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Chapter 3
Chapter 3
Drag Polar
Prof.E.G.Tulapurkara
1
3.1. Introduction
Thus,
D = Dwing + Dfuse + Dht + Dvt + Dnac + Dlg +
Detc + Dint (3.1)
where Dwing, Dfuse , Dht, Dvt and Dlg denote drag
due to wing, fuselage, horizontal tail, vertical tail
and landing gear respectively.
Detc includes the drag of items like external fuel
tanks, bombs, struts etc..
3
Dint is the drag due to interference. This arises
due to the following reasons.
While estimating the drag of wing, fuselage and
other components we consider the drag of the
component when it is free from the influence of
any other components. Whereas in an airplane
the wing, fuselage, and tails lie in close
proximity of each other and flow past one
component is influenced by that past the other.
As an illustration let us consider an airfoil kept
in a stream of velocity V∞. Let the drag be 5 N.
Now consider a small plate whose drag at the
same speed of be 2 N.
4
Then the drag of the airfoil and the plate as a
combination (Fig. 3.1) would, in general, be
higher than the sum of individual drags. i.e.
D airfoil+plate> (5+2)=(5+2)+Dint
It is evident that Dint will also depend on the
place where the plate is located on the airfoil.
Remarks
i) Ways to reduce interference drag
A large number of studies have been carried out
on interference drag and it is found that Dint can
be brought down to 5 to 10% of the sum of the
drags of all components, by giving proper fillets
at the junctions of wing and fuselage and tails
5
and fuselage ( Fig 3.2 ).
Fig 3.1 Interference drag
6
Fig 3.2 Reduction of interference drag using fillets
(Adapted from Ref.3.1, pp. 181)
7
ii) Favorable interference effect
The interference effects need not always
increase the drag . The drag of the airfoil plus
the plate can be lower than the drag of the
airfoil when a thin plate is attached to the
trailing edge of the airfoil which is called splitter
plate. The birds flying in formation flight
experience lower drag than when flying
individually.
(iii) Contributions to airplane lift
The main contribution to the lift comes from
wing-fuselage combination and a small
contribution from the horizontal tail i.e. :
L = Lwing + fuselage + Lht (3.2) 8
For airplanes with wings having aspect ratio
greater than six, the lift due to the wing-fuselage
combination is roughly equal to the lift produced
by the gross wing area. The gross wing area (S)
is the planform area of the wing, extended into
the fuselage, up to the plane of the symmetry.
iv) Contributions to airplane pitching moment
The pitching moment of the airplane is taken
about its center of gravity and denoted by Mcg.
Main contributions to Mcg are from wing, fuselage,
nacelle and horizontal tail i.e.
Mcg = Mwing + Mfuselage + Mht + Mnac (3.3)
9
(v) Non-dimensional quantities
11
Note:
(I) The reference area, on which the CD and CL of an
individual component is based, is also called
proper area and denoted by Sπ; the drag
coefficient based on Sπ is denoted by CDπ.
(II)The reference areas for different components are
different for the following reasons. The aim of
using non-dimensional quantities like CD is to be
able to predict characteristics of many similar
shapes by conducting computations or tests on a
few models. For this to be effective, the
phenomena causing the drag must be taken into
account. In this context the drag of streamline
shapes like wing and slender bodies is mainly due12
to skin friction and depends on the wetted area.
Whereas the drag of bluff bodies like the fuselage
of a piston-engined airplane , is mainly the
pressure drag and depends on the frontal area.
It may be added that for wings, the usual
practice is to take the reference area as the
planform area because it is proportional to the
wetted area.
(III) At this stage the reader is advised to the revise
the background on aerodynamics (see for
examples references 1.7 & 1.8 ).
Following the above remarks we can express the
total drag of the airplane as :
13
D = 12 ρ V∞2 S CDwing + 12 ρV∞2 S fuseCD fuse
S S ht S vt
= C D w in g + C D fu s e fu s e
+ C D ht + C D vt
S S S
S nac S lg S e tc
+ C D nac + C D lg + C D e tc + C D in t (3.6)
S S S 14
The data on drag lift and pitching moment, compiled
from various sources, is available in references
1.7,1.8,1.9 and 3.1a to 3.7.
15
3.2. Estimation of Drag Polar – Low Speed Case
18
to make the airplane pitching moment zero, is
produced by the tail without elevator deflection.
This is because, the drag, at low angles of attack,
is least when the required lift is produced without
elevator deflection.
ii) Drag coefficient of wing
The drag coefficient of a wing consist of the (a)
profile drag due to airfoil (Cd) and (b) the induced
drag due to the finite aspect ratio of the wing
(CDi). The profile drag of the airfoil consists of the
skin friction drag and the pressure drag. It may be
recalled that an element of airfoil in a flow
experiences shears stress tangential to the surface
and pressure normal to it . The shear stress 19
multiplied by the area of the element gives the
tangential force. The component of this
tangential force in the free stream direction when
integrated over the profile gives the skin friction
drag. Similarly the pressure distribution results in
normal force on the element whose component in
the free stream direction, integrated over the
profile gives the pressure drag. The pressure
drag is also called form drag. The sum of the skin
friction drag and the pressure drag is called
profile drag. The profile drag depends on the
airfoil shape, Reynolds number, angle of attack
and surface roughness.
20
The chord of the wing varies along the span and
further the shapes of the profiles may also
change along it (span). Hence for the purpose of
calculation of profile drag of the wing , a
representative airfoil may be chosen with chord
S
equal to the average chord ( avg
C = ); where S is
b
the wing area and b is the wing span.
As regards the generation of induced drag it may
be recalled that a wing has a finite span. This
results in a system of trailing vertices and
induced angle due to these vertices tilts the
aerodynamic force rearwards. This results in a
component in the free stream direction which is
called induced drag. The induced drag 21
coefficient is given by :
CL2
CDi = (1+ δ ) (3.7)
π×A
Where A is the wing aspect ratio (A=b2/S) and δ
is a factor which depends on wing aspect ratio,
taper ratio and sweep.
When a flap is deflected, there will be increments
in lift and both profile drag and induced drag.
A similar procedure can be used to estimate
drags of horizontal and vertical tails. However
contributions to induced drag can be neglected
for the tail surfaces.
22
iii) Drag coefficient of fuselage
The drag coefficient of a fuselage (CDf) consists
of the drag or the fuselage at zero angle of attack
(CD0)f plus drag due to angle of attack. It can be
expressed as :
CDf=(CD0)f+K(α)2 (3.8)
For a streamlined body (CD0)f is mainly skin
friction drag and depends on (a) Reynolds
number, based on length of fuselage (lf),(b)
surface roughness and (c) fineness ratio (Af).
The fineness ratio is defined as:
Af=lf /de (3.9)
23
where de is the equivalent diameter given by:
(π/4)de2 = Afmax
where Afmax equals the area of the maximum cross-
section of fuselage.
When the fineness ratio of the fuselage is small for
e.g. in case of general aviation airplanes , the
fuselage is treated as a bluff body. In such cases the
drag is mainly pressure drag and the drag coefficient
is based on the frontal area (Afmax).
The drag coefficients of other bodies like engine
nacelle, external fuel tanks, bombs can also be
estimated in a similar manner.
iv) The drag coefficients of other components like
24
landing gear are based on areas specific to the
component. They should be obtain from the sources
of drag data mentioned earlier.
3.2.1 Drag polar
To obtain the drag polar by adding the drag
coefficients of individual components at
corresponding angles of attack , needs a large
amount of detailed data about the airplane
geometry and drag coefficients. A typical drag polar
obtained by such a procedure or by experiments on
a model of the airplane appears as shown in
Fig. 3.4a. When this curve is replotted as CD vs.
CL2 (Fig.3.4b), it is found that over a wide range
of CL the curve is a straight line and one could
write.
25
CD=CD0 + KCL2 (3.10)
Fig 3.4a Typical drag polar of a piston – engined airplane
26
CD0 is the intercept of the straight line and is
called zero lift drag coefficient or parasite drag
coefficient (Fig.3.4b).
The term KCL2 is called induced drag coefficient
or more appropriately lift dependent drag
coefficient. K is written as:
1
K =
π Ae
(3.11)
Remarks:
i) The reason why an expression like Eq.(3.10) fits
the drag polar is because the lift dependent drags
of wing and fuselage are proportional to the
square of the angle of attack.
ii) The drag polar given by Eq.(3.10) is called
parabolic drag polar.
iii) It found that CD0 is roughly equal to the sum of
the minimum drag coefficients of various
components plus the correction for interference . 29
iv) Parasite drag area and equivalent skin
friction coefficient
The product CD0 x S is called parasite drag area.
For streamlined airplanes the parasite drag is
mostly skin friction drag plus a small pressure
drag. The skin friction drag depends on the
wetted area of the surface. The wetted area of
the entire airplane is denoted by Swet and the
equivalent skin friction coefficient (Cfe) is defined
as :
CD0 x S = Cfe x Swet
S wet
or CD0 = C fe
S
30
Reference 3.7 , Chapter 12 gives values of Cfe
for different types of airplanes.
v) The factor ‘e’ lies between 0.8 to 0.9 for
airplanes with unswept wings and between 0.6
to 0.8 for those with swept wings.
See Refs.3.3 & 3.4 for estimating CD0 and K.
vi) The parabolic polar is an approximation . It is
inaccurate near CL =0 and CL= CLmax (Fig.3.4b).
It is should not be used beyond CLmax .
A quick estimate of the drag polar is carried out
in example 3.1.
31
Example 3. 1
An airplane has a wing of planform area 51.22 m2
and span 20 m. It has a fuselage of frontal area
3.72 m2 and two nacelles having a total frontal
area of 3.25 m2. The total planform area of
horizontal and vertical tails is 18.6 m2 . Obtain a
rough estimate of the drag polar in a flight at a
speed of 430 kmph at sea level (s.l.). when
landing gear is in retracted position.
32
Solution :
Flight speed is 430 kmph = 119.5 m/s.
Average chord of wing = S/b = 51.22/20=2.566 m.
Reynolds number (Re) based on average chord is:
1 1 9 .5 × 2 .5 6 6
= 2 1 × 1 0 6
1 4 .6 × 1 0 − 6
1
C D = 0.0216 + C L2
π X 7.8 X 0.83
35
Remarks:
36
Type of CD0 A e Typical polar
airplane
Low speed 0.022 to 6 to 8 0.8 to
0.025 + 0.055CL2
(M <0.3) 0.04 0.9
54
Fig 3.10 Geometric parameters of a wing55
Fig 3.11 Effect of wing sweep on variation of CD
with Mach number.
(Adapted from Ref.1.9, chapter 1) 56
(10) Drag at supersonic speeds
At supersonic Mach numbers also the drag of a
wing can be expressed as sum of the profile drag
of the wing section plus the drag due to effect of
finite aspect ratio . The profile drag consists of
pressure drag plus the skin friction drag . The
pressure drag results from the pressure
distribution caused by the shock waves and
expansion waves (Fig.3.6) and hence is called
wave drag. At supersonic speed the skin friction
drag is only a small fraction of the wave drag. The
wave drag of a symmetrical aerofoil (Cdw) can
be expressed as (Ref.1.7 , chapter 5 ):
57
4
Cdw = [α 2 + (t / c) 2 ]
M ∞2 − 1
59
3.3.1 Drag polar of at high speeds
The drag polar of an airplane, which is obtained
by the summing the drag coefficients of its
major components, will also undergo changes as
Mach number changes from subsonic to
supersonic. However it is found that the
approximation of parabolic polar is still valid at
transonic and supersonic speeds, but CD0 and K
are now functions of Mach number i.e. :
CD = CD0(M) + K(M)CL2 (3.12)
Detailed estimation of the drag polar of a
subsonic jet airplane is presented in Appendix B
60
Remarks:
i) Guidelines for variations of CD0 and K for a
subsonic jet transport airplane
Subsonic jet airplanes are generally designed such
that there is no significant wave drag up to cruise
Mach number ( Mcruise ). However to calculate the
maximum speed in level flight (Vmax) or the
maximum Mach number (Mmax ), we need guidelines
for increase in CDo and K beyond Mcruise .Towards this
end we consider the data on B727-100 airplane.
Reference 3.8 gives drag polars of B727-100 at
M=0.7,0.76,0.82,0.84,0.86 and 0.88. Values of CD
and CL corresponding to various Mach numbers
were read and are shown in Fig. 3.12 by symbols.
61
Following the parabolic approximation, these polars
were fitted with Eq.(3.12) and CD0 and K were
obtained using least square technique. The fitted
polars are shown as curves in Fig. 3.12. The
values of CD0 and K are given in Table 3.3. and
presented in Figures 3.13 (a) & (b).
M CD0 K
0.7 0.01631 0.04969
0.76 0.01634 0.05257
0.82 0.01668 0.06101
0.84 0.01695 0.06807
0.86 0.01733 0.08183
0.88 0.01792 0.103
68
Fig 3.14 Drag polars at different Mach numbers for F15
(Adapted from Ref.1.8, chapter2)
Please note : The origins for polars corresponding to69
different Mach numbers are shifted.
Fig 3.15(a) Typical variations of CD0 with Mach
number for fighter airplane
70
Fig 3.15(b) Typical variations of K with Mach
number for a fighter airplane
71
3.4 Drag polar at hypersonic speeds
1
(L/D)max = (CLmd/CDmd) = (3.19)
2 CD0K
Note:
To show that CLmd corresponds to minimum of
(CD/CL ), take second derivative of the right hand
side of Eq.(3.16) and verify that it is greater than
zero.
74
3.6 Other types of drag
77
3.7 High lift devices
3.7.1 Introduction
From earlier discussion we know that:
1
L = ρ V 2 SC L (3.20)
2
Further for an airplane to take-off , the lift must
at least be equal to the weight of the airplane , or
1
L = W = ρV 2 SCL (3.21)
2
Hence 2W
V= (3.22)
ρ SCL
79
3.7.2 Factors limiting CLmax
Consider an airfoil at low angle of attack (α).
Figure 3.16a shows a flow visualization picture of
the flow field . Boundary layers are seen on the
upper and lower surfaces. As the pressure
gradient is low, the boundary layers are attached.
The lift coefficient is nearly zero. Now consider
the same airfoil at slightly higher angle of attack
(Fig.3.16b). The velocity on the upper surface is
higher than that on the lower surface and
consequently the pressure is lower on the upper
surface as compared to that on the lower surface.
The airfoil develops higher lift coefficient as
compares to that in Fig.3.16a. 80
3.16a Flow past an airfoil at low angle of attack.
Note: The flow is from left to right
(Adapted from Ref. 3.10 , chapter 3) 81
3.16b Flow past an airfoil at moderate angle of attack.
Note: The flow is from right to left
(Adapted from Ref. 3.11 , part 3 section II B)82
However the pressure gradient is also higher on
the upper surface and the boundary layer
separates ahead of the trailing edge (Fig.3.16b) .
As the angle of attack approaches about 150 the
separation point approaches the leading edge of
the airfoil (Fig.3.16c). Then the lift coefficient
begins to decrease (Fig.3.16d) and the airfoil is
said to be stalled. The value of α for which Cl
equals Clmax is called stalling angle (αstall). Based
on these observations , delay of stalling is an
important method to increase Clmax. Since stalling
is due to separation of boundary layer, many
methods have been suggested for boundary layer
control. In the suction method the airfoil 83
3.16c Flow past an airfoil at angle of attack near stall.
Note: The flow is from left to right
(Adapted from Ref. 3.10 , chapter 3) 84
3.16d Typical Cl vrs α curve
85
surface is made porous and boundary layer is
sucked (Fig.3.17a) . In the blowing method, fluid
is blown tangential to the surface and the low
energy fluid in the boundary layer is energized
(Fig.3.17b). This effect (energizing ) is achieved
in a passive manner by a leading edge slot
(Fig.3.17c) and a slotted flap (section 3.7.3) .
See Ref.3.13, chapter 11, for other methods of
boundary layer control and for further details.
86
Fig. 3.17 Boundary layer control with suction and
blowing (Adapted from Ref.3.12, section 9) 87
3.7.3. Ways to increase Clmax
Beside the boundary layer control, there are two
other way to increase Clmax viz. increase of camber
and increase of wing area. These methods are briefly
described below .
I) Increase in Clmax due to change of camber
It may be recalled that when camber of an airfoil
increases, the zero lift angle (αol) decreases and the
Cl vrs α curve shifts to the left (Fig.3.18) . It is
observed that αstall does not decrease significantly
due to the increase of camber and a higher Clmax is
realized (Fig.3.18). However, the camber of the
airfoil used on the wing is chosen such that minimum
drag coefficient occurs near the lift coefficient 88
Fig. 3.18 Increase in Clmax due to increase of camber
89
corresponding to the cruise or the design lift
coefficient . One of the ways to achieve the increase
in camber during take-off and landing is to use flaps.
In a plain flap the rear portion of the airfoil is hinged
and is deflected when Clmax is required to be increased
(Fig.3.19a) . In a split flap only the lower half of the
airfoil is moved down (Fig.3.19b) . To observe the
change in camber brought about by a flap deflection,
draw a line in-between the upper and lower surfaces
of the airfoil with flap deflected. This line is
approximately the camber line of the flapped airfoil.
The line joining the ends of the camber line is the new
chord line . The difference between the ordinates of
the camber line and the chord line is a measure of 90
camber.
Fig. 3.19 Flaps, slot and slat
(Adapted from Ref.3.7 , chapter 12) 91
II) Increase in Clmax due to boundary layer
control
In a slotted flap (Fig.3.19c) the effects of camber
change and the boundary layer control are
brought together. In this case when the flap is
deflected a gap is created between the main
surface and the flap (Fig.3.19c) . As the pressure
on the lower side of airfoil is more than that on
the upper side, the air from the lower side of the
airfoil rushes to the upper side and energizes the
boundary layer on the upper surface. This way the
separation is delayed and Clmax increases
(Fig.3.20). The slot is referred to as a passive
boundary layer control , as no blowing by external92
source is involved in this devise.
Fig.3.20 Effects of camber change and boundary layer
control on CLmax 93
After the success of single slotted flap , the double
slotted and triple slotted flaps were developed
(Figs.3.19 d and e).
III) Increase in Clmax due to change in wing area
Equation (3.20) shows that the lift can be increased
when the wing area (S) is increased. An increase in
wing area can be achieved if the flap, in addition to
being deflected, also moves outwards and effectively
increases the wing area. This is done in a Fowler flap
(Fig.3.19 f) . Thus a Fowler flap incorporates three
methods to increase Clmax viz change of camber,
boundary layer control and increase of wing area. It
may be added that while defining the Clmax in case of
Fowler flap, the reference area is the original area 94
of the wing and not that of the extended wing.
A zap flap is a split flap where the lower portion also
moves outwards as the flap is deflected.
IV) Leading edge devices
High lift devices are also used near the leading edge
of the wing. A slot near the leading edge (Fig.3.19 g)
also permits passive way of energizing the boundary
layer. However a permanent slot has adverse effects
during cruise. Hence leading edge slat as shown in
Fig.3.19h is used . When deployed it produces a slot
and increase Clmax by delaying separation.
On high subsonic speed airplanes , both leading
edge and trailing edge devices are used to increase
Clmax(Fig.3.2.). 95
Remarks:
i) See Refs. 1.7,1.8,1.9 and 3.7 for other types
of high lift devices like Kruger flap, leading edge
extensions, blown flap etc.
ii) See Ref.1.8, Chapter 1 for historical
development of flaps.
iii) Guide lines for values of CLmax of wings
with various high lift devices.
An estimate of the maximum lift coefficient of a
wing is needed to calculate the stalling speed of
the airplane. The maximum lift coefficient
depends on (a) wing parameters ( aspect ratio,
taper ratio and sweep) , (b) airfoil shape ,
96
(c ) type of high lift devices (s),
(d) Reynolds number (e) surface finish (f) the
ratio of the area of flap to the area of wing, (g)
interference from nacelle, fuselage etc.
Figure 3.21 can be used for initial estimate of
CLmax for subsonic airplanes with wrings of aspect
ratio greater than 6. Quarter chord sweep has
predominant effect on CLmax and hence it is used
on the abscissa in Fig.3.21. The different curves
correspond to no flap case and those with
different types of high lift devices. For example a
wing with sweep of 300 would have a CLmax of
about 1.4 with no flaps and 2.3 with Fowler flaps.
With addition of leading edge slat this can go
upto 2.6. 97
Fig.3.21 Guidelines for CLmax of wings with different
high lift devices (Adapted from Ref.3.7, Chapter 5)
98
The following may be noted.
(a) The value of CLmax shown in Fig 3.21 can be
used in landing configuration.
(b) The flap setting during take-off is lower than
that during landing. The maximum lift coefficient
during take off can be taken approximately as
80% of that during landing.
(c )Do not use these curves, for supersonic
airplanes with low aspect ratio wings and airfoil
sections of small thickness ratio.
(d) As the Mach number (M) increase beyond 0.5
the Clmax of the airfoil section decreases, due to
the phenomenon of shock stall. Figure 3.22 give,
guidelines for estimating Clmax for M > 0.5. 99
Fig.3.22 Effect of Mach number on Clmax
(Adapted from Ref.3.7, Chapter 5) 100
References
103
Exercises:
3.1 Following data relate to a light airplane:
W =11000 N,
Wing: S = 15 m2, CD0 =0.007, a = 4.9/rad
A.R. = 6.5, taper ratio (λ) = 1.0, e = 0.9.
Fuselage :Has a drag of 136N at V = 160 km/hr at
sea level.
Horizontal tail: CD0=0.006,at = 4.1/rad,St=2.4 m2
Vertical tail: CD0 = 0.006, Sv = 2.1 m2
Other components:CD0 based on wing area = 0.003
104
Estimate the drag polar of the airplane assuming the
contribution of the fuselage to the lift dependent
drag as small.
[Answer: CD = 0.0193 + 0.0544 CL2]
3.2 A drag polar is given as:
CD=CD0 + KCLn
Show that:
CD0 n
CLmd = { }1 / n , CDmd = n −1C D 0
K ( n − 1)
(CL/CD)max = 1 1
{ ( n −1) / n 1/n
}
n C K
( n − 1)1 / n D 0
n −1
105
Verify that when n=2, the above expressions
reduced to those given by eqs. (3.17),(3.18) and
(3.19).
CL CD
0 0.028
0.05 0.0364
0.1 0.05
0.15 0.07
0.2 0.0907
106
Fit Eq.(3.15) to this data and obtain CD0 and K.
Also obtain CLmd, CDmd and (CL/CD)max. You may
use expression mentioned in exercise 3.2.
[Answer:
CD0 = 0.028, K= 0.701;
CD = 0.028+0.701 CL3/2
CLmd = 0.1885, CDmd = 0.084,
(CL/CD)max = 2.21]
107