<b>The Teutons (919 to 1250)<b>

The origin of Germany traces back to the crowning of Charlemagne as Holy Roman E
mperor in 800. Upon his death the empire was split into three parts that gradual
ly coalesced into two: the western Frankish kingdom that became France and the e
astern kingdom that became Germany. The title of Holy Roman Emperor remained in
Charlemagne's family until the tenth century when they died out. In 919 Henry, D
uke of Saxony, was elected king of Germany by his fellow dukes. His son Otto bec
ame emperor in 962.
The Holy Roman Empire that Otto I controlled extended over the German plain nort
h to the Baltic, eastward into parts of modern Poland, and southward through mod
ern Switzerland, modern Austria, and northern Italy. From the outset, the empero
rs had a difficult problem keeping control of two disparate regions-Germany and
Italy-that were separated by the Alps.
The Holy Roman Empire was successful at first because it benefited the principal
members, Germany and Italy. The Germans were not far removed from the barbarian
condition. They had been conquered by Charlemagne only a century earlier. They
benefited greatly from Italian culture, technology, and trade. The Italians welc
omed the relative peace and stability the empire ensured. Italy had been invaded
time and again for the previous 500 years. The protection of the empire defende
d the papacy and allowed the city-states of Italy to begin their growth.
The imperial armies were manned partially by tenants of church lands who owed se
rvice to the emperor. A second important contingent were the ministriales, a cor
ps of serfs who received the best training and equipment as knights but who were
not free men. These armies were used to put down revolts or interference by loc
al nobles and peasants or to defend against raids by Vikings from the north and
Magyars from the east.
Because Germany remained a collection of independent principalities in competiti
on, German warriors became very skilled. The most renowned German soldiers were
the Teutonic Knights, a religious order of warriors inspired by the Crusades. Th
e Teutonic Knights spread Christianity into the Baltic region by conquest but we
re eventually halted by Alexander Nevsky at the battle on frozen Lake Peipus.
A confrontation between the emperors and the church over investiture of bishops
weakened the emperors in both Germany and Italy. During periods of temporary exc
ommunication of the emperor and outright war against Rome, imperial authority la
psed. The local German princes solidified their holdings or fought off the Vikin
gs with no interference or help from the emperor. In Italy, the rising city-stat
es combined to form the Lombard League and refused to recognize the emperor.
Political power in both Germany and Italy shifted from the emperor to the local
princes and cities. The ministriales rebelled, taking control of the cities and
castles they garrisoned and declaring themselves free. During desperate attempts
to regain Italy, more concessions were given to the local princes in Germany. B
y the middle of the thirteenth century, the Holy Roman Empire existed in name on
ly. The throne remained empty for 20 years. The German princes cared only about
their own holdings. The Italian city-states did not want a German ruler and were
strong enough to defend themselves.
Future emperors in the Middle Ages were elected by the German princes but they r
uled in name only, controlling little more than their own family estates. German
y remained a minor power in Europe for centuries to come.