of his/h~r + noun in 4-6. (Al

.1. Although she has to cope wjth three small children, ... (laking -part·time MBA UJHfse)

"" ... .I..~ .... ;;>p~~_.qf.__.h~'(11.1g: ... t9 .... ~P_~. __ ~_~h ... ~}.1J.~_ ... ~~(A.lJ, __ ._~1J,4r:~~h .. _,$..r§_._.~!; .... ~0..g .... ~._l:~~.~tpy.:~ .... ..... _~6 __ .f!.!~X.?J:- _ r; •. _.

2 Alrhough he was much younger than the others, .. , (wl1S - most ollutalldillg [ootballer - team)

3 Although he ate :1 big lunch, (had - three-course meal - evening)

4 Alrhough she was frightened, (allowed - hug« spider - placed in her hCIIlds)

5 Although she is obviously inrelligenr, ... (finds - it difficult - express - ideas in writing) 6 Although she was ill, ... (II/em - wtllking holiday - Nepal)

Now rewrite the senlenc S YOt! have written beginning Despite the fact that.,

1 J?-~.~.~l':~_J.!:I.L.~~" .. _l:.~.0.t.z.b .. t_;~.:M ~_.~~.1'.~_ .. b.J_#. ~~.q __ ".~rr.g:-!:LS!!;~~~r.!.).< .. ?~~ .!&. __

..... ~t .... tq ... !.'I...P~~::P!J1~~tv\BA .... <:~!:!r?e.:, _

B2 . .3 Underl ine the correct phrase. tBl

1 The driller stopped to let on more passengers ellen though/ auen if the bus was already full. 2 I wouldn'T tell yon where Gail lives i.?ven though! even if 1 knew,

3 Even IhfJl,{.ghl Even in only play one match £()f my country, I'll be happy,

4 Even thOl4ghl Euen. if he. bad JUSt pura cigarette our, Lawrence lit another one. 5 He plays for Wa les euen though! euen if be was. born in Scotland.

6 You won't 'see all the animals- in the zoo even lhrmghl euen i(you stay for the whole day, 7 EuM tllCHlgiJl Ellen if I'm quite old, I still miss my parents.

8 1 still couldn't afford to. go to Paris, euen though/ even i{I took the cheapest route.

82.4 Match tile sentence halves and join them with While or Whereas<1t the beginning of the sentence. In which of til sentence you write Gill the clause beginning while or whereas come after the 111<lil1 clause? (e)

1 POl u In is blonde a more and 1110 re people are taking. ir II p

2 horse riding is an expensive pastime b the government says it is under 500,000

:3 ,J decade ago we used to get a lot of c -a-~t!:f-s'isfeFs~ha-¥e..atl:fk-hair-

blackbirds in our garden d it actually feels quite warm when the sun is out

4 the rrue number of unemployed is OVC.f c we rarely see rhern today

a million

.5 the rcmperarur.e is below freezing

I -+-c .. Vyl1~.~/._~.~"y,(t:S: ... P_GI.L,':_I4_._L-?:".~!-9r:1.4e.L_q.ll,_ .. ;~:~._""~i4!:P".?- ... ~.Q."~-.4tY.:~ .... ~:~-, ... or

_,~6.!± .. .Jl~._ .. ~~t_~?_.h~'!:.t .. W-J:_,_b~.t:_),,".~.J:1;t:r?'0~l~~~ ... E0#..~ ,~?_ .. p[£_"O,~~:_.,. .. _

165

166

If (1)

Real conditionals

In real conditionals (see 'R nOH' above IM9) We US1.1aUy use. a present tense verb in the if-clause to talk about the future:

[" [f y<ru leave now, you'll be able to catch rheS o'clock train. (or If you're leaving now ... ) However, In conversation we call use be going to instead of a present tense verb:

o If I'm going to catch the train, I'll have [0 leave now.

o We'll need more chairs if we're going to inviteso many people to the performance.

When we make offers and give instructions or advice we can lise an imperative in the main clause:

o Take anomer sandwich if you're hungry.

o 11 you have a mobile phoncvcheckrhar iris turned off.

We can use if-.chlllses. with a present reuse verb to introduce certain conditions under which something is true:

C The video pauses if YOll press. this button.

L. Jf age-related changes are taken into account, the conclusion remains the same. (Here 'if' has a meaning similar to ·when'.1

We can talkabout possible future events with a present perfect verb in the if-clause and <1 future Form (will, present continuous, or be going to) in the main clause. Sometimes present perfect or present simple can be used with a similar meaning:

C I'll lend YUU Waf· and Peace if I've finished it before you go on holiday .. (or ... if I finish )

c If you haven't. paid the bill by Friday, w',-!'re ti1killg the carpets back. (01 lf you don't pay )

HOWfVe.r~ to focus en the future consequ en cesof a past event, we use the present perfect. Compare: n If I've failed my rnaths exam again, I'm going to give up the course, (suggests 1 have already taken the exam; I don't know the result) amI

o [f 1 fail I11y marhs exam again. I'rn going to 'give up the course. (I mayor may nor have taken the exam]

Unreal conditionals

In unreal cenditionals (see ,R nore above M9) we Can use if... were ... to-infinitive rather than if + .past simple to talk about imaginary future situations, particularly to suggest it is unlikely that the simationin [he if-clause will happen (see also Voir l-!):

C If the technology were to become available. we would be able to expand the business.

However, notice that we don't usually this pattern with verbs such as belong, doubt, enjoy, know, [ike, remember. and understand when they describe a state:

o If I knew they were honest, I'd gladly lend them [he money. (not If I were to know ... )

'We sometimes Lise this pattern to make a suggestion sound more police:

C Would it be too early for you if we were to meet at S.30?

We use if it was not for« noun phrase (or more rormally if it were not for +- noun phrase) to say that one situation is dependent on another situation or ona person (see also nit 85r\). When we talk about the past we can also use jf II had not been for 01- noun phrase:

o If it wasn't/weren't for Vivian, the conference wouldn't be going ahead.

u If it wasn't/weren't for the fact that Chloe would be offended, I. wouldn't go to the party. n If it hadn't been for Dad, J woulda'r have gone. to college. (or If it wasn't/weren't for ... )

In formal language we can also use WetI' it not for ... and Had it not been for ... (see nit 84B):

o Were it not for Vivinn.,; [1 Had it not been for Dad ...

We can use but for + noun with a similar meaning, particularly in formal contexts:

o The village school would have been dosed years ago but for the determination of teachers and parents to keep it open. (0: ..... if it hadn't been for the dererminarion .... .) Grammar r~vicw; real and unreal conditionals _,. M9-M 17

Exercises

Unit 83

83',1 Suggest. completions for these sentences, Add either an imperative (1-3) ur <In if-clause (4-6), (A) I There have been il lor. of thefts hom cars in the city centre, If )'OU leave you r ca r there ...

. ".,~~~.~" .. ?.~g .... ,~'!o_,.,\'p~.,t~.,,,~ .. ()/' .. ,.9LQ!~.~~, .. ,~Y;~,."tl:!'lJ;!".,Y~~~~,l??,,,.!:n,,,;~t,: .. ,,,,

'2 [f you have any more problems with the computer, ...

3 rf you sec John rcday, ...

4 ... keep well away from rhem.

•.•••.•••• _ ••••••••.••• __ , _._ •.•••• _" •••• _ __ •••• _._ •••• _._ _ ••••• H. _ .•.•• __ •.• ,. . ..• _ .••• .• '_ •. " __ .,, ..••••.•••. N .•• " .••• _ .. " . __ •.. __ " ,, __ .••• __ • __ . ,,'. _._ •••.• ,_ '- •.• .' __ _. __ ', _ ',.'._ : .• _ ••••• _ ••• , .H. _.....;. ...• _ •. _, _ •. __

5 ... don't hesirare to get in touch wirh me again.

6 ... get off at the stop neal- the library,

133,2 Complete Ihe sentences using one ot the tollowing pairs 01 verbs. U the present simple or present perfect In til> if-clause, and givt! altematlves. Notice <Illy possible diffEret1l't'S in mC<lning when these tense's ;JI'{' used, (el

not fill in - need not help - gO' leave - meet

not arrive- give tud'y-i-Hww break - have to

If you ~e~'~II'~sJu.~_!&4Igl,;(i+.l~~" Macbeth, you'll ~k,YlO~_ .. the scene with [he witches.

2. If YOl1 .. , ... ,,,,,,,, home before J get there, 1'.11 .. "''' .. ,'" ... ,"". __ " you at the airport.

3 If you ._'u"._"'".~,',~, ... the window, you'll ".""_'_""._.'_"'''''''' pay for it.

4 :If the taXI .. "".,,, .. ,,,,, .. ,,, ... ,,_ .. by ] 0 o'clock, I'll .. " .. "'" ... "',, ... ", .. """, you a lift w the station.

5 If you .. '"'''' '':'' ''''.''''''' in an application farm, you will " "." , " , to do 50 before you can be

considered (or rhe ioh.

6 If the antibiotics , .. , ... " .... ,""."''', .. ,''''',,. by the end ·of the week, I'll,"", ,", .. , to the hospital.

83.J ChulJ~t: from these verbs lu complete the sentences, usinqearh verb one' only If possible. usc the pattern were + tel-infinitive, If thi . is not possihte .. LIse the past simple Form of the verb, (0)

belong close doubt bold SWitch understand

1 If they .. ,_,_~ __ ,_ .. ,,'_ ... _ a n election now, the Democrats would undoubted Iy win, 2. HI .. ,_,_, __ .... _<_,,, .. ,,. his honesty, [ wouldu'r employ him.

3 I.F allcar '~'_"'"'''''''''_''''''_''' to liquefied p.C':tFoleUlll gas, air pcllutiun levels would faJl dramatically, 4 I'd sell rhe house imrnediatelylfir " ... "_ ... "''''''',, ....... ,,, .. , to me.

5 If 1 ..... ' "", .... Chinese, ['d do the translation mysdf,

6 There would be no cinema in the town if the Odeon ',,""_,.rl" ... ,,,,,,~ ...

B3.4 Write new sentences with simil<lrmea!1ings, Begin witt1 tht' wnrdls] given .. (El

1 It's only bCC:lLlS~ he's a professor that anybody pays any arrenrion to him. If it wasn't

" ... fgr .. :t\'l~, .. ..f\':9t...,tI-1V;. ... h~+~~ .... o..:,pr:!?J~~~I:lr.,·,._,m.PgcL.y .,~oy,if:l-.J)(}.!.l.,~B ".~!:'?nMD",t,g, ..... ~,l.rr,.,., _

'2 H is happiness WOIJ ld ha ve heencornplere except [Of his anxiety over Bridget. [( it were .

J The weather was terrible. Otherwise, we would have gone walking this weekend, 1/ it' bad .

4 The strike would probably still be going on jf the government hadn't intervened. W('1't! it .

5 The fight could have got our of hand il rhe police hadn't arrived, Had it.,.

6 Everything was quiet except fOf rhe sound of birds singing. 8!Jt for.,.

7 There would have been far more wars in the last Sf) years without rhe United Nations. Tf it WGs ...•. '8 We would have been here two hours ago except for the roadworks on the morerway, If it

had ...

9 Paul comes froma wealthy famjly, Otherwise he could nor have gone to the USA to study.

Were it ...

167

168

In spoken English we often use if-clauses without a main clause. In particular, we use them in polite requests.Tnsrructicns, erc.:

o If I might just say a few words. (= I want to speak) 1 think it's important to ...

D If we could get back ro the subjecr of homework. Why haven't you done any for the last week? (= Let's go back to talking about homework)

and to Qualify what someone else has said. Inthis case if is usually stressed:

tJ A: Bill won't be happy if he finds out you've taken his bike. R: If he finds (Jut.

('" stile doesn't necessarily agree that Bill will find our, or s/he will make SUJ;e that he doesr

Wh~n the flrst verb ina conditional if-c\,lUse is should, were, or had we can leave out if and put the verb at the starr of the clause (see Unirs 99' and Ion for more on irrversion]. We do this particularly In formal Dr literary English, and only in hypothetical conditionals (a type of unreal conditional which answers the question 'What would happen iL .. ?'):

o Should any of this cost you anything, send me the bill. ('=' [f any of this should cost.i.]

o It would be embarrassing, were she to find out the truth. (= ... if she were to find out .. )

o Had they not rushed 10 to hospital, he would have died. ('=' If they hadn't rushed 10 ... )

We don't usually use if...will in conditional clauses, However, we ClU1 use .it .. willi< when we talk about ~\ result of somerhing in the main clause. Compare:

o Open a window i1 it will help :you to sleep. (or .... if it helps you to sleep; 'Helping you to sleep' is the result of opening the. window) and

[11 will be angry if it turns out that you. are wrong. ~not ..... i.f it will turn Out .. ; "Turning Out that you are wrong' is not, the result of being angry)

ofT in requests or with the meaning 'if you are willing to' (01' if...wouJd to be more polite): tJ If you will/would rake your seats, ladies and gentlemen, we can begin the' meeting,

-tr in real conditionals when we want to snow that we disapprove of something. In this case, will is stressed in speech (see also Unit 1613):

D A; I'm tired. B: Well, if you will go to bed so late, l'm nor surprised.

Notice that we can use if...won't when we talk about a refusal to do something: o There's no point ill trying to teach the class if they won't pay attention.

In a real conditional sentence (see GR non: above M9), we use if...happen to, if ... should, or if •.• should happen to to talk about something which may be possible, but is not very likely. (f ..• happen to is most common in spoken English:

o If you happen to be in our area, drop in and see us. (or If you should (happen to) be .. ) Notice that we don't usually use this pattern in unreal conditionals talking about states or events in the if-clause which the speaker perceives as highly unlikely or impossible:

o If the North Sea froze In winter, you could walk from London to Oslo. (but prubably not Lf the North Sea happened to freeze/should (happen to) freeze in winter .... )

In comparison clauses we tan use as if followed by a noun phrase, -ing clause, past participle (-ed) clause, or to-infinitive to introduce a comparison wirh a siruarion described in the main clause. We do this to give an explanation or to say th.1t s-omething appears to be the case bur is not:

o Richard walked in as if nothing had happened.

D His hands made a circular motion, as if sseering a bus through a sharp bend. D After scoring, Fowler fell. to the floor as if hit by a huller.

o As if to convince herself that Rob W~lS really there, she gently touched his cheek.

Notice rhar we can use as though instead of as if, and in informal speech SOUle people usc like with the same meaning:

D The crowd reacted as though they were warchlng a boxing match. (or .... as iL.) Ll He walked into the room like nothing had happened. (Of ••• asif ... )

Grammar re v lew: real and unreal conditionals ....... M9-M 1 I. M 17

Exercises

Unit 84

134.1 Wrilt: a II('W ~t'lltcmT with a sunilar InCililillY 111 Illl' !>l·nli.:IIl:t: qivcn. Bt.:!:Jlfl wilh the word(~l giV<'ll. I(Bl

] Consult your doctor ag<.lin if rhe symptnrns remain 72 hours after starting the course of m ed j ci nc. ._ .. ~11QM.!,c.Lt~~ .•. ;;_IJQ:_P{;PT;:l;~ .. _r.~..m.\1'itL.}L_.r_Qy:.IC?' .. _.~fu.r._ .. ~_~~:~3g _.JI1_. __ .Yl~.r.~~._.:qf_ ..•• .. Jfl_~4fM:t~f_.W.r!.~_I!.J_ __ ._.!:l~.H," .. M..~t!?r .... MfI...!.:n_o._ .• _

2 You would know IN ha t you have ro do For homework, if you had not been a bsent from school

on Fri day. Had... .,_, ,., _ ,., , _, .. __ _ ,,_., , , .. ", .. " , .. , ---' .. '.'_'_ ' .. ' ' ._

3 Clare would have been able to stay with her friends if they Were still livlng in Brussels. Were ...

4 The shop would nor have hadto .hur down if the workers were prepared to accept a wage

cut, Were... H .. M ..... _._._,, __ • .~--_,--"~-. .H_ .... _~ • ~---. • __ .. • , ..... __ •• ,-,. ~--..---_--- -. _ _.. .. _.._~--,_---- __ ._--------- 4< •• ...... _

5 We sha II have to reduce the number of sta ff employed if the financial performance of the

company dcesri'r improve in [be near future. Slwuld. _ _ ~ _ _ _ _"'_ _ .. _ _ _ _ , .

6 I mipJu have considered raking the job if (he sillnry had been h~gher. HI1lL _ _, . __ _ .. __

84.2 An' 1111' lilldt'il-lim'd parts of Ihe ~t'nh"Ilt"1: ,t'urrl>d? Cnrrect Ihe nnn I hili an: wrong. [Cl 1 If I W,\ 11 PIes~ this button, wi II it Sl",U[ to record?

2 You're welcome to borrow myoid hike, if YOll rhinkirwill be of any use (0 YOll. 3 Ifhe won':!; resigJ;l, the Prime Mil]i rcr should sack liirn.

4 H the diseasE' wi.i! be u nrre::lIed, ircan lead to brain, damage.

S If you'll tell me whererhe vacuum cleaner is, I'll dean rhe house. 6 11 }'ollJI CQn:Jnl'lin abqur me, t'JI .get into rrouble with my reacher. 7 If ir'U save mo.ney. 1'111 willing ro go by public rransporr.

84.3 If possible, n:V>I'l'it· Iii.: undcrhucd P,'Jft!. of tht:~<: 51.:1l1t·lll'l:~ With happen lu, If it is unlikely, write .x :If\I'r the semence. {D}

I 1£ I see K,lrcn when I'm .in Rome, I'll send her your regards.

2_ 1£ a UFO l:-mded in tht', centre M London, there would be 11.1<155 panic.

3 The plan tor a new nirport ro be built outside London is bad news if vuu live nearby.

4 If I was rhePresident of the United St(ltcs, 1 would order its nuclear weapons to be destroyed. 5 If VUL'! :m' in the south of Spain nexr week; there is a good chance of seeinga total eclipse of

the sun,

84.4 Complete til t1 tcnres in any approprlatc w.ay" or use tilt' note: Inr lceas. (El

(agre~- everythjng Julie said) -+1 ~a--y----shoGking~. (it - reverse - wall)

(try - imagine =centained) (ovcl'l;ome - great weariness)

1 My father raised his eyebrows as if .... 1. .. h~_ .. i!.P._:!4: ... ~.qI~_~!:!').R ... ~\~Q9.;g~q .. ,.,,- 2. He Folded his arms on the table and laid his head M them, as if___

3 She stared hard ar the pared as if. ..

4 He nodderl his head slowly as if.. .

.5 The back ofchccar looked as it ..

169

170

If I were you ... ; imagine he were to win

In unreal conditional sentences (see R note above ]\I\)) we can use were after any subject in the ircla~lse, including singular first and third person subjects (e.g, IIshelhelirl. This use of

were is sometimes called the {last subjunctiue, and is scnem Ily preferred Oil Iy in Form,ll contexts. Note that although the verb ha a past form, reference is to the imagined present or future:

o If yout' mother were here. I'm SUIe she wouldn't let )'OU Mt.1l1 those chocolates.

o "We would aot be able ro provide after-school sports if it were not for dedicated teachers like Mr Morgan.

Wa.s can he used insteadof were with the same meaning. ('If your mother was here ... ', etc.). However, we prefer Were rather than was when we give advice with If I were you .. .:

o If I were you, I'd take it back to the shop. It's got a hole in it, (nlcher thsn HI was-you ... }

Were is used in. this way in other pareerns when we talk about imaginary situations=

m when we use were + subject + re-infinirive or were + subject as a more formal alrernarive to if + subject + was/were (see also nil RAB.!:

o Were the election to. be held today; the Liberals would win easily. (or If the election was! were. heldroday .... J

o Were I nor in Illy 70s and rather unfit, I might consider taking up squash. (or If 1 wasn't! weren't in my 70s and rarher unfir, .. )

(ii) after wish:

o I enjoy my job enormously" but [ wish it were cleser ro home. (or ... 1 wish ir was ... ) l.J Of course I'm pleased that James has been given the award. I only wish he weren't so boastful aboutit. (or .. .Ionly wish he wasn't ... )

(iii) after if only when we express our regret thar a situation isn't differenn

r 'I1 your job is so bad, why don't you leave?' '.If only il were that simple.' (or If onfyit was .. ,) LJ I'd really like to do accounting. I] 0111)1 I weren't so poor at marhs, (or if ollly I wasn't ... )

(ill) after would ('d) rather and would t'd) sooner when we talk about preferences:

t' I feel embarrassed about whar happened and urould rather the event were forgotten. (or ... was forgcrren.]

o 'I've arranged" meeting for the end oJ July! 'I'd sooner it were earlier, if possible. (or ... it was earlier. )

«())i n sentences or clauses beginn ing with suppose, supposing and imagine:

[J Suppose I were tolower the price b, .( 100. Would you consider buying rhe car then? (or SIINJOse J was to lower ... )

o I know it looks rather dirty now, but imagine the house were (to he} repainted. It would Ieok a lot more attractive. (at ... imagine the house was (to be) repainted.)

And in compasisons we can 1I e were -

(IIi) after as if and as though (see 1I nit S~ E) and even if;.

[] .I remember stepping off the boatin New York (IS if'it were yesterday,

LJ Despite losing rhe election, she continues 1'0 act as though she were prime minister,

I"] It would be 'too hue to starr work on the building rhis year even f(il were possible to find rhe money for it.

We can usethe phrase as i.t were to show that we realise that something we have said may not precisely expres what we mean. ·We ouen do this te he humorous or to soundless dennite-:

.J To dismantle the machine you begin by holding it hy its ears, as it were, these handles ar the sides, and pulling the front towards you.

::J Becky runs the office and Sue is her apprentice, as it were. {= Sue i not really her apprentice, but is learning from Becky a ana pprenricernight dol

Exercises

Unit 85

85,' Mati:)' an item from {iJ with an 'rldin~1 from (ii) to form a senlcm'e. Begin with Were ... [notj. (Bi)

(i) (ii)

I guilry of libelc., a rile glass would certainly break

2. govl:rllment to increase un iversity h you would be horrified

Ere,:;...!; I would g.ladly accept your invitation

3 anyone to 'Iean against rile. windnw..; d there would he an outcry from

4 nor already busy in !\lig\ls1:...srudents-

.5 .•. JO see the condirions in which the the newspaper would facl}-ltllge legal

refugees. :J re IjV"jI1~, ..

I + f' ., .. .w~r.~ .. 0: .... {;g._~.~ .. :fu.~,r~ .. ,.9.~J4.!:l.Q.f:..lli?~,"" .. !;h~._11~1':!?P'q,.f.'.I2.:.-,.N.9.y14._f.tl..0 1.t1.\A_q.~ .. J.~:9.L~L . ..... ~.~!@-" •. "

85.2 Expand the notes to write a sentence to go befnrecach of 111f' qucsttons below, Start the new sentence with SUPPOSl', Supposing, or Imagine, followed by i.I prnnoun, noun or noun phrase <Inc! then were. IBv:)

:1 (miss/last trn in) .... S~.RpQ$_41:'l9 .. \:_J.~ .. w.I~.r?'".l;g" .. mt,.??JI-1J',.JM.tJr.~., ... _ How would W~: get home?

Z (inherit! million dollars) ."_ "., ~ _ _ -'. How. would it change YOlif LIfe?

3 (parents! tell you/ emigrating t(1 Canada] ~ " _ How do you think you would react?

4 (Spain/ winl World Cop) _ __ _ _ ~_ ''' ~ Howwould you celebrate?

5 (population of Brita in) all Buddhist) _ _ " _ , How wouldits society he different?

85 .. 3 Complete l~w ::; nt 'ne with ith r <1$ if oreven if followed by an appropriatepronoun and then were. (Bvi)

I Muller spoke slowly .... ~~ .... Y.f .. ~ ... !.Y~t<:, ... a grear physical effort.

"1 Every day Mrs Green would walk around the park .. ,.~ .. _ ... _ .. _ .... _.. ..~ _ . ., snqwl.ng,

3 She knew she wouldn't be able [Q eat rabbit meat ._ ,............... . starving.

4 Jamie complerely ignored me _ _ , _ _ _._ ~, ntH. standing next to him.

5 He picked Narasha [Ip"." .. _ _.""<." .•• ~ •••••• _ "._ •.•• no heavier than a two-year-old.

6 1 don "r thin k l would huve got the job _ . .. _ better qualified.

7 Wh.en Mary saw thar I was stuck she laughed out loud _""._ _ _"'~ , nm so

critical.. .ernplnyccs 11 joke.

S I wouldn't accept rhe job _ _ _ _ .. _ (Q offer it ro me.

854 Complete tl1t' Sel~11('nl't" u:.ing olle Dr !he phrasus In 0) with expanded 110[('5 from fiil. (A Et B]

(i) (ii)

-~f.it--w(;'-fG-Fl0t~.Qr- if I were YO)'I

wish he were if only ir were

forgotten ... classma res g.o i ng ... friends

!lOt so critical. .. employees

.Isng-nignr-s-......:wi Ilr~r- as easy ... rhn t

breakfast before ... leave

'J SO()Il~r she were

'd rather it were

J would be happy ro live in the north of Sweden ... J.f .. iJ:: ... .w.~t:~ .. Y.lgJ ... :fut_.JJ:1.e..:.lP.l').g •.. l;)~bt~ ... .l,.!'L .. .... i:t!.~ ... f::Jp~l&r., .. -.

2 I'm nor h,lPPY about Katie going to Thailand alone. I ~~ .. ~ •.. _ ~._ .. _ ~ =e- ..•.• _"'~ •.• ~ ••

3 Iff yuu're unhappy' with your new car, why don't you ask for your money back?' ;Weli.

4 1 know you haven't got much time, but ,_ _ .. _ _ _ _ .

5 Forgerting ttl wear my shoes tv sehoulwas ernbnrrassurgand I.

6 I'm very fond of chasrian, but I .. - .. - , - ".--, - n .. ~.".

85.5 Add a sit were to one of till: posillh' places ineach sentence. (C)

I You could sec tiredness descending UPOb hex as her eyes: began to dose. 2 The virus hides behind healrhy cells to prevent it being attacked.

;1 Afrer his long serious illness, Frank returned from the grave to play an important parr in rhe performance.

171

Unit 86

172

If ... not and unless; if and whether; etc.

Unless is used in conditional sentences with the meaning 'except if': r You can'r rra vel on this train unless you havea reservation. 'With unless we use present tenses when we talk about the futllrr:

o Unless it rains, I'll pick you up :H 6.00. (not Unless it will rain .... )

In real conditional sentences we ran often use either unless or if .•. not with a similar meaning;

o Unless rherhearre is able to raise £ 100,000, it will have to close. (Dr If the rhearre isn't able to .•. ; implies 'it will have to close (lilly ifi[ can't raise the money')

However, we use if.,.not but not unless -

t'l when we say in the main clause that an event or acrionin rheif-clausc is unexpected: t:J I'll be. amazed if hristie doesn't win.

~ usually in questions:

o If you don't pass the test. what wiLl you do? fi when tilt: 'only if' implication dDCS not a pply:

o If it wasn't the besr performance of Hamlet I've seen, it wascertainly the stra ngest.

'We usually usc if. .. not rather than unless in unreal conditional sentences:

o If [ w-eren't ·0 tired, I'd give YOLI a hand.

However, unless can be used i tvunreal conditional seueenees when the main clause is negative: [.J She wouldn't have gone to universiry unless her parents had insisted,

We use unless but not if .•. not -

1.'l when we introduce an afterthought:

c We can leave now - unless you'd rather wait for Jack, oJ cour e. fl when a relative clause refers back to n positive phrase:

n Wec:u1 walk eo the cinema unless it' wining, in which ea e we'll get a taxi.

Ifand wh.ether

We Can lise if or whetherto saytharrwo possibilities have been talked or thought about, ana say that people are 1101: sure about somerhing:

o They couldn't decideif/whether irwas worth re-sitting rhe exam. n Do you know if/whether Ben's at home?

Whether can usually be followed immediately by or not. Compare:

o 1 didn't know If Torn WaS COining or not. (nut.,. if Or not Torn was coming.) (md

[J I didn't know whether or not Tom was corning. (or ... whether Tom was coming or not ... )

We use whether rather than if ~

it after a preposition (although if is. sometimes used informally )ane! before a to-infinitive: n Weargutod abcrut whether burrer or margarine was better for you .. (i''Iformally .. .if ... ) o I couldn't decide whether to buy apple" or bananas.

tt in the pattern noun/adjective + as to whether to mean 'about' or 'concerning':

o There W~1S some disagreement as to whether he was eligible to pby for France. Other nouns and adjectives used til this pattern include couflict, confusion, debate, discussion, doubt •. question, speculation, unct!Itamty; wncerned,. indifferent, uncertain, undecided, unsure,

and we prefer whether rather than if -

tt after the 'verbs advise, choose, consider, depend on, discuss, talk about. and think about: r:J You shouldcorlsitiar whether the car you <Ire interested ln is good value.

'1'l' in a clause acting as a subject or cornplcmenr:

o Whether the minister will quit over the issue remains ro be seen.

o The first issue is whether he knew he was committing a crime ..

Exercises

Unit 86

86.1 Matdl the sentence halves uml writl' :J new sentence with 1 he sarne mcaninq. bl'~linningf'<H:h

1111(' wit 11 Unl ... (A}

We'll never get to the meeting ...

:z Alternative nul' .es of funding IJ1U$t b,,, found ...

3 If the roads haven', changed in that part of [Own".

t~ ... or tnt; farmt'f will lose their crops.

b .. -if the tram doesn't lea ... e within five-minutes-

c I'm sure I'll be able to hnd my way there.

d or the resea rch will nut he a hie to

conun tie.

4 The weather must' Start L01proving~oorl... (' .,,1 think I'll buy thar painting.

S .If it i .. su'r ridiculously expensive.. . f ... if you have been unemployedfor six

6 You ure only entitled to srute bencfit..; months.

I 'I- b ... ~.t1.~.~.J~_ ..... t:rp+.!1.J.~.Y!;.L~.~'!:y'!j .. " ... :£.':'!J .... ~~i.r.!'~.~l!.~,,-.~ ..... L4 .. :n .. S.!l-.t .... ql7.t ... tp .. J!:1.g .... !!'.~~F~9 , ....

86.2 llnderllrw tlte l'OI'rc'('[ phrase. If rillwr i., po"~ihrt·, unritrlin('[h(,111 lIulh. (BJ

I Viliess the infrx:.ti01! is treated/ If the injecrioll isn't- treated urgently; there is a real danger that

she wi II die'.

2 Unless she had g()noi If sbehadn'tgcme to university, she would have ,gone into the army. 3 UnliJss he Wll$1 If be IVO.s11 't KG clu rns y, be' d be t b e best person to do r be work.

4- The man can'r be prosecuted unless !h" police '(In !)fOIlO/ if the police can't provo he intended ro steal the jewels.

SUnless t/;i'Y I.,,,,;rd 1/ they weren't. the tastiest strawberries I've every eaten, they were definitel}' the biggest,

6 Jr'11 be surprising unless Ruche! passes} if Raithel does'fl', pass her piano eX31l1.

7 John w'1se'lpecring \IS,. but I've knocked and rtmg on the bell and there's no answer _ unless hr.t's gc:meJ if he basn 't gone next door to see rhe neighbours.

8 Unless yrm get/ Il)'ou. don', gete loan from the bank, how will you pay for the house?' 9 They'll g.o on strike unlessthey getl.ifthrJY don't get!l pay rise.

10 Where will you 'cay unless Louise is at homeiifLoltist; isn't at home?

II I can borrow m)1 brother's renr unless he~susiJ1g itl ilhe's not usil.lg it. in which case I'll have. to buy one.

8G.3 Write whether fir If/whcUll'r ,(II !lolh ai" pn s ~ibh'J 111 I.h\.'s,l' seruenres. [C H DJ

I I was wondering. . you'd had your exam resultsyer,

2 She WaS undecided as to ._ " _ _ _ " ro fl)' or go hy train.

3 Police have refused to .. .onfirrni. " _ , ~._ ... _.~ .. or not they ha ve arrested anyone followiJlg the

robbery.

4 It is unclear _ _ _ the new regularions will affeCt ,111 buildings or just new ones.

5 'How much will the computer cost?' 'That depends on 0 I get one with a IS or

L f.-inch 'screen.

6 Harry said that be was [caving home, but I didn't know _ _ _ _. to bel ieve him.

7 Have yTlU a.ll}' idea_ .... _" .. _._ ,_ ... ,,_. Ken wi 1.1 heat the meeting?

8 Can you remember . __ ._ .. _, __ , " ~ . ." the door 'iVa open or closed when you got tothe house?

9 There was considcra ble debate as to _" , , chess was [I game or a sport,

10 I don't know .. _" _ "",....... Clare's going to wait for us Of not.

U The govern menr isconsidering _. __ _ _ , .. to hold an enquiry into the accident,

12 Everyone in rhe \'illage 'W·as vcry friendly. It didn't ma:ner ., _ " you 'diived there for

a short, or a long time.

13 Do you have a fly view on school?

..... - .... " .... _ .. young children should be given homework from

173