Professional Documents
Culture Documents
19
Organizational, Interpersonal,
and Group Communication
467
468 UNIT 6 ■ Roles and Functions in Directing
Leadership Roles
1. Understands and appropriately uses the informal communication network in the
organization.
2. Communicates clearly and precisely in language others will understand.
3. Is sensitive to the internal and external climate of the sender or receiver and uses that
awareness in interpreting messages.
4. Appropriately observes and interprets the verbal and nonverbal communication of
followers.
5. Role-models assertive communication and active listening.
6. Demonstrates congruency in verbal and nonverbal communication.
7. Recognizes status, power, and authority as barriers to manager–subordinate communi-
cation. Uses communication strategies to overcome those barriers.
8. Maximizes group functioning by keeping group members on course, encouraging the
shy, controlling the garrulous, and protecting the weak.
9. Seeks a balance between technological communication options and the need for
human touch, caring, and one-on-one, face- to-face interaction.
Management Functions
1. Understands and appropriately uses the organization’s formal communication network.
2. Determines the appropriate communication mode or combination of modes for optimal
distribution of information in the organizational hierarchy.
3. Prepares written communications that are clear and uses language that is appropriate
for the message and the receiver.
4. Consults with other departments or disciplines in coordinating overlapping roles and
group efforts.
5. Differentiates between “information’’ and “communication’’ and appropriately assesses
the need for subordinates to have both.
6. Prioritizes and protects client and subordinate confidentiality.
7. Ensures that staff and self are trained to appropriately and fully utilize technological
communication tools.
8. Uses knowledge of group dynamics for goal attainment and maximizing organizational
communication.
receiver, and one message. There also is a mode or medium through which the
message is sent, such as verbal, written, or nonverbal.
An internal and an external climate also exist in communication. The internal
climate includes the values, feelings, temperament, and stress levels of the sender
and the receiver. Weather conditions, temperature, timing, and the organizational
climate itself are parts of the external climate. The external climate also includes sta-
tus, power, and authority as barriers to manager–subordinate communication.
470 UNIT 6 ■ Roles and Functions in Directing
Internal External
climate climate
SENDER
Written
Nonverbal MESSAGE
Internal External
Verbal climate climate
RECEIVER
Both the sender and the receiver must be sensitive to the internal and external
climate, because the perception of the message is altered greatly depending on the
climate that existed at the time the message was sent or received. For example, an
insecure manager who is called to meet with superiors during a period of stringent
layoffs will probably view the message with more trepidation than a manager who
is secure in his or her role.
Because each person is different and thus makes decisions and perceives differ-
ently, assessing external climate is usually easier than internal climate. In assessing
internal climate, remember that the human mind perceives only what it expects to
Effective communication perceive. The unexpected is generally ignored or misunderstood. In other words,
requires the sender to receivers cannot communicate if the message is incompatible with their expecta-
determine what tions. Therefore, effective communication requires the sender to determine what
receivers see and hear. receivers see and hear.
are multiple complex systems with rules, contingencies, exceptions, and multiple
intermember communications, all of which make effective communication diffi-
cult. Jackson (1984) identified the following characteristics of large organiza-
tions make communication particularly problematic:
Gender is also a significant factor in organizational communication since men Gender is a significant
and women communicate and use language differently. Indeed, Rudan’s (2003) factor in organizational
study of gender differences in team building showed that leadership style was an communication because
extension of communication style. He found that when conducting business meet- men and women
ings, the males were “all business’’ while the females discussed other personal and communicate and use
social issues with team members. Men also frequently held “meetings before the language differently.
meeting’’ where things were agreed upon prior to the meeting, and women were not
present at these small meetings.
Complicating the picture further is the historical need in the healthcare industry
for a predominantly male medical profession to closely communicate with a predomi-
nantly female nursing profession. Chitty (2001) states that during female-dominated
nursing school experiences, most nurses are encouraged to view physicians as team-
mates and to collaborate with them whenever possible. Male-dominated medical
schools, however, tend to instill in their graduates a hierarchical model of teamwork
with the physician at the top of the hierarchy. The combination of difference in use of
language and perceived difference in status often results in patterns of male dominance
and female deference in communication.
In addition, the majority of healthcare administrators continue to be male.
Therefore, male physicians and male administrators may feel little incentive to seek
a collaborative approach in communication that female nurses often desire. These
differences in gender and in power and status continue to affect tremendously the
types and quality of organizational and unit-level communication.
472 UNIT 6 ■ Roles and Functions in Directing
CHANNELS OF COMMUNICATION
Because large organizations are so complex, communication channels used by the
manager may be upward, downward, horizontal, diagonal, or through the “grapevine.’’
In upward communication, the manager is a subordinate to higher management. Needs
and wants are communicated upward to the next level in the hierarchy. Those at
this higher level make decisions for a greater segment of the organization than the
lower-level manager.
In downward communication, the manager relays information to subordinates.
This is a traditional form of communication in organizations and helps coordinate
activities in various levels of the hierarchy.
In horizontal communication, managers interact with others on the same hierarchical
level as themselves who are managing different segments of the organization.The need
for horizontal communication increases as departmental interdependence increases.
In diagonal communication, the manager interacts with personnel and managers of
other departments and groups, such as physicians, who are not on the same level of
the organizational hierarchy. Although these people have no formal authority over
the manager, this communication is vital to the organization’s functioning. Diagonal
communication tends to be less formal than other types of communication.
The most informal communication network is often called the grapevine.
Grapevine communication flows haphazardly between people at all hierarchical
levels and usually involves three or four people at a time. Grapevine communica-
tion is subject to error and distortion because of the speed at which it passes and
because the sender has little formal accountability for the message. Ribeiro and
Blakeley (1998) suggest this distortion occurs because transmitters using grapevine
communication often do one of the following: (1) elaborate on the original story
but convey its original intent, (2) distort the message either deliberately or uninten-
tionally, or (3) start a contradictory message because they disagree with the original
message received. Given the frequency of grapevine communication in all organi-
zations, all managers must attempt to better understand how the grapevine works
in their own organization as well as who is contributing to it.
474 UNIT 6 ■ Roles and Functions in Directing
COMMUNICATION MODES
A message’s clarity is greatly affected by the mode of communication used. Research
by Parker and Coiera (2000) suggests clinical hospital workers tend primarily to use
synchronous communication modes such as telephone calls and chance face-to-face
meetings with colleagues, even when these channels are not effective. Synchronous
communication also contributes to a highly interruptive work environment, increasing
the potential for clinical errors.
In general, the more direct the communication, the greater the probability that it
will be clear. The more people involved in filtering the communication, the greater
the chance of distortion. The manager must evaluate each circumstance individually
to determine which mode or combination of modes is optimal for each situation.
The manager uses the following modes of communication most frequently:
• Written communication. Written messages (including electronic mail,
which will be discussed later in the chapter) allow for documentation. They
may, however, be open to various interpretations and generally consume more
managerial time. Most managers are required to do a considerable amount of
this type of communication and therefore need to be able to write clearly.
• Face-to-face communication. Oral communication is rapid but may result in
fewer people receiving the information than necessary. Managers communicate
verbally upward and downward and formally and informally. They also
communicate verbally in formal meetings, with people in peer work
groups, and when making formal presentations.
• Nonverbal communication. Nonverbal communication includes facial
expression, body movements, and gestures and is commonly referred to as
body language. Because nonverbal communication indicates the emotional
CHAPTER 19 ■ Organizational, Interpersonal, and Group Communication 475
• Give the reader direction. Be consistent in the tone of the message to establish
a clear point of view.
• Arrange the material logically. A logical presentation of facts increases the
reliability that the reader attributes to the writer. The material may be organ-
ized deductively, inductively, by order of importance, from the familiar to the
unfamiliar, in chronological order, by close relationship, or by physical location.
• Use paragraphs to lead readers. A paragraph should not exceed eight to ten
lines in a memo or five or six lines in a letter.
• Connect your thoughts. To do this, you must add enough details, use repeti-
tion to tie thoughts together, and select transitional words to tell the reader
when you are moving to a new thought.
• Be clear. Be certain your pronouns are clearly defined.
• Express similar thoughts in similar ways. This will increase the continuity
of the message.
January 2, 2005
We are initiating a new program called Project XYZ to help hospitals and other
healthcare agencies in the city meet the increasing need for nurses at
competitive costs with a unique pool of experienced professional nurses.
We are launching the project on Wednesday, February 29, from 8 to 9:30 P.M. in the
Washington Center on Main Street in Somewhere, USA. We hope you and other
interested staff members can attend. Enclosed is the agenda for the meeting.
Sincerely,
Source: Reproduced with permission from Healthcare Education Associates (1998). Professional writing skills for
healthcare managers, p. 68.
478 UNIT 6 ■ Roles and Functions in Directing
A
Learning Exercise 19.4
The problem with letters and memos is there usually is no feedback mechanism
available for the sender to clarify intent. One way to minimize this danger is by
having other supervisory personnel read and interpret written communication
before distribution.
A
Learning Exercise 19.5
Writing a Memo
You are a school nurse. In the last two weeks, nine cases of head lice have
been reported in four different classrooms. The potential for spread is
high, and both the teachers and parents are growing anxious. Compose a
memo for distribution to the teachers. Your goals are to inform, reassure,
and direct future inquiries. Be sure this memo uses the format shown in
Display 19.3 and encompasses the guidelines for memo writing suggested
in this chapter.
manager must have the sensitivity and leadership skills to communicate in today’s
multicultural workplace.
Nonverbal Communication
Ralph Waldo Emerson stated, “What you are speaks so loudly I cannot hear what
you say’’ (Rocchiccioli & Tilbury, 1998, p. 147). Much of our communication
occurs through nonverbal channels that must be examined in the context of the
verbal content. Generally, if verbal and nonverbal messages are incongruent, the
receiver will believe the nonverbal message.
Because nonverbal behavior can be and frequently is misinterpreted, receivers
must validate perceptions with senders. The incongruence between verbal and non-
verbal leads to many communication problems. The following is a partial list of
nonverbal clues that can occur with or without verbal communication:
• Space. The space between the sender and receiver influences what is com-
municated. Although distance implies a lack of trust or warmth, inadequate
space, as defined by cultural norms, may make people feel threatened or
intimidated. For example, some cultures require greater space between sender
and receiver than others. Anglo and African American nurse managers may
find themselves backing away from staff members of Hispanic, East Indian,
or Middle Eastern origins, who seemingly invade their personal space
(Andrews, 1998). Likewise, the manager who sits beside employees during
performance appraisals sends a different message than the manager who
speaks to the employee from the opposite side of a large and formal desk. In
this case, distance increases power and status on the part of the manager;
however, the receptivity to distance and the message it implies varies with
the culture of the receiver.
• Environment. The area where the communication takes place is an impor-
tant part of the communication process. Communication that takes place in
a superior’s office is generally taken more seriously than that which occurs in
the cafeteria.
• Appearance. Much is communicated by our clothing, hairstyles, cosmetics,
and attractiveness. The phrase “dressing for success’’ appropriately defines
the impact of dress and appearance on role perception and power; again
however, care should be exercised to establish dress policies that incorporate
both cultural and gender-related sensitivities (Andrews, 1998).
• Eye contact. This nonverbal clue is often associated with sincerity. Eye
contact invites interaction. Likewise, breaking eye contact suggests that
the interaction is about to cease. Bohannon (2000) states that making eye
contact is one of the key components of effective body language. Blinking,
staring, or looking away when you begin speaking makes it hard for you to
connect with another person emotionally. However, the manager must be
aware that, like space, the presence or absence of eye contact is strongly
influenced by cultural standards.
• Posture. Posture and the way you control the other parts of your body are
extremely important. “If you slouch, shuffle, or stoop, you send the message
CHAPTER 19 ■ Organizational, Interpersonal, and Group Communication 481
that you are indifferent. If you wave your arms, clear your throat a lot, or pull
on your hair or earlobes frequently, you may come across as insincere and
unnatural. If you sit or stand with crossed or folded arms or with your hands
stuffed in your pockets, you appear protective, defensive, unwelcoming’’
(Bohannon, 2000, p. 21). In addition, the weight of a message is increased if
the sender faces the receiver, stands or sits appropriately close, and, with head
erect, leans toward the receiver.
• Gestures. A message accented with appropriate gestures takes on added
emphasis. Too much gesturing can, however, be distracting. For example, hand
movement can emphasize or distract from the message. Gestures also have a
cultural meaning. Nurses from Asian cultures who tend to be less tactile and
show affection in a more reserved manner may perceive Anglo or African
American nurses to be boisterous, loud, ill mannered, or rude by comparison
(Andrews, 1998). Indeed, the use of touch is one gesture that often sends
messages that are misinterpreted by receivers from different cultures.
• Facial expression. Effective communication requires a facial expression that
agrees with your message. Staff perceive managers who present a pleasant
and open expression as approachable. Likewise, a nurse’s facial expression
can greatly affect how and what clients are willing to relate.
• Timing. Hesitation often diminishes the effect of your statement or implies
untruthfulness.
• Vocal clues such as tone, volume, and inflection. All of these clues add to
the message being transmitted. Tentative statements sound more like ques-
tions than statements, leading listeners to think you are unsure of yourself.
Speaking rapidly implies nervousness, and speaking in a monotone voice
implies disinterest (Bohannon, 2000). The goal, then, should always be to
convey confidence and clarity.
All nurses must be sensitive to nonverbal clues and their importance in com-
munication. This is especially true for nursing leaders. Effective leaders are con- Effective leaders are
gruent in their verbal and nonverbal communication, so followers are clear about congruent in their
the messages they receive. Likewise, leaders are sensitive to nonverbal and verbal verbal and nonverbal
messages from followers and look for inconsistencies that may indicate unre- communication, so
solved problems or needs. Often organizational difficulties can be prevented followers are clear about
because leaders recognize the nonverbal communication of subordinates and take the messages they
appropriate and timely action. receive.
There are many misconceptions about assertive communication. The first is that
all communication is either assertive or passive. Actually, at least four possibilities for
communication exist: passive, aggressive, indirectly aggressive or passive-aggressive,
or assertive. Passive communication occurs when a person suffers in silence,
although he or she may feel strongly about the issue. Aggressive people express them-
selves in a direct and often hostile manner that infringes on another person’s rights;
this behavior is generally oriented toward “winning at all costs’’ or demonstrating
self-excellence. Passive-aggressive communication is an aggressive message presented
in a passive way. It generally involves limited verbal exchange (with incongruent
nonverbal behavior) by a person who feels strongly about a situation. This person
feigns withdrawal in an effort to manipulate the situation.
The second misconception is that those who communicate or behave assertively get
everything they want. This is untrue because being assertive involves rights and
responsibilities. Display 19.4 lists the rights and responsibilities of the assertive person.
The third misconception about assertiveness is that it is unfeminine. Although
the role of women in society in general has undergone tremendous change in the
last 100 years, some individuals continue to find great difficulty in accepting that
the nurse plays an assertive, active, decision-making role.
Assertive communication is not rude or insensitive behavior; rather, it is having an
informed voice that insists on being heard. An assertive communication model helps
people unlearn common self-deprecating speech patterns that signal insecurity and a
lack of confidence. The nursing profession must be more assertive in its need to be
heard. Eventually, a form of peer pressure can emerge that reshapes others and results
in an assertive nursing voice.
A fourth misconception is that the terms assertive and aggressive are synony-
mous. To be assertive is to not be aggressive, although some cultures find the dis-
tinction blurred. Even when faced with someone else’s aggression, the assertive
Listening Skills
Research has shown that most people hear or actually retain only a small amount of
the information given to them. Generally, although the average person spends over
half of his or her time listening, only one third of the messages sent are retained. For
the leader, the active process of listening is vital for interpersonal communication
effectiveness (O’Neil, & Morjikian, 2003). It is important that the leader–manager
approach listening as an opportunity to learn appreciation for a cultural perspective
of the organization that is different than his or her own (Kerfoot, 1998).
To become better listeners, leaders must first become aware of how their own
experiences, values, attitudes, and biases affect how they receive and perceive
messages. Second, leaders must overcome the information and communication
overload inherent in the middle-management role. It is easy for overwhelmed
managers to stop listening actively to the many subordinates who need and
demand their time simultaneously.
Finally, the leader must continually work to improve listening skills. The leader
who actively listens gives genuine time and attention to the sender, focusing on verbal
and nonverbal communication. The leader’s primary purpose, then, is to receive the
message being sent rather than forming a response before the transmission of the
message is complete.
GROUP COMMUNICATION
Managers must communicate with large and small groups, as well as individual
employees. Because a group communicates differently than individuals do, it is
essential that the manager have an understanding of group dynamics, including the
sequence each group must go through before work can be accomplished. Tuckman
and Jensen (1977) labeled these stages forming, storming, norming, and performing.
When people are introduced into workgroups, they must go through a process
of meeting each other: the forming stage. They then progress through a stage where
CHAPTER 19 ■ Organizational, Interpersonal, and Group Communication 485
Group Dynamics
In addition to forming, storming, and norming, two other functions of groups are
necessary for work to be performed. One has to do with the task or the purpose of
the group, and the other has to do with the maintenance of the group or support
functions. Managers should understand how groups carry out their specific tasks
and roles.
A
Learning Exercise 19.6
CONFIDENTIALITY
Nurses have a duty to maintain confidential information revealed to them by their
patients. This confidentiality can be breached legally only when one provider must
share information about a patient so that another provider can assume care. In
other words, there must be a legitimate professional need to know.
Indeed, the 1996 Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act calls for
protections and privacy of medical information, including “any information about, Any nurse–manager
whether oral or recorded in any form or medium, that is created or received by a working with clinical
healthcare provider, health plan, public health authority, employer, life insurer, information systems has
school or university, or health clearing house’’ (Smith, 2000, p. 294). Enactment of a responsibility to see
these regulations required putting in place mechanisms and accountabilities to that confidentiality is
protect patients’ privacy. maintained.
There is an ethical duty to maintain confidentiality as well. The same level of
confidentiality is expected regarding sensitive personal communications between
managers and subordinates.
Protecting confidentiality and privacy of personal or patient information has
been made even more difficult as a result of increased electronic communication.
Indeed, computerization was seen as the most serious threat to medical privacy by
54% of surveyed adults (Smith, 2000). This has occurred because the information
available by electronic communication is typically easier to access than traditional
information-retrieval methods and because computerized databases are unable to
distinguish whether the user has a legitimate right to such information. For exam-
ple, the federal government has mandated computerized patient records, and many
healthcare organizations are moving toward implementation of this mandate.
Unfortunately, the discussion and determination of who in the organization should
have access to what information are often inadequate before such hardware is put
in place, and great potential exists for violations of confidentiality. Clearly, any
nurse–manager working with clinical information systems has a responsibility to
see that confidentiality is maintained and that any breaches in confidentially are
dealt with swiftly and appropriately.
490 UNIT 6 ■ Roles and Functions in Directing
❊ Key Concepts
• Communication forms the core of management activities and cuts across all
phases of the management process.
• Depending on the manager’s position in the hierarchy, more than 80% of
managerial time may be spent in some type of organizational communication;
thus, organizational communication is a management function.
• Because the overwhelming majority of managerial communication time is
spent speaking and listening, managers must have excellent interpersonal
communication skills.
• Communication in large organizations is particularly difficult due to their
complexity and size.
• Managers must understand the structure of the organization and recognize
whom their decisions will affect. Both formal and informal communication
networks need to be considered.
• The clarity of the message is significantly affected by the mode of communi-
cation used. In general, the more direct the communication, the greater the
probability of clear communication. The more people involved in filtering
the communication, the greater the chance of distortion.
• Written communication is used most often in large organizations.
• A manager’s written communication reflects greatly on both the manager
and the organization. Thus, managers must be able to write clearly and
professionally and use understandable language.
• The incongruence between verbal and nonverbal messages is the most
significant barrier to effective interpersonal communication.
492 UNIT 6 ■ Roles and Functions in Directing
A
Learning Exercise 19.10
Continuing Education
Current CPR card. No other continuing education completed at this facility.
Assignment: Mary Doe’s prospective employer has requested a letter of ref-
erence to accompany Mary’s application to become a hospice nurse/coun-
selor. No form has been provided, so it is important that your response use
an appropriate format, such as the one suggested in Display 19.2. Decide
which information you should include in your letter and which should be
omitted. Will you weigh some information more heavily than other infor-
mation? Would you make any recommendations about Mary Doe’s suitabil-
ity for the hospice job? Be prepared to read your letter aloud to the class,
and justify your rationale for the content you included.
A
Learning Exercise 19.11
Web Links
Communication Skills Test
http://www.queendom.com/tests/relationships/communication_skills_r_access.html
This 34-question communication skills test takes 15 to 20 minutes to complete and is
designed to evaluate your general level of communication skills.
Organizational Communication
http://www.sharedresults.com
Shared Results provides organizational communication assessment and training to
develop culture change and entrepreneurial spirit for corporate, non-profit and govern-
ment organizations.
Stevens, T. G. Harmonious Assertive Communication: Methods to Create
Understanding and Intimacy
http://front.csulb.edu/tstevens/c14-lisn.htm
Site index includes assertive conflict resolution, making assertive requests, empathetic lis-
tening, and dealing with aggression and manipulation. Also includes Stevens Relation-
ship Questionnaire (SRQ), which explores the relationship between assertive
communication skills and relationship happiness.
Improving Listening Skills
http://www.womensmedia.com/seminar-listening.html
Site helps learner develop good listening skills.
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