Australia's Physical Environments: Australia - A Land of Diversity.'

1 Australia’s physical
environments
‘Australia – a land of diversity.’
[1.1] Twin falls, Kakadu National Park
Part 1 Investigating Australia’s physical environments

Geography for Australian Citizens
In this chapter you will…

learn about: learn to:
✪ Australia’s geographical dimensions ✪ locate and recognise Australia on a world map using latitude and longitude,
✪ the origins of the continent, both from an and compare its size and shape with other continents and countries
Aboriginal perspective and a geographical ✪ explain the origins of the continent from an Aboriginal perspective and a
perspective geographical perspective
✪ the patterns of major landforms and ✪ describe and identify Australia’s major physical features and patterns on
drainage basins, climate and weather, natural a variety of maps
resources, vegetation, flora and fauna. ✪ explain the interrelationships that exist in the physical environment of Australia
✪ explain adaptations of flora and fauna to the Australian environment
✪ construct a cross-section, calculate gradient of a slope and identify
bearings on a map
✪ read and interpret weather maps
✪ interpret satellite images.
The Australian continent

island Australia is at the same time:
a landmass surrounded
by water ✪ an island – the world’s largest
continent ✪ a continent – the world’s flattest
a large landmass (there are
seven world continents) ✪ a country – the world’s sixth largest.
country Australia is located in the southern hemisphere, between latitudes 10°S and
a political unit having a 44°S and between longitudes 113°E and 154°E [1.2]. The satellite image [1.3]
national government
shows Australia’s position in the world. Spatially, Australia is part of the Asia–Pacific
hemisphere
one of the halves of the region. Our nearest neighbours are Papua New Guinea to the north and New Zealand
spheroidal world globe, to the east.
which is divided at
the Equator
[1.2] Latitude and longitude of Australia [1.3] Satellite image of Australia from space
661/2oN Arctic Circle
231/2oN
Tropic of
Cancer
0o Equator
160oE
120oE
231/2oS
Tropic of
Capricorn
A satellite image is an electronic

image transmitted from
satellites. The electronic data
is transmitted by radio signals
that are converted into a colour
image. Computer technology is
used to adjust the colours.
1 : Australia’s physical environments
S k i ll s Map reading
Latitude and longitude
Geographers use latitude and longitude to help locate places in their spatial
context.
The parallels of latitude are imaginary lines that run east–west around the
globe. They measure north (N) and south (S) of the Equator between latitudes
0° and 90°.
The meridians of longitude run from the North Pole to the South Pole
around the globe. They measure east (E) and west (W) of Greenwich or the
Prime Meridian (0°) and the International Date Line (180°).
Both parallels of latitude and meridians of longitude are measured in
degrees and minutes. Each degree is further subdivided into 60 minutes. This
level of accuracy is necessary for precise navigation (of ships and aircraft). An
atlas entry in the index would appear as:
Sydney, Australia 33° 55'S 151° 13'E.
[1.2] on page 2 shows the location of Australia in the world in terms of
latitude and longitude. The lines of latitude and longitude on the map are
shown at 20° intervals. The map of Australia [1.7] has latitude and longitude
shown along the map borders.
Australia’s geographical dimensions

Australia’s total land area makes it one of the largest countries in the world. It is
nearly 4000 kilometres west to east and over 3000 kilometres north to south. If
Tasmania is included in the calculations, the size of Australia increases to 3680
kilometres from Cape York, Queensland, to South-East Cape,
Tasmania. The relative sizes of each state and territory are shown
Australia in map [1.7].
Area: 7 682 300 km2 The sheer size of Australia [1.4] means that there is a huge
Nearest neighbour: Papua New Guinea variety of physical environments. Australia’s physical dimensions
(150 kilometres north) have also shaped the development of its human environments.
Distance west to east: 3983 kilometres The size of Australia can be put into context if we consider
(Steep Point, WA, to Cape Byron, NSW)
travelling the same distances in other parts of the world [1.5].
Distance north to south: 3138 kilometres
(Cape York, Qld, to Wilson’s Promontory, Vic.) For example, the distance between Cairns and Sydney is 2680
or 3680 kilometres from Cape York to South-East kilometres, which is the equivalent of travelling between London
Cape, Tas.
and Paris about eight times. We can also see the size of Australia
Highest point: Mt Kosciuszko, NSW –
2228 metres relative to the countries of Europe [1.14] on page 7.
Lowest point: Lake Eyre, SA – 15 metres below [1.4] Australia is the world’s sixth largest country
sea level
Country Area (km2)
Russia 17.1 million
Canada 9.97 million
China 9.59 million
Australia is the lowest
continent in the world with USA 9.36 million
an average elevation of only Brazil 8.51 million
330 metres. Australia 7.68 million
[1.5] The tyranny of distance [1.6] The vastness of Australia

Distances within Kilometres
Australia
Sydney to Melbourne 870
Sydney to Brisbane 980
Sydney to Adelaide 1420
Perth to Darwin 4160
Brisbane to Cairns 1700
Comparative distances Kilometres
Singapore to Kuala Lumpur 310
(Malaysia)
London (UK) to Paris 342
(France)
Los Angeles to San 580
Francisco (USA)
Los Angeles to New York 3961
(USA)
[1.7] Australia’s states and territories
Darwin
Northern
Territory
1 346 200 km2
(18% of Australia)
Queensland
1 727 200 km2
(22% of Australia)
Western Australia
2 525 500 km2
(33% of Australia) South Australia Brisbane
984 000 km2
(10% of Australia)
New South Wales
801 600 km2
Perth (10% of Australia)
Sydney
Adelaide Victoria
Total area 227 600 km2 Canberra
7 682 300 km2 (3% of Australia) Australian Capital Territory
Melbourne 2400 km2
(0.03% of Australia)
N
Tasmania
0 500 km 67 800 km2 Hobart
(1% of Australia)
Maps are essential tools that help us understand the spatial dimensions of
the world around us. A range of different maps is presented throughout this
text and there are important skills you need to learn and/or review in reading
maps correctly.
Using the scale

The scale of a map shows the relationship between distances on the map and
actual distances on the land. A geographer needs to know how to read the
scale of a map. Scale can be shown as:
✪ a linear scale
✪ a sentence
✪ a representative fraction (ratio)
✪ a combination of these.
A representative fraction (RF) scale uses numbers or ratios. These ratios
use centimetres to calculate the actual distance, as shown in the examples
in [1.8].
[1.8] Identifying scale as a representative fraction

Ratio Can be rewritten as
1:10 000 one centimetre represents 100 metres (10 000 centimetres)
1:50 000 one centimetre represents 500 metres (50 000 centimetres)
1:100 000 one centimetre represents 1000 metres or one kilometre (100 000 centimetres)
1:200 000 one centimetre represents 2000 metres or two kilometres (200 000 centimetres)
Note that the map of Australia [1.7] has both a linear scale and a
representative fraction scale.
Estimating the area of a feature
A geographer can use one of two methods to measure the area of a feature on
a map. Each of the methods is outlined below.
Method A
This method is more suited to features that have a regular shape.
Step 1: Measure the length of the specified feature, then measure the
width. Make sure you use the scale to convert each measurement.
Step 2: Multiply the converted length by the converted width.
Step 3: Your answer may be expressed in square kilometres (km2), square
metres (m2), or hectares. (There are 10 000 m2 in one hectare.) Read
a question carefully to make sure that you give your answer in the
correct unit.
[1.9] Estimating the

area of a feature with Method B
an irregular shape This method is more suited to areas with an irregular shape.
Step 1: Trace the area to be measured.
Step 2: Using the scale of the map, divide the area into grids as shown in
[1.9].
Step 3: Add up the number of complete grid squares. In [1.9] there are
four complete grid squares.
Step 4: Add up the number of incomplete grid squares and halve the
total. In [1.9] there are nine incomplete grid squares.
Step 5: Total the calculations made in steps 3 and 4.
Step 6: Multiply the total from step 5 by the area of each grid square.
For [1.9] the area is calculated by multiplying 8.5 x 0.25 km2.
Therefore, the area of the feature is 2.125 square kilometres.
How to distinguish between large- and small-scale maps
There is a simple rule for geographers to remember to help them distinguish
between large- and small-scale maps. A map with a large scale shows a small
area of land with a lot of detail. For example, a map of your school may have a
scale of 1:100 showing all the classrooms, sporting fields and pathways.
A map with a small scale is the opposite. It shows a large area with little
detail, such as a map of Australia that only has major features. You would not
be able to find your school on a map of this size. It is likely to have a scale of
around 1:200 000.
Remember also that if you divide 1 by 200 000 your answer is a much
The land within the borders
of New South Wales and smaller number than if you divide 1 by 100.
Victoria changes due to Small- and large-scale maps, however, are relative. In the example on
variations in the course page 7, the map of Australia is the small-scale map. But if you compare a map
of the Murray River during of the world with a scale of 1:1 000 000 with the 1:200 000 map of Australia, the
floods. map of Australia has the larger scale.
[1.10] The northernmost point of the Australian mainland is [1.11] Cape Byron in NSW is the easternmost point of the
Cape York, QLD Australian mainland
[1.12] Wilson’s Promontory in Victoria is the Australian [1.13] Steep point in WA is the westernmost point of the Australian
mainland’s southernmost extremity mainland
[1.14] The size of Australia in relation to Europe

60˚N 20˚W 10˚W 0˚ 10˚E 20˚E 30˚E 40˚E 50˚E
Kilometres
SWEDEN
0 250 500
NORWAY 60˚N
FINLAND
NORTH RUSSIA
N SEA
ESTONIA
UNITED
KINGDOM
50˚N LATVIA
DENMARK
REPUBLIC BALTIC SEA
OF LITHUANIA
IRELAND
NETHERLANDS
BELARUS
GERMANY POLAND 50˚N
BELGIUM
LUXEMBOURG
CZECH UKRAINE
Bay FRANCE SLOVAKIA
of
Biscay AUSTRIA MOLDOVA
SWITZERLAND HUNGARY
SLOVENIA ROMANIA
BOSNIA and
40˚N HERZEGOVINA
PORTUGAL CROATIA SERBIA and
MONTENEGRO BLACK SEA
ITALY
BULGARIA
KOSOVO 40˚N
SPAIN FYROM
ALBANIA
MED TURKEY
ITER
RAN
EAN
GREECE
MOROCCO
TUNISIA SYRIA
ALGERIA MALTA CYPRUS
SE
A LEBANON
0˚ 10˚E 20˚E 30˚E
Learning about …
1 Choose the most correct answer for each of the following statements.
a Australia can be described as:
i an island iii a continent
ii a country iv all of the above.
b The two landmasses that make up Australia are:
i mainland Australia and Antarctica
ii mainland Australia and Tasmania
iii the Australian Antarctic Territory and the Australian Capital Territory
iv Tasmania and Norfolk Island.
c The main characteristic responsible for the unique features of Australia is its:
i size iii physical environments
ii shape iv human environment.
d Australia is which of the following?
i tenth biggest country in the world
ii second biggest country in the world
iii sixth biggest country in the world
iv fifth biggest country in the world.
e [1.4] shows that the USA is how many million square kilometres larger than Australia?
i 16.8 iii 17.87
ii 1.68 iv 178
2 Use [1.7] and an outline map of Australia to label the following features:
a states and territories
b capital cities
c major river systems
d major mountain ranges
e Great Barrier Reef
f major oceans, seas and other waterways.
3 Is it accurate to describe Australia as an island-continent? Give details.
4 Describe Australia in terms of its size.
5 Why is the sheer size of Australia responsible for many of its unique features?
6 Refer to [1.7]. Copy and complete the following sentences.
a The total area of Australia is ______________.
b The largest state or territory is _____________________ with an area that represents
________ of the total area of Australia.
c The smallest state or territory is __________________. It has an area of ________ that is
________ of the total land area.
d The remaining states and territories have a total area of _____________ and represent
________ of the total area.
Learning to …
1 Refer to [1.7] to complete the following tasks.
a Give the scale of the map as a:
i sentence
ii representative fraction
iii linear scale.
b Estimate the distance between:

i Sydney and Perth
ii Hobart and Melbourne
iii Adelaide and Darwin.
c State the direction of Kalgoorlie from:
i Perth iii Tennant Creek
ii Lake Eyre iv Brisbane.
d Using an atlas to assist you, give the latitude and longitude for:
i Albany iii Mt Isa
ii Launceston iv Kangaroo Island.
e Name the following features:
i the body of water between Tasmania and Victoria
ii the northernmost point of Australia
iii the river border of New South Wales and Victoria
iv the body of water between Australia and Papua New Guinea
v the island north of Darwin
vi the geographical feature off the coast of Queensland
vii the lake at 28° S and 137° E.
f Estimate the area of:
i Lake Eyre
ii Melville Island.
g Which of the following has the smallest scale? Which one has the largest scale?
i the satellite image of Australia [1.3]
ii the map of Australia [1.7].
2 Identify small-scale maps and large-scale maps in this textbook. Make a list of three small-scale
maps and three large-scale maps.
3 Refer to [1.14] and complete the following.
a Name a country in Europe that is about the same size as Victoria.
b Approximately how many European countries could you ‘fit into’ Western Australia? Name
them.
c Using the same scale, draw an outline map of the United Kingdom and superimpose it on a
map of Australia.
4 Use the index of an atlas to record the full latitude and longitude (in degrees and minutes) of
a Sydney e Perth
b Melbourne f Hobart
c Brisbane g Darwin.
d Adelaide
5 Visit the website www.ga.gov.au/education/facts/landforms/ and research Australia’s distinctive
landforms. Comment on features such as Australia’s highest mountains, average elevation, longest
river and highest waterfalls.
[1.15]
10 Geography for Australian Citizens
The origins of the continent

[1.16] Ancient rock cave The origins of Australia should be viewed both from an Aboriginal perspective and a
painting in Kakadu geographical perspective.
National Park
Australia’s Aboriginal heritage
Aboriginal occupation
Indigenous peoples have occupied Australia for at least 50 000 years.
Some researchers believe that Aboriginal occupation may even date
back 170 000 years. The first Aboriginal settlers arrived from Asia.
The period of Aboriginal migration was at a time when sea levels
were about 150 metres lower than they are today. This was during
the last ice age when much of the world’s water was stored in ice
sheets. During this period the Australian mainland was connected to
New Guinea in the north and Tasmania in the south, forming ‘Greater
Australia’ [1.17]. This made access to Australia from the South-East
Asian islands of Borneo and Sulawesi possible for the Aboriginal
people. They were able to ‘island-hop’ their way to the shores of
Greater Australia.
Location of original settlements

The first Aboriginal settlers lived along the Australian coast and relied on the rich
variety of fish and shellfish provided by the sea. Other Aboriginal groups moved
inland. During the ice age, inland Australia would have been a very different place to
what we see today. Fresh water would have been available in the places where there
are now dried-up saltpans. The vegetation would also have been much more varied
and prolific. Researchers suggest that Palm Valley, west of Alice Springs, gives us
some idea of how inland Australia could have looked at this time [1.25].
[1.17] During the last ice age

the Australian mainland was Extent of land when sea
level was 150 metres lower
connected to New Guinea in
Possible routes for Aboriginal
the north and Tasmania in migration to Australia
the south forming ‘Greater
Australia’
Gebe
Kalimantan Waigeo
Sulawesi Misool
PAPUA
INDONESIA Seram
SUNDRA NEW GUINEA
SHELF
Anu Island
Tanimbar Islands
Java Bali Flores
Arafura
Lombok Timor ELF Sea
Sumba SH Melville Island
L
Roti HU
SA
Bathurst
Island ARNHEM
LAND Groote Eylandt
N CAPE
KIMBERLEY Mornington Island YORK
0 500 1000 km
AUSTRALIA
1 : Australia’s physical environments 11
While Aboriginal populations remained relatively low in central Australia,

Aboriginal people inhabited a wide range of physical environments all over the
continent at least 50 000 years ago. As well as being in central Australia, they were
located around the Australian coast, in the foothills of the Snowy Mountains and
close to the glacial areas of western and central Tasmania.
nomadic
Traditional lifestyle
moving from place to The Aboriginal people lived a nomadic life, moving systematically from place to
place without making a
permanent settlement place, hunting and gathering food according to where it was most plentiful. This
nomadic way of life helps to explain the
[1.18] The work of women and children provided a rich supply of food for longevity and stability of the Aboriginal
their group population. The movement of people
based on food supplies and the seasons
meant that they were never vulnerable
to the failure of one or two food crops.
Aboriginal people were skilled hunters
and knew the movements of birds and
animals in their area in great detail.
They knew where water could be
found – in tree trunks, waterholes or
underground springs.
The work of the women and children
guaranteed a rich supply of food [1.18].
They were responsible for gathering
edible roots, fruits, shellfish, grubs and
snakes. Fruits, nuts and roots provided at
least half of the Aboriginal diet because
these food supplies were the most
reliable.
Relationship with the land

The Aboriginal peoples of Australia have a unique relationship with the land. Their
view of the land is very different to that of other cultures. Because they relied on what
sustainable the land could provide for their livelihood, their use of the land was sustainable.
meeting current needs
without harming the They were the custodians, or guardians, of the land. Land was not a commodity to be
environment for future bought and sold; it was the property and responsibility of the group that inhabited it
generations
for the majority of the time.
Responsibility for conserving the land is passed down through generations of
the clan group. The people see themselves as part of the land, which, when used
sustainably, guarantees not only their survival but also the survival of future
generations.
The Dreaming
Aboriginal ties to their land, as well as other aspects of Aboriginal life, are bound up
in their beliefs based on the Dreaming, or Dreamtime.
This belief system helps explain the era of creation for Aboriginal people – that is,
the origin of the universe, the workings of nature, the patterns of kinship and family
life, and the cycle of life and death. Every Aboriginal tribe, or clan group, has an
ancestral being with supernatural powers. The ancestor is a living creature such as
a wallaby or lizard that the clan group believes has created the land, including the
hills, rivers, plants and animals, as well as their clan group. The energies of these
ancestral beings remain within the Earth along the Dreamtime tracks they followed.
The places where the ancestors stopped are the sacred sites.
Traditionally, Aboriginal people get their energy, or their purpose for living,
from these sacred sites, from the Dreaming tracks and from the land in between.
Ceremonies performed by the clan keep the Dreaming energies alive and pass on
knowledge about the connection between the custodians, the land and the Dreaming
to the next generations.
Once Aboriginal people lose their link with the land, they can no longer perform
their ceremonies. As a result, the energies are reduced and the life-force is lost along
with the identity of Aboriginal people. They become dispossessed.
[1.19] One of the Aboriginal beliefs about the origins of fire
Two brothers named Kanbi and Jitabidi lived in the sky. Their camp was near the
Southern Cross. At that time there was no other fire in the universe. Food was
getting scarce in the heavens and so Kanbi and Jitabidi came to Earth, bringing their
firesticks with them. They established their camp and laid their firesticks on the
ground while they went hunting.
The two brothers were away so long that the firesticks, becoming bored, began to
chase each other about in the grass and among the branches of the trees. This game
started a bushfire that burnt out a lot of the countryside. Seeing the smoke and
flames, the brothers returned to their camp and took their firesticks back up into
the sky.
Meanwhile a group of Aboriginal hunters saw the fire and felt its warmth. Realising
its value they took a blazing log back to camp from which many other fires were lit.
Now all Aboriginal people have the fire that once belonged to the men of the
Southern Cross.
[1.20] An Aboriginal man demonstrating traditional method Fire and water

of making fire
There are many Aboriginal beliefs about
the origin of fire. Some tribes believe that it
came from a burning mountain, others that
it originated in a lightning flash. For the
people who lived in the northwest coastal
regions of Australia, their fire came from
the sky [1.19].
Another myth – Tiddalik the floodmaker
– is about a big, thirsty frog who drank all
the water in the land. The kookaburra,
unsuccessfully, tried to make Tiddalik
laugh and spill the water. The eel did a
fancy dance that made Tiddalik burst out
laughing so that the water gushed from his
mouth to fill the swamps and rivers again.
Learning about …
1 How long have Aboriginal peoples occupied Australia? From where did they arrive?
2 Explain how Aboriginal peoples were able to make their way from Asia to Australia.
3 Refer to [1.17] and describe Greater Australia.
4 Describe the Aboriginal occupation of Australia 20 000 years ago.
5 Define the term ‘nomadic’ in your own words.
6 Explain why Aboriginal peoples have been able to survive for so long.
7 Outline the role played by women in ensuring the food supply.
8 Discuss the Aboriginal peoples’ view of the land. How does it differ from the European view?
9 Explain why the Dreaming is significant to Aboriginal peoples.
10 How have Aboriginal peoples been dispossessed? What are the implications of this for
Aboriginal peoples?
Learning to …
1 Refer to [1.17] and complete the following.
a Calculate the longest distance Aboriginal peoples might have travelled in their journey to
Australia.
b Name the islands from which Aboriginal peoples migrated. What nations are these islands
part of today?
2 Research the reasons for Aboriginal migration to Australia. Present your findings to the class.
3 Use the Internet to find a Dreaming story to explain the existence of a particular Australian
landform. Explain the significance of the story for Aboriginal people.
Geographical origins of Australia

Over 200 million years ago Australia was part of a great landmass known as Pangaea.
This ‘supercontinent’ split in two, making Laurasia (which later became Europe,
Asia and North America) and Gondwana, which consisted of Africa, Australia,
New Zealand, Antarctica and South America [1.21]. If you look at the shape of
the present-day continents of Africa and South America on a world map (with the
[1.21] Formation of Australian
Atlantic Ocean in between) you can see how they may once have fitted together.
landmass
Position at 160 million years ago Position at 45 million years ago Present
Australia
Meganesia Tasmantis
New
Zealand
Antarctica
The great southern landmass is known Gondwana split as a result of Much of the landmass of Meganesia and
as Gondwana—part of what is now 'Continental Drift'. Separation of Tasmantis (the area around New Zealand)
Australia was within the Antarctic circle the Australian continental plate was is now submerged beneath the sea
complete by approximately 40 million
years ago
Scientific studies have shown that the Earth’s crust has followed cycles of
‘supercontinent formation’, with continents joining and breaking up. This process is
continental drift known as continental drift.
a theory that explains
how landmasses broke Even today, the Earth’s crust is not stable. It is divided into plates, known as
up to form continents tectonic plates. They fit together like a jigsaw puzzle and each plate is named
tectonic plates relative to its geographical location [1.22]. Tectonic plates are always moving against
large moving areas of the
Earth’s surface each other, sometimes with dramatic effect. Volcanoes and earthquakes are the
result of the sudden movement of tectonic plates [1.23 and 1.24]; however, most of
the changes in the Earth’s surface are very slow, taking millions of years.
Another important factor that affected the Australian continent over time was
climate change. Australia’s climate has not always been the same. In fact, over
millions of years the climate has undergone dramatic changes. There have been a
number of ice ages, when the world’s climates became considerably colder. Long ago,
Australia’s climate was warmer and wetter than it is today. The sea covered large
areas of the continent, as indicated by seashells and marine fossils found in inland
areas. Palm Valley, in the arid centre of Australia, is currently fed by an underground
river system, but it does give an indication of how central Australia might have
looked millions of years ago [1.25].
[1.22] Tectonic plates

TECTONIC FORCES
ARCTIC OCEAN
Arctic Circle
Eurasian Plate
Okhotsk
ASIA
Plate
EUROPE
Amur Plate
Juan De Fuca Plate
NORTH
AT L A N T I C
AMERICA
North American Plate OCEAN
PACIFIC OCEAN
Tropic of Cancer
Arabian Philippine
AFRICA Plate Plate Caribbean
Indo–Chinese Plate
African Plate Plate Pacific Plate
Cocos
Plate
Equator
Somali Plate INDIAN

SOUTH
OCEAN AMERICA
Nazca Plate
Indo–Australian
Tropic of Capricorn Plate South American
AU S T R A L I A Plate
Converging plate boundary Volcano

SOUTHERN OCEAN Antarctic Plate
Diverging plate boundary Earthquake zone
N
Uncertain plate boundary Tsunami
0 2000 4000 km
Movement of plate Major earthquake
Modified Times Projection
[1.23] Molten lava erupting from a volcano [1.24] The 1989 earthquake caused loss of life and serious
damage in the Newcastle area
[1.25] Palm Valley in Central

Australia – the palm tree
oasis gives an indication of
how inland Australia would
once have looked
Learning about …
1 Describe the origins of Australia from a geographical perspective.
2 Explain the process of ‘continental drift’. How did it apply to Australia?
3 Explain the meaning of ‘tectonic plates’. What effects do their movements have?
4 How has climate change affected the Australian continent? What evidence is there of this?
5 Examine [1.25]. Describe the main features and how they illustrate how central Australia might
once have looked.
Learning to …
1 Use the Internet to research more information on Australia’s geographical origins. Write a
report on the results of your research. Make a list of the most useful websites.
2 Working in groups, use an outline map of the world and cut out the continents. Try to fit them
together to prove (or disprove) the theory of continental drift. Discuss the accuracy of your
findings.
Australia: a unique country

We already know that Australia is a continent, an island and a country. In this
respect it is unique in the world. But Australia is also a unique country in other
ways. It is unique in the sense that it:
✪ has a relatively stable landmass with distinctive landforms
✪ has a variety of climatic types and weather patterns
✪ has distinctive flora and fauna
✪ is rich in natural resources.
Major landforms and drainage basins

Australia is a geologically old and stable country. Earthquakes and volcanic
volcanoes eruptions are rare, although remnants of ancient volcanoes do exist. The land
mountains formed by
successive layers of surface has been worn down by erosion over a very long period of time. By world
molten rock or magma standards, Australia is a relatively low, flat country with no significant mountain
that has erupted from
within the Earth’s crust ranges. Large areas of plains and plateaus cover the greater proportion of the
Australian land surface [1.26].
[1.26] Plains and plateaus

cover vast areas of Australia
Ten deserts make up nearly

20 per cent of Australia and
contribute to it being the
second driest continent in
the world.
S k i ll s Identifying bearings on a map

Bearings are used, along with the points of the compass, to give the direction
of one place from another. A bearing is usually expressed in degrees from
north, in a clockwise direction. Bearings can range from 0° (north), through
180° (south) to 360° (north).
[1.27] Calculating bearings on a map
To calculate the bearing of point B from point A
N=0
B
B B 57o
PROTRACTOR
A
A A
Draw a line from point A Draw a vertical line through Use a protractor to measure
to point B point A the angle. Work clockwise from
north to point B. Bearing is 57o
0129
For convenience, Australia can be divided into four main landform regions as
shown in [1.29]:
✪ Eastern Highlands
✪ South Australian Highlands
✪ Central Lowlands
✪ Western Plateau.
[1.28] Darling River in NSW

Australia’s major landform regions

South Australian Highlands
[1.29] Australia’s major landform regions • a series of low ranges formed by
faulting – where cracks or fault lines
and subsequent movements have
Gulf of
formed block mountains and rift
Kimberl
Carpentaria
valleys [1.31]
Region
ey N
• the Mount Lofty Ranges and the
Flinders Ranges [1.30] were formed
by this process. Spencer Gulf and
Gulf of St Vincent (where Adelaide is
MacDonnell
located) are now drowned rift valleys.
Murray–Darling
Great Australian Basin
Bight
[1.30] Flinders Ranges in South Australia
The Western Plateau

• arid heart of the continent above the plateau surface; Uluru (Ayers Rock) and Kata-Tjuta
• covers approximately 70 per cent of Australia (the Olgas) also stand out above the surrounding land
• vast area of land that has been uplifted and then worn down • in the west are the Hamersley and Carnarvon ranges, and in
by the forces of erosion over a long period of time the northwest is the Kimberleys [1.33] – a rugged, dissected
• much of the land surface is occupied by sandy deserts, stony plateau into whose surface rivers have cut deeply
deserts and treeless plains such as the Nullarbor in the south • most of the area is very arid and contains Australia’s largest
• in the centre, several low mountain ranges, such as the deserts – the Great Victoria, Little Sandy, Gibson, Great Sandy
Macdonnell Ranges [1.32] and the Musgrave Ranges, rise and Tanami.
[1.32] Central Australia – Macdonnell Ranges [1.33] Plateau landscape of the Kimberleys in Western Australia
[1.31] Processes that have shaped Australia
Fold mountains
block mountains
mountains formed by
rata
k st Anticline
upward movement along
Pressure Roc ers) fault lines or cracks in the
(lay Syncline Earth’s crust
rift valleys
Block mountain depressions surrounded
Block mountains on each side by fault
Rift valley
lines and block mountains
Fault lines
Lava Crater
Volcanoes Neck
Rim
Ash
Magma
(molten rock)
Central Lowlands [1.34] Artesian water

• extend from the Gulf of Carpentaria in the north to the High rainfall area Low rainfall area
Great Australian Bight in the south
Natural Artesian bore-water
• occupy one quarter of the continental landmass springwater pumped from
bubbles to underground
• extremely flat, low-lying plains of sedimentary rock, large surface porous rock
Porous
deserts and salt pans rock
• average height is less than 200 metres Oasis
• vast reservoirs of underground water of varying depths
in the porous rock beneath the surface (artesian basins
Non-porous rock
– the artesian water contained in them can be pumped
out by drilling a bore [1.34]).
• divided into three parts, based on the drainage systems: 0127
– to the north, the Carpentaria Basin is drained by the
Mitchell, Gilbert, Norman, Flinders and Leichhardt Eastern Highlands
rivers • fold mountains (formed by folding) fold mountains
– the Lake Eyre Basin in the dry centre is an inland mountains formed by
• extend from Cape York Peninsula in lateral pressure on the
basin, with the Diamantina, Georgina, Barcoo rivers and northern Queensland to Tasmania in Earth’s crust causing rock
Cooper Creek draining into a large salt lake known as strata to fold
the south
Lake Eyre (huge area of salt-encrusted land; often dry • cover 10 per cent of the continent
and occasionally filled with water, depending on rainfall • series of ranges of varying heights
in the catchment area of these rivers)
• examples are the Blue Mountains
– to the south lies the Murray–Darling Basin, in which and the Snowy Mountains, which are
the great Murray River and the Darling River join to flow the highest ranges, rising over 2000
into the Great Australian Bight. The Darling River [1.28], metres above sea level
the longest in Australia at over 3750 kilometres, is
• Mt Kosciuszko, Australia’s highest peak
sometimes a chain of waterholes in the dry season.
is 2228 metres – not high by world
The Murray River is fed by the snowfields to the east
standards.
and therefore provides a more reliable water supply.
Learning about …
1 What factors make Australia a unique country?
2 Name the four main landform regions of Australia.
3 Name Australia’s highest mountain. What is its height above sea level?
4 Which Australian mountains are fold mountains and which were formed by faulting?
5 What is artesian water? How is it formed and how can it be used?
6 Name the three drainage systems of the Central Lowlands. Which of these systems is an inland
system? What does this mean?
7 How were the Flinders Ranges formed?
8 Refer to [1.31] and describe the processes that have shaped Australia.
Learning to …
1 Working in groups, using the library or the Internet research one of the following. Each group
could present its findings to the class and write a report on their research.
a the Glasshouse Mountains d Lake Eyre
b Wilpena Pound e the Kimberley.
c the Murray River
2 As a class, discuss the statement ‘Australia’s landforms are unique’.
3 In groups of two or three, select one of the photographs in this chapter. Describe the features of
the photograph and consider how it typifies Australia’s physical features.
4 Make a line drawing of your chosen photograph.
5 In groups, construct a map of Australia (to scale) showing the four main landform regions.
Annotate the map with keywords describing the characteristics of each region.
S k i ll s Calculating local relief

Local relief is the difference in height over a relatively small area. To calculate
local relief, find the highest and the lowest points in the given area and work
out the difference in height between them. Use the contour interval on the
map. In the topographic map extract of Omeo [1.38], the local relief is:
✪ highest point – 1950 metres
✪ lowest point – 1300 metres
✪ local relief – 650 metres.
S k i ll s Constructing a cross-section
A cross-section is a useful way of showing the shape of the land from a side
view. It has a starting point and a finishing point and shows the shape and
slope of the land as if you travelled from one point to the other. Cross-sections
are drawn from maps, usually topographic maps, and provide a more visual
interpretation of the contour pattern as shown in [1.35].
A cross-section should include a
✪ heading
✪ vertical scale – this shows the height in metres above sea level
✪ horizontal scale – like the scale of a map, this shows the relationship
between distances on the cross-section and distances on the ground
✪ vertical exaggeration (VE) – the vertical scale needs to be exaggerated
relative to the horizontal scale to make the landform features stand out
more clearly. The ratio between the vertical scale and the horizontal scale
is the vertical exaggeration.
[1.35] How to draw a cross-section
100
100
200
200
300
300 400
400
A 100 200 300 400 400 300 300 400 400 300 200 100 B Straight
edge
pat
ur ter
n
nto
Co
400
300
Metres
200
100
A 100 200 300 400 400 300 300 400 400 300 200 100 B
S k i ll s Calculating the gradient of a slope

The gradient of a slope is simply a measure of its steepness. Gradient signs
can often be seen on mountain roads and are generally expressed ‘gradient
1:10’ (which means a vertical drop of one unit for every ten horizontal units).
Some road signs have a visual representation with a triangular diagram with
the gradient. In practical terms, a gradient of 1:10 means that you drop 100
metres for every 1000 metres you travel.
Gradient can be calculated on a map by identifying two points and
measuring the vertical drop between them and their distance apart. A simple
formula can be used:
gradient = vertical distance (drop)
horizontal distance (length)
= 60 metres
2400 metres
= 1
40
= 1:40 or (1 in 40)
Note that the calculation must be in the same unit of measurement: for
example, in metres.
Skills activities
1 Refer to [1.37].
a Give the bearing of Mt Cook from Omeo town centre.
b Give the bearing of Mt Livingstone from Omeo town centre.
c What is the bearing of the centre of Omeo from Mt Livingstone?
d Give the grid references for Mt Livingstone.
e Give the area reference for Mt Cook.
f Name the feature located at grid reference 502991.
g Name the natural feature at area reference 5301.
h Describe the settlement pattern in the map area. What is the largest
settlement? What factors do you think have influenced the settlement
pattern?
i What appears to be the main form of transport in the area? How can
you tell? What transport problems do you think are evident in the
map area?
j Draw a cross-section from Mt Livingstone to GR500952.
2 Examine the key to the topographic map [1.36]. This is a common form of
key that accompanies many of the topographic maps drawn in Australia.
a How many features on the key can you identify on the map?
b Explain why all the features are not on the map.
3 Write a paragraph stating the advantages topographic maps have over
other types of maps for geographical inquiry.
4 Calculate the gradient of the slope from Mt Cook, west to the Omeo
Highway.
5 Calculate the gradient of the slope from Mt Livingstone, due east to the
Livingstone River. Which gradient is the steepest?
[1.36] Key to topographic map

[1.37] Topographic map of Omeo at 1:100 000. Contour interval is 40 metres.

Australia’s climate
climate The climate of an area is the average atmospheric conditions over a period of 30
the average conditions
of the atmosphere for years or more for that particular location. Climate is concerned with seasonal
a particular area of the changes that occur from summer to winter and changes that occur over longer
Earth over a long period
periods of time. Weather (discussed later) is the day-to-day condition of the
weather
the day-to-day condition atmosphere. It involves such elements as temperature, precipitation, humidity, wind
of the atmosphere at a direction and speed, and air pressure.
particular location
Because of its size, Australia has a diverse range of climate zones [1.38]. However,
the most significant feature is its dryness. Rainfall in Australia is not only low but
also very unreliable [1.40]. About two-thirds of Australia’s land surface is classed
Australia is relatively arid, as desert or semi-desert. Large areas of the inland have an average of less than 250
with 80 per cent of the land millimetres of rainfall a year [1.39].
having a rainfall less than Northern Australia lies in the tropics and has warm to hot temperatures
600 millimetres per year and throughout the year. Southern Australia has much cooler temperatures, especially
50 per cent having even less
in Tasmania and in the Snowy Mountains. Summer and winter variations in climate
than 300 millimetres.
are the result of the way pressure systems operate. In summer, northern Australia
receives heavy rainfall, mainly in the
[1.38] Australia’s climatic zones
form of thunderstorm activity from low
nt pressure systems. Southern Australia
rre
Cu
to
ria
l is generally dry with mild to warm
ua Darwin
th Eq temperatures. In winter, northern
Sou
Australia experiences fine, sunny
nt and warm conditions while southern
rr e
Cu
Australia has cool, wet winters with

n
wiu
light misty rain. Eastern Australia

Lee
n is generally wetter all year than the

Capricor
Tropic of Alice Springs western part of the continent, which
is influenced by stable high pressure
Brisbane
systems [1.39].
rent
Perth Sydney
Cur
Adelaide Canberra
tralian Current
an
ali
Melbourne According to the Australian

str
Au
Bureau of Meteorology’s
Aus
East
2007 Climate Statement,

st
Antarctic Circumpolar Cu
We
rrent Australia has now recorded

Hobart
a warmer-than-average year
for 16 of the past 18 years.
Tropical wet: Hot and
wet all year
Tropical wet or dry: Hot with

distinct wet and dry seasons
Humid subtropical: Hot or warm,

wet summer, mild winter
Tropical or mid-latitude semi-arid: Hot and dry

or cool and dry, usually with a distinct rainy season
Tropical or mid-latitude arid: Hot and very

dry or cool and very dry all year
Mediterranean: Hot or warm, Ocean currents N

dry summer, mild wet winter
Warm 0 500 1000 km
Maritime: Warm summer,
cool winter, wet all year Cold 1 : 45 000 000
[1.39] Australia’s average annual rainfall [1.40] Australia’s variability of rainfall

Average annual rainfall, mm Generalised winds Percentage variation from
average annual rainfall
Over 1600 January winds
July winds Over 60
1200 to 1600
50 to 60
800 to 1200
40 to 50
400 to 800 Darwin Darwin
30 to 40
200 to 400
20 to 30
Under 200
Under 20
n n
Capricor Capricor
Tropic of Alice Springs Tropic of Alice Springs
Brisbane Brisbane
Perth Sydney Perth Sydney

Adelaide Adelaide
Canberra Canberra
Melbourne Melbourne
N N
0 500 1000 km 0 500 1000 km
1 : 45 000 000 Hobart 1 : 45 000 000 Hobart
Learning about …
1 Why does Australia have a variety of climatic types?
2 How would you describe Australia’s rainfall?
3 How is northern Australia’s climate different from that of southern Australia? (Mention both
temperature and rainfall in your answer.)
4 Study the three maps [1.38], [1.39] and [1.40].
a Describe briefly the climate for:
i Darwin iv Hobart
ii Sydney v Alice Springs
iii Adelaide vi Brisbane.
b In which season would Melbourne normally receive most rain?
c In which season would Cairns normally receive most rain?
d What is meant by rainfall variability? Why is it useful in describing climate?
e Which areas of Australia experience the greatest variability of rainfall? Suggest possible
reasons for this.
Learning to …
1 Working in groups, prepare a collage of photographs depicting Australia’s variable climatic types.
2 As a class, build up a mind map using the theme ‘Australia’s climate’.
3 Visit the Internet website for the Bureau of Meteorology at www.bom.gov.au. Describe the range
of information provided by this site. Check the page links.
synoptic data
weather observations
and measurements
Australia’s weather patterns
such as maximum and Australia has a distinctive weather pattern, influenced by seasonal changes from
minimum temperatures, summer to winter and dependent on latitude, altitude and ocean influences. Weather
air pressure, rainfall,
winds, cloud cover maps are the main tool for examining day-to-day weather patterns.
synoptic chart
a weather map providing
a range of weather data
Weather maps
collected from weather The best-known weather map is the mean sea-level analysis, compiled from
observation stations
around the country hundreds of weather observations – synoptic data – taken simultaneously around
[1.41] Typical weather map the country. It is seen daily on television
and in the newspapers. A weather
map cannot show all of the features
associated with our weather. For
example, it does not always show the
conditions in the upper atmosphere. It
is a fairly simple representation of past
and probable future locations of surface
weather systems such as highs, lows and
fronts. A weather map or synoptic chart,
however, is still a useful guide to the
weather [1.41]. The main features of a
weather map are shown in [1.43].
High and low pressure systems

Air moves away from areas of high
pressure and towards areas of low
pressure. This movement of air is called
wind and is the result of the differences
in pressure that occur across the Earth’s
surface at any time [1.42].
[1.42] Pressure systems
a Side view
High pressure system Low pressure system

Moist air cools,
condenses into cloud
Cold, dry Rain may fall
descending air
Rising air
Direction of wind
b As viewed from above

Southern hemisphere location
Isobars Isobars
10 10
10 10 10 16
12 14
10 10
14 12
H L
Wind direction
0141
[1.43] Interpreting features on a weather map
Feature Symbol Definition and associated weather

Isobar 1024 Isobars are lines of equal atmospheric pressure. Air pressure is generally
1026 measured in hectopascals (it can also be measured in millibars so you should
H check the key on the weather map). Air pressure is also known as atmospheric
or barometric pressure and is the weight of air pressing down on the
Earth’s surface.
Low pressure system Low pressure systems form when warm air rises. Low pressure systems can
be identified when isobars get lower towards the centre of the pressure system.
L Associated weather includes cloudy, unsettled weather, relatively strong winds
1004 and rain.
1006
Tropical cyclone A tropical cyclone is an intense low and can be identified when isobars are very
close together. Associated weather includes very heavy rainfall, very strong
winds and high tides. Tropical cyclones on satellite images are shown as circular
996
998
swirling bands of cloud.
1000
High pressure system High pressure systems are areas of stable atmospheric conditions. Air pressure
increases towards the centre of the pressure system. Associated weather
H includes clear skies, gentle winds and little chance of rain.
1026
1024
Cold front A cold front is the boundary where cold air moves to replace, and undercut,
cold air behind warmer and less dense air. Cold fronts are most frequent over southern
warmer air Australia. As a cold front approaches a region, winds freshen from the north or
in front
northwest, pressure falls and rain may occur. Fronts tend to take 3 to 5 days to
direction moving cross the continent.
Warm front Warm fronts are not common in Australia and are usually found in high latitudes
warm air behind
such as the Southern Ocean. Warm fronts progressively displace cool air with
colder air
warmer air. Associated weather is a rise in temperature, broad layers of cloud
in front
and a chance of long periods of rain.
direction moving
Calm Calm conditions on a weather map are indicated by a coloured-in circle.
Rain in previous 24 hrs Rainfall is shown by shaded areas on a weather map indicating that there has
been rain in the previous 24 hours.
Wind speed Wind speed is proportional to the distance between the isobars – the closer
the lines, the stronger the winds. Wind speed is often shown in the key of the
weather map and is indicated by the number of barbs on the weather vane.
Wind direction a) Winds are named after the direction from which they are blowing. If the wind is
wind coming from east
b)
blowing from the southwest, it is called a ‘southwest wind’ or a ‘southwesterly’.
[1.44] shows how to predict wind direction from pressure systems in the
wind coming from south southern hemisphere.
Warm or cold? To predict the temperature of an area on a weather map you should consider:
• the season (look at the date on the map)
• the extent of the cloud cover
• that winds blowing from the north often bring warmer weather
• that winds blowing from the south often bring cooler weather.
[1.44] Predicting wind direction from pressure systems The Earth is spinning on its axis, so winds do not blow in
in the southern hemisphere a straight line between an anti-cyclone (high pressure) and
a depression (low pressure). In the southern hemisphere,
E the Earth’s rotation causes air to flow clockwise around low
pressure systems and slightly inwards, and anticlockwise
A
around high pressure systems and slightly outwards. The
opposite applies in the northern hemisphere.
The weather normally associated with a high pressure
H L system is light winds, dry air, clear skies, hot days and
D cool nights in the summer; mild days and cold nights in
C
the winter. The weather normally associated with a low
B F pressure system is strong winds, cloudy skies, rain and mild
G temperatures.
H Remembering that air flows clockwise around low
pressure systems and anticlockwise around high pressure
The wind direction at systems in the Southern Hemisphere, a fairly typical
A = northerly D = northerly summer weather map is shown in [1.45] and a typical
B = westerly E = southwesterly
winter map is shown in [1.46].
C = southerly F = easterly
Typical summer weather map
[1.45] Typical summer weather map Australia’s summer weather maps are often characterised by
low pressure systems in the north, high pressure systems in
the south and cold fronts that extend up from the far south
towards the high pressure systems.
Typical winter weather map

Australia’s winter weather maps are often characterised by
subtropical high pressure systems over mainland Australia,
sub-polar low pressure systems and cold fronts to the south
of Australia.
[1.47] Storm front approaching Sydney Harbour and the Opera House
[1.46] Typical winter weather map

S k i ll s Interpreting a series of weather maps

Weather patterns and trends can be observed from a series of weather maps
over several consecutive days, as in [1.48 and 1.49]. Here are some handy
hints.
✪ Examine the first weather map in the series. Identify:
— where the highs and lows are
— how close the isobars are together (an indication of wind speed)
— the direction of the wind
— the presence or absence of rain.
✪ Look at the second map to see:
— where the pressure systems are centred, and how and where they have
moved (remember that pressure systems in Australia generally move
from west to east)
— whether the pressure systems have intensified or not (whether the
isobars are closer together or wider apart)
— changes in wind direction
— changes in the pattern of rain.
✪ Examine the remaining weather maps and continue systematically
looking for changes. Check any finer details shown on the maps for clues.
Use the key to assist.
✪ Forecast the weather for the next day. By closely studying what has
happened over a number of days you should be able to predict what
is likely to happen next. Forecasting the weather is not always easy.
However, it is worth a try as it tests your knowledge. You may well get it
right!
Skills activity
Examine the five maps in [1.48 and 1.49]. These track the movement of a
tropical cyclone called ‘Ophelia’ off the northwest coast of Western Australia
in early March 2008.
1 What changes can you identify in relation to the movement of Ophelia
from Tuesday 4 March to Friday 7 March?
2 What do you think
[1.48] The path of Cyclone Ophelia 2–6 March 2008
happened over the
next few days? Why? Sun, 0900
2
Mon, 0900
3 Comment on the 2
chance of rain in 2 Broome
northern Australia.
Tue, 0900
4 Comment on the 2 Wallal
Wed, 0900
movement of the 1 Port Hedland
high pressure system Wed, 2100 Dampier
influencing the south
Exmouth
of Australia from 4
March to 7 March.
Carnarvon
[1.49] Four weather maps of Australia, 4 March to 7 March 2008

4 March 5 March
Rain chance
Low High
TC Ophelia
982 L
L 1005
2
1006
TC Ophelia
L L
10066 1005
H
1021
L
H L
1006 H
1026 1005
1027
6 March 7 March
Rain chance L Rain chance

1009
Low High Low High
TC Ophelia
L
1009 L L
1003 1010
L L
1009 1009
L
H 1010 H
H 1027 1025
L H
1024
1005 1027
Weather satellite images

Weather forecasters often use satellite images of Earth taken from space. They do not
show as much detail as standard weather maps. However, they are useful in allowing
forecasters to interpret cloud patterns and identify weather systems on a continuous
basis so that subtle changes can be observed.
These subtle changes then enable weather forecasters to analyse the current
sequence of events and possibly activate early warning signs of potentially disruptive
weather. Local residents can then be warned of any precautions that need to be
taken.
Examples of patterns that can be identified are:
✪ fronts – shown by narrow bands of dense clouds
✪ depressions – shown by a circular swirled pattern of clouds
✪ anti-cyclones – an area with generally clear skies.
[1.50] (A) Satellite image and (B) synoptic chart for 4 March 2008, showing Ophelia off the northwest coast of Australia
TC Ophelia
982 L
2 1006
L
1006
H
1021
L
H 1006
1026
Learning about …
The coastline near Whim 1 What is synoptic data? Give examples.
Creek in Western Australia 2 What is a synoptic chart?
holds a weather record – the 3 What do isobars measure?
most extreme variability of
rain on Earth. A massive
4 Study [1.41 and 1.43] to answer the following questions.
747 mm in twenty-four hours a Name the feature approaching Melbourne.
was recorded on 3 April 1898 b What weather is usually associated with this feature?
as a cyclone passed nearby. c Name the feature influencing Darwin’s weather.
Yet in 1924, Whim Creek d What weather is usually associated with this feature?
recorded just 4 mm of rain
in the whole year – one of e What unit is used to measure the isobars on the map?
the lowest annual totals ever f What is the highest air pressure shown on the map?
recorded in the world. g Describe the weather that Perth experienced on that day.
h Name two areas that received rainfall in the past 24 hours.
i State the wind speed and direction at
• Cairns
• Port Hedland.
j Refer to the pressure system influencing Hobart’s weather and estimate
the direction the wind is blowing.
k Name two places experiencing calm weather.
l Is this map typical of a summer or winter Australian weather map?
Explain.
5 What is a satellite image?
6 List three patterns that can usually be identified on a satellite image.
7 Refer to [1.50]. Describe how the following features appear on the satellite
image:
a tropical cyclone Ophelia
b the cold front to the southwest of Australia
c the high pressure system south of Australia.
8 Refer to [1.44]. What is the wind direction at G and H?
Learning to …
1 Working in groups, collect a different series of Australian weather maps over four
consecutive days.
✪ Each group gives the first three maps to another group and asks them to predict the
weather for the fourth day and to draw a likely synoptic chart.
✪ Once finished, each group checks the actual weather map for the fourth day to see
how accurate the group’s weather forecasting was.
✪ You could make this into a competition by awarding points for the degree of accuracy
in forecasting.
2 Look up the following Internet websites and write a brief comment about how useful each
website is in learning about the weather in Australia:
a Bureau of Meteorology at www.bom.gov.au
b Learn About Meteorology at www.bom.gov.au/info
c Australian Severe Weather Association at www.severeweather.asn.au.
3 Record the weather report for a given day from at least two television channels. Working
in groups, analyse the similarities and differences between the two reports.
a Which channel provided the most detailed information?
b Which channel had the clearest graphical presentation?
4 Working in groups, design your own television weather report. You can record it and show
it to the rest of the class. Class members could then make constructive comments on your
presentation.
[1.51]
Australia’s flora and fauna

flora
native vegetation Flora
fauna Because of its isolation, Australia has developed a unique variety of flora and fauna.
native animal life Forests are mainly found along the eastern border of the continent. Rainforests are
sclerophyll forests found in coastal pockets along the east coast of northern Australia where hot, wet
forests that have adapted
to harsh, dry conditions conditions favour growth. To the south are the temperate forests, sometimes referred
savannas to as sclerophyll forests [1.52]. They consist of woody shrubs and trees that have
tropical grasslands found developed various ways of withstanding harsh, dry conditions.
between the rainforests
and deserts Most of the trees are eucalypts or gum trees, with names such as stringybark,
spotted gum, scribbly gum, ironbark and
[1.52] Dry sclerophyll forest, Blue Mountains NSW
bloodwood. The giant karri trees of Western
Australia are also eucalypts. Tropical grasslands
or savannas are found in northern Australia.
Where the rainfall is high, the grasses are tall and
coarse with scattered trees (savanna woodland).
Examples of this vegetation are found in Kakadu
and Arnhem Land. Further south, the trees become
less frequent and the grasses shorter, eventually
giving way to desert.
Australia’s low and unreliable rainfall has
resulted in large areas of the continent being
desert or semi-desert. Low shrubs such as saltbush
[1.53] The kangaroo is a marsupial native to Australia and spiky grasses such as spinifex survive the
harsh conditions.
Fauna
Australia is known throughout the world for its
unique and fascinating mix of native fauna – the
result of the continent’s long period of isolation.
The two unusual groups of animals that survived
in Australia are the marsupials – the kangaroo
[1.53], wallaby, koala [1.54], wombat, possum and
quokka – and the monotremes – the echidna or
spiny anteater and the platypus. These animals are
well recognised as symbols of Australia’s wildlife.
Other unique fauna include the dingo,
Australia’s native dog [1.55]; the emu, a large,
flightless bird; the kookaburra [1.56], noted for
its unique laughing call; and the goanna, a large
reptile. There are many other examples of animal,
bird, insect and marine life in Australia.
Animals not native to Australia but which
have been introduced include the rabbit, fox, cat,
marsupials pig, goat, camel, donkey, water buffalo, horse and cane toad [1.57]. Many of these
animals that raise their
young inside a pouch animals have caused problems by killing other animals, carrying disease, eating
monotremes
native vegetation or breeding in large numbers.
animals that lay eggs yet
raise their young on the
mother’s milk
[1.54] The koala, a native of Australia [1.55] The dingo, Australia’s native dog
[1.56] The kookaburra [1.57] The cane toad is an introduced species to Australia
Learning about …
1 Why has Australia developed a unique variety of flora and fauna?
2 Explain how natural vegetation is affected by climate. Refer to specific parts of Australia.
3 What are tropical savannas? What variations could you expect to see in Australia’s savannas?
4 Describe the specific characteristics of Australia’s desert vegetation.
5 Explain, using examples, what these types of animals are:
a marsupials
b monotremes.
6 Make a list of some of Australia’s best-known fauna. Beside each one, write a brief description of
its distinctive features.
7 Make a list of some of the animals that have been introduced into Australia. Beside each one
mention what problems they have caused.
Learning to …
1 Working in groups, research one or more of the following animals. Consider the different
species, their habitat, their food and specific or unique characteristics. Present your findings
to the rest of the class.
a kangaroo e platypus
b koala f echidna
c emu g Any other native animal of your choice.
d quokka
2 Working in groups, prepare a collage of Australian flora and/or fauna.
3 As a class, discuss how Australia has suffered from introduced animals.
S k i ll s Understanding satellite images

Satellite images result from the observation of part of the Earth’s surface from
a distance (by remote sensing). Satellite images are not photographs. There
is no camera and no film. From hundreds of kilometres into space, satellite
sensors scan the Earth, reacting to electromagnetic radiation. The data is
converted into digital form and then transmitted to ground stations where it
is processed into satellite images.
Computers are able to manipulate the data by assigning particular colours
to the various wavelength bands to produce a colour image. This image can
then be further manipulated to highlight particular features. The colours on a
satellite image are ‘false colours’ and do not necessarily correspond with the
colours you would see in an aerial photograph. It is therefore important to be
able to interpret the colours on a satellite image. [1.59] is a guide only as the
colours can be altered to suit a particular purpose.
Satellite imagery is now widely used for a variety of purposes. It can
be used to pinpoint the location and extent of bushfires and disease in
vegetation. Satellite images are also useful in mineral exploration, land
management, pollution control, agricultural and forestry research, urban
planning and tourism.
Skills activities
1 What is a satellite image? How is it different from an aerial photograph?
2 What is meant by the term ‘false colours’ on a satellite image?
3 What are some purposes for which satellite images are used?
4 Study the satellite image of the Southern Highlands [1.58]:
a What colour shows urban areas? Describe the location of two urban
areas.
b Look at the south-east corner of the image. How does the vegetation
change as you travel inland?
c What colour is Lake George? How is the colour different from Lake
Burragorang and what does this indicate?
d Describe the landscape to the north of Canberra. How is it different
from the landscape to the south-west of Lake Illawarra?
[1.58] Satellite image of Southern Highlands of NSW
Warragamba
Blue Dam
Mountains
Lake
National
Burragorang
Park
Lake Illawarra
Goulburn
Lake George
page 9 - Satellite
Canberra
© Commonwealth of Australia – ACRES Geoscience Australia
Unlike standard aerial photos, satellite images provide a digital, high-

resolution measurement of the earth’s radiation. Data gathered by
scanning systems aboard satellites is transmitted to ground stations Satellite in orbit
and processed into images that reveal a variety of information. around earth
Satellites
Since LANDSAT 1 was launched in 1972, there have been many
satellites gathering valuable data for use in locating mineral Satellite-to-satellite
resources, analysing crop growth, monitoring environmental communications
deterioration and planning land development projects. LANDSAT
5 was launched in the USA in 1984 and the French SPOT
satellites were launched in 1986 and 1990. Other satellites Sensors scan earth’s
currently providing data include NOAA (National Oceanic surface and data is
and Atmospheric Administration) launched by the USA, and transmitted to ground
JERS (Japanese Earth Resources Satellite). In December 2002 stations where it is
digitally recorded
Australia launched FEDSAT – its first satellite in 35 years – from
a Japanese launching station.
Images
Satellite imagery can highlight features smaller than a suburban
house, or cover a continent. As the satellite passes above the
earth at 700 kilometres, an electronic sensor scans back and forth Cairns
across a 185-km2 area. The sensors have no film but are sensitive
to light intensity in four different wavelengths: green, red, and two
infrared bands. The data is transmitted by radio signal to earth where it
can be turned into a colour image.
Colours
The colours assigned to the various bands can be manipulated to highlight specific
features. Early images showed healthy vegetation as vivid red (from infrared energy), but
with new computer technology, vegetation can now be shown in various shades of green. Water is generally shown as dark
blue or black, unvegetated areas are generally yellow or white and urban areas pink, white or light blue.
Computer technology can further manipulate satellite images by digitally enhancing the topography to create a digital terrain
model (DTM). Satellite imagery is used in a wide variety of applications, such as land management, agriculture, forestry, fisheries,
mineral exploration, environmental management, urban planning, tourism and defence.
[1.59] Satellite image colour guide

Colour Ground surface
White – maximum reflection Sandy surface – beaches, sand dunes, sandy desert
of light rays Dry salt lake beds
Yellow Ploughed fields, areas with sparse vegetation
Brown Sparse woodland vegetation, semi-arid country
Pink to mauve Cropland and improved pastures, grassland, suburban parkland, lawns
Red Healthy vegetation – more vigorous, intense growth (in older satellite images)
Note: Healthy vegetation can be digitally altered by computer to make it show up as dark green (see below)
Green Dark green indicates thick, healthy forest
Light green indicates lightly forested land or scrub (colour-corrected)
Light blue to purple and grey Urban areas, concrete, buildings, roads, housing
Dark blue to black – maximum Deep water, oceans, large rivers, lakes (the darker the blue, the deeper the water)
absorption of light rays
Australia’s natural resources

natural resources Natural resources are elements of the physical environment that can be used to satisfy
any part of the natural
environment that can be human needs and wants. They include mineral and energy resources such as gold,
used by humans silver, copper, coal, oil and uranium, but they also include other elements, such as soil,
fresh water, forests and fishing grounds.
Mineral and energy resources

Australia is richly endowed with a variety of both mineral and energy resources [1.60].
The discovery of gold in the 1850s brought prosperity and an influx of immigrants to
non-renewable Australia. More recent mineral discoveries, however, especially in the 1960s, 1970s
a natural resource that
cannot be used again and 1980s, have enhanced Australia’s reputation as a major world exporter of minerals
and energy products. Coal and
[1.60] Australia’s major mineral resources iron ore are exported, mainly
to Japan, in large quantities,
especially from the iron-ore-
rich Pilbara district in Western
N
Australia. Other minerals
found in significant quantities
include bauxite, copper,
nickel, uranium, lead, zinc
and, more recently, diamonds.
While Australia has significant
deposits of oil and natural gas,
large quantities are required
to produce petrol for motor
vehicles. Consequently, Australia
still imports a high percentage
of its oil needs. Because these
resources are non-renewable,
there is now more focus on
developing renewable resources
such as solar and wind power.
[1.61] Aerial view of Ranger uranium mine and plant in Kakadu, Northern Territory
Great Divide
(also known as the
Eastern Highlands)
an area extending from
Cape York Peninsula in
northern Queensland
to Tasmania in the
south; once referred to
as the ‘Great Dividing
Range’ because it
acted as a barrier to
western expansion
and settlement, it is, by
today’s standards, neither
‘great’ nor ‘dividing’ or,
indeed, a ‘range’ – it really
is a series of ranges of
varying heights
land degradation
the process whereby
land is gradually being
damaged
[1.62] Soil erosion in Australia

Soil
Soil is an important natural resource
as it is essential to Australia’s
agricultural output. Generally
speaking, Australia has shallow soils
Darwin
with low fertility. This is the result
of climatic factors, especially the
highly variable, seasonal rainfall.
Australia’s best soils are found on
river floodplains, and on the slopes
Alice Springs
and plains west of the Great Divide
where grasslands and woodlands
once existed. Today these black soil
Brisbane
and red-brown soil areas have been
put to agricultural use.
Soil formation is a very slow
Perth Sydney
Adelaide process, which means that the soil
Canberra
resources that exist now are virtually
Melbourne
non-renewable. European settlement
has caused the acceleration of soil
Hobart
erosion, resulting in significant land
degradation [1.62].
N
Areas with more than four dust-storm days per year
Areas at risk from soil erosion (overgrazing, wind and water) 0 500 1000 km
[1.63] Parts of McLaren Vale, SA, have rich soils supporting many vineyards
Water
Water is also considered to be a natural resource and, in this respect, Australia is
Water consumption in deficient. Any study of Australia’s climate easily demonstrates this fact. At least two-
Australia was down 14 thirds of Australia suffers from inadequate rainfall and arid or semi-arid conditions.
per cent in 2004–05 from Even in the wetter southeast corner, the rainfall can be variable, with droughts
2000–01. sometimes lasting for several years. It is therefore very important that Australia
conserves its limited supplies of water.
Australians consume more than 24 000 gigalitres of water a year. More than 70 per
cent of this is used for irrigation, a further 21 per cent for urban and industrial uses,
and the rest used in additional rural activities. There are growing pressures upon
More than one-fifth (20.6
per cent) of all households urban water supplies, boosted by increasing urban populations and the recurrence of
reported that their dwelling droughts. However, recent research has shown that governments are implementing
had a rainwater tank in 2007. tighter restrictions on water use and Australians are becoming more conscious of
water use.
[1.64] Water is a precious resource in Australia
In 2007, more than 95

per cent of the river
length assessed in the
Murray–Darling Basin had
a degraded environmental
condition.
Forests
Australia’s forest resources are mostly concentrated along the east coast of the
continent, the southwest tip of Western Australia and the west coast of Tasmania
[1.67]. Of concern is the rate of land clearing, which is reducing Australia’s forest
resources. More attention needs to be paid to sustainable forest management in
which plantation timber is an important factor.
[1.65] Rainforests provide plant resources used in the manufacture [1.66] Plantation timber
of medicines
[1.67] Forest resources

in Australia
corn
of Capri
Tropic
Types of vegetation
In total, between 1990 and
Seasonal grassland and
Rainforest
2005, Australia lost 2.5 per mixed scrub
cent of its forest cover, or Eucalypt forest Desert

N
around 4 226 000 hectares. Open savanna woodland Mountain heath
Open grassland and Coastal swamp forest 0 500 km
low-tree savanna and heath
Fishing grounds
Despite an extensive coastline, Australia’s fish resources are not large by world
standards. As with forests, Australia’s fishing grounds need to be managed
aquaculture sustainably. Fish farming or aquaculture is of growing importance but overfishing
breeding fish or
seafood in a controlled of fishing grounds, oceans and rivers or estuaries is a problem. Australia’s major
environment production species are rock lobster, prawns, abalone and tuna [1.68]. The value
of fisheries production has declined since the 1999–2000 season due to increased
costs, fuel prices and an appreciating dollar [1.69]. The value of Australia’s exports
of fisheries products in 2005–06 was $1.5 billion. The value of Australia’s imports of
fisheries products is increasing and in 2005–06 was $1.3 billion.
[1.68] Aquaculture near Strahan on the west coast of Tasmania
[1.69] (A) Real value of Australian fisheries production and (B) exports and imports, 1997–2006
A B
3.0 3.0
Exports
Imports
2.5 2.5
2.0 2.0
(2005–06 A$b)
(2005–06 A$b)
1.5 1.5
1.0 1.0
0.5 0.5
0 0
1996–97 1997–98 1998–99 1999–00 2000–01 2001–02 2002–03 2003–04 2004–05 2005–06 1996–97 1997–98 1998–99 1999–00 2000–01 2001–02 2002–03 2003–04 2004–05 2005–06
Source: Australian fisheries statistics 2006, Abare May 2007

Learning about …
1 Describe the main characteristics of Australia’s soils.
2 Which areas of Australia are likely to have the most fertile soils? Why?
3 What is meant by the term ‘land degradation’? Why is it a current geographic issue?
4 How did the discovery of gold help in the development and growth of Australia?
5 Make a list of Australia’s major mineral resources. Beside each one, name the state or states
where this mineral is found in significant quantities.
6 Where are Australia’s most recently discovered diamond mines?
7 Why is water also considered to be a natural resource? Why is it important to Australia?
8 Are our attitudes to water as a natural resource changing over time? Discuss.
9 Write a paragraph about the effects of overuse or misuse of soil and forests in Australia.
10 Refer to [1.69] and comment on the current trends in fishing production in Australia. Discuss
reasons for the changing trends.
Learning to …
1 Working in groups, research Australia’s natural resources. Each group could choose a different
resource. Present the main points of your research to the other groups.
2 As a class, build up a mind map using the theme ‘Australia’s natural resources’.

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1 Australia’s physical

[1.1] Twin falls, Kakadu National Park

Part 1 Investigating Australia’s physical environments

In this chapter you will…

The Australian continent

661/2oN Arctic Circle

A satellite image is an electronic

Australia’s geographical dimensions

[1.5] The tyranny of distance [1.6] The vastness of Australia

[1.7] Australia’s states and territories

Using the scale

[1.8] Identifying scale as a representative fraction

[1.9] Estimating the

[1.14] The size of Australia in relation to Europe

b Estimate the distance between:

The origins of the continent

Location of original settlements

[1.17] During the last ice age

While Aboriginal populations remained relatively low in central Australia,

Relationship with the land

[1.19] One of the Aboriginal beliefs about the origins of fire

[1.20] An Aboriginal man demonstrating traditional method Fire and water

Geographical origins of Australia

[1.22] Tectonic plates

North American Plate OCEAN

Somali Plate INDIAN

Converging plate boundary Volcano

[1.25] Palm Valley in Central

Australia: a unique country

Major landforms and drainage basins

[1.26] Plains and plateaus

Ten deserts make up nearly

S k i ll s Identifying bearings on a map

[1.27] Calculating bearings on a map

To calculate the bearing of point B from point A

[1.28] Darling River in NSW

Australia’s major landform regions

[1.30] Flinders Ranges in South Australia

The Western Plateau

[1.31] Processes that have shaped Australia

Central Lowlands [1.34] Artesian water

S k i ll s Calculating local relief

S k i ll s Calculating the gradient of a slope

[1.36] Key to topographic map

[1.37] Topographic map of Omeo at 1:100 000. Contour interval is 40 metres.

Australia has cool, wet winters with

light misty rain. Eastern Australia

n is generally wetter all year than the

Melbourne According to the Australian

2007 Climate Statement,

rrent Australia has now recorded

Tropical wet or dry: Hot with

Humid subtropical: Hot or warm,

Tropical or mid-latitude semi-arid: Hot and dry

Tropical or mid-latitude arid: Hot and very

Mediterranean: Hot or warm, Ocean currents N

[1.39] Australia’s average annual rainfall [1.40] Australia’s variability of rainfall

Perth Sydney Perth Sydney

0 500 1000 km 0 500 1000 km

1 : 45 000 000 Hobart 1 : 45 000 000 Hobart

High and low pressure systems

High pressure system Low pressure system