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"The Principles of~iifism" ("Qawa'id al-Tasawwuf"}: An annotated translation with introduction

Istrabadi, Zaineb S., Ph.D.

Indiana University, 1988

Copyright ©1987 by Istrabadi, Zaineb S. All rights reserved.

V·M·I

300 N. Zccb Rd.

Ann Arbor, MI 48106

The Principles of Sufism (Qawa~id al-Ta~awwuf)

An Annotated Translation

With Introduction

By

Zaineb S. Istrabadi

Submitted to the faculty of the Graduate School in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the degree

Doctor of Philosophy

in the Department of ~ear Eastern Languages and Cultures Indiana University

April 1988

Accepted by the Faculty of the Graduate School in partial fulfillment

of the requirements of the Doctor of Philosophy degree in the Department of Near Eastern Languages and Cultures, Indiana University.

Victor Danner. Chairman

Wad-i-e- Jwa i deh

Doctoral Committee:

Sa 1 i hAl toma

,~.~~-. -J J ,({ /~,.v:.~ '. 4-

B.G. Martin

Date of Oral Examination: November 12, 1987

e 1987 Zaineb S. Istrabadi ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

To my parents

Amel Amin Zaki and Rasoul Istrabadi and Feisal Amin

without whose love, support, and patience this work would not have been possible.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my gratitude to the members of my committee

Professors Victor Danner, Wadie Jwaideh, Salih Altoma, and Bradford MartiJ1.

Particular thanks are due to Professor Danner for his guidance

and encouragement throughout the various stages of this study. {I

"

Undertaking this endeavor has left me gratefully indebted to a num-

ber of persons in Bloomington and New York City for their encouragement

and advice. Special thanks are due to Professor Edward W. Said for his

encouragement, to my editor Miss Rabia Terri Harris, to Miss Nasra Has-

san for her unwavering support and encouragement, and likewise to Ms.

Susan Lhota.

I also wish to express my thanks to Ms. Linda Ainsworth who

prepared the final manuscript, and to Mr. Feisal Amin Istrabadi who

carried out Lhe last minute details.

Toward my family, no words can duly express the depth of the

gratitude I feel.

Last but not least, thanks are due to Shaykh Tosun Bayrak el-

Jerrahi.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Transliteration Preface

Part I: Introduction

I.

The Life and Works of AQffiad Zarruq. • . . • . • . . • . . • . .

A.

Zarruq's Sufi Context ....

1 2

1. North Africa in the Time of Zarrfiq. . . • . . . . • .. 2

2. Development of the Tarfgahs. . . . . . . . . . . . ... 4

a. The Qadiri Order. , • . 5

b. The Shadhili Order. .

7

3. ~ijfism in the Maghrib. . . . . • . . . . . . . . . ••• 9

a. ~ufism and Orthodoxy .••

b. ~ufism and Popular Piety.

9

b.

Zarruq's Teachers in Religious Studies .• Zarruq's Mentors in Sufism.

10 12 12 16 16 17 18 18 19 21

B. Zarrffq's Life and Legacy.

1. 2.

Biographical Outline.

Education. .

a.

Books.

c.

i. Umm al-BanIn.

Li , AI-Zaytuni. iii. Al-ijaqrami.

3. Zarruq1s Legacy

d.

Zarruq1s Works.

22
22
24
25
27
27
. . . . 27
30
30 a. Z~rruqiyyah.

b. Noted Students

c. Tomb. •

II. Introduction to the Qawacid al-Ta§awwuf

A.

(

The Role of the Qawa id •

B.

_(

The Qawa id as Literature

1. Genre

2. Style. 31

3. The Text . . . . . . . . • • . . . . . . . . . . . , .. 32

,

C. Contents of the Qawa id . . • . • • • . . . . . . . . . .. 33

1. Overview.

33

2. Synopsis

33

D. Conclusion

40

E.

Notes to Part I

42

Part II: The Principles of Sufism (Qawa'id a1-Ta§awwuf)

Translation in English

A. Section 1 (Principles 1-12) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
B. Section 2 (Principles 13-31) . 61
C. Section 3 (Principles 32-54) 74
D. Section 4 (Principles 55-65) · · · · 93
E. Section 5 (Principles 66-75) . . · · · · 101
F. Section 6 (Principles 76-85) · · · · 109
G. Section 7 (Principles 86-95) · · · · 118 H. Section 8 (Principles 96-106) . . . . . . . . . . . . . · · 124
1. Section 9 (Principles 107-115 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
J. Section 10 (Principles 116-125) 138
K. Section 11 (Principles 126-143) . . . . · · 149
L. Section 12 (Principles 144-164) 161
M. Section 13 (Principles 165-188) · · 171
N. Section 14 (Principles 189-198) . . · · 194
O. Section 15 (Princ:i pJ es 199-207) . · 202
P. Section 16 (Principles 208-217) 208
Q. Epilogue . 216
R. Notes to Part II . . . . . 220 Part III: Appendices

Appendix A: Brief Biographical Notes . • . • . . . . . • . • . 233 Appendix B: Glossary of Terms ............••... 257 Appendix C:

1. Silsilah from the Prophet to Zarruq ...•... 262

2. Silsilah of the CAlawiyyah Order from Zarruq to the

Present

264

Bibliography . .

265

LIST OF TRANSLITERATION
The following svst.em of transliteration will be used:
hamzah tal t
ba' b ?a' z
tal e c
t ayn
thai th ghayn gh
jim j fll' f
Qa' h qaf q
kha' kh kaf k
dlH d lam I
dha:l dh mim m
ra' r nun n
zay z hal h
... waw
Sln s w
shIn sh ya' y
~ad s
gad d
Short vowels: Long vowels:
fat1)ah a alif a
Qammah u waw u
kasrah i ya' i The liason of the lam of the definite article with the sun letters

will not be observed, nor will the liason with the hamzat al-wa§l be

observed in the transliteration. Hence, "aI-shams" rather than "ash-

shams, II and "Ii Allah" rather than "lillah."

The nisbah will be rendered thus: "Shadiliyyah" rather than "Shad-

hi Hyah ,"

The Arabic Qur'an that was used for the numbering of the verses is

the Arabic and its English translation, The Holy Qur'an: Text, Transla-

ticn, and Commentary (Brentwood, Maryland, 1983) by Abdullah Yusuf Ali,

although Arthur Arberry's translation The Koran Interpreted (New York,

1955) was used for the actual translation.

Preface

This dissertation is an annotated translation of Shaykh AQffiad Zarruq's work Qawa' id al-Tasawwuf (ThE~ Principles of Sufism), one of the

shaykh's most important works. It is a Sufi manual in which he follows

the footsteps of many other great masters who wrote works in order to

preserve Suft teachings. A number of these works were written for both

the followers of Sufism and its foes to prove to the latter the

authenticity and orthodoxy of the path. Works such as al-Risalah al-

Q\lshayriyyah by al-Qushayri, Iabagat al-$ufi:nah by al-SulamI, Adab al-

MurIdin by al-Suhrawardi, IQyi'

c _..... __

Ulurn al-D1n by al-Ghazali and others

corne to mind. These works were often written in a clear style, inter-

spersed with Qur'anic and badIth citations and stories and biographies

of the saints of Islam.

-<

This is not the case, however, with the Qawa id

of Zarruq. Rather, it is written in an aphoristic style and is at times

purposefully vague and unclear. This is not the general style of Zar-

ruq, who in his other works, such as the numerous commentaries on the

Rika~ of Ibn cA~a' Allah, or in his commentary on the Sa9Ib al-BukharI,

uses the simplest and clearest language possible in discussing whatever

matter is at hand. Perhaps he chose to write this particular work in an

obscure style in order to prevent any confrontations with religious

scholars. Perhaps he felt that too clear an exposition would delimit

the range of possibilities or the applications of particular principles.

Then, too, it is in the nature of aphoristic writing to be somewhat

obscure and vague at times. Whatever the reason, the person who

reflects on his Arabic sentences must supply a good deal of material

that he quite often takes for granted. In the end, the elliptical

character of Zarruq's argumentation and style compel his readers to come

to terms with his remarks and observations from the very beginning or

else to abandon the enterprise. This represents a challenge on the part

of Shaykh At~ad Zarruq, cailing upon his readers to meditate intensely

on his meaning and thereby to reach new plateaus of understanding that a

straightforward affirmation could not generate.

This dissertation is divided into three major parts: an introduc-

tion to the life and works of Zarruq, the English translation of Qawacid

al-Ta$awwu~~, and an appendix. The appendix supplies brief biographical

_t

sketches of persons mentioned in the Qawa id, a glossary of technical

terms, and two chains of initiation, one from the Prophet MUQammad to Zarruq, and another from Zarruq to AQmad al-(Alaw1, who died in 1932.

PART I INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION: THE LIFE AND WORKS OF ~ ZARRUQ

Shaykh Shihab aI-Din Abu al-(Abb~s AQffiad ibn AQffiad ibn MUQammad ibn <rsa a l+Barnus, al-Fa's!', (846/1442 - 899/1493) known as Zar riiq , is cne of the many significant and interesting figures in the h;~tory of ~ufism whose name and work have been insufficiently recognized. Though obscure to us today, he is far from deserving such obscurity. Scholar, jurist, and influential spiritual teacher, he was an outstanding member of the vast network of adherents of ~iif! o rder s t.hat has been one of the mainstays of the spiritual life of IsIQffi since the fall of the cAbbasids.

For an institution of such influence and durability the tar{gahs, or organized ~ufI orders, have received precious little study and still

less appreciation.

Western scholarship. which has familiarized us with

some of the greatest early Sufi personalities, still frequently manages to g~ve the impression that outside that charmed circle, all was a void. Because of the general scholarly avoidance of epochs later than the 7th/13th century and lands outside the Eastern Islamic heartland, our general understanding of Muslim religious history has ~uffered.

Nor is this disregard exclusively a Western attribute. For reasons

perhaps rooted in the political developments of the past hundred years,

much of modern Muslim intellectual culture has attempted to downplay ~ufism's great contribution to Islamic social and spiritual history. Even when the early masters well-known in the West have been acknowledged, later ones have been ignored. denizens as they were of the long ages of Islamic political decline.

2

Yet despite its small renown, Islamic culture after the last cAbbasid vanished was rich, varied, and fully creative. One of the distinctive signs of the vigor of this middle period was precisely the appearance of the tarigahs, which were destined to playa central role in the religious life of many succeeding generations of Muslims, and which continue to guide thousands of helievers today. Zarrijq was an important contributor to the North African evolution of these vital spiritual institutions.

A. ZARRUQ'S SUFI CONTEXT

1. North Africa in the Time of Zarruq

Abdullah Laroui, noting the scarcity of information available about fifteenth century Morocco, comments, "Moroccans of the past did not like this period; this remark is still valid for Moroccans of today."1 He goes on to give the reason: "Moroccan decadence and the Iberian offensive are the era's two major events."2

The Berber MarInid dynasty had dominated Morocco in the thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries, replacing the puritanical Muwa~~ids and Murabi~s -- the Almohades and Almoravids of Spanish faT-e. As the dynasty declined, the region suffered a political collapse. Between 760/1358 and 860/1465 when the MarInids were finally extinguished, Fez was to see seventeen d1fferent sultans.3

Meanwhile, the internal dissension made possible such disasters as the massacre and enslavement of the population of Tetouan by Henry III of Castile in 1399 and the capture and garrisoning of Ceuta by the Portuguese in 1415.4 The revolt that brought the Wat~asid branch

3

dynasty to power in 1465 resulted in the Portuguese capture of Arzila

and, in 1471, the occupation of Tangier. A Wat~asid treaty with the

Castilians in 1479 gave Europeans commercial control over the African coast facing the Canaries, including Fez itself.5 Things were to grow

steadily worse.

The Marinid regime ended in political chaos. "The sa~e need not

be said, however, of religion and. culture," Julien notes. "The

Marinids ... encouraged the development of religious learning by founding

madrasahs alDost everywhere. If they are not to be regarded as having

founded the 'school of Fez,' they contributed largely to its growth and

glory. It can be said that everything in Morocco that goes to make up

Islam carries the stamp of the Marinids .•.. ".6

The religious establishment the Marinids patronized proved far more

,

durable than the dynasty itself. Maintenance of central power is often

not crucial to daily life in an essentially decentralized society. What

matters is a shared culture. Marshall Hodgson's observation on posttAbbasid life in the Islamic East is equally relevant to the fifteenth-

century Maghrib: "It cannot be said that civilization broke up .... It

was held together in virtue of a common Islamicate social pattern which,

by enabling members of any part of the society to be accepted as members

of it anywhere else, assured the circulation of ideas and manners

throughout its area. Muslims always felt themselves to be citizens of

the whole Dar al-Islam .... "7

And it was the threat to the Da~ aI-Islam, not to one dynasty or

another, that ignited the ordinar.y Muslim. Indeed, the very incapacity

of the MarTnid and Wattasid governments to deal with Portuguese and

4

Spanish incursions produced, by reaction, a strengthening of other means

of preserving Islamic social order and identity.

-~

The first was of course the shari ah. The second was tarIgah

~iifism.

2. Development of the IarIgahs

Though a thorough study of the Sufi orders in general, or even of

one order in particular, does not fall within our scope, no study of

Z2rruq can proceed without an examination of the tarIgahs that most

closely affected him.

At the commencement of a thoughtful social analysis, Hodgson

observed, lilt can seem paradoxical that the subjective, ineffable,

extraordinarily personal experiences of ~ufism could become a basis for

social life and become historically decisive; that the most personal and esoteric form of piety should be the most popular."S Yet this is

precisely what happened through most of the Islamic world starting in

the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. The associations of mystics that

had always existed became more st.ructured , their rules became more

explicit, and the types of human transactions these rules fostered

solidified into institutions. The circles of students surrounding

teachers broadened to become large communities of adherents crossing

political boundaries.

As before, these communities contained dedicated seekers. Yet they

also welcomed simple f0lk drawn to the religicus prestige of the

shaykhs, and ordinary people who needed the emotional and practical

benefits of belonging to a powerful group. As they took definite form,

5

these groups grew prodigiously, for they were expanding into a social

vacuum.

At the time of the original formation of the tarIgahs, and in the

circumstances in which they later spread, governments of Islamic lands tended to be fragmented and unstable.9 This was certainly the case in

the Maghrib, as we have seen. And though the international schools of sharicah could provide culturally Qnifying Islamic theory, they could

not produce lithe ties that bind." It was the tarIgahs that gave emo-

tional cohesion and wider dimension to everyday life.

The core of a tarIgah is the covenant between master and disciple,

and its spiritual authority is in its silsilah, or chain of transmission

from one shaykh to the next. Each tarIgah derives its particular way from a particular saint. The connection must be demonstrated from that

saint back through the preceding generations of teachers to the Prophet,

and likewise forward from him through his successor's to the humblest

student who takes the name of the order. A ~igd~ is thus a spiritual

family, providing both an exalted lineage and an extensive network of "kin". Each tarIgah takes from the example of its saint and the prac-

tice of its founding shaykhs a certain distinctive flavor. In this way, each variety of human temperament may take its place within a complex

and resilient whole.

Zarruq was closely connected to both the ShadhilI and Qadir!

~rIgahs, two of the most influential orders in the Maghrib.

a. The Qadiri Order

t

The Qadiriyyah, which traces itself to the great saint Abd al-

Qadir al-Jilani (d. 561/1166),10 reached Morocco from Iraq by the late

6

twelb:h century.11 It is held by many ~uf!s to be the oldest of the

tarIgahs. In North Africa it is also one of the most loosely struc-

tured. Formed of a collection of independent zawiyahs that have only

nominal connection to the center at the saint's tomb in Baghdad, the

tarigah also lacks "that homogeneity of statutes which is to be found in other ccngregations."l2 Because of its variegated and decentralized

nature, the range of the North African Qadiriyyah as an institution has been the subject of some disagreement.l3 Complicating the issue is the

L·'tertwining of Qadir:i lines with those of other tar!gahs.

The enormous respect accorded its patron saint made QadirI connec-

tions highly prized throughout the Maghrib.

<

Shaykh Abd aI-Qadir is

held to have transmitted some of his spiritual force to many who met

him. His influence was thus infused into orders that developed subse-

quently.

And even where there was no directly traceable link to his

line, there could be an inspirational one. According to a tradition

quoted in the Qadir! history Bahjat al-Asrar -- which is indicative, even if "likely to be apocryphal,"l4 n Shaykh ~Abd aI-Qadir stated that

"assumption of his khirgah was not absolutely necessary for entry into his order; personal attachment to himself was sufficient."lS Such an

attitude made the name of Qadiriyyah an umbrella under ~hich many dif-

ferent forms of practice could gather. It also made it possible for

many ~ufls to combine Q~dirI sentiments with the forms of other

tarIgahs.

We shall see that Qadir! influences greatly affected Zarruq, even

though he was not in the end counted a Qadiri.

7

b. The Shadhi11 Order

Through his teacher al-~a4ramI, Zarruq might have been formally reckoned either a Qadiri or a Shadhili.16 He never explicitly identified himself with either order.17 Yet as Khushaim notes in Zarrug the Sufi, "All historians of the SufI Orders are agreed .•. that Atunad Zarruq was a true Shadhili.,,18 This judgment is based upon Zarriiq's eminence as a commentator upon the works of the great SbadhilI Ibn ~Ata'

Allah, upon his recommendation of the Sh'adbilI Way, and also upon the

general tOile of his writings. The Shadhilis are a sober order, in the

"tradition of al-Junayd and of the oldest trends in Maghribi ~ufism.19

Zarruq clearly belongs to this school of thought.

The order was founded by Shaykh Abu al-ijasan al-ShadhilI (d.

656/1258). Al-ShadhilI was a student of another great Sufi, Shaykh Ibn MashIsh (d. 625/1228)20, and is counted together with him, Shaykh 'Abd aI-Qadir al-JilanI, and Muhammad ibn <Abd aI-Rahman al-Jazuli (869/1465)

. .

as one of the "spiritual poles" specially honored in Morocco.21

According to Ibn Sabbagh's Durrah, the source of all later

accounts, al-Shadhili left his home in Ghumarah in search of the pole-

saint of the time, unly to be advised by a shaykh in Iraq that the

object of his quest was to be found in his own country. He returned, and attached himself to Ibn MashIsh at Fez. Later, according to Ibn cAta' Allah, he was empowered to draw his inspiration directly from the Prophet, the Four Caliphs, the Archangels and the Spirit.22

Though his station was beyond ordinary comprehension, his teaching

was simple and concrete. He did not write abstract treatises, but

pastoral letters. He instituted no special ritual forms and discouraged

seclusion, mendicancy, and any form of dress that would draw attention

8

to the ~ufi calling of its wearer. He promulgated no metaphysical system. This preference was followed by his successors Abu a1-(Abbas

al-MursI (d. 686/1288) and Taj aI-Din Ibn cAta' Allah (d. 709/1309), and

also by Zarruq.

The Shadhiliyyah is characterized by Schimmel as "an order that inspired man to a sanctification of his daily life."23 :it "appealed

neither to the lower classes •.• nor to the poets, but is primarily con-

nected with the middle class, the officials and the civil servants who

were trained in the Shadhiliyya method to fulfill their duties care-

fully. 1124

Though Schimmel concludes that Shadhili teaching "in its subtlest

expressions, is directed not to a large community but to ~ach individual,,,25 Mackeen observes that al-Shadhili "recognized the need to extend

his message to society at large. Hence in preference to the hills of

Ghumarah he opted for .•• urban surroundings.,,26

(' - -

According to an anecdote related in Ibn Ata' Allah's Late'if al-

Minan, al-ShadhilT overheard Ibn Mash!sh praying to be separated from

h'..Ullan society. When he asked about this, his teacher advised him, "Oh

'AlI, it is better that you say: 'Make subservient to me the hearts of

Your servants; if He should bless you that way, yours shall be everyth-

ing. ,"27

him.

And the hearts of many servants were in fact made subservient to

(- -

Through the circulation of the works of Ibn Ata' Allah and al-

Shadhili1s own enormously popular litany ijizb al-Ba9r, by the fifteenth

century the Shadhiliyyah had become "a devotional movement which

affected every family in the Maghrib."28

9

3. ~ufism in the Maghrib

While the existence of ~ufism and of the tarigahs was pan-Islamic,

each region of the Muslim world bestowed its un i que coloration upon the

sp i r Ltua l life.

The Maghrib constituted a self-contained realm of its

own.

Where in the Eastern Islamic lands Sufism had undergone a long

social de,Te10pment before the coa1escenc~ of the tarIgahs, in the West

it was a much later introduction .. - four centuries later, according to

John Renard.29 This delay meant that Suff doctrine and practice reached

the Maghrib already formed; it also meant that the local religious

institutions among which ~ufism was introduced were already securely

consolidated. One of these was formal jurisprudence in a conservative

vein. Another was the enthusiastic popular attachment to sources of

spiritual force, or barakah.

a. Sufism and Orthodoxy

.

It may "not be a gross oversimplification," according to Renard,

lito say that the institutions of orthodoxy in the West never had quite as much to fear from Sufism as they did in the East.,,30 That is to say,

after centuries of prinr Pl1trenchment, Maghribi theologians and jurists

perceived less threat to the dominance of their principles or to their

own authority. This security made it easier for $ufism's inward f0;':~S

to appear as an enhancement rather than as a seduction.

From the time of the very ear1ie3t shavkhs and in all parts of the

Islamic world, East and West, Sufi mascers have insisted upon the unity -(

of shari ah, the Law, and bagigaq, the inner reality. This affirmation,

however, has not always been well received. To state that another plane

10

of being exists is to state that another plane of authority exists as

well. In the absence of deep wisdom, such a claim almost instantly

becomes political.

The $ufIs have everywhere had to extract themselves from political

situations and to reaffirm the teaching of unity. The Maghrib was no

different. However, in many times and places the task has been compli-

cated by alliances of state administration with religious jurisprudence

that muddied the issues involved. In fifteenth century Morocco, govern-

ment administration was so shattered that it could no longer be

identified with the Sacred Law. In such circumstances, and under the

pressure of non-Muslim incursions, it was far easier for the custodians

of the Law to see their concerns as harmonious with those of the ~ufIs,

and for aspirants to ~ufism to unreservedly embrace the Law.

b. Sufism and Popular Piety

" ... it was especially in the western Maghrib that was felt the division of the land into two parts: the relatively limited areas immediately around the cities, in which urban governmental control was effectively felt; and the larger mountainous hinterland in which, whatever the nominal ties with a city dynasty, the tribes ruled themselves in their own ways •.. 31

This urban/rural split was not solely a matter of social control,

but also of cultural emphasis. In the cities, the reserve of the Law

predominated. In the countryside, the ancient sources of holiness --

sacred places, sacred lineages, persons and objects charged with super-

natural power -- formed the focus of religious attention. But where in

pre-Islamic times the invisible power was attributed to local

divinities, in the Islamic era it was naturally attributad to local

saints, their tombs, their relics, and their descendants.

11

" ... We must not deceive ourselves," says Adolphe Faur~. "The adoration of the saints entrusted with the barakah was not disinterp.sted. What was expected of the saint was that he should protect the clan and their homeland from the schemes of any possible enemjes or, for example, from the exactions of the governor representing the central power. He was asked to intercede with Allah to obtain good harvests, rain in times of drought, and protection for herds and orchards."32

Country dwellers felt the universe of invisible forces to be perilously close by. From time immemorial, they had demanded that their spiritual protectors be intimately involved in day-to-day management of those forces. Yet the antiquity of this attitude should not distract us from the fact that the ~ufr shaykhs did in fact provide many people with

daily guidance through invisible realms

though perhaps of a so~ewhat

different kind. The "adoration of saints," however it was elal:-orated, had roots in people's real experience.

Hodgson best delineates this process. "Many ~ufis," he points out, "devoted much time not only to public preaching but also to helping others to work through moral problems as they came to them and to find as pure a life as they personally were capable of .... Such nen and women gradually won enormous popular respect. Among the more perceptive, the respect was given for the moving effect of their preaching and still more for the moral purity of which they gave evidence in their per-

sons .... But the ~ufr piety, tolerant of human weakness, did not generally separate itself from common beliefs and from the sensibilities of the common people •.•. Partly in response to this tolerance, popu::'ar respect for the SufIs was often expressed in wonder tales. The moral respect which the perceptive conceded to them was transformed, in the

12

minds of wider circles, who required a less subtle formulation of it,

into a deferential awe expressed in tales of ordeals endured and marvels

performed. "33

Because of their peculiar relationship to the religious ideals of

both the countryside and the cities, the ~ufis were able to form a

bridge between the two social orders of the Maghrib. This bridge helped

to maintain Moroc~a .. morale and cohesion in the face of the disasters of

the fifteenth century. But to link popular devotion to el Lt;e sobriety

was to walk a very demanding road.

B. ZARRUQ'S LIFE AND LEGACY

1. Biographical Outline

Submit to Salma and follow her wherever she goes. Follow the winds of fate and turn wherever she turns.

These verses are advice that was given to Zarruq by his teacher al-

FagramT.34 They make the best summary of a life marked by much travel

and many changes, yet clinging always to a single ideal.

Abu al-cAbb~s AQffiad ibn AQrnad ibn MUQammad ibn (isa al-Barnusi al-

FasT was born on either the 12th or 22nd of Mu~arram, 846 A.H. (May 28

or June 7, 1442 C.E.). His title al-Barnusi indicates his membership in

the well-to-do Berber tribe of Baranis that inhabited the area between

Taza and Fez, the city in which he was raised and from which he derived

his second nisbah, aI-FasT. Though he was o rd.g Jna Ll.y named Mu"b-ammad,

his parents died in an epidemic within a week of his birth and he became

known by his father's proper name, A"b-mad -- a name he loved so well that he later gave it to each of his four sons.35 Zarruq, the name by which

13

he is usually mentioned. is an unusual derivation of azraq. "blue." The nickname passed to him from his grandfather, who had had the Berber blue eyes.

The infant Zarruq had been left in the care of his paternal grandmother, but was actually brought up by his mother's mother. Umm alBanin. This lady, whom l'abagat al-ShadhiliyYah calls "a saint, a righteous and pure woman,tl36 had her grandson apprenticed to a cobbler and formally trained in the Qur1an at the local school. She taught him faith herself. Umm al-Banin influenced him deeply, as he records in his autobiography.37 (We will consider this influence further, as we will consider all of Zarruq1s teachers, in the following section.) She died in his tenth year.

When he was sixteen Zarruq began the life of a student of religion.

Fez in the fifteenth century was a great intellectual and religious center. Zarruq joined both the university attached to the QarawiTJin mosque and the (Inaniyyah college, where he studied Malik! jurisprudence, theology, tradition, and Arabic grammar. In the wide reading and active discussion of the university environment he probably made his first contacts with tarigah Sufism. He also began to write, an occupation that was to continue without ceasing for the rest of his life.

Zarruq apparently studied with several Sufi ?haykhs, but at some point the young man became attached to al-Zaytuni, who may have been the head of a Shadhili zawiyah in Fez. After several years with this teacher , interrupted by a brief period of disagreement, Zarrtlq left on the Pilgrimage to Mecca. He was 27 years old.

That year (873/1468) he was in Cairo, the next, in the Arabian port of Yanbu' and the Holy Cities. After completing the rites of Pilgrimage

14

he spent a year in Medina, then another year in Cairo. In all these

places he continued his formal studies, and sat with jurists and Sufi

shaykhs. During his second stay in Cairo, however, he contacted his

second master, the major spiritual influence in his life, AQffiad ibn <

Uqbah al-~a~ramI.

At the end of 877/1473, at the age of 31, Zarruq set out to return

to Morocco. With the assistance of a fellow disciple and friend, Mu~am-

mad al-Kha~I~r, he hoped to establish his master's teaching in his

native land. The next year he was in Bougie in what is now Algeria, and

the year after that, after seven years of travel, he returned to Fez.

He lived four years in Fez, apparently in difficult circumstances,

though it was there that he married his first wife, Fatimah alZilla~iyyah,38 who bore him two sons. Then he decided to emigrate,

returning to Bougie in 884, against the pleasure of his master.

Presumably to reestablish his ties with al-ija4rami, he returned to Cairo

for the third time at the end of that year. Here his hopes were rcal-

ized. He was reconciled with his teacher and began to gather disciples.

He made another Pilgrimage. Yet after two years, for very different

reasons, he moved yet again.

In 886/1481, when he was forty years old, Zarruq settled in

Misurata, a prosperous town not far from Tripoli in today's Libya. He

came on inspiration and was to stay for the rest of his life. In that

year he wrote to al-ijaQrami:

You have known, Sir, that I am in Misurata because of what came into my heart that I must obey. We are unable to do anything but turn wherever the wind of our destiny turns and accept whatever emanates from it with the help of God, since each destiny has been recorded in a book. We do not care

15

where we are, so long as we are numbered among the beloved ones.39

Zarruq had followed Salma to a place that was to give him great

honor. He took as second wife a local woman, Amat al-Jalll, who bore

him two more sons and his only daughter. Students attached themselves

to him in great numbers, and the town's inhabitants consulted him on all

the problems of their daily lives.

He left only twice more, once on a brief trip to Algiers and once

for a final Pilgrimage. During that journey, which took him a year, he stopped in Cairo and, according to al-KUhin,40 lectured at al-Azhar and

was welcomed by scholars and princes.

Four years later (899/1493) he died in retreat at the town he had

made his own. He was 54 years old and, despite his renown, extremely

poor. According to Khushaim, "All he left when he died were: half a mare shared between him and H~jj (Abd Allah b. Mu~ammad al-Dkerani41 al-

Misrati, a white burnus (cape), a woollen jubbah and dress, a rosary given him by al-~a4rami and fourteen volumes on different subjects."42

Such were the concrete details of the life of the teacher called by

(

Ibn Askar:

" •.. the man of knowledge, the enlightened, the Sufi, the saint, the

gnostic, the possessor of divine gifts and religious sciences, the

author of many works and short enlightening epistles, the inheritor of the station of the Prophet, the revitalizer of his Sharicah, the

defender of his Sunnah, spreader of the banner of sainthood on the path of Truth, Abu al-~Abbas AQmad ibn 'Isa al-Barnus1 aI-FasT, known as Zarruq.43

16

2. Education

Zarruq was a student for the whole of his life and a teacher for most of it. He was well aware of the major currents of thought in his time, read countless books, and sat with dozens of instructors. If we wish to isolate the major influences upon him, our best hope is to examine the works and persons that he himself picked out as important.

a. Books

Though we do not know the titles of the "fourteen volumes on different subjects" that made up his wealth when he died, we do know from his autobiography the books that impressed him both while he was a student in Fez, and later during his studies in Cairo. According to the Kunnash,44 his reading in Fez was largely devoted to religious a~ademics: al-Risalah of al-Qayrawani,45 al-~Aga'id of al-~us1, alA4kam al-Sughra of (Abd al-ijaqq,46 al-Jamit of al-Tirmidhi,47 the rules for Qur'anic reading from Nafi', and al-BukharI1s SabIb.48 This is a fairly standard collection of central texts in jurisprudence and Qur'anic and gadIth studies. Yet he also read ~ufi works: al-GhazalI's al-Risalah al-Qudsiyyah49 and al-TanwIr o~ the great Shadhil1 Ibn ~Ata' Allah al-IskandarI,50 to whose writings he was later to devote so many

commentaries.

At Cairo he continued to read jurisprudence -- he cites again alBukharI and ~Abd al-ijaqq, along with the books of Ibn AbI Jamrah51 and al-Madkhal of Ibn al-ijajj.52 However, his main attention had passed to ~ufr writings.53 These now included the works of the classic Sufi moralist al-MuQasibi,54 al-GhazalI's Ibya' ~UlUm al-Din,55 and several of the key Sufi manuals of the 11th century: al-MakkI's Qut al-Qulub,56

17

al-QushayrI's Risalah,57 and al-Suhrawardi's 'Aw;rif al-Ma(arif,58 as well as all the other works of Ibn ~A~a' Allah.59

The list of authors as a whole is notable for ~roviding a solid

background in the inward and outward practice of Islam -- it contains

neither theorists nor ecstatics, but a series of guides for putting

faith into action. It is excellent evidence for Zarruq's sym9athy witl1

the ShadhilI concentration on "everyday mysticism."

b. Zarruq's Teachers in Religious Studies

Khushaim has assembled a list of some 48 instructors, both juris~s

and ~ufrs, with whom Zarruq is known to have associated.60 On the

- ( -

exoteric side, the two most influential were probably Abu Abd Allah al-

Qawri in Fez, and MU9ammad al-Sakhawi in Cairo.

Al-Qawri (or al-Gl1awri) was a distinguished Malik! jurist, professor at al-Qarawiyyi'n and past mufti of Fez. Zarruq attended his

classes, was a guest at his house, and engaged him in far-ranging discussions of religious issues. Zarruq himself notes that al-Qawri did not condemn the teachings of Ibn (Arabi,61 a position unusual in a man

of his background, and a fair indication of broad-mindedness.

Al-Sakhawi (d. 902/1496-1497) was an eminent Shafi(r scholar who

divided his time between Cairo and the Holy Cities.62 Under him Zarruq

studied jurisprudence and badith terminology on his first stay in Cairo

in 976/1471, a.nd also during his second, in 885/1480. The two men

became friends, and al-SakhawT mentions Zarruq in his al-paw' al-

L~i~ .63 During Zarruq's second visit, al-SakhawI issued him an ii~zah,

or teaching diploma.

18

c. Zarruq's Mentors in ~afism

While Zarruq's professors helped give form to his thought, his

spiritual guides helped shape his whole attitude to life. Three of them

are of great importance.

i. Umm al- Bani'n

Zarruq's first religious instructor of any kind, and an outstanding

influence upon him, was the woman who raised him, his maternal grand-

mo~her Umm al-Banin.64 The women of Fez at the time of Zarruq were able

to participate actively in the intellectual and spiritual life of the

city, and Umm al-Balli!l was one who d Ld so. She was learned in religion,

but beyond that, she clearly possessed special insights into spiritual

education. Zarruq repeatedly cites her in his autobiography. Here is

one s'.lch story quoted in Khushaim:

[When I was five years old] she ••. started teaching me about unity, trust, faith and religion by a very curious method.

One day she prepared food for me. When I came back from the kuttab to lunch she said: :1 have got nothing for you. But provision is in the Almighty's treasury. Sit down and let us ask Him.' Both of us stretched our hands towards the sky and began praying. Then she said, 'Go and look, maybe God has put something in the COUi.:..rs of the house.' We began to search and how glad I was when I found the food! She said, 'Come and let us thank God before we eat, so that our Lord may give us more from His grace.' We thanked God and praised Him for an hour, then commenced eating. She used ~0 ~~ so many times till I grew up.65

Though nothing more has been recorded of this lady beyond the

tributes of her pupil, his testimony is sufficient for us to perceive

her special gift: she communicated the pleasure along with the form of

the spiritual life. As aI-KUbin observed in the Tabagat, !lshe ... brought

19

him up on a path of proper di~ection and perfection, so that he grew up enjoying acts of devotion and worship •••• "66

ii. Al-Zaytuni

The second person to have an important personal impact on the

development of Zarruq is only sliglltly le5s obscure than the first. Abu ~Abd Allah MUQammad al-ZaytUnl was a blind black man with enormous force

of character, known for the many supernatural phenomena that manifested through him. According to Ibn ~Askar's biographical notice on him, "He

was known as 'the bli~d serpent,1 for none could escape his bite because

his prayers were so readily answered."67

t

Ibn Askar relates several

stories (one attested by Zarruq) of his frightening thieves and brigands

with miracles, and notes liThe Bedouins of Ankad, al-Zab and IfrIqiyah

used to avoid his caravan, despite the fact that they were a fierce

people. 1168 One gathers that al-ZaytunI was the sort of shaykh that the

~ufrs characterize as jalali -- a focus for the attributes of divine

power.

Such teachers inevitably present students with many tests. That

was Zarrnq1s experience. After becoming an intimate disciple of al-

Zaytuni's, Zarruq was suddenly expelled from his company and punished

with forty days I separation, a classical method for disciplining

novices. This episode caused the young man deep distress. By Zarruq1s

own account, his shaykh had charged him with the betrayal of a secret,

and would not accept his protestations of innocence. Zarruq1s biog-

raphers tell the story differently: According to them, Zarruq was sum-

moned into his teacher's room, only to find him with two women. When

condemnation entered his mind, he was shown that the women were not

20

human females, but this world and the next. Then he was cast out for

doubting his master.

Khushaim speculates upon possible political reasons for disagreement between master and disciple,69 but the episode may be seen in

another light. While one may doubt the particulars of the biographers'

story, it does convey that the s i.t.uat.Lon was specifically arranged by

al-ZaytunI. This is quite plausible. We may understand it as a teaching

transaction, and Zarruq' s "t r i.a L by disgrace" as a purification. The

indications are that Zarruq eVE~tually passed his test to al-ZaytunT's

satisfaction. For after fulfilling the terms of his banishment, Zarruq

returned to Fez and was welcomed by his master, who used afterwards to

praise him in the highest terms.

Shaykh al-ZaytUh! is called by Khushaim both a Qadiri70 and a Shadhili,71 though the former is perhaps more likely. It is not clear

whether he initiated Zarruq into either order or not, or whether there

was an actual vow binding them or not.

(

Ibn Askar says Zarriiq "placed

himself under [al-Zaytiin!] and claimed a great love for him,,,n specifi-

cally not mentioning a formal covenant. On the other hand, al-Kcrhin in

the Tabagat says that Zarriiq was "formally initiated onto the path by our master cAbd Allah al-Makki, from whom he took instruction and served

for a period of time."73 AI-KUbin attaches this name to Zarruq's first

master, but there are no other references to al-ZaytlTni as "al-Makk!."

According to al-SahkawT, however, A~ad al-ija~ranlr was sometimes called lal-Makki,"74 and we may wonder whether aI-KUbin's sources were not

actually referring to Zarruq's second shaykh.

Whatever the true nature of their tie, al-Zaytun! brought an ele-

ment of the unfathomable into the studious life of the young Zarruq.

21

Perhaps his influence insured that the youth would become a $ufi, and not simply a scholar.

iii. Al-ija4rami

It was after his first Pilgrimage that Zarruq ultimately bound himself to a guide. According to aI-KUbin's Tabagat, he " .•• took hands with him, received the litanies, was inspired through him, received spiritual guidance from him, attached himself to him, and stayed with him. He was his shaykh and only confidant on the path. 1175 This was Taj al-Din Abn al-'Abb~s A~ad ibn (Uqbah al-~a4ramr (824/1421-895/1489), .a Sufi teacher from Ha4ramawt who had established himself in Cairo. In the recorded silsilahs, the ~ufi lines of transmission, Zarruq receives his spiritual authority through this shaykh alone.

Al-KUbin naturally counts al-~a4raml as a 3hadhili, but Khushaim notes that two silsilahs are attached to Zarruq, one tracing back to Abu al-ijasan al-Shadhili and the other to 'Abd aI-Qadir al-Jilani, and both of them come through al-~aqrami.76 When Zarruq questioned al-~agramI about his affiliation, al-~a4rami avoided the question.77

Al-~a4ramr's own shavkh was Abu al-Siyadat YaQya ibn MUQammad (d. 857/1453), the son and grandson of Shadhili teachers.78 He was called,

as they were, Ibn Wafa'.

According to al-SakhawI,79 this shaykh had a

following as his brother:s successor to the leadership of the Wafa'iyyah branch of the Shadhili Order. Yet even al-Kuhin admits that he was generally known as YaQya al-Qadiri.80

The biographers see al-~a4ramI as saving Zarruq from the wrath of al-Zaytunr.81 While the details of their story are not borne out by the facts of Zarruq's life (Zarruq did not leave Fez and go directly to Cairo, but stayed with al-ZaytunI an additional three years after his

22

period of trial), it is probably true that there was a considerable contrast between the personalities of Zarruq1s two shaykhs. Where alZaytlini presented a challenge to Zarruq1s understanding, al-ija~rami had much in common with him. He was a scholarly man, like his student, and also a compassionate and caring one who wrote many letters of instruction to his disciples.82 He wrote Zarruq regularly throughout his later life. His letters are not abstract discourses, but show great personal involvement with Zarruq1s spiritual welfare and religious mission. Even when he rebukes Zarruq,83 it is in terms of father to son.

AI-ija4ramI was called, as Zarruq was also called, one of those Stiffs who "used to integrate the Sacred Law with the Truth ... 84 As has been noted above, such titles should not be taken to imply any preexisting division between shari\ah and bagigah in Sufi theory or the accepted practice of the tarigahs. In fact, teachers so characterized were those who were formally qualified to teach Islam in all dimensions, and were religious academics as well as spiritual guides. AI-ijaqramI "used to attend the circles of the doctors of the law, and they used to attend his circle."8S Such was was the case with all the many shaykhs proclaimed as "unifiers" -- including A1pnad Zarruq.

3. Zarruq1s Legacy a. The Zarruqiyyah

From the time he ascended to the status of shaykh, AQrnad Zarruq never stopped initiating disciples from allover North Africa and the ~ijaz. He kept up correspondence with a number of them, as well as overseeing the religious lives of the many people he had gathered about

23

him in Misurata. After his death, groups of his students constituted

themselves formally as the Zarruqiyyah.

It is not clear whether, while he was alive, Zarruq gave any

indications of wishing to found a Shadhill branch order. According to

al-Kuhin, he received divine instruction to do so after his state became

illuminated, and after a spiritual visitation from the Prophet. Al-

Kuhin says, " •.. the order was named after him TNhen the lights of the

people of the Truth manifested themselves in him. He was commanded,

while in a spiritual state of ecstasy, while in the company of men, to

say as he held his beard, 'There is no shaykh after this beard. ,"86

This story, however, is not to be found in the Kunn~sh, his

autobiography. Zarruq, following his master, never explicitly declared his tarIgah affiliation. The only silsilah recorded in his

autobiography is Suhrawardi; though he had only tangential relations

with this order,87 he recommended its procedures for initiation and

invocation. Khushaim takes this as indicating a desire for independence

from the Shadhili or any other umbrella.88 Whatever the case -- and we

are hindered by scanty information -- all Zarruql subgroups are

unquestionably ShadhilT.

Khushaim traces thirteen Shadhill suborders through the Zar-

ruqiyyah: Bakriyyah-Zarruqiyyah in Egypt; Yashrutiyyah in Lebanon and

Rhodes; Rashidiyyah-Zarruqiyyah, Ghaziyyah, Suhayliyyah, Karzaziyyah,

Shaykhiyyah, Na~iriyyah~ Zay~~niyyah~ and Dar.q~wiyyah in Morocco and

(,-

Algeria; Isawiyyah in Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya; Madaniyyah

in all North Africa and the Uijaz; Sanusiyyah in all North Africa, Chad,

Niger, the ~ijaz, and Yemen.89

24

Zarruq's prestige, as transmitted through these subgroups, covers a

vast area.90 His actual teaching directed itself to a far more limited

group. G. Colin comments, "The ~ufi' teachings of A1;unad Zarriiq were too

lofty and perhaps also too pure to meet with great success amongst the

masses."91 Yet if it never carried widely enough to constitute a popu-

lar movement, Zarruq's thought was nonetheless preserved within the

orders by those who knew him (and those who knew them) and by all the

readers of his many and careful works.

b. Noted Students

Because of the paucity of information about fifteenth and sixteenth

century North Africa, most of Zarruq's immediate students are untrace-

able, and we can record only their names. These include: MUQammad ibn

It C ~ _ , ...

Abd al-RaQffian al-ijatt~b al-Ru aynT al-Kab1r, Abu Mubammad Al1 al-

Kharrubi al-SaghTr, Zayn aI-Din al-QasantIni;92 Abu al-Qasim and Ibrahim al-Zarhuni, cAbd aI-Malik ibn Sacld, Muhammad Musa ibn AyyUb, MUQammad al-Sarsuri, Muqammad al-SalawI, Abu Muvammad (Abd al-~AzIz;93 MUQammad

1 B - .,. - < - 94 -

a - aramun1, Abu al- Abbas Agmad ibn Ghalbun; and Ibrahim al-FaQQam

who was called "gutb al-anjerb wa al-abdal.,,95

Important to the spread of the Zarruqiyyah were three others mentioned by cAbd Allah Kannun in Mashahir Rijal al-Maghrib: Abu al-~asan

al-BakrI, "the Gnostic," whom Zarruq initiated in Mecca in approxi-

mately 894/1489,96 and who later founded the Bakriyyah-Zarruqiyyah sub-

order in Egypt, and the Laqqani brothers. Shams al-D1n (d. 935/1529) and

Na~ir aI-Din (958/1551) who left Egypt to join their master in Misurata.

Shams aI-Din became Zarruq's khalifah, or successor, in the guidance of

the Misurata circle, remaining in touch with the students there even

25

after his return to his native town, Laqqanah.97 Khushaim mentions that

the descendants of another disciple,

<

Abd All~h al-Maghrawl of Morocco,

settled in Misurata and still constitute a tribe there.98 He also notes that Abu (AlI Han~iir ibn Al)mad al-Bija'i, a disciple from Algiers who

married one of Zarruq's widows, was buried next to Zarruq in his tomb.99 Ibn (Askar's Dawhat gives us the names of two further notable shaykhs among Zarruqls clo~e followers: from Morocco, (Abd Allah ibn (Umar al-Mugghari of Sijilm~sah (d. 913/1507-1508 ), recorded as Shaykh

aI-Islam and the founder of a zawiyah in Mu~gharah;100 and from Algiers,

AQffiad ibn Ynsuf al-Milyani al-Rashidi (d. 931/1525), ~o whom both the

Rashidiyyah-Zarruqiyyah and an order unattached to Zarruq, the

Yusufiyyah, are attributed.101

The career of this latter master is worthy of some attention. It

gives a clear illustration of the dangers that surround ~ufi teaching and ~ufi teachers. Ibn (Askar writes:

He was inspired with the knowledge of the attributes of God and was a gnostic. Many a miracle was performed by his hand. He had a wide reputation and a large following, and they had a great love for him, which became exaggerated to the extent that some claimed he was a prophet ••.. When the shaykh heard these sayings, he said, "He who says anything about us which we have not said ourselves will be burdened by God with difficulties and deprivation and daat.h on a false path." The jurists urged Sultan al-Ghalib t o crush these Ldeas , so a number of these people were imprisoned and others k i Ll.ed , These innovators were not followers of the shaykh.102

c. Tomb

Of the monument established for Zarruq, al-Kunin records, !![Zarruqj

(may God be pleased with him!) ... was buried in Libya. He has a large

mosque in which rituals are still carried out, and in which his tomb can

be visited. Any supplication made to God therein is answered.,,103

26

During his latter years, Zarruq's students askE~d him to build a zawiyah, a ~ufi center, in Misurata. He refused. But twenty years after his passing a Misurati z~wiyah was constructed in his name, halfway between the town center and the port of Qar AQrnad.104 ( Two othf.r ZarruqT zawiyahs were later added, one in Taliouine in Morocco and ~he other in Awlad TrTf in Algeria. 105)

This zawiyah was maintained by the family of another of Zarruq's disciples, Atroad (Abd al-RaQim of Sirt, for some hundred and fifty years, during which time it served as a religious school, refuge for the poor, and way station for pilgrims. In time declina set in and the zawiyah's custodians became unworthy. Qaramanli Pasha, the governor of Tripolitania (d. 1155/1745), personally intervened to place the zawiyah in the care of the family of Ibn GhalbUn, who restored its prestige and maintained it until 1923. The Italians then placed it under the management of a board of local notables. It is so governed to this day.106

According to Khushaim, the zawiyah at present consists of the tomb of Zarruq, a mosque, a school, and a library. Before the revolution of 1969, the Libyan government attached the school to the Islamic University. After the revolution, this university became the Department of Arabic Language and Islamic Studies of the University of Libya, which presumably is still concerned with the zawiyah school.107

When the Italians were close to occupying Misurata, all the manuscripts of A~ad Zarruq in the library's possession were smuggled out. None of them have since been found. The monument to Zarruq's name is now empty of his works.108

27

d. Zarruq's Works

It is Zarruq1s writings that are his best memorial. He was a

prolific writer. AI-Kuhin remarks, tlit was calculated that from the time of his birth till his death, he wrote half a page a day.tl109

Khushaim's study attributes the composition of ninety-four dif-

ferent works to APmad Zarruq. They are classified as: one work on

alchemy, two on medicine, two on theology, two Qur'anic commentaries,

three treatises on number and letter symbolism, four biographies and

travel narratives (including his autobiography), five collections of

correspondence, six books on Prophetic tradition, ten invocations and

commentaries on invocations, ten poems, ten books on jurisprudence, and

thirty-nine works on Sufism.IIO

Among the most important of the Sufi writings are Zarruq's collected commentaries on Ibn ~Ata' Allah's ~ (al-Knhin numbers them at

thirty-six), Khushaim -- placing them all under a single number in his catalog -- at seventeenlll); his commentaries on al-Shadhili's Hizb al-

Babr and al-Jazuli's Dala'il al-Khavr~t:112 his discourse on innovation

_. __ - .

in ~ufism, tUddat al-Murid; his personal litany, al-Wa~ifah; a commentary on al-Bukhari's ~; and Qawatid al-Tasawwuf which is before

us.

INTRODUCTION TO QAWXcID AL-TASAWWUF

A. The Role of the Qawa~id

Qawa'id al-Ta2awwuf, tiThe Principles of ~ufism,tI i.s one of the

works of Zarrrrq that all biographers list among his most important.

Zarruq himself gives his reasons for undertaking this work in its open-

28

ing. It was written " ... to introduce the principles and foundations of Sufism in a manner that integrates the Sacred Law with the Truth, and links the principles of religion and jurisprudence with the Path."113 Zarruq's purpose in this is not to prove ?ufism's orthodoxy to its critics, but to maintain ~crfism's integrity by using the criterion of the Law to expose d~~gerous perversions of practice.

Clifford Geertz writes that in 15th century Morocco " •.• the collapse of the political order ••• was followed in turn by what was probably the greatest spiritual dislocation the country has ever experienced:

the so-called Maraboutic Crisis. Local holy men, or

marabouts ... appeared allover the landscape to launch private bids for power."114 It is the miracle-mongering and self-delusion of these people and their followers at which Zarruq takes aim.

The biographer~ record that when Zarruq first returned to Fez as the representative of a1-~a~rami, he was met by a delegation of jurists and religious scholars. He questioned them about their means of livelihood, and they informed him that they lived on the proceeds of awgaf, pious bequests. "What, do you live off dead flesh?" he exclaimed.

"Dead flesh is permitted by the Sacred Law in the case of necessity," a jurist replied. "At least we do not live off of living flesh, which is prohibited in all cases." Zarruq fainted!115

Though Khushaim has interpreted this episode simply as showing bad relations between Zarruq and the jurists of Fez,116 it may be read more deeply. Zarruq's initial criticism of the jurists uses the ritual purity of sustenance as a metaphor for the ethical basis of action. Just as the eating of carrion is generally forbidden by the Law, Zarruq

29

is saying, so the scholars' reliance upon the contemporary equivalent of public funding compromises them and is morally repugnant. The scholar's retort reaches to the heart of Zarruq's later work: The Establishment connections of religious scholarship are not ideal, he says, but since there are no alternatives the situation can be borne. What, though, is to be made of :?ufi exploitation of the "living flesh" of unstable mass emotion? Zarruq faints because this point strikes home. His biographers preserve the story precisely because it represents an insight crucial to the future course of the shaykh's life. He would evaluate every ~ufr position and practice, weighing them all in the balance of the Law of God.

Kannun states that religious scholars after Zarruq, even to this day, have referred to him as lithe monitor of scholars and saints" (mul,1tasib al-~ulama' wa al-awliya'). He continues: "This is a grand and majestic attribute with which no Muslim scholar before or after him has been qualif ied. "117

Qawa'id al-Ta~awwuf is a monitor's handbook. Because of its unwavering demand that practices reflect princirlp.s, the work can be considered an ethical guideline for Sufi aspirants, and has been so used for centuries within the Sh~~tili Order.

The arguments set f~cth by Zarruq in his work are still valid, as are his criticisms.

30

B. THE QAWX( ID AS LITERATURE 1. Genre

Qawa'id al-Ta$awwuf is a manual for followers of the $ufi path. In its subject matter and intention it follows a well-established tradition of $ufI writing that includes such earlier works as al-Ghaza11's Ipya' (UIUm aI-DIn, al-Makk1's Qut al-Qulub, al-Suhrawardi's (Awarif alMa(arif and al-SuhrawardI's Adab al-MurIdinl18 -- books from which Zarruq draws material and to which he often refers the reader for more detail2d study.

What makes the Qawa(id different from the aforementioned works is the fact that there are no definitions of ~ufI vocabulary, no anecdotes, and no biographies of the shaykhs who are mentioned in the text. This was an intentional break with l:he genre on the part of Zarruq, who explicitly faults al-QushayiI's Risalah for being too diffuse and anecdotal,119 and comments that illustrations of the states of holy men are of no particular benefit. In the saint-laden atmosphere of the Maghrib, he found it wiser to take a sparer and more reserved approach to the topic.

Whiie the Qawa(id is not a collection of stories nor of "dos and don'ts," it is also not an abstract or metaphysical work. In each of his sequentially connected "Principles" Zarruq begins from the very beginning, ident-i..fying the meaning and reality of an idea or a word. In general, each opening line is theoretical, while the following section discusses practical ramifications in concrete terms, sometimes with examples. Zarr~q's f0rT.~1 inspiration is clearly jurisprudence.

Zarruq quotes the sayings of well-known shaykhs who preceded him, as well as his o=m teachers. But as often as he quotes $ufi shaykhs

31

(many of whom are ShadhilI), he relies upon the sayings of the great ~sters of jurisprudence (especially the Malikis). Zarruq shows that he is a master of both, and that both are necessary to the student.

2. Style

Considering the vast subject matter and the task that the shaykh has undertaken, the Qawacid is a short work. In the book's opening, he himself calls it "abridged," which may have led Khushaim to consider it to be derived from an earlier effort, (Uddat al-Murid al-Sadig.120 Whether or not this is actually the case, the Qawacid is certainly highly condensed.

While Zarruq draws heavily on the sayings of shaykhs and jurists in order to make a point, he does not identify his sources in the accepted fashion -- that is to say, there are no isnads, or chains of transmission, given in the text. Additionally, when he quotes Qur'anic verses and hadith, he generally refrains from giving their context or authenticat~on. Sometimes he only provides a fragment of a quotation. All of this would seem to indicate that the work was written for his own disciples, who were already familiar with the master1s sources.

The Qawa~id is academically written in a formal manner for wellversed readers. Its style is aphoristic, although Zarruq uses no flowery language and employs no rhymed prose (saj(). This simplicity is characteristic of the author. Michael Winter notes that tlAlpnad Zarriiq.

wrote in precise down-to-earth language.tll21

However, Zarruq1s writing is not without its problems for the translator. Some of these are all too familiar to students of the language. As is well known, meanings that can be conveyed in a few words

32

in Arabic often require considerable elaboration in English. To combine

sufficient elucidation with sufficient faithfulness to the dense, aphoristic style of the Qawa(id posed a constant challenge. Furthermore,

the legendary ambiguity of the "attached returning pronoun" (al-damIr

c

al-mutta2il al- a!id) makes a comprehension of the shaykh's whole con-

ceptual scheme a necessary prere~~isite for deducing the meaning of many

a particular phrase. Other problems in translation were encountered

with both ~ufi and juridical technical terms, some of which proved to be

unique to the Maghrib.

(

In addition, the course of the Qawa id's arguments may sometimes

seem obscure to modern readers. I have closed this introduction with a

synopsis of the work in order to assist the reader in keeping hold of

the thread.

3. The Text

Five manuscripts of the Qawa(id are currently in libraries: Berlin

3031, Fol. 1-329; Escurial 2741/7; Rabat Q555; Tunis 824 Fol. 1-65; and

~usni 1/18. How many copies may be in circulation in private hands

among the Shadhiliyyah has not been established.

The work has been published four times in the last century, always in Cairo: al-(Alamiyyah, 1318/1900; al-Ma(ahid (no date); and twice by

al-Kulliyat al-Azhariyyah, 1388/1968 and 1396/1976. Only the latter

three editions were consulted because of the unavailability of the 'Alamiyyah edition.

33

C. CONTENTS OF THE QAWA (, ID 1. Overview

Qawacid al-Ta$awwuf is divided into 16 sections (fu~ul) and an

epilogue. Each section contains an unequal number of loosely related

"Principles." Zarrllq did not number the principles himself, but simply

~

marked each one "Q~ idah." There are 217 principles as r.tmlbered by the

Arabic editor of the work.122

The Qawa(id is interspersed with citations from Qur'an and padith,

as well as quotations from theologians and shaykhs. There are

references to no less than 25 works, whose authors range from Malik and Ibn al-tArabi the jurist to al-QushayrT. al-Ghazalr, and Ibn (ArabI al-

ijatimI, the Sufi theosophist.

The work proceeds from a general derivation of Sufism from Islamic

fundamentals to a consideration of specific practices and their condi-

tions.

2. Synopsis

a. Section 1

~ufism, jurisprudence, and faith are interdependent. ~rrfism is based on the station of spiritual virtue (ipsan). There are three meth-

ods of reaching the station of ibsan: religious observance, asceticism,

and gnosis. "All are Sufis" no matter which path they choose.

It is of no consequence to possess knowledge if one does not act

upon that knowledge.

b. Section 2

The purpose of Sufism is the purification of the heart; other

claims are false, and false ~iifis are rife. Know~edge, especially of the religious law, is a necessary prelude to action. Knowledge must be

34

sought from persons of the right character. However there are legitimate differences of opinion, particularly in jurisprudence.

c. Section 3.

Blind conformism in religious practice (tagIId), as opposed to emulation (igtidal), is dangerous. ~ufis must follow a school of jurisprudence. The creedal belief of all ~ufis is that of the forefathers of Islam.

Descendents of the Prophet and the saints are to be specially respected.

d. Section 4

There are two general approaches to iQs~n: The first is the way of the Shadhiliyyahj the second is the way of al-Ghazali and his followers. Differences among paths are a comfort for the seeker, but the goal is

one.

The manner of seeking the Truth is important. ~ufism must be learned from its masters, just as jurisprudence must be learned from its masters. Righteousness (istig~~h), though it cernes from conforming to the virtues laid down in the Qurlan and the Sunnah, can only be perfected under the guidance of a shaykh. The Prophet gave individualized instruction to his Companions.

e. Section 5

Sufi shaykhs may give theoretical instruction, personal spiritual guidance, or instruction in contemplative ascension. 1~e correct procedure in asceticism may be compared to the manner in which a jurist considers a legal opinion and the manner ia which a traditionist examines a Prophetic tradition. Certain books are useful guides to Sufi practice; certain intellectual studies are dangerous.

35

The Shadh i Ld.yyah is the one order founded wholly on the pr Lnc i.p Lc of giving up self-will before God's commandments.

f. Section 6

~ufi knowledge is of three kinds: knowledge from admonition. knowledge of religious practice and service, and knowledge of revelation. The gur'an and the Sunnah are the source of all.

Unreflecting people are attached to the letter of the Law alone.

Jurists examine the substance. Realized Si:,fis understand the significance of both the outward word and its inward meaning. False ~ufis understand neither.

Legal precepts are not set aside simply because an outstanding spiritual quality appears in a person; neither does a legal failing invalidate a spiritual quality. If a saint commits a sin. he nevertheless remains a saint unless sinfulness persists. However, a second party may correct his errors when the truth is distinctly known. When a matter is doubtful, hesitating to pass judgment is the best course. (Hence Zarruq declines to condemn Ibn (Arabi al-~atimI.)

g. Section 7

Perfec~ion of worship is achieved through mindfulness in religious observance. For this to be possible, it is of the utmost; importance that one's food be lawful. It is also necessary that order in society be preserved.

Every religious observance in its right place is of equal dignity.

Fasting is not intrinsically preferable to eating. The goal is to be in conformity with the Truth. Opposing one's desire is usually the best

36

tactic, but if one's desires are in conformity with the Truth, one must not abandon a duty to oppose them. It is unlawful to impose regulations on something not actually regulated in the Law.

h. Section 8

Initiates may be given particular litanies to dispel particular tendencies. These litanies must not be abandoned until the results are obtained. Occult sciences pose a danger LO the student and must be avoided.

All else being equal, refraining from an action is better than performing one. For example, silence surpasses speech when the situation does not call for talking.

A prohibited ma::ter can become permissible in the right context.

Students should not despair of God's forgiveness. i. Section 9

Invocations (adhkar) are valuable, and even though the chain of transmission of some invocations may be weak, it is permissible to use them. It is important that a teaching or an invocation be taken as is without any addition or subtraction, fur therein is a danger.

The initiate's heart must be empty of distractions. This means preferring solitude to companionship, but undertaking outright seclusion without the guidance of a shaykh is dangerous.

The devotee, the gnostic, and the ascetic all partake in devotion, gnosis, and asceticism in different combinations and with different emphases.

37

j. Section 10

I . d I (due-a'), f . h bl

nvocat10n an persona prayer are 0 ten 1nterc an3ea e

in practice.

It is permissible to assemble for invocation and personal prayer,

as it is for the recitation of the Qur'an. Yet sometimes basically

permissible acts may become prohibited to prevent dangerous conse-

quences. Assemblies for invocation must meet conditions of time and

circumstance. Invocations must not be undertaken for the sake of worldly

benefits that may result from them.

k , Section 11

There are three opinions on the use of music in Sufi gatherings:

audition should be avoided even though it is not forbidden; it is

permissible; it is forbidden. The opinion favoring prohibition is the

predominant one, but the effect of music and poetry depend upon the

moral state of the listener. Because audition ma.y lead to wrongdoing

when undertaken wrongly, it is understandable that it should be

prohibited.

~iifrs may rightly use music and poetry for several reasons: to

move the heart toward insights it may then seek out, to strengthen the

senses for the stress of illumination, and to generate enthusiasm for

the Path in novices. In any case, it requires the right procedures,

people, and situation. Differences among the ~ufrs in this matter, as

in others, are useful and valuable.

38

Poetry is a manifestation of the personal self (nafs). Those wholly preoccupied with God compose very little poetry.

No one but an initiate of an order should attend sessions of the order's audition. This applies to jurists, devoteas, ascetics, and gnostics as well as ordinary people. No one likely to be overwhelmed by the event should be permitted to witness it.

The rules that apply to persons afflicted with insanity apply to persons in ecstasy while it persists. Imitators of the $ufis who imitate out of love for them and not for purposes of deception and fraud are to be considered their followers.

It is permissible to seek blessings from the remains of the righteous.

1. Section 12

Only the Prophets possess infallibility. Others must be judged according to what qualities dominate in them. Supernatural marvels that manifest through people may be miracles or deception. The esteem due to a person does not depend on his possessing outstanding abilities, but rather on his knowledge and religion.

One must respect holiness and not oppose it. No one intercedes before God except by His permission, but ~e may be reached through persons. Formal tarigah initiation has fruits and secrets known only to initiates.

39

It is permissible to visit cemeteries for particular benefits. It is also permissible to·travel'from one mosque to a greater one, as from one eminent man to a more eminent one. Under strict conditions, blessings may be sought at the t0mbs of saints.

It is best not to judge people by outward appearances. It is as correct for some shaykhs to manifest their miracles as it is for others to keep them secret. But religion for self-glorification or the praise of others in unacceptable. Knowledge of the principles of jurisprudence is invaluable for combating one's ego.

m. Section 13

Zarruq here discusses the virtues and the major moral defects. n. Section 14

Zarruq discusses examining the faults of the ego and discerning the source of suggestive thoughts (khawatir).

It is important when transmitting someone else's words to do so verbatim, and to choose all words wisely. There is no criterion for the management. of affairs but the Revelation.

o. Section 15

To seek realization with sincerity means to be concerned solely with what is obligatory and f~rbidden. Seeking the Absolute Truth is harmful to the methodology of the Path; many pretenders to ~nfisl!Il profess to be doing this. Jurisprudence is essential in $ITfisru because it regulates the actions of the ~ufI, allowing one to reach the goal.

40

p. Section 16.

Zarruq discusses the reasons for repudiating the $ufis and the benefits of writing works that repudiate them.

He then highlights moral and spiritual stages, and emphasizes the importance of both self-examination and the performance of one's duties. q. Epilogue

Zarruq ends the Qawa'id by once again emphasizing the Qur'an and the Sunnah as guidelines for the servant's dealings with God, with people, and with his own ego.

D. CONCLUSION

From the above, it can be concluded that Shaykh Zarraq was a man with a deep knowledge of the Qurlan, the badith, jurisprudence, and ~ufism. His numerous works attest to his knowledge. He was well-known in the time in which he lived and his fame concinued to grew even after his death. His fame grew outside the North African tradition as his name became known as far away as Turkey.123 Some of his works were of such importance that they were included in Shl[dhiliyyah manuals thaI. comprised the works of their great shayks such as al-Shadhili, Ibn Mashish and others.124 Other great shaykhs of the ShadhilI order have cited him in their works, such as Shaykh Ibn (Ajibah al-~asanI (1158/1746-1224/1809) in his commentary on the Nuniyyah of al-Shushtari, in his commentary on the aikam of Ibn <Ata' Allah125 and in his alFutnpat al-Ilahiyyah f1 Sharp al-MabAQith al-A~liyyah,126 a work on

41

~ufism in which Zarruq is quoted along with the company of al-Ghazali, al-Jilani, al-SuhrawardI, Abu Madyan, Ibn (Ata' Allah, al-ShadhilI, alSulami, and Ibn ~ArabI.

42

Notes to Part I

1 Abdallah Laroui, L'Histoire du ~Iaghreb: un Essai de Synthese (Paris, 1970), p. 213.

2 Ibid., p. 214

3 Ibn (Abbad al-Rundi, Letters on the SufI Path, (New York, 1986),

p. 8.

4 The Portuguese lost the city again in 1437. For details, see Charles-Andr~ Julien, History of North Africa (New York, 1970), p. 209.

S Charles-Andre Julien, History of North Africa (New York, 1970). p. 213.

6 Ibid., p. 204.

7 Marshall Hodgson, Venture of Islam (Chicago, 1974), vol. II, p.

9.

S Ibid., p. 204.

9 In the Islamic East, the major tarTgahs formed during a surprisingly brief period in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, first in the face of the Isma<ili subversion and later under the impact of the Mongol invasions.

10 Scholars have questioned the actual connections between the Shaykh cAbd aI-Qadir of Sufi legend and the straightforward ~anbalT

preacher they perceive from his surviving writings. Yet even J. Spencer Trimingham, one of the strongest sceptics, has to admit in The Suff Orders in Islam that lilt is difficult ... to discern why he, out of the hundreds of saintly figures of the period, survived in a unique way to become the inspirer of millions .... " (pp. 40-41). Given that remarkable circumstance, humility urges us to accept that he was, in fact, a saint

43

of a very special degree.

11 Ibn 'Abbad al-RundI, Letters on the Sufi Path (New York, 1986),

p. 32.

1? ",,,

- Louis Rinn, Marabouts et Khouan: Etudes sur I Islam en Algerie

(Alger, 1884), p. 186.

13 Trimingham, primarily, sharply separates the order from its

patron saint and claims the Q~diriyyah was never widespread in North

Africa (The Sufi Orders in Islam, p. 43). However, he also holds it was

of late introduction in Indo-Pakistan and never popular there either

(Ibid., p. 44), a position with which many scholars would disagree.

14 Shorter Enc.Y£J.opedia of Islam, "~~diriyyah," p. 202. The reference is to (Ali ibn Yusuf al-Shattanawfi (d. 713/1314), Bahjat al-

15 Ibid., p. 203.

16 Ali F. Khushaim, Zarrug the Sufi (Tipoli, Libya, 1976), p. 101. 17 Ibid., p. 105.

18 Ibid., p. 100.

19 A.M. Mohamed Hackeen, "The EarlY History of ~ufism in the

Maghrib Prior to al-Shadhil'i (d. 656/1258)," American Oriental Society

Journal, vol. 91, 1971, p. 401.

20 It is of interest that two other founders of important orders,

Ibrahim al-Dasfiq'i (d. 676/1277) and AQffiad al-Badaw1 (d. 674/1276) are

mentioned along with al-Shadhili as immediate disciples of Ibn Mashish

by al-ijasan ibn MUQammad al-Kuhin in Kitab al-Tabagat al-Shadhiliyyah

al-Kubra (pp. 59, 79-80).

21 A.M. Mohamed Mackeen, "The Rise of al-Shadhili," American Orien-

44

tal Society Journal, vol. 91, 1971, p. 481.

22 Ibn tAta' Allah al-IskandarT, Lata'if al-Minan (Cairo, 1974), p.

146.

23 Annemarie Schimmel, Mystical Dimensions of Islam (Chapel Hill,

1975), p. 254.

24 Ibid., p. 254. 25 Ibid., p. 254.

26 A.M. Mohamed Mackeen, op. cit:., p. 486. 27 Ibid., p. 486.

28 J. Spencer Trimingham, The Sufi Orders in Islam (Oxford, 1973),

p. 50.

29 Ibn <Abbad al-Rundi, op. cit.,p. 33. 30 Ibid., p. 33.

31 Marshall Hodgson, Venture of Islam (Chicago, 1974), vol. 2, pp.

206-207.

32 Adolphe Faure, "Islam in North-West Africa," Religion in the

Middle East (Cambridge, 1969), vol. 2, pp. 182-183. 33 Marshal Hodgson, op. cit., vol. 3, p. 478.

34 Mu~ammad ibn (Askar a1-ijasani (d. 936/1529), Dawbat al-Nashir Ii

(-

Mahasin Man Kana bi al-Maghrib min Mashayikh a1-Qarn al- Ashir (Rabat,

1976), p. 49.

35 Ali F. Khushaim, Zarrug the Sufi (Tripoli, Libya, 1976), p. 10. 36 al-ijasan ibn Muqammad al-Kuhin, Kitab Tabagat al-Shadhiliyyah

al-Kubra (Cairo, 1347 A.H.), p. 123.

37 Abu al-(Abbas Aproad ibn Abroad Zarruq, Kunn~sh (photocopy of man-

uscript), p. 67.

45

38 Ali F. Khushaim, op. cit., p. 30.

39 Letter is cited in: Ali F. Khusahim, op. cit., p. 27. 40 al-~asan ibn Mu~ammad aI-KUbin, op. cit., p. 124.

41 This is how Khushaim renders the name, evidently according to

local pronounciation.

42 Ali F. Khushaim, op. cit., p. 30.

43 Mu~ammd Ibn cAskar al-ijasani, op. cit., p. 48.

44 A~ad ibn A~ad Zarruq, Kunn~sh (photocopy of manuscript), p.

80.

45 He is Abu Mu~ammad 'Abd Allah ibn Abi Zayd al-QayrawanI, a traditionalist and leading jurist of the Maliki school of jurisprudence. He wrote numerous works summarizing the teachings of his school, among which is al-Risalah which was his first work written at the age of seventeen. He died in al-Qayrawan in 386/996-997. See: MUQammad Makhluf, Shajarat al-Nur al-Zakiyyah fi Tabagat al-Malikiyyah.

46 This is a collection of hadith by Abu Mupammad ~Abd al-ijaqq ibn (Abd al-RaQrnan ibn (Abd Allah al-Azdi al-IshbilI, the preacher and imam of Bougie. He died in 581/1185.

47 aI-Jamie aI-Sahib, one of the canonical collections of hadlth by Mu~ammad ibn Abi 'Ysa Mu~ammad ibn ~isa ibn Sahl al-TirmidhI (d. 279/892).

48 Born in 194/810 and died in 256/870, MUQammad ibn Isma'II alBukhari devoted his life to collecting and authenticating the sayings of the Prophet MuQammad. His work aI-Jamie aI-SahIb is one of the canonical collections of hadith alongside the collections of Muslim ibn al~ajjaj (d. 261/875), Abu DawITd (d. 275/888), al-TirmidhI (d. 279/892),

46

aI-Nasa'! (d. 303/916), and Ibn Majah (d. 273/892).

49 This work is listed by Brockelmann in. volume one of the supple-

ment of GeEchichte der Arabischen Litteratur. p. 746, under the heading

of theological works.

50 He is Taj aI-Din Alpnad ibn Mu1}ammad ibn "A~a! Allah aI-Iskandar!' (d. 709/1309), shaykh of the Shadhiliyyah order and disciple of AbU al'Abbas al-Murs1, the disciple of Shaykh Abu al-ijasan al-ShadhilI. He is

the author of a number of important works (which shall be mentioned

later) among which is al-Tanwir fi Isgat al-TadbIr, a work on Sufism.

51 Abu Mu1}ammad ibn Abi Jamrah (d. 699/1299-1300) was a

traditionist, a saint, an ascetic, and a gnostic known for his miracles

(karamat). He wrote a summary of al-Bukhari's ~ and a famous com-

mentary called Bahiat al-Nufus. Many people studied with him including

Ibn al-ijajj, the author of al-Madkhal. See: Muqammad MakhIuf,

Shajarat al-NUr al-ZakiyYah fi Tabagat al-MalikiyYah.

52 Muhammad ibn Muhammad al-'Abduri al-Fas! (d. 737/1336-1337 in

. .

Cairo) was a MaIikr ~uf1 shaykh and disciple of Ibn Abi Jamrah. He was

known for his asceticism and piety. His work al-Madkhal (the full title: al-Madkhal ila Tanmiyat al-A"mal bi Tabsin al-NiyYat wa alTanbih 'ala Kath!r min al-Bidat al-Mugdathah wa al-cAwa'id al-

Muntabalah) identifies the innovations in religious practices that had

at that time had been accepted as correct. See: Ibn al-Mulaqqin,

Tabagat al-Awliya'; Mutammad Makhluf. Shajarat al-Nur al-ZakiyYah fi

Tabagat al-M~likiyyah; and Jalal al-Drn al-SuyUtI, ijusn al-Mubadarah fi

Akhbar Mi§r wa al-Q~irah.

53 MUQammad ibn cAbd al-Ratman al-Sakhawi, al-Qaw' al-Lami' Ii Ahl

47

al-Qarn al-Tasi\ (Beirut. 1966), vol. 1; pp. 222-223.

54 He is Abu 'Abd Allah al-~arith ibn Asad al-'Anazi alMu~asibi(165/781-243/857), a Shafi~i Sufi shaykh and author of alRi'ayah Ii ijugug Allah, a manual of ~ufism. See the artic~e in The

Shorter Enclyclopecia of Islam.

55 Abu ~amid al-GhazalI (450/1058-505/111), Hujjat aI-Islam, was

the author of many books among which are al-Mungidh min al-palal, ,

KImiya' aI-Sa aaah, Mishkat aI-Anwar, and his monumental work Ibya'

(Ulum aI-DIn in which he establishes the links between the inner and

outer aspects of religion.

56 Abu Talib Mu~ammad ibn CAlI ibn CAtiyyah al-~arithI al-MakkI (d.

386/996) was known for his piety and austere lifestyle. He wrote some

treatises on tawhTd and Qut al-QuIUb, a book on ~nfism.

57 Abu al-Qasim ~Abd al-Karlm ibn Hawazin ibn Talbah ibn MUQammad al-QushayrI (376/986-465/1072), a Shafi'I, was one of the most learned

of the age in jurisprudence, rQur'anic exegesis, tradition, dogmatic

theology, belles-lettres, and poetry. He had a profound knowledge of

~ufism. His work al-Risalah contains the biographies of noted ~ufi

shaykhs and a glossary of ~ufi terminology.

58 Shihab aI-Din Abu ijafs

<

Umar al-SuhrawardT (539/1145-632/1234),

the disciple and nephew of Shaykh Abu Najib al-Suhrawardr (490/1097- 563/1168) the founder of the Suhrawardiyyah order. His work 'Awarif alMaL~rif, a Sufi manual, became widely used in all ~ufr circles.

59 These works are: al-ijikam, Lata'if al-Minan, Miftag al-FalaQ, al-Qawl al-Mujarrad fT al-Ism al-Mufrad, T~j al-tArus, and al-Tanwir ft

Isgat al-Tadbir.

48

60 See Appendix of instructor lists in Khushaim.

61 Abu al-~Abbas AQmad ibn AQmad Zarruq, Qawa'id al-Tasawwuf

(Cairo, 1976), p.14.

62 (Abd al-ijayy ibn al-cImad al-~anbali, Shadharat al-Dhahab fi

Akhbar Man Dhahab (Be i ruz , n.d.), vol. 8, p , 15.

63 Mu~ammad ibn c~bd al-RaQffian al-Sakhawi, al-paw' al-Lamie li

c

Ahl al-Qarn al-Tasi (Beirut, 1966), vol. 1, pp. 222-223.

64 Khushaim explains Umm al-Banin (mother of children) as being

e

the agnomen of Fa~imah bint Abd Allah al-FihrI, who established the

mosque of al-Qarawiyyin in 245/859. This kunyah was widely adopted

by women named Fa~imah in Morocco.

65 Ali F. Khushaim, Ope cit., p. 11.

66 al-ijasan ibn Mu~ammad al-KUbin, Ope cit., p. 123. 67 MUQammad ibn (Askar al-~asani, Ope cit., p. 71.

68 JYid., p. 71.

69 Ali F. Khushaim, Ope cit., pp. 15-16.

70 Ibid. , p. 101.
71 Ibid. , p. 14.
72 ( L~8 •
MUQammad ibn Askar al-~asani, op. cit. , p. 73 al-~asan ibn MUQammad al-Kuhin, op.cit., p. 123.

74 MUQammad ibn cAbd al-RaQffian al-Sakhawl, op. cit., vol. 2, p.

5.

75 al-~asan ibn Muqrumnad al-Kuhin, Ope cit., p. 124. 76 Ali F. Khushaim. Ope cit., p. 101.

77 d

Ibi ., p , 101.

78 See silsilah.

49

79 al-Sakhawl, Ope cit., vol. 10. p , 221-

80 al-~asan ibn MUQammad al-Kuhin, Ope cit., p. 119.

81 Ibn ~Askar reports that while Zarruq was in a spiritual retreat

three days after Zarruq met al-~aQramr, al-ijaQramI, while in the

presence of several of his disciples, heard a disturbance. "So he

shouted, 'Allahl' and lifted his arm. Then he said, "Let's gol" whereupon they all went and found that the house where Abu al-<Abbas was

had been destroyed .•. Shaykh Ibn

e

Uqbah said, 'Praise be to God who

saved you, Abroad. This is al-Zaytuni's last act of punishment. He has

deliv~red his blow from Morocco and I lifted my arm to protect you.

Here it is broken,' as he pulled out his broken arm. (MuQammad ibn ~Askar al-~asani, Ope cit., p. 49.)

82 Ali F. Khushaim, Ope cit., p. 21.

83 Ibid., pp. 24-25.

84 al-~asan ibn MUQammad al-Kuhin, Ope cit., p. 119.

85 Ibid., p. 120. 86 Ibid., p. 125.

87 Ali F. Khushaim, Ope cit., p. 107. 88 Ali F. Khushadm , Ope cit., p , 105. 89 Ibio., p~. 112-117.

90 Zarruq's reputation grew and stories of his miracles began to

\: -

circulate such as those reported by MUQammad ibn Askar al-ijasani and

~l-~asan ibn Mu~ammad al-Kuhin in their biographies of the shaykh. 91 Ali F. Khushaim, Ope cit., p. 111.

92 ~Abd Allah Kannun, Mashahir Rijal al-Maghrib (Beirut, 1950), v.

23, p. 19.

50

93 al-MahdI al-Fasi, Tubfat Ahl al-Siddigiyyah, cited in Ali F.

Khushaim, Ope cit., p. 108.

94 Ali F. Khushaim, Ope cit., p. 109.

95 al-~asan ibn MUQarnrnad al-Kuhin, Ope cit., p. 218.

96 Ibid., p. 107.
97 Ibid. , p. 105. There is no further information on succession.
98 Ibid. , p. 110 •.
99 Ibid. , p. 110.
100 Muttarnrnad c al-Ijasani, 87-88.
Ibn Askar Ope cit. , pp. 101 Ali F. Khushaim, Ope cit., p. 112.

102 MUQarnrnad Ibn (Askar al-ijasani, Ope cit., pp. 124-125.

103 al-~asan ibn MUQarnrnad al-Kuhin, Ope cit. , p. 126.
104 Ali F. Khushaim, Ope cit. , p. 110.
105 Ibid. , p. 117.
106 Ibid. , pp. 122-123.
107 Ibid. , p. 123.
108 Ibid. , p. 123.
109 al-ijasan ibn MUQarnrnad al-Kuhin, Ope cit. , p. 123.
110 Ali F. Khushaim, Ope cit. , pp. 50-52.
111 Ali F. Khushaim, Ope cit. , p. 80.
112 This work is a prayer-book of ~alawat divided into seven sec- tions according to the day of the week on which it is to be recited. It is one of the most popular manuals of §alawat collections used by the

Shadhiliyyah.

113 Abu al-(Abbas Aijmad ibn Aijrnad Zarruq, Qawa'id al-Ta§awwuf (Cairo, 1976), p. 3.

51

114 Clifford Geertz, Islam Observed: Religious Development in

Morocco and Indonesia (Chicago, 1973), p. 8.

115 MUQammad ibn cAskar al-ijasani, ODe cit., pp. 49-50. 116 Ali F. Khushaim, Ope cit., p. 23.

117

c

Abd Allah Kannun, Mashahir Rijal al-Maghrib, vol. 23, p.

13.

118 This is a manual for the initiate on the proper conduct

(adab) on the path of ~ufism, by Abu al-NajIb al-Suhraward1

(490/1097-563/1168).

119 Abu al-cAbb~s AQffiad ibn AQffiad Zarruq, Ope cit., p. 42. 120 Ali F. Khushaim, Ope cit., p. 43.

121 Michael Winter, Society and Relgion in Early Ottoman Egypt:

(' h'--(

Studies in the Writings of Abd al-Wahh~b al-S a ran1 New

Brunswf ck , 1982), p , 27.

122 Both the 1968 and 1976 editions were edited by MUQammad al-

Najjar.

123 Ahmed Hilmi Hocazade, Evliyalar Bahcesi (Istanbul, 1966).

This work was written in 1899.

124 See:

e

Kitab al-Nafhah al- AliyYahfi Awrad al-Shadhiliyyah

c

(Cairo, 1321 A.H.), compiled by Abd aI-Qadir Zaki.

125 Ig~? al-Himam £1 Sharh al-Mikam.

126 AQffiad ibn CAjibah al-ijasanI, al-Futuhat al-Ilahiyyah ff

Sharb a1-Mabapith al-A~liyyah (Cairo, 1983).

PART II

THE PRINCIPLES OF SUFISM (QAWA'ID AL-TASAWWUF) TRANSLATION INTO ENGLISH

The Principles of ~iifistl

Praise be to God as befits the greatness of His glory and majesty!

May the blessings and grace of God be bestowed upon our master Mu~ammad and his family.

Now then, the purpose of this abridged text and its sections is to introduce the principles and foundations of ~iifism in a manner that integrates the Sacred Law with the Truth, and links the principles of religion and jurisprudence with the Path. In simplifying the meaning of what I wish to convey and in realizing my intent, I place my trust in God. He is sufficient unto us, and how excellent a guardian is He!

Furthermore, I say:

[Section 1] Principle [1]

The discussion of something is a deductive procedure permitting us to express the thing's essence and its benefit through the use of acquired or innate intellectual perception. The intellectual perception is needed to refer to the thing so as to single out wha~ it really is through refutation and acceptance, or establishment of its origin and detailed elaboration. That must be set forth in advance before going into a subject, since the introduction provides information on it,

CT.p-ates an incentive to pursue it, and delineates its content. So,

understand!

53

Principle [2]

The essence of a thing is its reality. Its reality is to what its total nature refers. The determination of tliat can be through a definition, which is the most comprehensive way, or through an illustration, which is the clearest, or through an explanation, which is the most complete exposition and the quickest to understand. Nearly two thousand meanings have been used to define, illustrate, and explain ~ufism. The source of all these definitions is turning to God Most-High with a sincere heart. In reality they &re only different aspects of the same thing. But God knows best!

Principle [3]

Differences of opinion with regard to a single reality prove the incomprehensibility of its total nature. If the varying opinions refer back to a single point of origin that embraces all of the ideas expressed about this reality, then the explanation concerning the origin would correspond to how it was understood. The sum of the statements is dependent on the differentiated aspects of the origin. Each one's perspective is in keeping with how he got at that origin, whether through knowledge, through action, through a spiritual state, through intuition, and the like. From that come the varying opinions on Sufism, Thus. the traditionalist Abu Nu<aym (may God have mercy on him!), when describing the characteristics of most people mentioned in his ijilyah,l quotes a definition of Sufism from each one that is consonant with his spiritual state, saying: lilt is said that ~iifism is such and such."

54

I feel that whosoever has a measure of sincerity in turning towards God has a measure of ~ufism, and that the ~ufism of everyone is the sincerity of his turning towards God. So, understand this!

Principle [4]

The sincerity of turning towards God is conditioned by its being pleasing to God Most-High or by that which pleases Him. That which is conditioned is Lnvc Li d without its condition. "He approves not unthankfulness from His servants:,,2 so faith is a condition that must be fulfilled. "If ye are thankful, He will approve it in you:,,3 so submission is a condition that must be fulfilled.

Thus, there is no ~ufism without jurisprudence, because divine exoteric rules can be known only through jurisprudence. Nor is there any jurisprudence without ~ufism, for action cannot be carried out without sincerity and turning towards God. Nor can jurisprudence and ~ufism be w~thout faith, since neither of the two is valid without it. So all three are necessary because they are attached to one another in principle a~ souls are attached to bodies: souls have no existence without bodies just as bodies have no life without souls. So, understand this!

Along these lines is the saying of Malik (may God have mercy on him!): "He who follows the path of ~ufism while neglecting jurisprudence is a heretic; and he who learns jurisprudence while neglecting the Path commits transgression. But he who combines both has attained realization of the Truth." I maintain that the first is a heretic because of his belief in the doctrine of predestination, which leads to the negation of divine wisdom and general rules. The second committed

55

transgression because his deeds lack any turning towards God through

divine wisdom and general rules, a tUTning that veils him from disobey-

ing God; and because his deeds also lack sincerity, which is a condition

in acting for God's sake. The third attains to the realization of the

Truth in that very same act of holding on to the Truth. So, know this!

Principle [5]

Referring something to its principle and supporting it with its

relevant proof nullify the argument of the one who rejects its reality.

The foundation of ~ufism is the station of spiritual virtue (~),

which the Messenger of God (may peace be upon him!) defined as being:

"That thou adore God as though thou didst see Him, and if thou dost not

see Him, He nonetheless sees thee."4 That is because the various mean-

ings of siccerely turning to God are based on this station and revolve

around it. Indeed, the word itself points to the quest for the

vigilance required by the station. So insistence on vigilance is

insistence on the essence of virtue (iQsan). Similarly, jurisprudence

revolves around the station of submission (islam), and the principles of

religion around the station of faith (Iman).

Sufism is one of the el~~ents of religion which Gabriel taught the

Prophet (may peace be upon him!), in order that the Companions might

learn it (may God be p Laased witl!

.._,- - ., ., . \

i.nem a.1..1.1 J.

Principle [6]

The technical term for something points to its definition and makes

one sense its reality. The term corresponds to its content and fixes

its meaning without obscurity or opposition to any judicial or customary

principle. Nor must it abolish any fundamental or secondary axiom or

56

contradict either a legal conclusion or legal proposition. Assuming the term has been inflected and properly vowelized, there can be no ground for rejecting it.

The noun ~ufism (ta~aw~~f) is of that category because it is an Arabic word that is understood, perfectly derived, non-misleading, unambiguous, and clear. Actually, its etymology gives us an idea of its meaning just as jurisprudence does for the general rules of Islam and exterior actions, and just as the principles of religion do for the principles of faith and the implementation of its meaning. Whatever is held to be necessary in the domains of jurisprudence and principles of faith is necessary also in ~ufism, for they are all equal both in principle and traditional authority.

Principle [7]

Etymology requires that the meaning of the derived noun and its root be taken into consideration. The meaning of the derived word is to be perceived from the word itself. If the meanings are multiple, the perceptions are multiple. If a synthesis is possible, t~~n it is to be made from all of them; if not, then everyone takes into account a single

idea -- so understand! its origin.

Many explanations have been made about the derivation of the word

providing the word is free of contradiction in

"~ufism." The explanations closest to the truth are five:

First: those who say that the term is derived from a piece of wool (~ufah). The reason is that the ~ufi vis-a-vis God is like a piece of wool tossed on the ground with neither will nor direction.

57

Second: the term is derived from the lock of hair on the nape of the neck (§ufat al-gifa) because of its softness. The $ufI, like this lock of hair, has a soft and flexible nature. Third: the term is derived from "attribute" (al-sifah). This is to say that the SufI is characterized (itta~afa) by performing good deeds and turning away from bad qualities. Fourth: the term is derived from purity (al-safa'). Abu alFatQ aI-Bust! (may God have mercy on him!) has confirmed this, going so far as to say:

"People have argued and differed about the term '$ufi'; Some think it derived from wool ($uf).

I do not grant this name save to the noble person

Who dealt purely with God and was purified till he was called a $uff."

Fifth: the term is derived from the Bench (al-~uffah). For the Sufi has the same characteristics as the People of the Bench,5 whom God has endowed with certain characteristics, saying of them: "They call upon their Lord at morning and evening desiring His countenance."6 This is the origin to which every explanation of the word goes back. But God knows best!

Principle [8]

In observing the rules of conduct of his predecessor, the follower is subject to the sanle conditions, even though the predecessor has greater pre-eminence. In the beginning the People of the Bench were so poor that they were known as the guests of God. Later on, their ranks

58

were joined by rich men and princes, and by those who worked for a living and the poor. They were thankful for their prosperity when it existed, and were patient when it did not. Whatever state they found themselves in, they did not lose the attribute with which their Lord described them, namely, that "They call upon their Lord at morning and evening desiring his countenance."7 Likewise, they were not praised for the loss of their prosperity, but for seeking the fac.e of the King, the Judge. The latter is not restricted either by poverty or wealth or the sufficiency thereof. Therefore, ~ufism is distinguiBhed by neither poverty nor wealth as long as its possessor seeks the face of God. So, understand!

Principle [9]

The difference of relationships may be due to differing realities or it may be due to different levels in a single reality. Accordingly, it has been said that ~ufism, poverty, leading a spiritual life under apparently blameworthy circumstances, and drawing near to God belong to the first category; and it has been said that they belong to the second category, which is correct. The ~ufl is he who strives to sift his time of everything but the Truth. If he eliminates everything but the Truth from himself, then he is a man of spiritual poverty (al-fagIr). The person who leads a spiritual life under seemingly blameworthy conditions (al-malamatI) among the two categories is he who neither manifests good nor harbors bad feelings towards anyone like the artisans and tradesmen who follow the path. The one who is drawn near to God (al-mugarrab) is he whose spiritual states are perfect. Through his Lord, he "is," for the sake of his Lord. He has nothing to say about anything except the

59

Truth, nor has he any abode with whatever is other than God. So, understand!

Principle [10]

Because of a difference of ways, it does not follow that their goals are different: the goal may be one with different ways leading to it. Thus, religious observance, asceticism, and gnosis are ways leading to nearness with God through spiritual grace. The three are intertwined with cna another. The gnostic must therefore observe religious rituals; for if he does not worship the object of his devotion. his knowledge is of no consequence. His observance of religious rituals must be accompanled by asceticism; for if he has not turned away from what is not He, then there is no spiritual substance in him.

He who observes the rituals must partake of both asceticism and gnosis. for there can be no religious observance without knowledge, nor can there be any time set apart for religious observance except through asceticism. And the same holds true for asceticism, for there can be no asceticism without knowledge, nor can there be any without religious observance; otherwise, it is worthless.

Indeed, the devotee (tabid) is the one mainly engaged in acts of devotion; the ascetic (zahid) is the one mainly concerned with abandoning the world; and the gnostic ('arif) is the one mainly occupied in considering the dispositions of the Truth.

All are Sufis! But God knows best!

60

Principle [11]

Every thing has its adherents, a purpose, a place, and a reality.

Sufism is suitable for whomsoever has true guidance, or for a gnostic who has achieved realization, or for a sincere lover, or for a righteous seeker, or for a doctor of the Law who is bound by esoteric truths, or for a jurist who is bcund by the extended meanings of words. ~ufism is not suitable for whomsoever is prejudiced by reason of his ignorance, or pretends to be knowledgeable, or speaks rashly in disputation, or is a stupid common man, or is a reluctant seeker of truth, or is a person determined to imitate blindly the great men he has in general known.

But God knows best!

Principle [12]

The nobleness of something may he due to its essence, so that it is sought only for the sake of its essellce; or it may be due to its benefit, so that it is sought as a means of reaching that benefit; or it may be due to something connected with it, so that the benefit is in seeking the related matter.

As a result of that, it has been said: "Knowledge without action is a means without purpose, and action without knowledge is an offense."

The intelligence is the best way to know Him, and knowledge of God Most-High is the most excellent knowledge because it is the most sublime. Knowledge that is sought for its own sake is the best knowledge because its special attribute is in its essence, such as the knowledge of the reverential fear of God and of intimacy with Him, and the like. Accordingly, he whose actions do not reflect his knowledge, then his knowledge acts against him, not for him. And sometimes this testifies to knowledge having left him, if his knowledge had been conditioned by

61

his action (if only by way of perfecting his knowledge). So, understand this and reflect upon it!

SECTION [2]

Principle [13]

The advantage of something is that which was intended by its existence. Its inner reality, either at the beginning or at the end, or in both together, is its advantage. For example, ~ufism is the science of purifying and restoring the heart, making it devoted to God alone; jurisprudence is the science of purifying one1s actions, preserving order, and manifesting wisdom by carrying out religious rules; the principles of religion are to investigate beliefs by providing proofs, thus embellishing faith with certainty; medicine is for the protection of the body; grammar is for improving language; and so on. So, understand.

Principle [14]

Knowledge of the benefit and fruit of something is an inducement and encouragment to pursue and seek it. For the self will attach itself to whatever it finds useful; othc:--..,isa, it will not.

It is correct to state that the nobility of something is determined by the nobility of its content. Nothing is more noble than the contents connected with the discipline of ~ufism, for its principle is the fear of God, the fruit of knowing Him and the premise for following His commands. Its purpose is to make the heart uniquely Him, exalted be He. For that reason al-Junayd (may God be pleased with Him!) said, "If I

62

knew that under the face of the heavens there was a discipline more noble than the one we discuss with our companions, I would havp. pursued it.1I Thus ends his remark which is clear enough.

Principle [15]

The suitability of something is determined by its being necessarily available to whomever qualifies for it, inasmuch as he gives it its proper worth and situates it in its proper place. Whosoever does not qualify for it might actually waste his opportunities, and this is generally so; or it might induce him to seek it out in his own way, and this is rare. Therefore the ~ufis differ on sharing their knowledge outside their own following. Some say it should be made available only to those suitable for it. This is the view of al-Thawri and others. Others say that it should be available to everyone, suitable or not, for know~edge is too sacrosanct to reach the unworthy. This is the opinion of al-Junayd (may God have mercy on Him!), who was asked, IIHow often you callout to God in the presence of common-folk!1I He replied, IIRather, I calIon them while I am in the presence of God.11 Thus ends his remark, its meaning being that he reminds them of that which makes them turn to God.

So the argument is clear to one group but not to the other. The truth is that different opinions are due to differences in relationships

and characters. But God knows best!

63

Principle [16]

The uniqueness of worthiness is deducible from the immediate evidence. The matter might be confused, in which case a cautious attitude is best toward fleeting accidents. Both a person deserving of knowledge and an undeserving person might compete against each other, making knowledge available to one party only. Sahl was referring to this principle with his remark: "If after two hundred years, there is anyone left who believes in what we teach, let him hide it. Fc~ people's asceticism has reached the point where it is only in their speech, while their object of worship is their stomachs. Ii Then he listed a number of things that will lead to the corruption of this discipline to the degree that propagating it will be forbidden because it will have been misinterpreted counter to its aims, and its teacher will be like one who sells a sword to a highway robber.

This is the state of many people at the present time. They have used the knowledge of subtle truths and realities as a ladder to enhance themselves, seducing the hearts of the common people, taking the wealth of the oppressed, despising the unfortunate, and committing acts that are obvious innovations and clearly forbidden. Some have gone so far as to depart from religion altogether, yet many ignorant people follow them because of their hereditary clainls and the privileges they assume in this discipline. We ask God to protect us by His grace!

Principle [17]

In every discipline there is that which is special to it and that which is general. ~ufism is no different from any other discipline in this respect. Indeed, the propagation of God's rules pertaining to

64

human conduct is binding on everyone, whether they be general or go beyond that, in accordance with the listener's receptivity, not the speaker's. This is based on the 1}adith: "You should speak to the people according to what they know. Do you want God and His Messenger to be disbelieved?" Once the following was said to al-Junayd (may God have mercy on him!): "Two men asked you the same question, yet you answered each one differently." He answered, liThe answer should be in accordance to the questioner's level of understanding. The Prophet (peace be upon him!) said, 'We were commanded to speak to people in accordance with their intelligence. '"

Principle [18]

Consideration of that which is important and always putting it at the forefront are the marks of those who are sincere in everything. Whoever seeks the subtle esoteric truths of the discipline of ~ufism before knowing the sum of the principles of servanthood within those truths, and who deviates from the obvious rules toward the vague, is tricked by his own passion. This is particularly true if he has not perfected the rituals of worship, or has not realized the differ.ence between innovation and the Sunnah in circumstances, or has not demanded of himself that he be adorned with the virtues before renunciation, or has claimed that he has them in himself. How exquisite is Sari (may God

be p Leased with him!): who :;~id~ "v,'hQever knows Cod , live.s; whcc~';G~

iilclines to the world, strays. The fool gets up in the morning and goes to sleep at night while the wise man seeks out his Beloved."

65

In the ~,8 it is said: "Your being on the lookout for the vices hidden within you is better than your being on the lookout for the invisible realities veiled from you." But God know best!

Principle [19]

The consideration of inter-connecting links in obstacles necessitates separating a particular rule from its general framework. As a result of that, the rejection of ~ufism leads to the existence of vigilant care over the initiatic sciences of the esoterists, and the prcltection of the minds of the mass of believers from being involved in those disciplines that are of a special type leads to the desire to separate them from the others. This is so, in spite of the abundance of what is singled out for special treatment or of the opportunites for error therein, both,in theory and practice. So understand, and give every rule its proper due. Actions, therefore, are for the believers in general; spiritual states are for the initiates; moral lessons for the devotees; and esoteric truths for the gnostics. Symbolic expressions are the sustenance of those who listen; yours is what you can eat thereof. So, understand I

Principle [20]

Participation in a principle requires participation in the regime thereof. Jurisprudence and ~ufism are partners in pointing to God's regulations and His rights; and as r.egards perfecton and imperfection, both are subject to the regime of the same principle, for neither is worthier than the other in its content.

66

It is correct to say that, in both Sufism and jurisprudence, action is the condition tor the perfection of knowledge. This is not the case in other disciplines, where knowledge would not be lost as a result of a lack of action. In fact, knowledge may exist without action because knowledge is before action; it is prior in its existence, as determined by evidence and wisdom.

If knowledge were conditioned by action, no one would have attained it. Also, if action were to be required in commandments and prohibitions, then it would have been necessary to remove these requirements by virtue of the decadence of the age; but this is not permissible by law nor commendable at all. In fact, God has affirmed knowledge to belong to those who fear Him, but he has not prohibited it in those who do not fear Him.

The Prophet (may God's blessings and peace be upon him!) sought refuge from knowledge without benefit. He said, liThe person who will be most severely punished on the Day of Judgement will be the man of knowledge whom God did not benefit by his knowledge." Although the man did not benefit by his knowledge, the Prophet nonetheless called him "a man of knowledge." Therefore, the benefits of knowledge must be sought from a man of realization and action. There is more at stake in a man not acting upon his knowledge than in his manner of expressing it. So, understand!

Principle [21]

The general rule with regard to manifestation is that it must seek the help of that which is inseparable from it. It is known that the path of ~ufism cannot be realized except by actively participating in it. Seeking its assistance without practice is deceit, for practice is

67

the condition for perfecting the path. If has been said: "~10wledge is attained by action; otherwise it will be lost." May God protect us from knowledge unaccompanied by action! Amen.

Principle [22]

It is improper to put anything into action unless its principle and purpose are known. A person sc:ying "I do not learn until I act" is like someone saying, "I will not take any medicine until I am cured of my illness": he does not take any medicine, therefore he will not be cured.

Rather, knowledge is first, then action, then the promulgation of it, and then the mastery of it. Success comes through God!

Principle [23]

Seeking something as it should be sought and pursuing it where it is expected to be found will most likely result in obtaining it. It is indeed true that the subtle points of the SufIs are divine favors and special gifts not obtained by the usual practice of asking for them. Consideration of the reasons for that is necessary, and they are three:

First: as much as possible, one should act in accordance with what one knows;

Second: one should seek refuge in God in illumination in conformity with one's spiritual aspiration;

Third: one should seek to Inves t Lgat;e the meanings behind the principles of the Sunnah to deepen one's understanding, so that error may be extinguished and illumination rendered easier.

68

Al-Junayd (may God be pleased with him!) referring to the above, said, "We did not learn ?ufism through gossip, hypocrisy, and discussion. We learned it through hunger, vigilance, and performing proper actions" -- or words to that effect. The Prophet (peace be upon him!) said, "Whosoever acts according to what he knows, God will bequeath to him knowledge of what he did not; know before." Abu Su Layman al-DaranI' (may God be pleased with him!) said, "\fuen the self resolves to shun sin, it roams in the World of Dominion «alam al-malakut). Then it returns to its master with the most exquisite wisdom without having received instruction from any teacher."

Principle [24]

No esoteric truth has ever appeared in existence without being confronted with an opposing false doctrine, or without unorthodox ideas infiltrating it, or without its being made to seem like a falsehood.

All of that is for the sake of manifesting the excellence of being occupied with it alone to the exclusion of all else. Its inner reality is made clear through the refutation of its opponents. "But God annuls what Satan casts, then God confirms His signs."g

To every heir belongs a relationship with what is inherited: accordingly, those who are most intensely tried are the Prophets, then the saints, then those who follow them, and so forth.10 Man is burdened only in proportion to the degree of his faith. Thus the followers of this path are burdened, first of all, with the dominion of mankind over them; then with the deferential treatment mankind bestows on them; and finally, with both. It is said that they are afflicted in this fashion

69

so that they would not forget to express their gratitude to God for the praise they receive or to be patient for the censure that comes to them.

Whoever desires to follow this path must accustom himself to trials. "Assuredly God will defend those who believe."ll "And whosoever puts his trust ::'n God, He shall suffice him.,,12 So, understand!

Principle [25]

There is no knowlege except what is learned from the Legislator or someone appointed in his place with his authority. For the Prophet (peace be upon him!) said, "Knowledge comes only through learning, and discernment comes only through reflection. He who seeks good will be given it: he who guards against evil will be protected."

Piety is fruitful only because of its leading to a comprehension that is in agreement with principles, that expands the mind, and that increases intelligence. Comprehension is divisible into different kinds: there is a kind that falls within the scope of precepts; a kind that cannot be reduced to expression but can be alluded to symbolically; a kind that the mind cannot grasp even though esoteric truths refer to it, while being clear to the one who contemplates it and verified by the one who received it. Our use of the word "comprehension" is permissible to a certain degree in order to establish the principle of piety, and for no other reason. Know, then what we are referring to! Success comes through God!

70

Principle [26]

The authority of jurisprudence is universal for the community because its goal is to establish the form of religion, to champion its cause, and to manifest its teachings. On the other hand, the authority of ~ufism is specific for some members of the community because it deals with the behavior between the servant and his Lord without going beyond that. As a result, it is acceptable for a jurist to rebuke a Sufi, but not vice versa. One must turn from ~ufism to jurisprudence; one ~ust be content with jurisprudence without Sufism.

~ufism cannot renounce jurisprudence, for it is invalid without the latter. Nor can one turn from Sufism to jurisprudence except through the agency of jursprudence. Although ~ufism has a greater pre-eminence than jurisprudence, the latter is safer and more general for the public good, For this reason it is said, "Be a jurisprudent Sufi and not a ~ufI jurisprudent." The SufI of the jurists is more perfect and surer than the jurist of the ~ufis because the former has realized the Path in spiritual state, deed, and intuition, contrary to the latter. The former is firmly rooted in his knowlege clnd spiritual state. This perfection did not come to him except through sound jurisprudence and sincere intuition. Neither jurisprudence nor Sufism is valid without the other, just as medicine is of no avail if it is a theory without experience, or an experience without theory. So, understand this!

Differences of opinion

Principle [27]

negatively or affirmatively -- regarding

a single principle are invalid if the argument for beth types is based on an unproved premise; or they are false if the argument leads to an

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absurd conclusion. This is contrary to the argument based on a proven premise, where everything is sound, and yet the evidence in the hand of its opponent cannot be wrested from him. Consequently, we must distinguish between contradiction and differences of opinion.

So let us charge with disbelief whoever upholds a doctrine leading to an absurdity in the intellectual content of dogmas; and let us charge with heresy whoever upholds a doctrine leading to an absurdity in the transmitted form of dogmas. This, if the doctrin~ is held to be binding; otherwise, whatever is dubious about it should be examined and judged in accordance with the contradictions of the religious scholars on a binding doctrine.

But we neither charge with disbelief nor with heresy whosoever sticks to a doctrine that is not absurd inasmuch as we cannot be absolutely sure of the unsoundness of its principle, given its probability. In this way, the acceptance of contradictions amongst the religious scholars of the Sunnah, while they refute one anotner in general, is made manifest. This is usual in the category of legal regulations under the heading of rejection and acceptance. So, reflect upon this so as to get the point! And success comes through God!

Principle [28]

There is a method for everything. At the beginning, the conditions that a seeker of knowledge must fulfill are listening and acceptance; afterwards, he must have reflection and understanding, then explanation and reasoning, and finally practice and propagation of knowledge. Whenever a stage is reached before it should be. access to knowldge of its inner reality is prohibited. So, a knower without study is an object of

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ridicule, and an academician without formation is of no significance. A mental image not strengthened by understanding is useless without it; and knowledge stripped of authority cannot expand the mind: that which is fruitless is sterile.

Study is the seeker's life, but on condition it is accompanied by objectivity and humility, the latter being the acceptance of the truth through a virtuous nature. But when the number of seekers is too great, objectivity and humility are non-existent. So, limit yourself to the essentials and seek no victories; search for knowledge but neglect not your duties. Success comes through God!

Principle [29]

The rules governing the manner of seeking knowledge are a help in reaching the goal. Hence, asking the proper question is half of knowledge because the response is in keeping with the discipline implied in the questions. Ibn al-cArIf (may God have mercy on him!) said, "Every true seeker of knowledge must have the following three characteristics: one, knowledge of objectivity and adherence to it through the proper qualities; two, the formulation of precise questions, stripping them of all aspects of ambiguity in general; and third, realizing the distinction between contradiction and differences of opinion I

I say this: "That which refers back to a single principle is a difference of opinion, which is God's decree as determined in all things by independent legal authority. That which refers back to two princi-

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pies, the falsehood of one becoming apparent upon investigation, is a contradiction. II

But God knows best!

Principle [30]

Cooperation on seeking a thing facilitates its quest and renders the difficulties and obstacles easier for the soul to bear. This is why people seek to cooperate with one another, so much so that it became a commandment based on righteousness and piety, not on sin and rancor; so the for~er two must be observed in everyLiling, not the latter two.

Sayyidi Abu <Abd Allah ibn 'Abbad (may God have mercy on himl) said, "Let me give you a piece of advice which only a man of intelligence and experience will understand, and only a neglectful and veiled person will disregard. This is that you must not seek knowledge from a proud man, an innovator, or an uncritical conformist. As for pride, it is a characteristic that prevents the understanding of signs and moral lessons. Innovation causes one to fall in great tribulations. Blind conformism prevents one from reaching the goal and obtaining victory."

He also said, liDo not give cause to the exoterists to rebuke the esoterists." I say: "Rather, one should prompt the exoterists to favor the esoterists rather than oppose them, for every esoteric view that is stripped of its exoteric aspect is invalid and false. Esoteric truth is what is tied with the sacred Law." So, understand I

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Principle [31]

Jurisprudence is pursued to establish legislation. Its theme has to do with determining whatever makes sinfulness come to an end.

The way of ~ufism is the search for perfection; and its basis is the realization of the most perfect both in law and wisdom. The principles of jurisprudence are conditions establishing prohibitions and commandments; they revolve around investigation. "All the people knew now their drinking-place."13 So, understand!

SECTION [3] Principle [32]

The fundamental nature of a discipline is deducible from its principles; yet, it might share with another discipline the same fundamental nature and differ from it as regards its methods of argumentation, as in the examples of jurisprudence, Sufism, and theology. Their principles are the Book and the Sunnah and the approved legal decisions based on the Book and Sunnah. But, the jurist considers ascertaining the exoteric rule applicable to outward action insofar as the rule requires it; the ~ufI considers things from the perspective of the Truth in the very nature of realization; the jurist cannot consider things from this point of view until his outer and inner being are united. The theologian considers the issues of negation and affirmation and nothing else. As a result of all that, Ibn al-Jalla' (may God have mercy on him!) said, "Whoever deals with both God and creatures using the esoteric truth is a heretic; whoever deals with both God and creatures using the Law is a traditionalist; and whoever deals with God using the

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esoteric truth and with creatures using the Law is a §iifi." This is remarkable and appropriate to the precious observations; examples of this will appear later.

Principle [33]

Only through an example can a thing be made manifest, and only through proof can it be supported.

An example of the heretic is he who rejects free will (al-JabarI), who abrogates wisdom and general rules. An example of the traditionalist is illustrated in the badIth (considered sound) of what befell the three men in the cave whose entrance had been blocked, when God asked each one what his best deed was.14 (The soundness of the Qadith is to be found in its self-evident proofs, used by way of encouraging the love and fear of God; but God knows best!) An example of the ~iifi is illustrated in the badith telling the story of a man who borrowed one thousand dinars from another man. The borrower said, "Help me to find a witness for this transaction." The lender replied, "God suffices as a witness." The borrower said, "Help me find a guarantor." The lender replied, "God suffices as a guarantor." So the borrower accepted the conditions. When the deadline for the loan had expired, the man went out to search for a boat, but was unable to find one; so he made a hole in a piece of wood and placed lhe thousand dinars in it along with a note telling the story, leaving it in the care of the One with whom he was content -- who is God (glory be to Him!). So it arrived at its destination; then the borrower gave the lender another thousand dinars, thus faithfully fulfilling his obligation towards the Law. (Al-Bukhari has transmitted both 9adiths in his collection.1S)

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A similar illustration is: "We feed you only for the sake of God;

we desire no recompense from you, no thankfulness; for we fear our

Lord."16 Thus, the one who dedicates himself to practicing the fear of

God is made to seem devoid of intelligence. But God knows best!

A man once asked al-Shibli (may God have mercy on him!), "How much

zakah should I pay for five camels?" He said., "One sheep is your legal

obligation; but, as for us, everything belongs to God.1I The man asked,

IIWhat is the religious basis of your statement?1I Al-ShiblI' replied,

"When Abu Bakr left all his wealth behind, it was for the sake of God

and His Messenger.1I Then he added, "Whoever turns his back on all of

his wealth, his model is Abcr Bakr. Whoever casts aside some of it,

c

thereby abandoning some of it, his model is Umar. Whoever takes,

gives, collects, and withholds for the ~ake of God, his model is

( ( -

Uthman. Whoever leaves the world to its partisans, his model is Ali.

Every kind of knowledge that does not lead to the abandonment of the

world is not knowledge.1I This is a magnificent comment on the subject.

Principle [34]

The silence of a man who knows a particular field of knowledge is

better than his discussing it if he does not connect its branches to its

origin; if he does not investigate the origin through its branches; if

he does not connect the intellectual content with the traditional form,

thereby connecting the tradition to its inner sources; if he does not

submit his understanding of that particular field to what he knows the

experts therein have concluded. Otherwise, he is closer to error than

to correctness, quicker to stray than to be guided, unless he limits

himself to the traditional form stripped of ambiguity and vagueness.

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Many a transmitter of jurisprudence has not been a jurisconsult; yet his

transmission was accepted while his doctrine was not. And success comes

through God (glory be to Him!).

Principle [35}

c

A practical application (far ) is to be considered in the light of

its fundamental principle (a$l) and general rule (ga'idah). If it

agrees with its principle, it is accepted; if not, it is referred back

to its proponent, if he is worthy; or if it is accepted, it is inter-

preted in accordance with his standing; or if his rank in knowledge and

religion is lofty, his word is authoritative. Moreover, he does not by

nature impugn anyone, for the corruption of the immoral man falls back

upon him, nor does he impugn one bit the righteousness of the moral per-

son. Thus, the extremists among the ~ufls are like the people of

erroneous opinions among the theologians and the defamed among the jur-

ists: their doctrine is to be refuted and their behavior is to be

avoided. The true, certain way is not to be abandoned because of their

relations with it or because of their appearance therein. But God knows

best!

Principle [36]

It is important to regulate a science by means of its principles,

because they control its controversial points, explain its meanings,

make known its forms, refute errors arising from its misrepresentation,

guide whosoever reflects upon it, assist the one who is mindful of it,

support the proof of the legal disputant, make the way clear for the

seeker, distinguish the truth for its followers, and separate it from

error, wherever it is. To extract those principles from the branches of

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a science through investigation is possible for the one who wants to know them; however, shallowness of understanding is an obstacle in the way. This is why later generations, not the earlier ones, were concerned with the branches. But God (glory be to Him!) knows best!

Principle [37]

If the origin of a science has been verified, if its substantive contents are known, if its branches are everywhere recognized, and if its principles are apparent, then the comprehension of it is widespread amongst its followers. With respect to this science, he who belongs to an earlier generation is not more worthy than he who belongs to a later one, even though the former has the merit of precedence; thus the science is the decisive factor. The investigation of the later scholar is more perfect because it is an increase over the knowledge of the earlier scholar: God's inspiration is hoped for by each one. What an excellent man was Ibn Malik (may God have mercy on himl), when he said, "Since the sciences are divine favors and special gifts, it is not too far-fetched to say that what was difficult for the earlier scholars has been stoI'~d up for some of the later ones. We seek refuge in God from an envy which closes the door of justice and is a block to beautiful qualities. II It is a wonderful remark.

Principle [38]

Religious scholars are to be given credence with regard to what they transmit because it was entrusted to their safekeeping and was the object of investigation in whatever they held to be true, and because it was the fruit of their intelligence. But infallibility has not been

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ascribed to them. So, discernment is necessary out of a desire for the truth and in order to verify what was said, but not for the purpose of contradicting the speaker or transmitter. Accordingly, if the scholar of a later generation holds to a teaching not held by anyone before him, he is to be judged in accordance with his rank. Nor must he feel obliged to belittle the scholar of an earlier generation or to treat him with uncivil manners. For, the justice that has been affirmed to exist in an earlier scholar decrees that he should return to the Truth when it is expounded, were he to hear it; it would be binding on him, if it were to lead to the refutation 0:E his teaching because of the reality, not the probabilty of the Truth, for probability has already been affirmed in the teaching of the earlier scholar. As a result of all that, later religious leaders contradicted the earlier ones without any belittlement in either of the two camps. So, understand!

Principle [39]

The basis of religious knowledge is study and investigation, whereas the basis of a spiritual state is submission and belief. If a gnostic speaks about religious knowledge, his statements are examined in order to ascertain their sources in the Book, the Sunnah, and the traditions of the pious ancestors, for religious knowledge is to be given due consideration by examining its principles. If he speaks from the point of view of a spiritual state, his intuition is to be considered sound; for no one can evaluate remarks made under such circumstances unless he

is in a similar state; thus, his remarks are given their due because

they result from his state of ecst.asy.

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Our teacher said to a novice of his, "My son, cool the water. For when you drink cold water, you praise God with all your heart. But when you drink it hot, yo~ praise God resentfully." The novice asked, "Master, what about the man who finds that his jug is in the sun and says, II am too embarrassed in front of God to move it just to satisfy my own needsl?" He replied, liMy son, that man is in a spiritual state of ecstasy and is not to be followed."

Principle [40]

Whatever is intelligible (al-ma'gul) contains its proof in itself.

As a result, it is not necessary to know who said a particular thing except that it gives it more credence. What is transmitted (al-mangul) is entrusted to the safekeeping of the transmitter; it is thus necessary to investigate and define his methodology. That which is a combination of the intelligible and the traditional form is to be dealt with carefully using both information and explanation. Ibn Sfrin (may God be pleased with him!) said, "This discussion has to do with religion. Be sure of the person from whom you take your religion." This detailed explanation is with regard to one who has mastered religious knowledge and is aware of its goals. As for the layman or the novice at the beginning of his studies, he must know the methodology to use to obtain both the intelligible content and the traditional form, so that he might emulate his teachers rather than follow them blindly. But God (glory be to Him!) knows best!

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Principle [41]

Blind conformism (taglId) is the acceptance of a teaching without regard to the reputation of the teacher or to the methodology of the teaching. It is absolutely objectionable because the person of blind conformism is making a mockery of his religion. Emulation (igtida') is the acceptance of a teaching by taking into consideration the religiosity of the teacher and his knowledge. This is the method of the jurisconsults of the schools of jurisprudence in following the founders of their schools. Calling emulation "blind conformism" is figurative speech.

Discernment (taba$$ur) is the acceptance of a teaching by virtue of its specific proof without being self-opinionated or disregarding the teaching at its face value. This is the method of the masters of the schools of jurisprudence and of the elite among the seekers of religious knowledge.

Independent judgment (ijtihad) is proposing rules based on proofs without reference to other authorities; then, if no previous principle is to be considered as a precedent, the judgment is absolute; otherwise, it is limited.

A school of jurisprudence is that which grows stronger in a person's soul until he follows it. The general meaning of the above has been mentioned in Miftah al-Sa~adah.17

Principle [42]

None but the infallible (al-ma(9Um) is to be followed, because he is free of errors; or else we should follow the one who testifies to the excellence of the former, because he who vindicates the just is himself

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just. The Prophet (peace be upon himl) testified that the best of the

ages was his, then that of those who followed his, then that of those

who followed afterwards. Thus, their excellence was established by

rank, and emulating them was to be by following their rank also.

However, the Companions were dispersed throughout the lands, each one

carrying a certain aspect of religious knowledge, as Malik said (may God

have mercy on him!). Perhaps one of them had knowledge of the abrogat-

ing Our'anic verses, whereas another had knowledge of the abrogated

verses; perhaps one had independent absolute judgment, whereas another

had limited judgment; perhaps one knew the general principles, whereas

another knew the particular ones, as happened often.

The transmission of all that devolved upon those who came after-

wards, who collected the scattered information and verified the narra-

tives contained therein. But, they did not encompass the totality of

all that within the framework of jurisprudence, although they did so

partially. It was left to the third generation to transmit all of that

material inasmuch as they collected it, evaluated it, and studied it;

consequently, its codification, evaluation, and understanding were per-

fected. Hence, nothing remained to anyone but to carry out what that

generation had discovered and to accept what they had set up as rules

and principles.

Every discipline in that particular generation had its leaders

whose pre-eminence in knowledge and piety was well-known, such as Malik,

- CoT <,

al-Shafi 1, A~ad, and al-Nu man in jurisprudence; like al-Junayd,

Macruf, and Bishr in Sufism; like al-Mu~asibI in ~ufism teo and in

creedal formulations, for he was the first to teach the doctrine that

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affirmed the Divine Attributes, according to Ibn al-Athir. But God knows best!

Principle [43]

The rendering of a verdict in a particular case does not mean that its rationale is applicable generally; and the opposite holds true also. Purification is binding on everyone, contrary to the padith that runs:

"A minority of the community •.• " That was because it was construed in the light of its general attributes, quite apart from the sum total of its particular members; and thus, purification existed on it.

Principle [44]

The teachings of the leaders of every discipline that have been codified are in themselves proof of their authenticity. This is due to the fact that the teaching is being handed down with its known point of origin, its correct meaning, ahd its clear form, that it circulates among its followers and that its problems are well-known among its leaders, each of whom is joined to his predecessor. So it is both correct and necessary to follow these teachings even though their individual expositors have passed away.

The teachings that have not been codified are not of the same nature: it is not correct to follow them because their expositors have passed away and because there is an element of probability in all of them.

The above might be treated more specifically or generally: for example, the schools of al-Layth and the two Sufyan.s18 in general have died out, as have the rest of the schools of jurisprudence except the