recs SER) alten ER) + Consists ofan extensive lttened membrane folded repeatedly to form a large network fof inlorconnected tubes and sacs. Is ‘membrane isthe continuation ofthe nuclear membrane, + Two types of ER: — Rough ER (RER) which has rbosomes on its surface ‘Smooth ER (SER) which has no ribosomes, tromeR esis leaving Colt appara + Consists of @ stack of membrane-bound sacs wih budding vesicles around it taro seat ‘mnt + Spherical + Consists of two subunits containing proteins ‘and RNA. + Allached to RER or exist as tree organelles in the cytoplasm Hyeette enzymes ‘Spherical + Bounded by single membrane + Contains hydrelyic enzymes 18 + RER transports proteins Fibosomes + SER synthesises lipids and is the centre for detoxication of drugs. synthesised by 1 + Acts as centre for processing, packaging and ‘wansporing macromolecules such as proteins and ‘carbohydrates. Glycoproteins are produced by the ‘combination of proteins and carbohydrates. It also produces polysaccharides and phospholipids. ‘are formed through budding of vesicles. Transport vesices carty proteins from ER to Golgh apparatus. Enzymes in the gol ‘pparatus madly and process. the products ‘Secretary vesicles carry the modiied products to other parts of the cell or to the plasma membrane to release the products out ofthe cell. + Sites of protein synthesis + Break down macromolecules. such lipids, nucleic acids, polysacharides wom-out organelleswecvoies ‘sesually in ‘pact calls. In imal cells, if sacuoles are, ‘present, they ‘Se smal) FEeewricies (in “aemal calls =) Ses voll (in ‘slant cells soy) Biotogy (SPM ‘Spherical or oval shaped sacs filed with ‘uid Fluid is known as cell sap which contains sugars, salts, amino acids and waste substances. Bounded by 0 somipemesble mente In microorganisms food vacuoles and contractile vacuoles are found. Exists in pairs near the nucleus ‘Small cyndrcal structures lnnee rmembrone ower membrane Stroma ‘Seman Disc shaped organelle bounded by two ‘membranes, + Has ordery stacks of grana inthe stroma Granum contains chlorophyl, Jelly ke: medium Ti | pret Ais] vee deen tam ct Thin, som puarable manne Consists of proteins. phospholipids ‘Outer boundary ofthe cell + Rigid outer layer of plant cell which is made Lup of callulose fibres Permeable + Store food substances such as sugars and amino acids + Sito for waste products + Regulate water balance in coils + Turgity of cals give suppor to piant + Food vacuoles conlain food to be digested by hydrolytic enzymes found in vesicles. * Contractile vacuoles helps to regulate amount of water in the bocies of microorganisms. Form spindle fibres during cell division ‘Synthesise cia and flageis of small organisms. 4 + Sito for photosynthesis. Chiocophyl in the granum traps ight energy for photosynthesis, + Place where biochemical reactions occur + Regulates and controls the movement of substances in and out of the cell due to Hs semi Ppermerable charactors ‘+ Protect the cell by separating the contents of the Coll from is environment ‘Maintain the shape of plant cell + Protects the cal fom bursting Gives suppor to cells%\ Biotogy (SPM ©2390 sem ‘The following information shows the characteristics of an organelle, X in a cel, + cylindrica o oblong shaped + wo layers of membrane + Inner membranes oided * outer membrane is smooth What is 2 A Nucleus © ‘Mitochondria B Golgi apparares D Chloroplast Examiner's Tips Mitochondria is characterised by folded inner membrane Answer: ¢ SPM cw. 5000 ‘The following information are features of an organelle, Yin cell. + spherical shaped + Place where proteins are synthesised + Suspended freely inthe cytoplasm or attached t endoplasmic reticulum What is 7? A Nucleus € Ribosome B ysosome D Mitochondria Examiner's Tips ribosomes are sites of protein synthesis answer: 9 seu S ‘The diagram shows a plant cll Which ofthe folowing isa characteristic of P? 1k Semi-permeabe © Hard 3 Permeable D Fibrous Examiner's Tips isthe plasma membrane which is a semi-permeable, Answer: A 20 ‘Comparing and contrasting the structure of animal and plant cells ‘The density of certain organelles in 5 cells Similarities Both animal and plant cells have plasma membrane, ‘toplasm, nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, Gol ‘apparatus, ibosomes and mitochondria, Ditoronces ; \ x 7 Not fed Shape Fined Aasent Cot wall Present ‘sont Chloroplast Present present. Has one or a few karla Vacvole large vacuole(s) Troughout the cot ie te Present lysosome Normaly absent Present Cente Absent secre recivonn Se form of sores (Gores sranules starch grains Figure 2.4 Comparison of animal and plant cos 1, Plants and animals are made up of types of cells. 2. Different cells carry out different funct ‘example, muscle cells bring above while nerve cells transmit nerve impulses “The density of certain organelles in a 9 is related to its specific function. For chloroplasts are found in abundance in ‘mesophyll cells which carry out photossruscle cals n insects and birds the meristem for growth mesophyll cells ‘cls inthe respiratory tract —Sacrete mucus Biotogy SPM Table 2.2 The densty of certain organelles in spac cals in elation to ds function eS ee ‘To swim towards either one of the Falopian tubes to ferlise the ovum Contraction and relaxation of muscles + provide movement and locomotion Divided actively to produce new calls + Carry out photosynthesis Dotoxication of rugs, cals, cells of salivary Produce enzymes ‘Somach cals, cls of intestine =i cexqgan has cells which have an abundance of Tips ae sites of protein synthesis such as enzymes. scretes pancreatic ulce which contains enzyme. = On 24 three ones of a animal el the omnes faved onthe fllowing ef prosineyshess Soot ourer membrane and inner flied ny anno activities ofthe cell the fiction of the following celllar “Bough endoplasmic reticulum Chloroplast Bscxproals which ie und in abundance in all a1 + Mitochondria Mitochondria are stes of celular respiration in which energy in the form OfATP is generated through oxidation of food substances such as glucote Mitochondria Mitochondria + Chloroplasts CGhioropiass contain chlorophyll which trap laht eneray for photosyninesis Golgi apparatus ‘Smooth endoplasmic reticulum Rough endoplasmic reticulum and golgi apparatus 2.2.) Cell Organisation Living processes of unicellular organisms 1, Organisms which are made up of only one cell are called 2. Examples of unicellular organisms are Amoeba sp., Paramecium sp, Euglena sp. and Chlamydomonas sp. namycomenae 9 Figure 25 3. Unicellular organisms carry living processes ‘within a cel. They can feed, grow, respire, excrete, reproduce, move and respond to stimuliBiotogy SPH ao — Soon a>. } Pseudopoci al cs, ‘contacto Plsma vacucle membrane eerie a (4): caicrscmmanse ae eeu ze See See ee san indi cytoplasm. ere Habitat + Freshwater environment such asin lakes and ponds + Soll water + Some are parasitic Reproduction + Reproduce asexual Binary fission during favourable condition. = formation of spores during unfavourable conditions = Luceus Sides Parent Amoeba i = ‘dee Two daughter “amoebe Binary flsion in Amooba sp, Respiration Carton sonise \ + Exchange of respiraion gases through the plasma membrane by difusion. Locomotion + Moves by extending the pseudopodium tothe direction It rants to move. + Pseudopodia Is known as “alse feet’ * Gytoplasm flows into the extended psaudopodium. 2 Glher pseucopodia nat involved are withdrawn. 1 ‘ype of movement is known @s amoeboid movement. Reference tne Peeutopodiun — i sanaraneg + Feeds through phagocytosis process. 1 Pseudopadia extend to surround food, engulfing it to form a food vacuole. Enzymes ‘Secreted to digest the food. Digested food is ‘while the undigested food is expelled << wT Amoaba roves ‘award ood Undies ood isexpaled t Digested food ie absorbed Enzyme edi n Amoota sp. Exeretion + Osmoregulaion is carried out by contractile + Water enters the Amoeba sp. and Is collected contractile vacoule + Gontractie vacoule contracts to expel its ‘when it reaches maximum size. + Waste substances are excreted by diusion the plasma membrane, Response to stimuli Amoeba 3p. moves towards favourable simul food using pseudopodia, + it'moves. way from unfavourable stimu ‘acisic or alkaline solutions, bright light temperatures.‘except reproduction ~ micronucleus which is involved in reproduction Has contractile vacuoles at each end ofthe cell ‘Oval groove and cytostome are involved in feeding, ‘Reproduction = Reproduces sexually through conjugation when conditions are unfavourable. = Two paramecium come together and exchange of smeronuclel take place. = Reproduces asexually through binary fission under ‘avourable conaitions.| (2) gy Binary fission in Paramecium sp. Freshwater environments such as lakes and ponds. Exchange of respiration gases through the plasma ‘membrane by ditusion (nyaen Carton denide Biology SPM c Locomotion x ears 7 Locomotion of Paramacium sp + Moves by rhythmic Beating of cia, + Waves created by the beating of cla cause the Paramecium to rotate and spiral along its axis 25 it ‘moves forward, Feeding Feeds on microorganisms + Rhythmic beating of cia along the ova groove sweeps {0d particles inte the cytostome, + Food vacuole is formed, + Enzymes are secreted into the food vacuoles to digest the food as the food vacuoles move inthe eyteplasm, + Nutients are absorbed into the cytoplasm. while Lngigested food is expelled through the anal pore. Response to Stimul + Gila function as sensory structures + Moves away from unfavourable simul such as bright light and acidic or alkaline conditions using cia, + Moves towards favourable stimuli such as food using cilia, Excretion ‘Osmoreguation by contractile vacuo + Woleraiffses into cytoplasm of Paramecium sp. and {is collected inthe contractile vacuoles, + Contractile vacuole contracts to expe! its contents when iis fl ‘+ Waste substances excreted through plasma membrane by difusion. ©289 sp = ‘The diagram shows a unicellular organism, : rot "Se i weep at aerate Examiner's Tips Seas amin per ia Cell specialisation in multicellular organisms 1, Multicellular organisms are organisms which are made up of more than one cell,~ Biology SPM ony 2, Multicellular organisms begin life as a single cell, a zygote, which is formed when an ovum is fertilised by a sperm. “The zygote divides repeatedly to form identical cells which eventually forms a ball of cells known as embryo. 4, The cells of the embryo. undergo. growth, F adaptation and _difereniation to become specialised cells in order to carry out specific functions efficiently. . Different types of cells are adapted to carry out specific functions. Table 2.2 Diferont types of cas and their functions att Function Red blood cell “Transports oxygen + Biconcave disc * No nucleus Nerve call, “Transmits nerve impuls Col body + ong axon ‘Muscle cal Contracts and relaxes to produce movement White blood alls Delené the body ‘against pathogens Swims to fertise the ovum + Has tong tal {Has numerous mitochondria £29 sPM aioe OED ‘© 8 Examiner's Tips ‘Red blood cell transports oxygen. Iis shaped lke a biconcave disc ‘answer: A The necessity for cel multicellular organisms 1. Cell specialisation is a process in which celle ‘undergo changes and adaptations in structures to enable them to carry out specific funtions. specialisation in 2. Cell specialisation is important as multicellular organisms are complex organisms with many cals. Specific cells can carry out their functions efficiently and effectively. For example, muscle cells are involved in movement while nerve cells transmit nerve impulses to muscles. This known as division of labour. This enables cells carry out specific tasks in an organised mannes Maultcellular organisms are able to carry ie processes efficiently and grow accordis “They are able to respond and adapt in diffe situations Cell organisation in multicell organisms 1. A group of cls which are similar in stru and similar functions are grouped as issues. 2, Several types of different tissues which a structural and functional unit is grou together as an ory: 3. Several organs which carry out a major act together forms a4. All systems work together to form an ori 5. The diferent levels of cell organisation that make ‘up a multicellular organism are: Cells Epithelial cell | Baad Tissues Epithelial tissue ast Langs Systema Respiratory system S a J 4 Haman being Multicellular a Figure 2.6 Different levels of call organisation ‘organism. > Tissues +P > System —> Organism represented by P? © stomach D Sperm of tissues form an organ. Stomach isan organ. 2c ‘organisation in animals A tissue is a group of cells that have common structures and perform similar specialised Sanctions, 25 Biotogy (SPM D ‘There are four main types of tissues in animals. (a) Epithelial tissue (b) Muscle tissue (6) Nerve tissue (2) Connective tissue Consist of closely packed cals to form one layer ‘or soveral layers lining the culor body surtace. For = ‘xampi. the akin piri th surface of rasa cay ‘and te surface of mouth caviy consist ofthe epithe tissues + These also cover the outer and ine surfaces of organs such a the igestve tract. Wathen and ngs + Some are specalised to form glands such as sweat ‘ands in te skin, exocnne and endocrine ands Epithelial tissue atthe outermost layer of the skin Function: + Protects the underiying tissues and organs. + Prevents dehydration ofthe skin + Regulate body temperature * Seoreles sweat and sebum Epithelial tissue atthe lining of intestine q oleleie = Function: + Absorbs nutrients + Modified goblet cell secretes mucus + Socteies digestive enzymes Epithelial issue atthe lining of lurigs _ + Allows efiient exchange of respiratory gases Epithelial ussue atthe ining of trachea Function: ‘+ Modified structures called cilia sweep away pollutants from lungs: + Goblet call secretes mucus to trap air particlesBiology (SPM + Consist of muscle calls which are able 1o contract to Produce motion + The most abundant tssve in humans and most animals, + Three types of muscles: smooth muscles, cardiac hollow organs Funetion: secctsh io SS Pressure, muscles ard skeletal muscles. {@) Smooth muscles —=- such” as stomach, intestine, “blocs membrane + Responsitie involuntary actions + For example, contraction of smooth muscles along the digestve tract moves the food. Contacton of (0) Cardiac muscies "Found at the walls of ‘found in walls of S= > QA heart patient receives @ whola heart during a heart transplant. On the other hand, a patient with 2 damaged liver receives only a small piece of Iver ‘during iver transplant. Why? ‘A. The cells of a lver are able to divide actively to on regenerate a whole new liver, skin as an organ is the biggest organ of the body. pinta ise Episerms + Outerast ayer cot ermis connoctvetssuo, a Har ore pila ise ‘Shd musta tasue Hypoderms + Formed rom ‘odie otha oo = Procueas hale sebum which bicaas the “Consists muscle issue + Connective save and + Hairerectormuscle whieh sin snd connective tesue epinotat seve contacts raise + Ganda armed rom modes + Supplesblood otheskin thea epinetal cols Figure 2.7 Cross section of the skin Pa]