How to write effective and convincing proposals

As an engineer you will at one point be required to write proposals.

These documents might be RFPs, contract negotiation or request for
financing for a project. Whichever one you might be tasked with
writing, you should be concise and cover all the pertinent details. This
guide provides several tips on how you should approach any proposal
writing task.
1. Be clear of the outcomes
Before you start writing a proposal, ask yourself several times what
you intend the results will be. Most of the proposals sound like
statements rather than conveying what is being offered. The results
should be very objective and should be quantifiable. Writing an
effective proposal will become easier once you are able to quantify the
results and make it sound like a selling point.
2. Have a central theme for your proposal
From the results that you have envisaged, the strongest result will be
the theme of the proposal. Think from the perspective of the
organization or the recipient of the proposal and find out what will be
the most beneficial result for them. Once the recipient sees the
benefit, you will have no problems in getting the proposal through.
Most proposals get rejected because you think more about benefits to
you rather than for the recipient.
3. Be concise
No one has the time to read through hundreds of pages. An effective
proposal should be brief and concise. Come to your point quickly,
maybe after a brief introduction. Most studies have shown that
business managers read only the introduction and the conclusion.
Make both strong and use effective words to make the impact. The
conclusion should very subtly point to the benefits the recipient will
enjoy accepting the proposal.
4. Give it a life
Give examples while writing the proposal. If the same proposal has
improved another organization, quantify the results and present it in
your proposal. Business managers are impressed with figures and give
them figures to calculate wherever possible. An effective proposal will
be liven up with lot of benefits. Count the benefits before you send out
the proposal.
5. Rewrite
As you write, you will feel like you have written the most effective
proposal. Let the proposal sit for at least 24 hours and then read it
again. You will notice areas, which are not as effective. Rewrite these
specific areas. You may to continue this exercise a number of times
until you are satisfied that it is as effective as it can get. It is also a
good idea to periodically have fresh sets of eyes looking at the
proposal to give you additional insights.
6. Cost figures
You need to keep the financials simple and easy to understand. Not all
recipients will have a thorough knowledge of the financial terms and
will be only looking at how much they will have to shell out and what
benefit they will derive. If you give too many ratios and figures, it is
very unlikely that the recipient will get interested in the proposal. The
pricing should only convey what is the total cost of the solution you are
providing.
By spending some time in research and prioritizing the points to be put
in the proposal, you can generate an effective proposal. Using clean
and simple language in a brief and concise report will help you in
writing effective proposals.
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Depending upon how much you enjoy writing, writing sales proposals
can be a joy, purgatory, or something in between. However, if you sell
a complex product or one that involves the delivery of professional
services, learning how to write effective selling proposals can be
critical to your success.

Some proposals are written in response to an RFP (Request for

Proposal) or RFI (Request for
Information).

Organizations that go to the trouble of

writing RFP's want to receive highly
structured proposals, as this makes it easier for them to compare
responses from various bidders.

Some proposals are "Boilerplate Bombs." These proposals tend to be

long, boring, and tedious to read. Often these proposals are written
under the assumption that "bounce factor" (how high objects on a desk
bounce when the proposal is dropped on the desk) is what makes a
proposal effective.

The proposal category that is the focus of this article is EFFECTIVE

SELLING PROPOSALS. These proposals are lean, highly focused,
customer-specific documents that are written to sell anyone that reads
them. How can a written document accomplish this feat? Through text
that invokes EMOTION and provides COMPELLING REASONS that
support a buying decision.

Before we go any further, let's review the single biggest mistake in

proposal generation - lack of proper opportunity qualification.
Companies waste incredible amounts of time and resources preparing
proposals for poorly qualified opportunities. These proposals have little
chance of producing sales.

When you are armed with the necessary opportunity qualification

information and you have made a conscious decision that the
opportunity warrants the investment of time and resources required to
generate a quality proposal, you are ready to write an effective selling
proposal. To aid you in this undertaking, here are brief descriptions of
nine suggested proposal sections:

1. Opening

This is usually a single paragraph where you thank the people that
provided the opportunity qualification information and set the stage for
the proposal. The last sentence of the paragraph should list the
primary value the prospect will receive by making the proposed
investment.

2. Background

Your prospects know a lot about their own companies. They don't need
you to provide them with a chronological history or a bunch of
unnecessary facts. The bulk of this section should focus on selected
facts concerning the SPECIFIC business functions or departments that
your solution will impact.

3. Current Situation

This is where you really start selling. In this section you lay out the
prospect's business problems and the impact of the problems...in
painful detail. Your goal should be to invoke your prospect's NEGATIVE
emotions (fear, frustration, pain, etc.).
4. Desired Results

Your goal for this section should be to invoke your prospect's POSITIVE
emotions (relief, joy, satisfaction, etc.) by helping your prospect
visualize the "desired state" for their business.

5. Business Impact

This is where you justify the acquisition. What impact will your solution
have on your prospect's business? How will their operations and
financial results change for the better?

6. Decision Criteria

If you don't have a comprehensive list of the criteria that your prospect
will use to make their decision, you probably shouldn't be writing a
proposal. List all of their decision criteria here.

7. Decision Process, Time Frame, and Budget

The purpose of including this information in the proposal is to make

sure you and your prospect share the same expectations.

8. Next Steps

There should be specific next steps (and related time frames) that are
expected to take place after you submit your proposal. List them here
to make sure you and your prospect are "on the same page."

9. Closing

Close with a final paragraph that summarizes why your product or

service is the best solution for your prospect, plus a positive statement
of expectation.

Do you see the power of this type of proposal? Do you see the benefit
of eliminating volumes of boilerplate that do not address your
prospect's SPECIFIC and IMMEDIATE needs and concerns? Do you see
how an effective selling proposal can influence the thinking of decision
makers and influencers, even if you have had limited (or no) personal
contact with them?

If you construct your proposals in this manner, you will maximize your
return on proposal writing time and resource investments.

Alan Rigg is the author of How to Beat the 80/20 Rule in Selling: Why
Most Salespeople Don't Perform and What to Do About It. His company,
80/20 Performance Inc., supplies specialized sales assessment tests
and consulting to help organizations build top-performing sales teams.
For more sales and sales management tips,
visit: http://www.8020performance.com.

General Suggestions

Starting well is half the job.

-- Korean proverb

An application, plan, or proposal (plan) should not be written in

isolation. Begin by seeking cooperation from people who understand
the needs of students, teachers, and others for whom the program is
proposed. They can help you create a realistic plan that can be
implemented if funded.

Planning Together

A high-quality plan reflects the ideas of students, parents, educators,

community members, and other service providers. Consider forming a
team of interested individuals to develop the plan. Team members
should be committed to designing and implementing improvements. If
several people do the writing, one should serve as the editor who
creates a unified document with consistent tone and style.

Reviewing Requirements

Review thoroughly any legal statutes, regulations, and guidelines

related to the plan and refer to them frequently as you write and
design the project. Make sure that the proposed program is consistent
with the requirements.
Do not simply restate the plan requirements such as, "We will involve
parents in important decisions." Instead, give examples of promising
strategies you have chosen from your experience or research. Present
illustrations of how you will implement the program. If a requirement
or regulation does not seem applicable to your plan or local situation,
explain why you do not address it.

Committing to Equity and Excellence

Most educational plans are focused on improving equity and

excellence for each student in the program. Therefore, all major
provisions of the plan should be directed at improving student
performance and conditions at school and at home.

Use the team's planning efforts to develop a consensus about the

focus of the plan and your commitment to implement it. You may think
you have good ideas, but your plan should persuade the reader that
the ideas are well researched, thoughtfully designed, and supported by
committed staff, students, parents, and members of the community.
Further, the plan should demonstrate that the proposed improvements
have a realistic chance of success.

Integrating Elements

Remember that any successful educational program contains

interdependent parts such as instruction, assessment, professional
development, and family involvement. You should propose a program
that addresses the elements of effective education. Consider
organizing your plan with sections such as:

Curriculum

What are the needs of students and other participants? How does your
plan help students attain the content standards adopted by the
California State Board of Education? What research-based teaching
strategies will you use?

Assessment

What standardized and alternative assessments do you plan to use?

What actions will you take if outcomes do not meet expectations?

Professional Development
How does your plan support teachers, paraprofessionals, and
administrators? How does professional development address the needs
of students?

Family and School Support

How will you strengthen partnerships between educators and families?

How does the plan address the health and safety needs of students
and their families?

Funding

How will funds be coordinated to support the plan?

The content of one section of your plan should reinforce the content in
other sections. For example, your assessment approaches should be
based on the standards and curriculum. Similarly, the funding section
should show how professional development is supported.

Following Instructions

Pay attention to the guidelines for the plan in the applicable statute,
regulations, and official guidance: e.g., page limit, double-spacing, and
average size of grant awards for the categories. The more you deviate
from requirements set by the funding agency, the more you need to
justify your decisions. Otherwise, your plan may be rejected.

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Effective Technical Writing

All our words from loose using have lost their edge.

-- Ernest Hemingway

The quality of your plan and your competence to implement it will be

judged largely on how well it is written. Some reminders:

Audience

Write for the people who will read your plan for the state or federal
program. Because you cannot be sure about the readers' backgrounds,
assume that they do not have in-depth knowledge about your agency,
students, or community. Do not write for specialists like yourself.
Instead, write as though you were explaining your program to a friend
or relative who is not an educator.

Organization/Format

Organize your plan according to the requirements contained in the

statute, regulations, or instructions from the funding agency. Headings
and subheadings break up the narrative, identify important content,
and make your plan easy to read and understand. Choose font sizes
and types that enhance the text, but try to avoid excessive variety. Be
sure to include a table of contents with page numbers.

Style/Usage

Style and usage affect the credibility of your plan. Here are some
suggestions for making your writing clear and correct.

• Consult a dictionary and a style manual (e.g., The Chicago

Manual of Style) to help you with spelling, punctuation, and
grammar. Choosing a common style helps establish consistency
in the document, especially when there is more than one writer.
• Use shorter sentences. Sentences of more than fifteen words are
difficult to read.
• Avoid passive voice. "Teachers will visit parents at home" is more
direct and informative than "Parents will be visited."
• Rely on simple language. Use is simpler than utilization, because
more direct than due to the fact that. Don't make your document
unnecessarily complex with long words and wordy phrases.
• Delete any words, sentences, or phrases that do not add to the
meaning. Make every word fight for its life.
• Break lengthy paragraphs into smaller sections. Try to limit
paragraphs to four or five sentences.
• Use specific and concrete terms, rather than jargon like
conceptualize, empowerment, restructuring, interface, and
articulate.
• Develop summaries at the beginning or end of sections. Help the
reader navigate your document.
• Insert headings and subheadings in the text to reflect the main
ideas.
• Use facts and statistics to prove your case.
• Unless directed to do so by the funding agency, avoid hardcover
bindings, tabbed dividers, and other fancy touches. Keep the
presentation simple and the content strong and meaningful.
Length

Find the balance between making your plan too long or too short. It
should address all requirements with some redundancy without
providing unnecessary information. Redundancy exists in the plan
because of the interdependency of its sections. Strictly follow any page
limits set by the plan requirements.

Accuracy

Check and recheck the facts and figures in the plan. Incorrect
information, outdated statistics, or irrelevant research will undermine
your credibility.

Consistency

Be sure that facts and figures in one section of the plan are consistent
with what you present in other sections.

Acronyms

Use acronyms and abbreviations sparingly because they may be

unfamiliar to many readers. Be sure to spell them out the first time
they are used; e. g., California uses the Standardized Testing and
Reporting (STAR) Program for assessment and accountability.

Visuals

Use illustrations such as charts, tables, and graphs to highlight key

points. Be sure to introduce the graphic and explain how it supports
the information in the narrative. Don't make the reader figure out what
the chart or table means.

Proofreading

Read and reread each draft of your plan before you submit it. Readers
judge your credibility based on the quality of your writing. Ask
colleagues to review and comment on drafts. Include as reviewers
people who do not have a strong background in education or in the
particular program you are designing. They will help you avoid jargon
and complex writing.

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Narrative of the Plan

Yes, there is a Nirvana; it is leading your sheep to a green pasture, and
putting your child to sleep, and writing the last line of your poem.

-- Kahlil Gibran

Writing the last line of the narrative of your plan is the completion of
the collaborative planning described at the beginning of this document.
The following will help make your plan complete and readable.

Note: Be sure to respond to the statute, regulations, and guidelines

that are related to the plan you are developing. Use the wording
contained in the requirements and follow any sequence implied in the
instructions. Make it easy for readers to find information in your plan.
Check the requirements of the plan you are developing and follow the
instructions. Here are possible sections and a sequence for presenting
them.

Abstract

Most plans are improved by an abstract at the beginning of the

narrative. Generally it should be limited to two 1.5-spaced pages.
Describe each major section of the plan. Focus on goals of the plan,
number and type of project participants, staff members, and key parts
of the program. Remember that first impressions are important, so
make the abstract informative, well written, and readable.

Needs Assessment

Explain the needs of your agency and people who will benefit from the
proposed project. Present needs for each objective and each major
part of the Implementation section. For example, if you are proposing
to use computer-assisted instruction, explain the needs of the agency
that led you to select this approach.

Describe the needs of all the groups who may be considered project
participants (e.g., students, staff, and parents). Indicate how services
will be delivered to students and families most in need of assistance
and schools in need of improvement.

State the needs of your agency and participants in positive terms. If

your situation sounds too bleak, you may appear to lack even the basic
conditions for building a new project. For example, assessment results
may indicate that students are achieving at low levels in English, but
have high levels of proficiency in their native language. Present the
needs according to effective parts of the existing programs, changes
that will lead to improvements, and potential obstacles to reform.
Present evidence of having had direct contact with people who know
the prospective participants. Include suggestions from some
participants themselves as well as other parents, students, teachers,
administrators, and members of the community.

Explain how needs of the participants have been analyzed to

determine what you have written in the Implementation section. For
example, if family education activities are proposed, why did you
select this component? How did you identify the project participants?
What did you learn from prospective parent participants and other
people knowledgeable about families to help you design this
component? Identify methods to assess needs (e.g., surveys,
interviews, standardized tests, and meetings).

Program Description

Describe the nature of the project and its consistency with provisions
of the applicable statute or regulations. Show how the project will lead
to improving student performance and conditions at school and at
home (e.g., a more challenging curriculum based on content
standards). Remember to keep the focus of the project limited so that
it can be implemented effectively within the time and budget
constraints of the project.

Include goals and objectives. Goals are general statements of what you
expect to achieve after some specified time. Your objectives should be
clear statements of what seems possible to achieve during the project.
Objectives represent your definition of a successful project and provide
the framework for the evaluation.

Keep the number of objectives small. For example, write one or two
objectives for each major part of the project. The objectives should be
based on the content standards. Ensure that the objectives include
important specifications:

• Learners and other participants in the project

• Measurable outcomes
• Tests and other assessment measures
• Expected timeline for attainment
• Staff members responsible for the objectives

You should reference these objectives in other sections of the plan,

especially in the Implementation and the Evaluation sections. Be sure
to describe how the proposed project is consistent with statutory
requirements.
Give the reader a clear understanding of the kind of program you are
currently implementing and funding sources that support it. Next,
present the proposed project and explain how it will improve, upgrade,
or reform services you are already offering. Describe what you think
the project will look like at the end of the funding period.

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Implementation

Explain how you will refine and implement the goals and objectives
throughout the project. This section illustrates the project design: i.e.,
the objectives, activities, instructional methods, materials, and
assessments that are essential for the implementation and evaluation
of the project. Be sure that you reference the objectives as they
appear in other sections of the plan.

Describe the sources of information used to design the instructional

program, such as staff experience, proven instructional models, and
theory and research related to the proposed program. Explain how you
will assess the effectiveness of instruction. For example, state-required
tests may be only part of your evaluation. What other assessments
might be used to measure student progress?

Illustrate how the proposed parts of the project will be integrated and
made mutually supportive. For example, if there are components on
science education, technology, and family education, explain how
science instruction in the classroom will be linked with parent-child
activities at home and how the students' use of technology will be
enhanced by family education and science instruction.

Indicate how the instructional program will meet the participants'

needs throughout the project. For example, what is proposed for the
first year, second year, and so on? How will the instructional program
be adjusted as participants' needs change? How will you ensure that
services will continue to focus on students most in need?

Describe strategies that you will use to build the capacity of your
agency to continue project services after the funding period. Some
examples include gradually assuming costs for budget items originally
supported by the project; establishing a task force to seek funding for
the future; training project staff members who will continue to deliver
services; and improving your agency's policies for promoting equity
and excellence for each student. Demonstrate that you will employ
these strategies throughout the funding period.
Describe the staffing plan for the project. What staff will be assigned to
the components of the project? How will the project facilitate
coordination between project staff and those staff members who work
with the participants but are not funded by the program?

Identify the needs of project staff members and describe the plan for
professional development of staff. Explain how the plan addresses the
needs of staff, derived from the students' needs identified in the Needs
Assessment section.

Key Personnel

Identify the duties and responsibilities of not only staff funded by the
proposed project but of all staff who will implement the plan. Indicate
the amount of time that staff members devote to the project.

Describe the qualifications of the key staff members. Create a match

between the abilities required to implement the instructional program
and the qualifications of the staff. If the match is weak, explain how
professional development will give staff members the knowledge and
experience they need to implement the project successfully.

Demonstrate that the collective capacity of the staff includes ability to

respond positively to the project participants. For example, explain
how the staff will be able to identify and meet the linguistic and
cultural needs of English learners.

Budget and Justification

If your plan requires a budget, remember to display clearly the

proposed expenditures for the project and justify the items in each line
of the budget. For example, for the item "Supplies: $10,000," include
the calculation that led to this figure and explain how the supplies are
linked to activities in the Implementation section.

Ensure that the Implementation and the Budget sections are mutually
supportive. If parent education activities are proposed, the budget
should include costs associated with working with parents (e.g.,
presenters' fees and costs for child care and facilities) and evaluating
the success of the activities. Similarly, if there are budget items for
purchasing computers, the Implementation section should describe
how the computers will support instruction.

Explain how components of the project are supported by an integration

of project funds and other federal and state funds. Innovative
programs are usually strengthened by coordinating funds for the
proposed project with other funding sources. Usually needs of
students, families, and staff members will not be met by the proposed
program alone. Explain how you will allocate new resources and re-
allocate existing resources to students and families most in need of
services.

A decreasing budget over the life of the project is usually a good

indicator of building capacity for long-term implementation of the
project. Explain how your agency will contribute to the project from the
outset; e.g., identify ways in which the agency will manage state and
federal funds, staff members, materials, and facilities to enhance
implementation. Also, demonstrate how the agency plans to assume
the costs supported by funds from the proposed project. Be sure to
justify a budget that goes above or below the average amount
suggested for the program.

Evaluation

Describe the methods and measurement tools you will use to

determine your progress in attaining the project objectives. It is very
important to connect the content of this section to other sections of
the plan. The elements of the evaluation design should refer to the
instructional program, staff members, and budget items described in
other parts of the plan. Weak evaluation designs are those that could
be written for any set of implementation activities, rather than are
addressed to the unique characteristics of the proposed project. Do not
simply restate the evaluation requirements of the funding agency.
Describe how your project will be evaluated according to the applicable
requirements.

The evaluation section should illustrate strategies to determine the

extent to which you are attaining the objectives of the project. Be sure
that you reference the objectives as they appear in other sections of
the plan. Each objective should include these specifications:

• Data to be collected
• Assessment measures to be used
• Timeline for collecting data
• Methods for analyzing data
• Strategies for compiling and reporting evaluation results
• Methods for using the results to improve the project during the
funding period
• Persons responsible for implementing and monitoring the
evaluation
The evaluation design may include formal, standardized tests or
informal surveys and interviews. Describe how you will use state-
required assessments as well as other tests to measure the success of
the project.

Delineate responsibilities of the evaluator, staff members, and

participants in implementing the evaluation design. Focus on how they
will collaborate to ensure that the evaluation meets the needs of the
project.

Members of the team that began planning the project should actively
participate in all phases, including the evaluation. Their ongoing
participation will ensure consistency and coherence as the project
evolves. What they learn should be used to improve the current project
and plan new programs for the future.

How to Write Effective Proposals

Writing Effective Grant Proposals for Individual Fellowships
in the Humanities and Social Sciences
Susan Stanford Friedman
University of Wisconsin-Madison

The Big Picture

It's important to "think big," "paint the big picture," emphasize "the forest, not just
the trees" for a grant proposal. To do so effectively requires stepping back from your
project, seeing it as a whole in relation to a larger field, abstracting at a conceptual
level what you are doing, how you are doing it, and why it is significant. Grant
writing, like any other kind of writing, involves a set of conventions that vary
considerably by discipline and by division of knowledge (humanities, qualitative or
quantitative social sciences, natural sciences, and the arts). In the humanities and
some of the social sciences (especially qualitative social sciences), grant proposals
usually face strict page limitations-anywhere from about two to ten pages. This
requirement means that effective grant proposals typically "stand back from" or
"hover above" the project, abstract or distill its larger themes and methodologies,
and avoid getting immersed in the details. At the same time, proposals need to
demonstrate the specificity and richness of your material, your knowledge of relevant
fields, and your capacity for conceptual and evidential precision. Usually, extensive
literature reviews are not required or even effective. Your project needs to maintain
a strong focus, although skillful proposals weave references to major publications
throughout and brief bibliographies are sometimes required or allowed.

Granting agencies often want to see evidence that your research project is well
established, that you already know the larger field to which your work contributes,
and that you know quite specifically what you will be doing before, during, and after
the grant period. Most individual fellowships--e.g., NEH, ACLS, Guggenheim, etc.--
expect a publication to result from the grant, most likely a book, not an edited
collection, and not an article unless your field typically publishes research in the form
of refereed articles.

The Big Three Questions

Your grant proposal should make crystal clear three main things: (1) What you are
doing; (2) How you are doing it; (3) Why it is significant. It's even a good idea
to open the proposal with a lively summary paragraph that answers all three of these
questions directly. Projects that facilitate direct presentation of this vital information
are often organized around a clear, overarching research question. Rather than
explain your project in terms of a topic or even a thesis, you can focus your
presentation around the major research questions you are asking, how you plan to
answer them, and what contribution your project will make to fields of knowledge.
You do not need to know what you will argue in the final product before you get the
grant. Indeed, some committees will worry that research is too "thesis-driven" if the
researcher knows what he or she wants to argue before the research is completed.
Thus, avoid language such as "I will argue"; instead, write "I will explore," or "I will
test the proposition that." (If your project is nearing completion, assertions of your
thesis are more acceptable.) Your statements on the significance of your project
are very important. Don't depend on your recommenders to do this for you. Explain
what interventions your project makes in ongoing debates in your immediate field,
and then what larger contributions it will make to scholarly and/or humanistic
knowledge. Here is where it helps to think big. Communicate in a lively and
interesting way what's at stake in your research. Why should anyone care about your
project'? Can it pass the "so what?" test" What difference will it make? Don't assume
the self-evident importance of your research. Even though we might all believe as
scholars that knowledge as an end in itself should be justification enough, not all
knowledge gets research funding. Therefore, you need to explain why your project
deserves the grant.

Audience for the Proposal

Who is the audience for your grant proposal? Will it be a panel of specialists in your
field? Panelists in your discipline? An interdisciplinary or Multidisciplinary panel? Does
the granting agency have a multi-tiered process for approval involving outside
experts and in-house program officers? How controversial is your research--in its
research questions, methodologies, findings, etc.? Will it tap into divisive debates in
your field? Into the "culture wars" of postmodernity? The answers to these questions
can have a huge impact on how your proposal will be read. The more specialized the
panels, the more specialized your proposal can be. The wider the disciplinary reach
of the panel, the more you have to make sure you provide sufficient context for your
project and that you describe it in language that is clear to people outside your
immediate field. Since program officers within a granting agency often weigh in on
proposals in conjunction with outside faculty expertise your proposal may well need
to be understandable and persuasive to a range of evaluators.

On the whole, avoid jargon. The issue of "jargon" is a tough one: what appears to be
jargon to someone outside your field may well be ordinary or even expected
discourse within your immediate field. But one thing is certain: if you cannot
communicate what your research is about, your chances of getting funded plummet.
Worry less about appearing too simple than being obscure. However, don't write a
"thin" proposal. You need to communicate your conceptual framework and ideas with
precision and specificity, and you need to communicate some of the particularities of
the material you will draw upon or work with.

How can you determine who the audience is and what the decision-making process is
your proposal? This can often be difficult, but not totally impossible. The NEH uses
panelists of faculty specialists whose comments must be written (copies are available
upon request), but the in-house program officers and staff make the final decisions,
based on but not absolutely determined by faculty rankings. The ACLS uses a
multidisciplinary panel. You can call the agency and speak directly with the program
officer, who will often provide considerable information about the nature of the
process and the constitution of panels. Some officers will also work with you on the
development of the proposal (especially in the case of collaborative grants). You can
also check out an agency's Web site for information. Different agencies are often
interested in different kinds of projects; some even sponsor theme-oriented
competitions that change annually. You certainly maximize your chances of getting
funded by finding out whatever you can about the interests, needs, and processes of
the agencies to which you apply.

Even when you can't get much information about your likely
reviewers, clarity and directness go a long way, particularly since panelists often
have huge numbers of files to evaluate and rank. It does not help your case to make
the panelists dig for coherence through a mass of detail or a discourse that seems
impenetrable. As to the minefields of debate and political alignments, you should
assess these issues as they relate to your project and sub-field; you can try to avoid
inflammatory discourse or trigger words. But in my view, it won't help your proposal
if you "go bland," try to be "safe," to hide what it is you are doing. You want to
communicate your excitement about your project, your belief in its importance and
significance. If you try too hard to please everybody and avoid all controversy, your
project runs the risk of sounding just boring.

Parts of a Grant Proposal

Different granting agencies often state explicitly what aspects of your project you
should address in the proposal and/or what special emphases, topics, or themes they
are looking for. Read and follow all specific instructions carefully. Avoid multiple
submission of the same proposal to agencies that are looking for different kinds of
things. Develop a basic proposal for your project and then adjust carefully as
necessary. Address the specifics of the particular grant especially in introductory or
concluding remarks. In addition, some agencies require supplementary statements,
such as a narrative autobiography, an annotated bibliography, etc.

There is no standard format or organization for proposals. Different ways of

presenting your project can be equally effective. Sub-headings (e.g., description;
rationale or significance; methodology; chapter outline; schedule of research) can
offer effective "signposts" and facilitate rapid comprehension. Clear, strong, direct
topics sentences for all paragraphs can be equally effective. A summary introduction
of the whole project--including such specifics as authors, texts, archives, and
necessary contexts--makes an effective beginning. Quick and to the point is better,
in most cases, than elaborately long introductions based on a narrative, details for a
text, and so forth. After the introduction, the order of parts often varies, but
proposals tend to include a description of the project, a statement about its necessity
or contribution, a chapter outline; and a schedule of research. These sections need
to be specific, indicating, for example, what primary and secondary materials you are
working with, archives or special collections you need to consult, related scholarly
literature (often cited in parenthetical style), and so forth.

If the project is a revision of a dissertation, explain what substantive new research

and/or conceptual reorientation is planned. (Granting agencies are frequently
reluctant to fund stylistic revisions of dissertations.) If the project is an outgrowth of
earlier work or a stepping stone in a multi-stage research program, such connections
should be outlined briefly. Your proposal should inform the panelists in some way
why you are qualified to do this project and what function it is likely to play in your
professional development.

Schedule of Research

This section, which often serves as the proposal's conclusion, is a good place to
communicate how you are particularly qualified to do this project, and that your
"track record" on this and related projects offers good evidence that you will
complete a final manuscript in a timely fashion. The section does not have to be
long, but it should succinctly state the status of the project, your plans for use of the
grant period, and your estimated completion date for the final manuscript. Include
reference to material in draft form, related conference papers and articles, and so
forth. Break up the period of the grant into stages and indicate what you hope to
complete in each phase. (E.g., in the first two months, I will complete the archival
research and draft chapter one- in the next two months, I will etc.). Avoid sounding
preliminary or indecisive. A proposal that asks for money to read around on a variety
of topics has very little chance of funding. Even though you may of course change a
project as you do it, your proposal will be more effective if written in the declarative
mode (e.g., "I will ....." "I plan... " rather than "Maybe I will...," or "Perhaps...")
Panelists who suspect what is often called "a fishing expedition" are not likely to
support funding, however interesting the project. Instead, demonstrate that when
the grant period begins, you will "hit the ground running" and use the time
efficiently.

Letters of Recommendation

Your choice of referees is a major factor in putting together a successful application.

Most letters tend to be inflated; consequently, committees often view them with a
grain of salt, becoming adept at reading between the lines and assessing the weight
to be given to the letters' praise. Graduate students and people whose degrees are
recent frequently get letters from their dissertation director and committee
members. Although letter writers often have a stake in seeing students and former
students succeed, their letters can contain valuable assessments of an applicant's
achievement and future promise. For people out of graduate school for longer
periods of time, particularly if they have established some sort of research record,
letters from former teachers and colleagues frequently carry less weight. A useful
rule of thumb is that the more advanced an applicant, the more letters should come
from people with recognized standing in one or more of the fields related to the
proposed research.

In selecting a group of people to write letters, think in terms of the whole package.
Not every letter has to accomplish the same thing; different letters make distinct
contributions to your case. Thus, you might pick one person not so well known who
will write a highly detailed letter based on thorough knowledge of your project and
another person with national visibility who does not know your work as well or who
tends to write very short letters. Or, one letter might attest to your knowledge of a
particular field necessary for your project, while another letter might discuss in
details the significance of your prior research. Particularly in the United States,
lukewarm letters often hurt a proposal; a negative sentence or two in a letter often
kills a proposal on the spot. Thus, it really pays to be as certain as you can be that
your recommenders will be enthusiastic. Be aware that the conventions of letter
writing (and letter reading) can vary significantly from country to country (in Britain,
for example, letters tend to understate praise and to include some criticism or
qualification, as a way of building credibility, whereas letters in the U.S. with
qualifications tend to signal significant concerns). Do what you can reasonably do to
acquaint your referees with the conventions most likely at work where the grant is
awarded. For U.S. agencies, ask your referees to write their letters in English or
arrange for translations.

To develop a list of possible letter writers, think about who knows your past work
and has indicated in some fashion admiration for it. Such people might include
journal editors or referees of your work, editors of collections, convenors of
conference panels, and so forth. Use your full professional network. You should ask
people if they would be willing to write a supportive letter well in advance of the
deadline. Provide them with an up-to-date vita and the proposal (a draft version if
necessary). Many granting agencies ask letter writers to comment specifically on the
cogency of the proposal itself and the feasibility of your schedule. Consequently,
send your referees your most recent information and plans. Letters that are out of
sync with the proposal and vita seen by the committee often lose influence.

The Russian Roulette Factor

Getting a grant sometimes feels like a crapshoot, the luck of the draw. Not getting a
grant can feel like a terrible judgment on your worth as a scholar, so discouraging
that you might well be reluctant to try again. Many people (if not all) who get a grant
deserve it, but many who do not succeed deserve it just as much. You can never
know what actually happened in the discussion of and voting on your proposal, let
alone the institutional constraints that can come into play. In the end, the decision
on your proposal may have had little to do with the merits of your case. While the
system may well aim toward being a genuine merit system the realities are seldom
so rosy. Consequently, it's important (but very difficult) to avoid internalizing a
negative decision. It's important to try to learn from the experience and try again-on
the same proposal or a new one. It's important as well if you succeed in getting a
grant to celebrate your good fortune, get your work done, avoid getting a swelled
head, and help others in the future succeed as you have in the roulette of
grantsmanship.

Note: These guidelines were initially prepared for a panel on grant proposals at the
Modern Language Association Convention, Chicago IL, December, 1999 1 am grateful
for the remarks of my co-panelists--Sander Gilman, Elizabeth McKinsey and Mark
Rose- their collective wisdom and advice on proposal writing as well as the audience
discussion, helped me revise my preliminary formulation.

Feel free to distribute a copy of these guidelines.

Susan Stanford Friedman
English Department
600 N. Park Street
University of Wisconsin-Madison
Madison, WI 53706
Ssfriedm@facstaff.wisc.edu