Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Department of Physics
2008
2
Contents
1 The Classical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field 13
1.1 Elementary Aspects of Electromagnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.2 Macroscopic Charges and Currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.2.1 Charge Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.2.2 Current density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Revision questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3
Revision questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Tutorial problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4
8.1 Rate of Doing Work by the Field on the Current – Ohmic
Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
8.2 Electrostatic Field Energy Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
8.3 Magnetostatic Field Energy Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
8.4 Poynting Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
8.5 Phase Relationships in EM Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
8.6 Momentum Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
8.7 EM Energy Flow: Circuit versus Field Theory . . . . . . . . . 106
8.7.1 Energy Flow in a Resistive Wire . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
8.7.2 Energy Flow out of Battery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
8.7.3 Propagation of an Electromagnetic Wave along a Wire 109
Revision questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Tutorial problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
5
Revision questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
6
15 Plane Wave Propagation in Dielectric and Magnetic Media 220
15.1 Dispersive Equation and Complex Propagation Number . . . . 222
15.2 Wave Refraction and Attenuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
15.2.1 Propagation of an EM wave in a low loss dielectric . . 225
15.2.2 Propagation of an EM Wave in a Good Conductor . . 227
15.2.3 Skin Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Revision questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Tutorial problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
7
19.1.1 Polarization by reflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
19.1.2 Total internal reflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
19.2 Transmission and Reflection at a Conducting
Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
19.2.1 Field vectors at normal incidence . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Revision questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Tutorial problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
8
Literature
1. J.D. Jackson, Classical Electrodynamics, 3rd ed. Wiley 1999.
The course is aimed at this level of treatment.
9
”To anyone who is motivated by anything
beyond the most narrowly practical,
it is worthwhile to understand Maxwell’s equations
simply for the good of his soul”
− J.R. Pierce
11
1 The Classical Theory of the Electromag-
netic Field
Classical theory of the electromagnetic field or Classical Electrodynamics,
formulated by Maxwell more than 100 years ago, is now a well established
theory with many applications in different areas of physics, chemistry and en-
gineering. In this context ‘classical’ means ‘non-quantum’, but we would
like to point out that the basic equations of electromagnetism, the Maxwell’s
equations, hold equally in quantum and classical field theory.
We begin the study of the electromagnetic theory with a brief review of the
elementary aspects of electromagnetism that the student learnt in the first
year PHYS1002 course. These aspects are in fact about the microscopic
nature of the electromagnetic theory. To indicate the classical approach to
the electromagnetic theory and the macroscopic nature of electromagnetic
phenomena we are going to explore in this lecture notes, we first introduce
the concept of macroscopic distributions of charges and currents, i.e. we
define volume, surface and linear charge densities. Next, we will introduce
the concept of the current density and a total (macroscopic) current.
1
At our level of discussion there is no relation between these four types of interaction,
i.e. they cannot be considered as different manifestations of a single FORCE.
13
2. Electromagnetic (EM) forces or interactions are due to ELECTRIC
CHARGE, which is NOT in turn explicable in terms of anything else.
3. Charges are of two kinds called positive and negative. In the static
limit like charges repel and unlike attract.
5. In the static limit the inverse square (Coulomb) law of force holds:
1 q2 q 1 r̂
F~q2 = r̂ , q1 −→ q2 ,
4πε0 r2
that the charge q1 acts on the charge q2 with the force F~q2 . The force
acts along the distance r and the parameter ε0 determines the property
of the medium and is called the electric permittivity.
The Coulomb’s law does not tell us how the first charge knows the
other one is present. One usually assumes that the charge produces an
electric field which then interacts with the other charges. To express
this explicitly, the Coulomb force is often written as
F~q2 = q2 E
~ q1 ,
2
S.J. Plimpton and W.E. Lawton, Phys. Rev. 50, 1066 (1936).
14
If the exponent in the Coulomb’s law for point charges
1
E∼
rn
is not n = 2 but n = 2(1 ± ), the potential inside the hollow conductor
would be large. Since the potential inside the hollow conductor found
by the experiments was less in magnitude than a small detectable po-
tential, then ' 10−9 , the level of sensitivity of the detector.
7. In the NON-STATIC case, i.e. the case of moving charges, the force is
no longer given by Coulomb’s Law. It is given by the Lorentz equation
F~q2 = q2 (E
~ + ~v × B)
~ ,
where E~ and B ~ are the electric and magnetic fields due to q1 , and ~v is
the velocity of the charge q2 .
The student has noticed that the Lorentz force involves both, the electric and
magnetic fields. Why there must be a B~ and how E ~ and B ~ are computed for
3
This is because in ordinary matter electrons move much faster than ions, their speeds
depend on temperature, and electric fields are not observed to arise from changes in
temperature.
15
arbitrary motion of charges is the substance of electromagnetic theory.
We now have the following picture of the basis of the electromagnetic theory:
ELECT ROM AGN ET IC F ORCE ON
1. CHARGE 1 =⇒ F IELD =⇒ CHARGE 2
16
When we encounter a large number of point charges in a finite volume, it
is convenient to describe the source in terms of a volume charge density,
defined as
Σq
ρ = lim ,
∆V
where Σq is the algebraic sum of the charge in the volume ∆V .
The limit is not to zero, but to a ∆V much larger than atomic scale size,
which is still very small on the laboratory scale.
Note that the charge density is a function of the position which varies smoothly
inside a charged material. An exception is a boundary between two charged
materials where ρ may change discontinuously due to the presence of surface
charges of a non-zero density. Thus, we may introduce the concept of surface
charge density.
17
1.2.2 Current density
For many purposes in the electromagnetic theory, it will be necessary to
introduce the concept of current density.
It measures the amount of current flowing
through an area normal to the direction
of the current.
We define the current density in the fol-
lowing way. Let IA = ∂q/∂t is a current
through the area A, as shown in Figure 1.
Then the current density, normal to the
area A is defined by
I δq
J~ = lim n̂ = lim n̂
Figure 1: Illustration of the current A δt A
flow through an area A and the evalua- ρ A v δt
tion of the current density through the = lim n̂ = ρ~v ,
area A.
δt A
where ~v = vn̂, and n̂ is the unit vector
normal to the area A, and the limit is
taken in the same sense as for ρ.
For a surface of an arbitrary shape, the current may not be normal to the
surface at all points on the surface.
18
and find the current through dA as4
δI = J~ · n̂ dA = J cos(θ)dA .
Then the current through the total area A is the sum of the contributions
from all the small elements of the area:
Z Z Z
IA = δI = J~ · n̂ dA = J~ · dA
~,
A A
Revision questions
Question 3. How do we define and evaluate the current density through an area?
Question 4. If the current density through an area is known, how does the
current through the area is evaluated?
4
In literature, very often small areas that a macroscopic area is divided to are called
elementary areas or elementary surfaces.
19
2 Mathematical Description of Vector Fields
~ a change of Φ can
For some other direction dX,
~
Figure 3: Illustration of the be found by projection of gradient of Φ on dX:
evaluation of gradient of a scalar
function Φ.
~ = ∂Φ ~ = ∂Φ cos θ dX .
dΦ = ∇Φ · dX n̂ · dX
∂s ∂s
We know from the vector analysis that it is convenient to represent a vec-
tor in a reference (coordinate) frame. Commonly used are the rectangular
(cartesian) coordinates, in which we can easily find that the x component of
20
the gradient is
∂Φ ∂Φ
(∇Φ)x = ∇Φ · î = n̂ · î = cos θ
∂s ∂s
δΦ δΦ ∂Φ
= lim = lim = .
δ(s/ cos θ) δx ∂x
Similarly, the y and z components of the gradient are
∂Φ ∂Φ
(∇Φ)y = , (∇Φ)z = .
∂y ∂z
Hence, in cartesian coordinates, the gradient of a scalar function Φ can be
written as5
∂Φ ∂Φ ∂Φ
∇Φ = î + ĵ + k̂ .
∂x ∂y ∂z
The gradient is analogous to multiplication of a vector by a scalar. The re-
sult, of course, is a vector.6
Exercise in class:
Consider a scalar function Φ = x. Calculate the gradient
of Φ = x.
Solution: Since
∂Φ ∂Φ ∂Φ
=1 and = =0,
∂x ∂y ∂z
we find that
∂x ∂x ∂x
∇Φ = î + ĵ + k̂ = î .
∂x ∂y ∂z
This exercise explicitly shows that gradient is a vector pointing in the direc-
tion of maximal changes in Φ.
5
Expressions for the gradient in other coordinate systems are given in the Appendix C.
6
We do not usually take a gradient of a vector, the result would be a tensor.
21
The student should be able now to give a quick answer to simple questions
as ”Is gradient a scalar or a vector?” or ”In which direction does gradient of
a given scalar function point?” A practical test: Try to give the answer to
the following question without any calculations: What is the direction of the
gradient of a scalar function Φ = x + y?
Definition of divergence:
22
Exercise in class:
Consider two vectorial fields F~1 = xî and F~2 = y î. Which of
the fields is solenoidal?
This exercise shows that divergence of a given vector field is different from
zero only if the field amplitude changes in the direction of the field. So now it
is easy to visualize the divergence of a vector field. The divergence is related
to how the field changes as you move in the direction of the field.
23
2.3 The Flux of a Vector Field
A vector field propagating in space may cross some surfaces not necessary
normal to the field direction.
In this case, we may speak about a flux of the
field through the surface. The flux is measured
by the number of field lines crossing the sur-
face.
where n̂ is the unit vector normal to the surface at the point where the ele-
ment of area dS is located. Thus, we calculate the flux through a surface S of
arbitrary shape by dividing it up into a lot of small surfaces dS and calculate
the flux through each of these small surfaces. next, we add (integrate) the
fluxes to obtain the total flux through the surface S.
Gauss’s law, or sometimes called as the Gauss’s divergence theorem, says that
Z I
∇ · F~ dV = F~ · n̂ dS . (1)
V S
The Gauss’s law states that the volume integral of the divergence
of a vector field over a volume V is equal to the closed surface in-
tegral of the vector over the surface bounding the volume V .
24
Mathematically, the Gauss’s divergence the-
orem converts a volume integral of the di-
vergence of a vector to a closed surface inte-
gral of the vector, and vice versa. Physically,
the Gauss’s divergence theorem says that the
number of the field lines flowing through
the surface S is equal to the ”strength”
of the field source contained inside the vol-
ume V .
i.e. the divergence of a vector field is the emanating flux per unit volume.
25
Using the Gauss’ divergence theorem, we
can write
I Z
ρ~v · n̂ dS = ∇ · (ρ~v ) dV .
S V
Thus
Z
∂ρ Z
dV = − ∇ · (ρ~v ) dV .
∂t
V V
ρ~v = J~ ,
we finally obtain
∂ρ
+ ∇ · J~ = 0 ,
∂t
which is well known as the continuity equation, or the equation of conser-
vation of charge.
When stationary currents are involved, then ∂ρ/∂t = 0. In this case ∇·J~ = 0,
that is for stationary currents the current density is solenoidal.
26
or
! ! !
∂Fz ∂Fy ∂Fx ∂Fz ∂Fy ∂Fx
∇ × F~ = − î + − ĵ + − k̂
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y
î ĵ k̂
∂ ∂ ∂
= ∂x ∂y ∂z
.
F Fy Fz
x
Properties: Curl is nonzero when the field increases (or decreases) in a dif-
ferent direction that the field pointed. If the field is pointed in the same
direction as that in which is increased, the curl is zero. So the curl is related
to how the field changes as you move across the field.
Exercise in class:
Find which of the following vectorial fields is irrotational.
r̂
F~1 = 2 , F~2 = 2~r , F~3 = ∇r3 ,
r
where r = |~r| 6= 0 and r̂ is the unit vector in the direction
of ~r.
27
The Stokes’s theorem states that
the closed line integral of a
vector field F~ along the con-
tour bounding an open sur-
face S is equal to the sur-
face integral of the curl of
the vector field over the sur-
face.
∂ 2 F~ ∂ 2 F~ ∂ 2 F~
∇2 F~ = + + .
∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
28
It is also possible to form the curl of the gradient, which is identically zero
∇ × ∇Φ = 0 . (2)
∇ · ∇ × F~ = 0 . (3)
These two properties are very useful in the vector field theory, in particular in
the electromagnetic theory. The relation (2) shows that an irrotational field
can always be expressed as gradient of an arbitrary scalar field. Similarly,
relation (3) shows that any solenoidal field can always be expressed as a curl
of an arbitrary vector field. Further discussion of the successful application
of ∇ is left to the tutorial problems.
9
The proof of this and the above property is left to the student as a tutorial problem.
Note that each of these properties involves two vector operations, but in writing them
we usually do not put brackets that would indicate in which order the two operations
should be applied. Is it clear to the student in which order the vector operations should
be applied?
29
Revision questions
Tutorial problems
~ B,
Consider arbitrary vectors A, ~ C
~ and D.
~
~ × (B
(a) Is A ~ × C)
~ equal to (C
~ × B)
~ × A?
~ Explain.
30
~ · (B
(b) Is A ~ × C)
~ equal to (C
~ × B)
~ · A?
~ Explain.
~×B
(c) Does A ~ =A
~×C
~ implies B
~ = C?
~ Explain.
~ =∇×B
(d) Does ∇ × A ~ implies A
~ = B?
~ Explain.
(a) Find the relative position vector R~ of the point P (2, −2, 3)
~
with respect to Q(−3, 1, 4). What are the direction angles of R?
~
(The direction angles are the angles between R and the x, y and z
axes repectively).
31
Problem 2.5 Flux of a vector field
~
R
(b) Also evaluate ∇ · AdV directly
Figure 8: Contour for evaluation of the flux and show that it is equal to the cal-
of a vector field. culated flux as predicted by Gauss’s
Theorem.
(b) Given the vector A ~ = 3î + 2ĵ + 4k̂, find the component of A
~
in the direction of ∇ u at the point on the curve for which u = 3
and x = 2.
x2 y 2 z 2
u= + 2 + 2 .
a2 b c
Find the unit vector normal to each point of the surface of these
ellipsoids.
For fields of the form rn r̂, (r 6= 0), find for which values of n
the divergence is zero.
32
Problem 2.9 Field of a cylindrical form
For fields of the cylindrical form ρn φ̂, (ρ 6= 0), find for which
values of n the curl is zero.
~
Evaluate directly the line integral of A
around the closed path in the xy plane
as shown in the Figure 9. The straight
portions are parallel to the axes and
the curved portion is the parabola
y 2 = kx, where k = constant. Eval-
~ over
uate the surface integral of ∇ × A
the area S enclosed by C. Show that
the two are related as expected by
Stokes’ Theorem.
33
3 Vectorial Equations in Electromagnetism:
Scalar and Vector Potentials
In this lecture, we will illustrate the application of the Gauss’s and Stockes’s
theorems to vectorial equations involving ∇· and ∇× operations. These type
of operations are involved in the Maxwell’s equations, the basic equations for
the electromagnetic theory. We shall discuss only the vectorial nature of
the equations, deferring a detailed physical interpretation of the equations
to the next chapter when we consider the experimental basis for electromag-
netism. Furthermore, we illustrate the Helmholtz Theorem for the unique
determination of a given vector and discuss some properties of the successive
application of ∇, which will allow us to introduce the concept of vector and
scalar potentials to the electromagnetic field theory.
~ =ρ
∇·E , (4)
ε0
~ = 0,
∇·B (5)
~
~ = − ∂B ,
∇×E (6)
∂t
~
~ = µ0 J~ + 1 ∂ E ,
∇×B (7)
c2 ∂t
34
The answer is in the Helmholtz Theorem, which says that an arbitrary
vector F~ can always be written as
1 Z ∇ · F~ 1 Z
∇ × F~
F~ = − ∇ dV + ∇× dV
4π V r 4π V r
= F~l + F~t .
In other words, if the divergence and curl of a vector field are known every-
where in a finite region, then the vector field can be found uniquely. Thus,
specification of ∇ · F~ and ∇ × F~ is necessary and sufficient to determine F~ .
Hence, we need four equations of ∇· and ∇× type to determine E ~ and B.
~
~
Since F can be found from the knowledge of ∇· and ∇×, the divergence and
curl are often called the sources of the field.
The idea is that the expression of the fields in terms of potentials simpli-
fies the equations to a form that can be readily solved. In particular, the
Maxwell’s equations are simplified to a form that can be solved in a reason-
ably simple way.
F~ = ∇Φ .
35
Thus, the field with zero curl may be derived from the gradient of the scalar
function Φ. In the field theory, the function Φ is called a scalar potential.
The scalar potential function is very often used in the electromagnetic field
~ =
theory. For example, the electrostatic (Coulomb) field has zero curl, ∇× E
10
0. Hence, we can always write the electrostatic field as
~ = −∇Φ .
E
The minus sign is inserted in the definition of Φ to agree with the definition
of Φ as a potential ENERGY. The negative sign can also be understood phys-
~ is in the direction that a positive charge moves,
ically from the fact that E
hence in the direction of decreasing potential.
The work is independent of the path, it depends only on the position of the
start and end points. If the charge gains energy in moving from A to B, we
10 ~ 6= 0 in general in electromagnetism,
As one can see from the Maxwell’s equations, ∇×E
~
so it is not in general possible to write E = −∇Φ.
36
say that the point B is at higher potential than the point A, and vice versa.
~ = 0.
Note an another interesting property of the field with ∇ × E
From the Stokes’s law we have that
I Z
~ · d~l =
E ~ · n̂dS = 0 .
∇×E
In summary, the work done by the field is independent of the path chosen.
In other words, if a charge is moved around any closed path, no net energy
is requred. Thus, a field F~ with ∇ × F~ = 0 is a conservative field of force.
F~ = ∇ × A
~.
Thus, the field with zero divergence may be derived from the curl of the
~ In the field theory, the vector A
vector field A. ~ is called a vector potential.
37
the vector potential in electromagnetism (though there may be other elec-
tromagnetic field functions with zero divergence).
Note also that just writing ∇ × A ~=B ~ does not completely specify A~ even
~ is known everywhere. According to the Helmholtz Theorem, one needs
if B
~ as well to completely determine A.
to specify ∇ · A ~ Equivalently, we can say
that defining ∇ × A ~=B ~ still leaves us free to define ∇ · A.
~
~×B
∇A ~ ·C
~ ; ~×B
∇Φ · A ~ ; ~·B
A ~ × ∇Φ ;
~·B
∇×A ~ ×C
~ ; ~ · ∇Φ ;
A ~ × ∇B
∇·A ~ ·C
~ .
38
Revision questions
Question 3. Why are the scalar and vector potentials useful in electromagnetism?
39
Tutorial problems
Problem 3.2 Show from the form of Maxwell’s equations that it should be
~ and Φ such that
possible to define electromagnetic potentials A
the fields can be calculated from
~
~ = −∇Φ − ∂ A ,
E
∂t
~ ~
B = ∇×A .
Show that the above equations can be converted into two differen-
tial equations
~+ ∂Φ
(i) ∇·A =0,
∂t
∂2Φ
(ii) ∇ 2 Φ − µ2 Φ − 2 = 0 .
∂t
40
4 The Experimental Basis of the Develop-
ment of Electromagnetic Theory
In this lecture, we will analyse experiments that led to the development of
the electromagnetic theory. We will show that the Coulomb Law for the elec-
trostatic force between two point charges is the experimental basis for the
development of the electric theory and the Biot-Savart Law for the magnetic
force between two static currents is the experimental basis for the develop-
ment of the magnetic theory. We also illustrate two useful laws of electro-
magnetism, the Gauss’s and Amperes Circuit laws, that are very helpful in
calculations of the electric and magnetic fields produced by some symmetric
distributions of charges and currents.
F~q0 = q 0 E
~ ,
where
~ = 1 q
E r̂
4πε0 r2
is the electric field produced by the charge q. The electric field is an example
of a vector field. In principle, we can always calculate an electric field using
Coulomb’s law. However, there is an alternative way we can find the electric
field. In particular, the field may be represented by means of the flux con-
cept. The total flux of E ~ from a point charge q may be readily calculated by
integrating E ~ · dS~ over a surface enclosing q.
41
4.2 Gauss’s Law
Consider a macroscopic charge q closed by a surface S, as shown in Figure 12.
We will show that the flux of the electric field produced by the charge q is
proportional to the charge q, and is independent of the shape of the surface
closing the charge.
Consider first the flux through a spherical sur-
face, for which we find after a simple algebra,
that the flux is
I
~
I
q
ΨS1 = E · n̂dS = r̂ · n̂dS
4πε0 r02
S1 S1
q I q q
= 2
dS = 2
4πr02 = .
4πε0 r0 4πε0 r0 ε0
S1
In order to answer this question, consider the flux through an arbitrary sur-
face
I I
q
ΨS2 = dΨS2 = r̂ · n̂dS ,
4πε0 r2
S2 S2
However, from the inverse square law and some geometry, we find
q q dS cos θ q
dΨS2 = 2
r̂ · n̂dS = 2
= dΩ ,
4πε0 r 4πε0 r 4πε0
where dΩ is the solid angle subtended by dS at q.
42
Hence
I
q
ΨS2 = dΨS2 = . (8)
ε0
Equation (8) is the statement of the Gauss’s Law. It says that the flux
~ through a closed surface equals 1/ε0 times the total
of the elcetric field E
charge contained within the surface.
This general property is what one could expect, the Gauss’s law applies to an
arbitrary number of charges due to the additive nature of the fields produced
by each charge separately.
43
If the source charge q is outside S, as illustrated in Figure 14, the surface in-
tegral vanishes since the total solid angle subtended at q by the surface is zero.
Proof:
Consider first the flux of the electric field through a surface element dS1 seen
from the charge q under a solid angle dΩ:
q r̂ · n̂1 dS1
dΨ1 = .
4πε0 r12
However
r̂ · n̂1 dS1 dS1
2
= − 2 = −dΩ ,
r1 r1
where minus sign is from the fact that at the surface dS1 the angle between r̂
and n̂1 is larger than 90◦ .
Similarly, the flux of the electric field
through a surface element dS2 seen from
the position of the charge q under the
same solid angle dΩ is
q r̂ · n̂2 dS2 q
dΨ2 = 2
= dΩ ,
4πε0 r2 4πε0
where now we have positive sign since at
the surface dS2 the angle between r̂ and
n̂2 is smaller than 90◦ . Thus, we find that
Figure 14: Illustration of the calcula-
tion of the Gauss’s law for the source
dΨ1 + dΨ2 = 0 ,
charge outside the surface S.
and integrating over all S, we obtain that
the total flux through the surface S is
I
Ψ= dΨ = 0 .
S
The physical interpretation of this result is that field lines originating from
an external charge and entering the surface S must also leave this surface.
44
In summary, the Gauss’s law says that the total electric flux through a
surface S enclosing a charge q is:
q X
Ψ= , where q = charges INSIDE S .
ε0
Using the definition of the flux, we often write the Gauss’s law as
~= q .
I
~ · dS
E
S ε0
The power of the Gauss’s law lies in the fact that we are free to apply it to any
closed surface whose shape can be chosen arbitrary such that the evaluation
of the surface integral becomes a simple straightforward task. The Gauss’s
law is particularly useful in the calculation of the electric field produced by
certain symmetrical charge distributions. If the distribution of the charges
does not correspond to any simple symmetry, the Gauss’s law is not much
helpful in the calculations. We illustrate this in the following example.
~ = 1 dq
dE r̂ .
4πε0 r2
Then the total electric field is found by vector addition
Z
~ =
E ~ .
dE
Since we are adding vectors, a caution must be employed. We use the fol-
lowing procedure, which is general and can be employed to any system:
45
~ produced by the infinites-
1. Write the expression for the electric field dE
imal (point) charge dq.
~ into components
2. Choose a reference frame and resolve the vector dE
dEx , dEy , and dEz .
3. Calculate
R
each component of E separately by integration, e.g. calculate
Ex = dEx .
~ from its components
4. Find the resultant E
~ = Ex î + Ey ĵ + Ez k̂ .
E
Return now to our example of the charged infinitely long line and lets try to
solve the example problem following the above procedure.
Take a small element dl of the line contain-
ing a point charge dq. Electric field pro-
duced by the point charge at A distance r
from dl is given by the Coulomb field
~ = 1 dq
dE r̂ .
4πε0 r2
We see from the figure that
h
r= , l = h cot θ .
sin θ
Since the density of the charges on the line is
Figure 15: Illustration of an ap- constant, the charge on the line element dl is
plication of the Coulomb law to the
calculation of the electric field of an
h
dq = ρl dl , where dl = − dθ .
infinitelt long line charge. sin2 θ
Then
sin2 θ
!
~ = ρl h
dE − 2 dθ cos θ î + sin θ ĵ
4πε0 sin θ h2
ρl
= − cos θî + sin θĵ dθ ,
4πε0 h
where we have decomposed the unit vector r̂ into two (x, y) components
r̂ = cos θî + sin θĵ .
46
Integrating over θ from θ = π to θ = 0, as the line is infinite and we go in the
direction of increasing l (from x = ∞, θ = π to x = −∞, θ = 0), we obtain
~ = ρl h i
E (− sin 0 + sin π) î + (cos 0 − cos π) ĵ
4πε0 h
ρl
= ĵ .
2πε0 h
Thus, the electric field produced by the charged line depends inversely on the
distance from the line and points in the direction perpendicular to the line.
(b) Let us now calculate the field by the direct application of the Gauss’s law.
The electric field near the uniformly charged line must be radially directed
because of the symmetry of the problem. The field must have cylindrical
symmetry because the problem is unchanged by rotating the line about its
axis. The field must also be independent of position along the line because
the distance to either end is infinite.
The flux through the cylinder surface splits into three fluxes
I Z Z Z
E ~ =
~ · dS E ~ A+
~ · dS ~ B+
~ · dS
E ~ C .
~ · dS
E
S A B C
47
Since E ~ A, E
~ ⊥ dS ~ C, E
~ ⊥ dS ~ B , and the magnitude of E
~ k dS ~ is constant
along the surface B, the flux through the cylinder reduces to that over the
surface B only
Z Z
E ~ =
~ · dS EdSB = 2πhLE ,
S B
and since the cylinder is symmetrically positioned about the line of charge,
the magnitude of E is constant over the surface B. Then, according to the
Gauss’s law
ρl L
2πhLE = ,
ε0
which gives
ρl
E= .
2πε0 h
Note how simple are the calculations of the electric field using the Gauss’s
law. However, we were able to solve this problem because we knew the
direction of the field at any point around the line.
48
4.3 Biot-Savart Law – Force between Static Currents
There is a force not only between electric charges but also between electric
currents. This force has a different nature than that one due to electric
charges, it is due to magnetic fields produced by the currents.
Experimental observations:
All the above observations can be conbined into a single equation for the
force acting on the current I2 :
49
We can write the force as
dF~2 = I2 d~`2 × dB
~ ,
where
~ = µ0 I1 d~`1 × r̂
dB ,
4π r2
which is known as the Biot-Savart law for magnetic field produced by the
current element I1 d~`1 .
~ µ0 I Z d~` × r̂
B= . (9)
4π l r2
The method requires integration of small current elements. Note, all three
quantities appearing under the integral change during the integration, which
complicates the evaluation of the integral.
−d~` × ∇(1/r) .
~ µ0 I Z d~`
B =∇× . (10)
4π l r
Thus, the magnetic field can be expressed as
~ =∇×A
B ~.
50
~ = 0 always. Thus, in this case we can first calculate A:
We see that ∇ · B ~
~ µ0 I Z d~`
A= , (11)
4π l r
which involves only two variables d~` and r, and then using (10), we find B.
~
The Biot-Savart law shows that the magnetic field is produced by a current
element. Here, we will show that in fact the magnetic field is produced by
moving charges.
A charge dq moving with a velocity v
is equivalent to an element of cur-
rent Id`:
d`
dq = Idt = I ,
v
where dt is the time for all the charge
in d` to pass out of the volume, as il-
lustrated in Figure 18.
Figure 18: Current element of a charge Hence
moving with a velocity ~v .
dq~v = Id~` .
The force between the two current elements can then be written as
µ0 (dq1~v1 × r̂)
dF~2 = dq2~v2 × ,
4π r2
51
or
with
~1 = µ0 ~v1 × r̂
dB dq1 2 .
4π r
This shows that magnetic field is produced by a moving electric charge.
Moreover, it shows that the magnetic field can act with a force only on
moving charges. No force of a magnetic field on stationary charges.
When a charge is moving in electric and magnetic fields, the force acting on
the charge is no longer the Coulomb force. It is the Lorentz force that is
obtained putting Coulomb’s Law F~E = q E~ and the Biot-Savart Law F~M =
~ together:
q~v × B
Thus, a motion of electric charges is modified by both the electric and mag-
~ if it
netic forces. If the charge is stationary, the force depends only on E,
moves, there is an additional force proportional to ~v .
52
4.6 Amperes Circuit Law
Amperes circuit law is a useful relation between currents and magnetic fields.
This law allows us to calculate magnetic field produced by certain current
distributions in a very effective way.
The Amperes law says that for an arbi-
trary closed path around a current car-
rying conductor, as shown in Figure 19,
the component of magnetic field tangent
to the path is proportional to the net cur-
rent passing through the surface bounded
by the path
I
~ · d~` = µ0 I ,
B
where the integration is over a closed loop
Figure 19: Contour for evaluation of
the Amperes circuit law.
and I is the total current through the
loop.11
The Amperes law can be applied in highly symmetric situations to find the
magnetic field more easily than by computing with the Biot-Savart law. In
either case, the result is the same. In case that lack the proper symmetry,
the Amperes law is not easily applied. The following example illustrates the
use of Ampere’s law.
(a) First, we divide the current into the small current el-
ements Id~`. The element of magnetic field dB ~ due to an
~
element I d` at a point A distance ~r = rr̂ is found from the
Biot-Savart formula:
dB~ = µ0 I d~` × r̂ ,
4π r2
11
The prove of the Amperes law is complicated and will not be presented at the lecture.
The student, if interested in details of the prove is referred to the Appendix A.
53
where we note that all dB ~ are in the same φ̂ direction normal
to the direction of the current. So we see from this symme-
try that the field lines are circles concentric with the current.
Furthermore, along any such circular path the field is con-
stant in magnitude.
(b) Let us now calculate the field using the Amperes law.
Since the field lines are circles concentric with the current,
54
and along any such circular path the field is constant in mag-
nitude, this is the ideal situation for the application of Am-
peres law:
~ · d~` = µ0 I ⇒ 2πhB = µ0 I ⇒ B = µ0 I .
I
B
2πh
55
~ · d~` = 0.
~v × B
Hence
I
E= ~ · d~`
E
`
and finally
~ · d~` = − ∂
I Z
E ~ · dS
B ~ ,
∂t
` S
or
I Z ~
∂B
~ · d~` = −
E ~ .
· dS
∂t
` S
The student can easily show, using the Stokes’s theorem, that the Faraday’s
law can be written as
~
~ = − ∂B ,
∇×E
∂t
which is called the differential form of the Faraday’s law.
56
Revision questions
Question 1. State the Gauss’s Law and explain under what conditions the
Gauss’s law is useful in calculating the electric field produced by a
macroscopic charge.
Question 2. State the Biot-Savart Law and show that magnetic field is produced
by moving charges.
Question 3. State the Ampere’s Law and explain under what conditions the
Ampere’s law can be successfully applied for the calculation of the
magnetic field produced by a macroscopic currents.
57
Tutorial problems
(c) Calculate the force per unit area on one plate due to its at-
traction by charges of opposite sign on the other plate.
Note from the above tutorial problem 4.2 that the divergence of
the radial field is zero for n = −2. The student may immedi-
ately comment that this result means that the Coulomb field of
this symmetry has no point source. However, we know that the
Coulomb field is produced by a point charge. How then the diver-
gence is zero if there is a point source of the field?
58
Problem 4.4 Field of a non-uniformly charged sphere
~ =
A certain electric field is given in cylindrical coordinates by E
3
E0 (r/a) r̂ for 0 < r < a and E ~ = 0 otherwise. Find the volume
charge density.
59
Problem 4.8 Charge in a uniform magnetic field
(b) Using the result of part (a), find the force per unit area be-
tween two parallel current sheets containing surface current den-
sities I1 and I2 if the currents in the two sheets are both in the
same direction.
60
5 Differential Equations for the EM Field and
Maxwell’s Theory
Using the Gauss’s and Stokes’s Theorems, we will find differential vector
equations for the fields E~ and B~ from the integral forms of observational
results discussed in the previous chapter.
61
5.1.1 ~
Divergence of E
Consider the Coulomb’s Law that can be written in the form of the Gauss’s
law as
~= q = ρ
I Z
~ · dS
E dV .
S ε0 V ε0
Applying the Gauss’s Theorem, Eq. (1), to the left-hand side of the above
equation, we obtain
Z
~ dV =
Z
ρ
∇·E dV .
V V ε0
Since this relation must hold for arbitrary V , no matter how small, we can
drop the integrals, and obtain
~ = ρ .
∇·E
ε0
This equation is called the differential form of the Coulomb’s (Gauss’s) Law.
From this equation it follows that the divergence of the electric field is zero
in all regions where there is no electric charge.
5.1.2 ~
Curl of E
Consider the Faraday’s flux cutting rule
I Z ~
∂B
~ · d~` = −
E · n̂ dS .
` S ∂t
Applying Stokes’s Theorem to the left-hand side of the above equation, we get
Z Z ~
∂B
~ · n̂ dS = −
∇×E · n̂ dS .
S S ∂t
Since this relation must hold for arbitrary S and n̂, it implies that
~
~ = − ∂B .
∇×E
∂t
This equation is called the differential form of the Faraday’s law.
62
5.1.3 ~
Divergence of B
~ from the Biot-Savart law
We calculate the divergence of B
~ = µ0 I d~` × r̂ .
B
4π r2
By taking ∇· of both sides of the Biot-Savart law and applying the vector
identity
~ × B)
∇ · (A ~ =B
~ ·∇×A
~−A
~·∇×B
~ ,
we obtain
!
~ = µ0 I
∇·B
r̂ r̂
· ∇ × d~` − d~` · ∇ × 2 . (12)
4π r 2 r
~ =0.
∇·B
This equation, sometimes called Gauss’s law for magnetism, states that the
~ is zero through any closed surface.
flux of the magnetic field B
5.1.4 ~
Curl of B
~ from the Ampere’s circuit law
We find curl of B
I Z
~ · d~` = µ0 I = µ0
B J~ · n̂ dS .
` S
Simply, by applying Stokes’s Theorem to the Ampere’s law, we find that the
following relation
Z Z
~ · n̂ dS = µ0
∇×B J~ · n̂ dS
S S
63
holds for arbitrary S. Thus
~ = µ0 J~ .
∇×B (13)
This equation is called the differential form of the Ampere’s circuit law.
However, Maxwell realized that unlike the previous three differential equa-
tions, this one, Eq. (13), could not be generally true. To see this, take its
divergence and remember that ∇ · ∇ × F~ ≡ 0 for any vector function F~ , so
that
~ = 0 = µ0 ∇ · J~ .
∇·∇×B
Thus
∇ · J~ ≡ 0 ,
which means that the Ampere’s law does not include source currents. This
result is in contradiction with the continuity equation of J~ varying with time.
we have
~
∂ε0 ∇ · E ~
∂E
∇ · J~ + =0, or ∇ · J~ + ε0 =0.
∂t ∂t
instead of
~ = µ0 J~ ,
∇×B
we obtain
~
~ ≡ 0 → ∇ · J~ + ε0 ∂ E = 0 ,
∇·∇×B
∂t
Note that the displacement current density does not explicitly involve charges,
they do not appear explicitly in the definition of the displacement current
density. Why then we call it as a ”current”? Maxwell had a theory under-
pinning his equations in which the displacement current was a real physical
current - due to ‘polarization of the electromagnetic ether’. This theory has
not survived. Nevertheless the above term is still referred to as the ‘displace-
ment current’.
65
With the modification of the current density, we then write the fourth Maxwell’s
equation as
~
~ = µ0 J~ + ε0 µ0 ∂ E ,
∇×B
∂t
which contains all the physical processes involved in the generation of mag-
netic fields.
In summary:
66
Can you see any curious consequence in this case if the
displacement current is assumed to be a real physical cur-
rent (flow of charges)?
67
Revision questions
Question 1. Derive the differential forms for the Coulomb, Ampere and Faraday
laws.
Question 3. Explain, how Maxwell resolved the difficulty with general applica-
tions of the Ampere’s law.
Tutorial problems
~ = 1 q
E r̂
4πεo r2
follows from Maxwell’s equations.
~ = µo I φ̂ ,
B
2πr
~ in the xy plane.
where φ̂ is the unit vector in the direction of B
Show, using only the circuit, surface and volume integrations, and
the Gauss’ and Stokes’ Theorems that the magnetic field satisfies
Maxwell’s equations.
68
6 Maxwell’s Equations and Prediction
of Electromagnetic Waves
In the previous lecture, we have derived from the experimental laws vectorial
~
expressions for both the divergence and curl of the two basic field vectors E
~ These expressions put together completely determine the electro-
and B.
magnetic fields and are termed the Maxwell’s equations
~ = ρ
I. ∇·E ,
ε0
II. ~ =0,
∇·B
~
III. ∇×E~ = − ∂B ,
∂t
~
∂E
IV. ~ = µ0 J~ + ε0 µ0
∇×B .
∂t
As we have shown in the previous lecture, the first equation, which we shall
call the Maxwell’s equation number I, is the differential form of the Gauss’s
law, the second equation, which we shall call the Maxwell’s equation num-
ber II, tells us about the non-existence of magnetic charges, the third equa-
tion, which we shall call the Maxwell’s equation number III, is the differen-
tial form of the Faraday’s law, and the final equation, which we shall call
the Maxwell’s equation number IV, is the differential form of the modified
Ampere’s law.
69
6.1 The Wave Equation for EM Waves in Vacuum
In a vacuum there are no sources, i.e. ρ = 0 and J~ = 0. Hence, the Maxwell’s
equations reduce to the following differential equations
~ = 0,
∇·E (14)
~ = 0,
∇·B (15)
~
~ = − ∂B ,
∇×E (16)
∂t
~
~ = ε0 µ 0 ∂ E .
∇×B (17)
∂t
These equations are readily to solve. The procedure is to eliminate ~ or B
E ~
between equations (16) and (17) to obtain differential equations for ~ or B
E ~
alone, using where required Eqs. (14) and (15).
Method:
we obtain
2~
~ = −ε0 µ0 ∂ E .
~ − ∇2 E
∇∇ · E
∂t2
70
~ = 0 in the vacuum, it follows at once that
Because ∇ · E
~
1 ∂ 2E
~ =
∇2 E , (18)
c2 ∂t2
where
1
c2 = .
ε0 µ 0
The parameter c has the dimensions of velocity and is numerically equal
to 3 × 108 ms−1 .
We will solve the wave equation in one dimension assuming that the wave
propagates in the z direction.
In this case, ∂/∂x = ∂/∂y ≡ 0, and then
∂2 ∂2 ∂2 ∂2
∇2 = + + = .
∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 ∂z 2
~ and B
The differential equations for E ~ both have the same form:
~
∂ 2X ~
1 ∂ 2X
= .
∂z 2 c2 ∂t2
Such an equation has solutions of the form
X = f (z ± ct) , (19)
71
where f is an arbitrary function with the argument z ± ct.
∂f ∂f ∂(z − ct) ∂f
= = = f0 ,
∂z ∂(z − ct) ∂z ∂(z − ct)
∂ 2f ∂f 0 ∂f 0 ∂(z − ct)
= = = f 00 ,
∂z 2 ∂z ∂(z − ct) ∂z
and
∂f ∂f ∂(z − ct)
= = −cf 0 .
∂t ∂(z − ct) ∂t
Next
∂ 2f
= (−c)(−c)f 00 ,
∂t2
and consequently
∂ 2f 1 ∂ 2f
= .
∂z 2 c2 ∂t2
72
Thus
1 1
c2 = →c= √ ,
ε0 µ 0 ε0 µ 0
gives
The fact that the numerical value of c is equal to the velocity of light in
vacuum led Maxwell to propose an electromagnetic theory of light, one of
the brilliant contributions to physics in the nineteenth century.
73
given at any definite time by z = const. These surfaces of constant phase
travel with a constant velocity c often referred as the phase velocity of the
wave.13
Therefore, the waves described by Eq. (20) are called plane waves.
We now investigate the relations between the amplitudes and phases of the
electric and magnetic fields in a plane harmonic wave. While it is true that
the magnetic field satisfies the same wave equation as the electric field, it
is not independent of the latter, since one must satisfy the Maxwell equa-
tions III and IV.
74
(e.g. for a plasma in a magnetic field) a plane wave may not be purely trans-
~
verse in E.
~ ⊥B
In addition: E ~ for a plane EM wave in a vacuum.
Proof:
In order to prove the statement, we will use the Maxwell’s equation III
~
~ = − ∂B ,
∇×E
∂t
and expand it in Cartesian coordinates remembering that ∂/∂t ≡ iω
î ĵ k̂
∂ ∂ ∂
∂x ∂y ∂z
= −iω(Bx î + By ĵ + Bz k̂) . (21)
E Ey Ez
x
Expanding the determinant, and comparing the left and right-hand sides,
we find
k
x component : ikEy = −iωBx ⇒ Bx = − Ey ,
ω
k
y component : −ikEx = −iωBy ⇒ By = Ex .
ω
75
~ and B?
What does it tell us about the relation between E ~
~ · B,
If we consider a scalar product E ~ and use the above result, we find
~ ·B
E ~ = (îEx + ĵEy ) · (îBx + ĵBy )
−k k
= (îEx + ĵEy ) · (î Ey + ĵ Ex )
ω ω
k k
= − Ex Ey + Ex Ey = 0 .
ω ω
~ ⊥ B.
This means that E ~
This is as far as Maxwell took the subject. It was for others like Heinrich
Hertz 1884 to show how to solve Maxwell’s equations with source terms ρ, J~
included (i.e. the generation of electromagnetic waves). We will consider
this later.
You should be aware that we have not derived Maxwell’s equations from the
static limits like Coulomb’s Law and the Biot-Savart Law. The solutions to
Maxwell’s equations include the static limits as special cases but many more.
Maxwell’s equations have the status of postulates suggested by experimental
results.
2. The plane EM wave is transverse in E ~ and B,~ i.e. both fields are
perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
76
3. The electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular to each other.
4. The ratio E/B is constant and equal to the velocity of the wave, that
is equal to the speed of light in vacuum.
77
Revision questions
Question 1. Show that the Maxwell’s equations for the EM fields propagating
in vacuum can be reduced to two independent second order differ-
ential equations, the so-called the wave equations.
Question 4. The wave equations for the electric and magnetic fields propagating
in vacuum are independent of each other. How then the electric
and magnetic fields are related to each other? Explain.
Tutorial problems
(c) Hence calculate the magnetic field of the wave using the Maxwell
equation:
~
∂B ~ .
= −∇ × E
∂t
78
~ varies in phase with E.
(i) Show that B ~
~
~ = 0,
∇·E ~ = 0,
∇·B and ~ = ε0 µ0 ∂ E .
∇×B
∂t
~ and B
(e) Write expressions for E ~ of a right-circularly polarized
plane wave having the same amplitude and frequency as the above
one.
79
7 EM Theory and Einstein’s Special Theory
of Relativity
The purpose of this lecture is to test the laws of electromagnetism against
the principle of special relativity. We will demonstrate how one might infer
the law of Biot-Savart and in general relate the magnetic field to electric
field from application of special relativity to Coulomb law. Special relativ-
ity, formulated in 1905, grew out of Einstein’s meditation on electromagnetic
theory and the properties of space and time. Historically, the insights of
Einstein’s theory follow after electromagnetism. Logically however, special
relativity contains more general statements about nature than electromag-
netism. Electromagnetic field theory is just one of a possible set of field
theories that are compatible with the Einstein theory of space and time. It
is evident that relativistic effects are important if we would have to calculate
the field of a charge moving with a speed comparable to that of light. What
is not so obvious is that special relativity offers insights into aspects of elec-
tromagnetic theory even in the case of the low speed charges we consider in
this course.
(1) The unity of the electromagnetic field i.e. the field is a single entity
with 6 components (represented by two vectors E ~ and B,~ each with three
components).
80
7.1 Lorentz Transformation Equations for Space and
Time
We will analyse how the fundamental laws of electromagnetism change when
charges move with a constant velocity. In particular, we will show that the
Maxwell’s equations are derived from the Coulomb’s law. Thus, the student
will learnt that the whole electromagnetism follows naturally from electro-
statics. In our calculations, we will follow the principle of special relativity.
1. The laws of physics are the same in all inertial reference frames.
81
where
!− 1
v2 2
γ = 1− 2
c
is the Lorentz factor.
We now present a detailed calculation that illustrates how the form of the
Maxwell’s equations is determined by nature obeying Einstein’s special the-
ory of relativity.
82
7.2.1 The Force between Two Charges Moving with Constant Ve-
locities
In ordinary matter, electrons move with much greater speeds than protons
yet there is no associated electric field. This implies that electric charge is
independent of velocity unless electromagnetic laws modified in some compli-
cated way (see discussion by King in Physical Review Letters 5, 562 (1960)).
We shall see that what we normally call the MAGNETIC FIELD arises
as a natural consequence of relativistic invariance with no extra assumptions.
83
and similarly for y and z.
x0 = γx ,
y0 = y ,
z0 = z ,
vx
t0 = −γ 2 .
c
To do the complete transformation of the force component, we also need
transformation from r0 to r. It can be found as follows. It is seen from
Figure 23 that there is an “axial symmetry”, so that the transformation
could be expressed in terms of the angle θ. Thus, we can write
r02 = x02 + y 02 + z 02 = γ 2 x2 + y 2 + z 2
y2 + z2 v2 2
! " ! #
2 2 2 2 2
= γ x + =γ x + 1− 2 y +z
γ2 c
v2 2
" #
2 2 2 2 2
= γ x +y +z − 2 y +z
c
2
v2
! !
2 2 v 2 2 2 2 2
= γ r − 2 r sin θ = γ r 1 − 2 sin θ ,
c c
q
where sin θ = (y 2 + z 2 )/r. Hence
!1
0 v2 2
r = γr 1 − 2 sin2 θ .
c
where
1 q2
g= 3 .
4πε0
v2 2 2
γ 2 r3 1− c2
sin θ
84
Similarly for the remaining two components, we find
q1 gy q1 gz
Fy0 = , Fz0 = .
γ γ
In summary, the force transformations are
a) x component
vuy vuz
Fx0 = Fx −
vux
Fy −
vux
Fz .
c2 1 − c2
c2 1 − c2
Thus
vuy vuz
q1 gx = Fx −
vux
Fy −
vux
Fz .
c2 1 − c2
c2 1 − c2
b) y component
Fy
Fy0 =
vux
,
γ 1− c2
85
would have Fx = Fx0 .
We now combine results a), b) and c) into a single vector equation for the
force F~ . First, note that
vux = ~u · ~v .
Next, we can write the x component as
vux vux vuy vuz
Fx = q1 gx 1 − 2 + q1 gx 2 + q1 gy 2 + q1 gz 2
c c c c
vux v
= q1 g 1 − 2 x + q1 g 2 (~u · ~r)
c c
and with the y and z components
vux
Fy = q1 g 1 − 2 y ,
c
vux
Fz = q1 g 1 − 2 z ,
c
these three components combine into
!
~v · ~u ~v
F~ = q1 g 1 − 2 ~r + q1 g 2 (~u · ~r)
c c
q1 g
= q1 g~r + 2 [~v (~u · ~r) − ~r (~u · ~v )] ,
c
which can be written as
q1 g
F~ = q1 g~r + 2 ~u × (~v × ~r) .
c
We can write this equation in the form of the Lorentz force
F~ = q1 E
~ + ~u × B
~ ,
where
~ = g~r = 1 q2
E 3 ~r ,
4πε0
v2 2 2
γ 2 r3 1− c2
sin θ
and
~
~ = ~v × g~r = ~v × E .
B (22)
c2 c2
86
Thus, a force which we see in the moving frame S 0 as the Coulomb force
appears as the Lorentz force in the stationary frame S.
~ → 1 q2
E ~r .
4πε0 r3
Moreover, the ration of magnitudes of magnetic to electric term in the force
equation is uv/c2 , i.e. magnetic forces are second order relativistic effects.
~ = 1 q(1 − β 2 )
E 3 r̂ .
4πε0
r2 1 − β 2 sin2 θ 2
87
In the perpendicular direction θ = π/2, and then
1 q 1
2 −2
E= 1 − β > Es .
4πε0 r2
Thus, the field amplitude is larger in the transverse directions relative to the
to the static field amplitude.14
In summary, the electric field lines radiate from the present position of the
charge and are crowded in the direction perpendicular to the direction of
motion of the charge.
~ = 1 q ~v × ~r
B ,
4πε0 c2 r3
14
An interesting question: What is the electric field distribution of a charge moving with
velocity v = c?
88
which is the Biot-Savart law. Applied to a continuous line current I:
~ × ~r
1 I dl
~ =
B .
4πε0 c2 r3
The constant 1/(ε0 c2 ) is normally written µ0 - the magnetic permeability of
free space.
Consider the total electric flux through a surface S closing a moving charge q:
I
ΨE = ~ · n̂ dS .
E
S
89
Hence, substituting this result into Eq. (23) and the explicit form of E, we
find that the flux through the ring is
1 q(1 − β 2 )
dΨE = 3 2πr2 sin θdθ
4πε0
2 2
r2 1− β2 sin θ
q(1 − β 2 ) sin θdθ
= 3 .
2ε0
2 2
1− β2 sin θ
To calculate the integral, put cos θ = x, so that sin θdθ = −dx, and then
Z
dx 1 Z dx
I = − =− 3 2
(1 − β 2 + β 2 x2 )3/2
3/2
β 1−β
+ x2 β2
1 Z
dx
= − ,
β3 (a2 + x2 )3/2
√
where a = 1 − β 2 /β. Performing the integration, we obtain
1 x
I=− ,
a2 β 3 (a2 + x2 )1/2
q(1 − β 2 ) 2 q
ΨE = 2
= ,
2ε0 1−β ε0
90
which is the same as for a stationary charge.
Hence, the electric field produced by a moving charge satisfies the Gauss’s law.
If we apply the Gauss’ theorem to ΨE , we get
∇·E ~ = ρ .
ε0
Thus, we conclude that the Gauss’ law (Maxwell’s equation I) is invariant
under the Lorentz transformation.
~ is
If we choose a sphere centered on q to calculate the integral, we find that B
perpendicular to n̂ everywhere on the sphere, i.e. is tangential to the surface
of the sphere. Thus, the flux through the sphere ΨM = 0.
~ = 1
~
∇·B ∇ · ~
v × E
c2
1 ~
~ =0,
= 2 E · ∇ × ~v − ~v · ∇ × E
c
~
since ∇ × ~v = 0 as ~v is constant, and ~v is perpendicular to ∇ × E.
Eθ = Eφ = 0 ,
and because the electric field amplitude dependes only on r and θ, we get
~ =− 1 ∂Er
∇×E φ̂ ,
r ∂θ
where
1 q(1 − β 2 ) K
Er = 3 = 3 .
4πε0
2 2 2 2
r2 1− β2 sin θ 1− β2 sin θ
∂Er 3 − 5
= − K 1 − β 2 sin2 θ 2 −2β 2 sin θ cos θ
∂θ 2
3Kβ 2 sin 2θ
= 5 .
2 1 − β 2 sin2 θ 2
Hence
2
~ = − 1 3q(1 − β ) β 2 sin 2θ
∇×E 5 φ̂ .
4πε0 2r3
1 − β 2 sin2 θ 2
~
To calculate ∂ B/∂t, we use the theorem of partial derivatives. If
y = f (x, t)
92
then from the maximum change of y
∂y ∂y
dy = dx + dt = 0 ,
∂x ∂t
we obtain
∂y ∂y ∂x
=− .
∂t ∂x ∂t
Thus
~
∂B ~
∂B
= −v .
∂t ∂x
Alternatively, to see this “physically”, remember that the field pattern moves
with constant velocity ~v . Let a stationary observer measure the change in the
~ in a time interval dt. This change is the same as he would observed
field B
at a fixed time by moving a distance dx = −vdt, i.e.
~
dB ~
in dt ≡ dB in dx = −vdt .
Hence
~
∂B ~
∂B
=− ,
∂x v∂t
and then
~
∂B ~
∂B
= −v .
∂t ∂x
Now
~ = 1 q(1 − β 2 ) v sin θ
B 3 φ̂
4πε0
2 2
c2 r 2 1− β2 sin θ
and
~
∂B ∂Bφ ∂Bφ ∂r
= φ̂ = φ̂ .
∂x ∂x ∂r ∂x
Since
√ 2
y + z2 a
sin θ = = ,
r r
93
we can write Bφ as
Ka Ka
Bφ = 2 3/2
= ,
(r2 − β 2 a2 )3/2
β2a
r3 1− r2
where
1 q(1 − β 2 )v q
K= and a = y2 + z2 .
4πε0 c2
Next
1/2
∂r ∂ (x2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 1 2 −1/2 x
= = x + y2 + z2 2x = = cos θ ,
∂x ∂x 2 r
∂Bφ 3 2 3Ka r
−5/2
= Ka − r − β 2 a2 2r = − .
∂r 2 (r2 − β 2 a2 )5/2
Hence
∂Bφ 1 3q(1 − β 2 ) vr2 sin θ cos θ
= − 5
∂x 4πε0
c2 r5 1 − β 2 sin2 θ 2
1 3q(1 − β 2 ) v sin 2θ
= − 5 ,
4πε0
2 2
2c2 r3 1− β2 sin θ
and then
~
∂B ∂Bφ 1 3q(1 − β 2 ) v 2 sin 2θ
= −v φ̂ = 5 φ̂
∂t ∂x 4πε0 2 3 2
2c r 1 − β sin θ 2
2
1 3q(1 − β 2 )β 2 sin 2θ
= 5 φ̂ .
4πε0
2
2r 1 − β sin θ 2
3 2
~ we see that
Comparing with ∇ × E,
~
~ = − ∂B .
∇×E
∂t
Thus, we conclude that the Faraday’s Law (Maxwell’s equation III) is invari-
ant under the Lorentz transformation.
94
7.5.1 Remark on the Electromagnetic Induction
It has been known since about 1831 when Faraday first waved a magnet
near an electric circuit and played with transformers that when the magnetic
flux through a circuit changes, an electromotive force (emf) E appears in it.
Faraday gave the rule
∂ΦM
E =− .
∂t
The nature of this “phenomenon” is, however often misinterpreted.
Hence
Z Z Z
E= E ~ =
~ · dl ~ · n̂ dS =
∇×E ~ .
~ · dS
∇×E
95
If we now take the conclusion that where is a spatially varying electric field
there is also a time varying magnetic field, we obtain
~
∂B ~ =−∂ B ~ = − ∂ΨM .
Z Z
E =− · dS ~ · dS
∂t ∂t ∂t
However, it is obvious in this example that the changing magnetic flux is not
the CAUSE of the emf. The changing magnetic field and the electric field
have a common CAUSE through the charge q.
Since
~
~ = ~v × E ,
B
c2
and
~
∇ × ~v × E = ~ · ∇ ~v − (~v · ∇) E
E ~ + ~v ∇ · E
~ −E
~ (∇ · ~v ) ,
96
Then
~ = 1 ∇ × ~v × E
~ = 1 − (~v · ∇) E
n o
∇×B ~ + ~v ∇ · E
~ .
c2 c2
Thus,
~ ~
!
~ = vx ∂ + vy ∂ + vz ∂ E
(~v · ∇) E ~ = v ∂E = − ∂E
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂t
as
∂ ∂
vx = v vy = vz = 0 and = −v .
∂t ∂x
Hence
~
~ = 1 ~v ∇ · E
∇×B ~ + ∂E .
c2 ∂t
If we recognize that
~ = ρ
∇·E
ε0
and next that ~v ρ = J~ and 1/c2 ε0 = µ0 , we get the Maxwell’s equation IV.
In summary:
Maxwell’s equations for a point charge moving with uniform velocity are
∇·E~ = ρ ,
ε0
∇·B~ = 0,
~
∇×E ~ = − ∂B ,
∂t
~
∇×B ~ = µ0 J~ + 1 ∂ E .
c2 ∂t
97
These equations arise from the necessity for the correct relativistic trans-
formations between frames in uniform relative motion. This shows that
the Maxwell’s equations are invariant under the Lorentz transfor-
mation. If the postulates of relativity are correct and Coulomb’s law gives
the field of a stationary charge, these equations follow, and the force on a
charge is
F~ = q E
~ + ~v × B
~ .
Revision questions
Question 2. Is the Coulomb’s law for moving charges equivalent to the Lorentz
force?
Question 3. Are the electric and magnetic fields invariant under the Lorentz
transformation? Explain.
Question 4. Are the Maxwell’s equations invariant under the Lorentz transfor-
mation?
Question 5. Why the Faraday’s law is often misinterpreted? What is the correct
interpretation of the the Faraday’s law?
98
8 Energy in the Electromagnetic Field:
Poyntings’ Theorem
P =VI .
~ B,
If the field propagates in the direction determined by the cross product E× ~
consider the source of the field, i.e. consider the expression
~ × B)
∇ · (E ~ . (24)
~ ~
~ × B)
∇ · (E ~ · ∂ B − µ0 E
~ = −B ~ · ∂E ,
~ · J~ − ε0 µ0 E
∂t ∂t
or in the form
1 B2
!
1 ~ × B) ~ · J~ − ∂
~ = −E 1
∇ · (E ε0 E 2 + .
µ0 ∂t 2 2 µ0
On the left-hand side, we put 1/µ0 = ε0 c2 and integrate the equation over
some closed surface S enclosing a volume V . Then, we obtain
1 B2
!
~ · J~ dV − ∂ 1
Z Z Z
2 ~ × B)
ε0 c ∇ · (E ~ dV = − E ε0 E 2 + dV . (25)
∂t 2 2 µ0
V V V
Now we apply Gauss’s theorem to the left-hand side of the above equation,
to convert the volume integral into the closed surface integral, and find
I
~ × B)
ε0 c2 (E ~ · n̂ dS ←− Energy flux
S
Z
=− ~ · J~ dV
E ←− Rate of doing work by field on the current
V
1 B2
!
∂ Z 1
− ε0 E 2 + dV ←− Field energy. (26)
∂t 2 2 µ0
V
The above interpretation of the three terms in this equation can be justified
in the following way.
100
8.1 Rate of Doing Work by the Field on the Current
– Ohmic Heating
We start our calculations from the circuit theory where we express all the
circuit variables in terms of the field variables.
101
where V = `A is the volume of the resistive medium. Hence, the energy
dissipated per unit volume is
H ~ · J~ .
= σE 2 = E J = E
V
~ · J~ is the rate of heating per unit volume in this case.
Thus, E
Again, we start from the circuit theory from which we know that capacitors
are devices where electric field energy can be stored. Thus, consider the work
required to charge a capacitor of a capacitance C to a voltage V
1
W = CV 2 .
2
According to the field theory of electromagnetism this work done corresponds
to conversion from some other form of energy into electrostatic field energy
1 ε0 A
E = W = CV 2 and C = .
2 d
Since the electric field in the capacitor is given by E = V /d, we obtain
1 ε0 A 2 2 1
E= E d = ε0 E 2 V ,
2 d 2
where V = Ad is the volume of the capacitor. Hence
E 1
= ε0 E 2
V 2
is the energy per unit volume contained in or carried out by the electric
field E.
102
8.3 Magnetostatic Field Energy Density
∂ Z 1 B2
− dV
∂t V 2 µ0
is the time rate of decrease of the energy stored in the magnetic field.
As before, we refer to the circuit theory from which it is well known that a
solenoid is a device where the magnetic field energy can be stored. Thus,
the work required to energize an inductor of inductance L to a current I is
E = 12 LI 2 and that the magnetic field within a long solenoid of self-inductance
L = µ0 n2 A` is B = µ0 nI. According to the field theory of electromagnetism
this work done corresponds to transformation of some other form of energy
to magnetic field energy.
Thus, for a solenoid of length ` and area of cross section A we have energy
1 1 1 1 1 B2
E = W = LI 2 = µ0 n2 A`I 2 = (µ0 nI)2 A` = V ,
2 2 2 µ0 2 µ0
oand then energy per unit volume is
E 1 B2
= .
V 2 µ0
This is the energy per unit volume contained in or carried out by the mag-
netic field B.
Since the right-hand side of Eq. (26) represents the rate of increase of the
electric and magnetic energies stored in the EM field and substracted by
the ohmic power dissipated as heat, the left-hand side must be equal (in
103
consistency with the law of conservation of energy) to the power flowing into
the volume through its surface. Thus, the expression
~ = ε 0 c2 ( E
N ~ × B)
~
is a vector representing the power flow per unit area, and is referred to as
the Poynting vector.
It represents the energy flux in the electromagnetic field, i.e. the energy flow
per unit area (measured normal to the flow) per unit time.
The quantity N has dimension of power per square meter. It is easy to see:
E has the dimension of volts per meter, ε0 c2 B has dimension of amper per
meter. Thus, the Poynting vector has dimension volts × amper/(square me-
ter) = Watts/(square meter).
The energy flow equation can be converted into the form of a differential
continuity equation or energy conservation law. From Eq. (25), we have
∂U ~ = −J~ · E
~ ,
+∇·N
∂t
where
1 1 B2
U = ε0 E 2 + (27)
2 2 µ0
is the energy density of the EM field.
The physical meaning of the differential continuity equation is that the time
rate of change of electromagnetic energy within a certain volume, plus the
energy flowing out through the boundary surface of the volume is equal to
the negative of the total work done by the fields on the source inside the vol-
ume. Thus. J~ · E~ is a conversion of electromagnetic energy into heat energy.
Equation (27) shows that we consider the energy stored in electric and mag-
netic fields as distributed throughout the region of space where these fields
are present with densities ε0 E 2 /2 and B 2 /2µ0 , respectively.
104
8.5 Phase Relationships in EM Waves
Here, we will show that only the in-phase components of E ~ and B~ contribute
to net energy flow averaged over a whole cycle of the radiation. If somehow,
the fields would oscillate with different phases, no energy can be transported.
Hence, the average Pointing vector is different from zero indicating that the
~ and B
orthogonal fields E ~ oscillating in phase can transport energy.
~ = E0 cos(ωt)î and B
If, however, E ~ = B0 sin(ωt)ĵ then:
~ = ε 0 c2 E
N ~ ×B
~ = ε0 c2 E0 B0 cos(ωt) sin(ωt) k̂ .
Hence, the average Pointing vector is zero indicating that the orthogonal
~ and B
fields E ~ oscillating out of phase phase cannot transport energy.
~ and B
In summary, electromagnetic waves in which the E ~ fields oscillate
in phase can transport energy.
105
To obtain an expression for the momentum carried by the electromagnetic
field, we may employ the relativistic energy-momentum relationship
E 2 = p2 c2 + m20 c4 .
106
Circuit theory calculation:
Let us now look at the same problem from the point of view of the field
theory. According to electromagnetic field theory, the direction of the flow
of energy is described by the Poynting vector N ~ × B.
~ = ε 0 c2 E ~
~ = µ0 I φ̂ .
B
2πa
Hence, the Poynting vector is
~ = ε 0 c2 E
N ~ = ε0 c2 V µ0 I r̂ = V I r̂ ,
~ ×B
` 2πa 2π`a
where we have used the relations ẑ × φ̂ = r̂ and ε0 µ0 c2 = 1.
107
Thus, the field theory predicts that energy flows into the wire from the air
not along the wire. The energy is in the fields, the wire provides boundary
conditions and guides the fields.
The student may argue that the EM field carries only a small part of the
energy dissipated in the wire. However, the total rate at which field energy
flows into the wire by crossing the surface of the wire is given by
I I I
~ · dS
N ~ = ~ · r̂ dS =
N N dSside
S
I
VI
= N dSside = 2π`a = V I ,
2π`a
~ ⊥ dS
(N ~ on the ends of the cylinder), which is in agreement with the re-
sult of the circuit theory. This result demonstrates quantitatively that all the
power which heats the resistor enters through the sides not through the wires.
If the energy is in the fields, it means that the electromagnetic energy goes
out of a battery into the air, and then goes into the wire from the air. This
is exactly the case we will show in the following example.
108
Thus, the battery sends energy out into the air, not along the wire.
One of the above examples showed that field energy flows into a wire so that
it can be dissipated as heat. Consider now a different situation that one
would like to transmit an electromagnetic wave through a resistive wire.
109
Pc = V I = rate of doing work (by current I and voltage V
between the plates) in charging the capacitor according to
circuit theory.
~ ×B
ε0 c2 E ~ · dS
~ = rate of energy flow into the surface
R
Pf =
S
of the capacitor according to field theory.
~ and magnetostatic
Consider a source of electrostatic field E
~ ~
field B. If it is arranged so that E ⊥ B, ~ one may ask:
~ × B?
Should we expect to see an energy flux of ε0 c2 E ~
110
Revision questions
Tutorial problems
(a) Find an expression for the vector energy flux in this wave.
(b) On the same time scale plot the electric field strength and
energy flux magnitude versus time at position z = 0 for 2 cycles
of the wave.
111
9 Solution of Laplace’s Equation and Bound-
ary Value Problem
In one of the previous lectures, we discussed an advantage of using the scalar
and vector potentials in the calculation of the electric and magnetic fields. In
this lecture, we will illustrate applications of the scalar potential to physical
problems involving bounded fields.
∇2 Φ = 0 .
Proof:
The condition for this to happen is that a vector field F~ has vanishing diver-
gence and curl
∇ · F~ = 0 and ∇ × F~ = 0 . (28)
∇ · (∇Φ) = ∇2 Φ = 0 .
Thus, the scalar potential Φ contains all the necessary information to com-
pletely specify the field of the properties (28).
~ = ρ/ε0 and ∇× E
Since in general ∇· E ~ =−∂B ~ we see that the requirement
∂t
for Laplace’s equation to be relevant is that ρ = 0 and ∂/∂t = 0, i.e. a source-
free region and static conditions. Of course there must be a source of charges
somewhere or there would be no field anywhere. The typical situation where
solution of Laplace’s equation is relevant in electrostatic is where we have
source-free non-conducting regions between statically charged conductors.
112
Example 2: Magnetostatic problems involving Laplace’s equation
~ = 0 and ∇ × B
Since in general ∇ · B ~ = µ0 J~ + 12 ∂ E,
~ we see that the require-
c ∂t
ment for Laplace’s equation to be relevant is that J~ = 0 and ∂/∂t = 0, i.e.
a current free region and static conditions. Again, there must be currents
somewhere or there would be no fields anywhere. The typical situation is
to be calculating the magnetic field in the non-conducting region between
constant currents.
Proof:
Suppose, to the contrary, that there exist two solutions Φ1 and Φ2 satisfying
the same boundary condition, i.e. ∇2 Φ1 = 0 and ∇2 Φ2 = 0 within S, but
Φ1 = Φ2 on S.
113
Let U = Φ1 − Φ2 is the difference between the solutions. Since Φ1 and Φ2
are known to be solutions of the Laplace equation, then from the linearity
of the ∇2 operator ∇2 U = 0, i.e. U is also a solution of the Laplace equation.
∇ · F~ = ∇ · U ∇U = U ∇ · (∇U ) + ∇U · ∇U ,
Now, the right-hand side of the above equation is equal to zero because U = 0
over S. Also, the integral
Z
U ∇2 U dV = 0 ,
V
• Method of Images
114
• Green functions method
• Variational method
• Method of lattices
In cartesian coordinates the Laplace equation for the scalar potential can be
written as
∂ 2Φ ∂ 2Φ ∂ 2Φ
∇2 Φ = + + 2 =0. (29)
∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z
Since x, y, z are independent variables, the solution of the Laplace equation
is of the form
Substituting this into the Laplace equation and dividing both sides by XY Z,
we obtain
1 d2 X 1 d2 Y 1 d2 Z
+ + =0.
X dx2 Y dy 2 Z dz 2
This equation can be separated into three independent equations. To show
this, we write this equation as
1 d2 X 1 d2 Y 1 d2 Z
= − − .
X dx2 Y dy 2 Z dz 2
115
Both sides of the above equation depend on different (independent) variables,
thus are equal to a constant, say −α2 :
1 d2 X
= −α2 ,
X dx2
1 d2 Y 1 d2 Z
− − = −α2 .
Y dy 2 Z dz 2
The second equation can be written as
1 d2 Y 2 1 d2 Z
= α − .
Y dy 2 Z dz 2
Again, both sides depend on different variables, thus are equal to a constant,
say −β 2 :
1 d2 Y
= −β 2 ,
Y dy 2
1 d2 Z
α2 − = −β 2 .
Z dz 2
Hence, after the separation of the variables, we get three independent ordi-
nary differential equations
1 d2 X
+ α2 = 0 ,
X dx2
1 d2 Y
+ β2 = 0 ,
Y dy 2
1 d2 Z
− (α2 + β 2 ) = 0 .
Z dz 2
The solutions of these equations depend on whether α2 and β 2 are positive
or negative constants. If we choose α2 and β 2 to be positive, the solutions
of the differential equations for X and Y are in the form of trigonometric
functions whereas the solution for Z is in the form of a hyperbolic function
X
X(x) = Ak eiαx + Bk e−iαx ,
k
X
Y (y) = Cl eiβy + Dl e−iβy ,
l
X √ √
α2 +β 2 z − α2 +β 2 z
Z(z) = Ep e + Fp e .
p
116
If α2 and β 2 had been chosen as negative constants, the hyperbolic and
trigonometric solutions would be interchanged.
The above solutions of the Laplace’s equation are in a general form valid for
an arbitrary problem. The constants α, β, Ak , Bk , Cl , Dl , Ep and Fp are found
from specific boundary conditions.
Example 1.
The solution thus satisfies the boundary conditions along the ”vertical” lines
for α = π/b.
Since sinh(αz) = 0 for z = 0, the boundary condition along the lower bound-
ary is satisfied.
117
For the solution to satisfy the upper
boundary condition, the shape of the up-
per boundary must be such that
V0 sin(αx) sinh(αz) = V0 ,
for all points x, z on the line, i.e.
πx πz
sin sinh =1.
b b
Since sin πxb
→ 0 at the edges, it is
Figure 34: greatest (= 1) at the center x = b/2.
πz
Hence, sinh b must be equal to one at x = b/2. This happens when
πz
= arc sinh(1) ≈ 0.885 ,
b
from which we find
0.885b
z= = 0.282b .
π
Figure 34 shows the shape of the box inside which the potential is of the
form (30).
Example 2.
We usually have reverse problems to the above that we have a set of elec-
trodes which constitute equipotential lines or surfaces, and need to find the
appropriate solution of the Laplace equation. In this example we will illus-
trate this situation and we will try to find potential inside a rectangular box
whose three sides have potential equal to zero, and the remaining side has a
potential V0 .
118
The boundary condition of Φ = 0
at the side x = 0 can be sat-
isfied by Bn = 0. The bound-
ary condition of Φ = 0 at the
side z = 0 can be satisfied by Fn =
0. In order to have Φ = 0
at x = b, we must have αb =
nπ.
Thus, multiplying both sides of Eq. (32) by sin(mπx/b) and integrating over
x = 0 → b, we get
Z b ∞
mπx nπa
X
V0 sin dx = Kn sinh
0 b n=1 b
Z b
mπx nπx
× sin sin dx .
0 b b
119
From the orthogonality of the sine functions, we find that all integrals on the
right-hand side are equal to zero except for m = n. Thus, after performing
the integration on the left-hand side, we are left with the term
b
nπx b nπa Z b 2 nπx
V0 − cos = Kn sinh sin dx ,
b 0 nπ b 0 b
which we can write as
V0 b nπa
[1 − cos(nπ)] = Kn sinh
nπ b
Z b
1 2nπx
× 1 − cos dx .
0 2 b
The cos (2nπx/b) integrates to zero over the range 0 → b, so that the above
equation becomes
V0 b nπa b
[1 − cos(nπ)] = Kn sinh ,
nπ b 2
from which we find the constant Kn :
2V0 1 − cos(nπ)
Kn = .
nπ sinh nπa
b
Substituting Kn into Eq. (31), we find that the potential inside the box has
the form
nπz
4V0 sinh b nπx
X
Φ(x, z) = sin .
odd n nπ sinh nπa b
b
120
As an exercise, check the correctness of this solution by showing that it
satisfies the Laplace’s equation.
Φ = X(x)Z(z) ,
or
Φ = Y (y)Z(z) ,
but never
Φ = X(x)Y (y) .
121
9.2.2 Solution of the Laplace Equation in Spherical Coordinates
∂ 2Φ
! !
2 1 ∂ ∂Φ 1 ∂ ∂Φ 1
∇ Φ= 2 r2 + 2 sin θ + 2 2 =0.
r ∂r ∂r r sin θ ∂θ ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ2
1 ∂ 2Φ
! !
∂ ∂Φ 1 ∂ ∂Φ
r2 + sin θ + =0.
∂r ∂r sin θ ∂θ ∂θ sin2 θ ∂φ2
The first part depends solely on r, whereas the second part depends solely on
the angles θ, φ. Thus, the solution of this equation is of the separable form
Φ = R(r)Y (θ, φ) .
Hence, substituting Φ = R(r)Y (θ, φ) and dividing both sides by R(r)Y (θ, φ),
we obtain
1 ∂ 2Y
! " ! #
1 d dR 1 1 ∂ ∂Y
r2 =− sin θ + .
R dr dr Y sin θ ∂θ ∂θ sin2 θ ∂φ2
Thus, the Laplace equation splits into two independent differential equations.
We will call them the radial part and angular part, respectively.
122
Angular part: Equation for Y .
∂ 2Y
!
∂ ∂Y
sin θ sin θ − α sin2 θY + =0.
∂θ ∂θ ∂φ2
This equation contains two separate parts, one dependent only on θ and the
other dependent only on φ. Therefore, the solution will be of the form
Y (θ, φ) = X(θ)Ψ(φ) .
Hence, we get
1 d2 Ψ
!
1 d dX
sin θ sin θ − α sin2 θ = − .
X dθ dθ Ψ dφ2
d2 Ψ
= −m2 Ψ .
dφ2
It is the familiar differential equation for a harmonic motion. The solution
of this equation is of simple exponent form:
Ψ(φ) = A exp(imφ) ,
where A is a constant.
123
This leads to
exp(i2πm) = 1 ,
Using the solution for Ψ, the differential equation for X(θ) can be written as
m2
! !
1 d dX
sin θ − α+ X=0.
sin θ dθ dθ sin2 θ
or
m2
" # !
d dX
1 − z2 − α+ X=0. (33)
dz dz 1 − z2
Lets look into the solution procedure of the above equation. This will allow
us to find α and X(θ).
We assume that the whole range of z (cos θ), including the north and south
poles (z = ±1), is in the region of interest. The desired solution should be
single valued, finite, and continuous on the interval −1 ≤ z ≤ 1 in order to
represent a physical potential.
124
The differential equation for X has poles at z = ±1. In order to find the
solution of this equation, we first check what solution could be continuous
near the poles.
m2
" # !
d dX
x (2 − x) − α+ X=0.
dx dx x(2 − x)
n=0
m2
!
2
2s a0 − a0 xs−1 + (. . .)xs . . . = 0 .
2
This equation is satisfied for all x only if the coefficients at xs , xs±1 , . . . are
zero. From this, we find that
1
s = ± |m| .
2
We take only s = + 12 |m| as for s = − 21 |m| the solution for X(x) at x = 0
would go to infinity. We require the solution to be finite at any point x.
n=0
125
or in terms of z
1
∞
|m|
a0n z n .
X
X(z) = (1 − z) 2
n=0
Using the same procedure, we can show that near the pole z = −1, the
continuous solution is
1
∞
X(z) = (1 + z) 2 |m| a00n z n .
X
n=0
Substituting Eq. (34) into the differential equation for X(z), Eq. (33), and
collecting all terms at the same powers of z n , we obtain
X
{(n + 1)(n + 2)bn+2 − n(n − 1)bn
n
o
− 2(|m| + 1)nbn − (α + |m| + m2 )bn z n = 0 ,
We have two separate solutions for even and odd n. For b0 6= 0, we put
b1 = 0, and the solution is given in terms of even n. For b0 = 0, we put
b1 6= 0, and the solution is given in terms of odd n.
We cannot accept both the even and odd solutions at the same time, because
in this case the solution X(z) would not be a single valued function that is
would not be accepted as a physical potential.
For example, for b0 6= 0, we have α = −|m| − m2 , but for b1 6= 0, we have
α = −2 − 3|m| − m2 . If we would accept both of the solutions at the same
time, the potential would have two different values.
126
We check now whether the series is converting when n → ∞ which would
ensure that the potential is finite.
Since bn+2 > bn , the series diverges for z = ±1. Therefore, in order to get
the potential finite everywhere in the space, we have to terminate the series
at some n = n0 . In other words, we assume that bn0 +1 = bn0 +2 = . . . = 0.
Introducing
l = n0 + |m| ,
α = −l(l + 1) , l = 0, 1, 2, . . .
1 |m| l−|m|
Xlm (z) = 1 − z 2 bn z n ,
2
X
where the sum is over even n when l − |m| is an even number, and over odd n
when l − |m| is an odd number.
P00 (cos θ) = 1 ,
127
P10 (cos θ) = cos θ ,
P11 (cos θ) = sin θ ,
1
P20 (cos θ) = [3 cos(2θ) + 1] ,
4
3
P21 (cos θ) = sin(2θ) ,
2
3
P22 (cos θ) = [1 − cos(2θ)] .
2
An important property of the Legendry polynomials is orthogonality that
Z 1
Plm (cos θ)Pkn (cos θ) d(cos θ) = 0 for m 6= n and l 6= k ,
−1
Z 1
2 (l + m)!
[Plm (cos θ)]2 d(cos θ) = for m = n and l = k .
−1 2l + 1 (l − m)!
Finally, with the above notation, the solution for the angular part of the
Laplace equation Y (θ, φ) is of the form
With α = −l(l + 1), the differential equation for R takes the form
!
d dR
r2 − l(l + 1)R = 0 .
dr dr
d2 U l(l + 1)
− U =0.
dr2 r2
Lets first check the asymptotic solution for r 1. In this case we can ignore
the second term in the differential equation, and find that the asymptotic
equation has a solution U (r 1) = Cr, where C is a constant.
Following this asymptotic behavior, we will try the general solution of a form
U (r) = rs .
128
Substituting this into the differential equation, we obtain
s = (l + 1) or s = −l .
Thus, the general solution for U that satisfies the asymptotic solution is of
the form
and then
R(r) = C1 rl + C2 r−(l+1) .
Hence, the general solution of the Laplace equation in spherical polar coor-
dinates is of the form:
XX
Φ(r, θ, φ) = C1l rl + C2l r−(l+1) Alm Plm (cos θ)eimφ .
l m
This is the final solution for the potential of an arbitrary spherically sym-
metric problem. The potential is finite, determined and is continuous at each
point (r, θ, φ).
129
In order to find the potential, we first have to determine boundary conditions
for the potential.
There are two boundaries: One of the boundaries is the surface of the sphere
and the other is the region at r → ∞.
Thus, using this property, we can set m = 0 in the general solution and get
Xh i
Φ(r, θ) = C1l rl + C2l r−(l+1) Pl0 (cos θ) .
l
130
We first find the explicit form of C11 . As r → ∞, the potential Φ(r, θ) →
C11 r cos θ = −Er cos θ. Therefore C11 = −E.
The remaining coefficients C2l we find from the other boundary condition
that Φ(a, θ) = 0 on the surface of the sphere. Thus, at r = a
X C2l Pl (cos θ)
Φ(a, θ) = 0 = −EaP1 (cos θ) + .
l al+1
2 C21 2
0 = −aE + 2 ,
3 a 3
from which, we find C21 = Ea3 . Hence
cos θ
Φ(r, θ) = −Er cos θ + Ea3 .
r2
131
The first term is just the potential of a uniform field E. The second term
is the potential due to the induced surface charges or, equivalently, is the
potential of the induced dipole moment p = 4πε0 Ea3
p cos θ
Φdip = .
4πε0 r2
This result shows that the sphere placed in an uniform electric field behaves
as a dipole because of the effect of the charge distribution induced on its
surface.
132
Revision questions
Question 1. What conditions are imposed on the field that is completely deter-
mined by a scalar potential?
133
Tutorial problems
Figure 37:
∂Φ
= 0 at z=0,
∂z
Φ = 0 at x = 0, b ,
Φ = V0 at z=a.
134
Problem 9.3 Potential inside an open rectangular box
Φ = 0 at x=0 and x = b ,
Φ = V0 at z = 0 ,
Φ = 0 at z→∞.
Figure 38:
135
Problem 9.5 Potential due to a thin circular ring
(a) Show that for a system with axial symmetry such as a ring
of charge, the electrostatic potential can be written as a series in
spherical polar coordinates:
X
Φ(r, θ) = A` r` + B` r−(`+1) P` (cos θ) .
`
Hence, show that for a ring of radius a and charge per unit length λ
the potential everywhere can be written as the series:
`
λ X (−1) 1.3.5 . . . (` − 1)
2
Φ(r, θ) = 1 + r` P` (cos θ) ,
`
2ε0 ` 2 2
`
! a`
even 2
where ` = 2, 4, 6, . . . (even).
136
However, there is Matlab etc.
d
(x2 − 1) P` (x) = `x P` (x) − ` P`−1 (x) .
dx
137
10 General Solution of the Maxwell’s Equa-
tions
~ and B
Let us try to solve the Maxwell’s equations to find the fields E ~ pro-
~
duced by the source charges ρ and currents J.
The Maxwell’s equations involve two fields that satisfy coupled differential
equations. First, we will try to separate the Maxwell’s equations into a dif-
~ alone or B
ferential equation for E ~ alone.
138
Assuming in the usual way that space and time operators commute, we act
∂
with c12 ∂t on III and ∇× on IV, and obtain from III:
2
1 ∂ ~+ 1 ∂ B ~ =0,
∇ × E
c2 ∂t c2 ∂t2
and from IV:
1 ∂ ~ − ∇ × (∇ × B)
~ = −µ0 ∇ × J~ .
∇×E
c2 ∂t
~ by subtraction of the two above equations, we get
Eliminating E
2
~ + 1 ∂ B
∇ × (∇ × B) ~ = µ0 ∇ × J~ .
c2 ∂t2
Using the vector identity for double × product, and from II:
~ = −∇2 B
∇ × (∇ × B) ~ + ∇(∇ · B)
~ = −∇2 B
~ ,
~− 1 ∂2 ~
∇2 B B = −µ0 ∇ × J~ . (39)
c2 ∂t2
~ gives
Similarly, elimination of B
~− 1 ∂2 ~ 1 ∂
∇2 E 2 2
E = ∇ρ + µ0 J~ . (40)
c ∂t ε0 ∂t
Equations (39) and (40) are in the form of coupled wave equations known as
inhomogeneous Helmholtz equations. We see that the current density J~ en-
ters into both of these equations and enters in a relatively complicated way.
These equations are coupled through J, ~ and for this reason these equations
and are not readily soluble in general.
139
10.2 Scalar and Vector Potentials
~ and B
Generally, we do not find fields E ~ directly by integration of Eqs. (39)
and (40). We rather first compute scalar and vector potentials from which
the fields may be found. We will illustrate here the advantage of working
with the potentials, i.e. with the the scalar and vector potentials.
The two curl’s are equal, but it does not mean that the vectors under the
curls are equal. Since always ∇ × ∇Φ = 0, where Φ is an arbitrary scalar
function, the two vectors are equal with the accuracy to ∇Φ:
~ =−∂A
E ~ − ∇Φ . (43)
∂t
Scalar potential is a quantity from which a field can be derived by a process
of differentiation, e.g. in electrostatics
~ = −∇Φ ,
E
~
In the static limit of ∂ A/∂t = 0, the scalar function Φ reduces to the familiar
electrostatic potential.
Equation (43) shows that the electric field depends on the specific choice of
the potentials. We can change A~ and Φ and still get the same E.~ One can
~ so Eqs. (41) and (43) are
object that Eq. (41) ensure a fixed value for A,
140
satisfied for fixed A~ and Φ. However, we can define new potentials without
changing E ~ and B ~
~0 = A
A ~ + ∇Λ ,
∂
Φ0 = Φ − Λ . (44)
∂t
Proof:
~0 = − ∂ A
E ~ 0 − ∇Φ0
∂t !
∂ ~ ∂
= − A + ∇Λ − ∇ Φ − Λ
∂t ∂t
∂ ~ ~ .
= − A − ∇Φ = E
∂t
Similarly, fro Eq.(41), we find that
~0 = ∇ × A
B ~0 = ∇ × A
~ + ∇ × (∇Λ) = ∇ × A
~=B
~ .
as required.
~
In this case, how do we completely determine A?
From the Helmholtz theorem we know that the definition B ~ = ∇×A ~ does
not completely define A ~ despite the fact that B ~ is completely defined. The
~
vector potential A is arbitrary to the extent that the gradient of some scalar
function can be added. Thus, infinite set of possible potentials Φ corresponds
to an infinite set of possible vector potentials.
Recall the Helmholtz Theorem which says that any vector field can be
written as a sum two terms
~ 1 Z ∇ · F~ 1 Z
∇ × F~
F = − ∇ dV + ∇× dV
4π V r 4π V r
= F~l + F~t ,
141
where F~l is called the longitudinal part of the field and it has ∇ × F~l = 0,
while F~t is called the transverse part as it has ∇ · F~t = 0.
~
How do we define ∇ · A?
The freedom of choosing A~ and Φ means that we can choose a set of potentials
to satisfy the condition
~+ 1 ∂Φ=0.
∇·A
c2 ∂t
142
~ This equation is sometimes
This is called the Lorenz gauge and defines ∇ · A.
called the Lorenz equation.
~− 1 ∂2 ~
∇2 A A = −µ0 J~ ,
c2 ∂t2
and applying the Lorenz gauge to Eq. (46), we get
2 1 ∂ 2Φ
∇ Φ − 2 2 = −ρ/ε0 .
c ∂t
We see the advantage of using the vector and scalar potentials. In terms
of the potentials, the the Maxwell equations reduce to two uncoupled wave
equations that can be solved separately. The equations also show that the
Lorenz gauge is consistent with our experience on the sources of the EM
fields. The source of the vector potential that is related to the magnetic field
is a current density, and the source of the scalar potential that is related to
charges is a charge density.
The origin of the name ”Coulomb gauge” is in equation (45) that under the
~ = 0 reduces to the Poisson equation
condition ∇ · A
∇2 Φ = −ρ/ε0 ,
Before we give the answer to this question, we first show that the solution of
the Poisson equation is of the form
1 Z ρ
Φ(r) = dV .
4πε0 r
143
It can be proved in the following way.
∇·E ~ = −∇2 Φ = ρ ,
ε0
as required.
~− 1 ∂2 ~ 1 ∂Φ
∇2 A 2 2
A = −µ0 J~ + 2 ∇ . (49)
c ∂t c ∂t
In this equation, the term involving the scalar potential is called ”longitudi-
nal” as it has vanishing ∇×. This suggests that it may cancel the longitudinal
part of the current density J.~
Let us check if the longitudinal part of the current density can be expressed
in terms of the scalar potential. According to the Helmholtz Theorem, the
current density can be written as
~ 1 Z ∇ · J~ 1 Z
∇ × J~
J = − ∇ dV + ∇× dV
4π V r 4π V r
= J~l + J~t .
144
Using the continuity equation
∂ρ
+ ∇ · J~ = 0
∂t
and the solution of the Poisson equation, we find the longitudinal part of the
current density
1 Z ∇ · J~ 1 Z − ∂ρ
J~l = − ∇ dV = − ∇ ∂t
dV
4π V r 4π V r
1 ∂ Z ρ ∂
= ∇ dV = ε0 ∇Φ .
4π ∂t V r ∂t
Then
∂ 1 ∂Φ
µ0 J~l = µ0 ε0 ∇Φ = 2 ∇ ,
∂t c ∂t
which is equal to the second term on the right hand side of Eq. (49).
Hence, the inhomogeneous term in the wave equation (49) can be expressed
~
entirely in terms of the transverse current and then the wave equation for A
reduces to
1 ∂2 ~
~
∇ A − 2 2 A = −µ0 J~t .
2
c ∂t
This explains the origin of the name ”transverse gauge”.15
15
The transverse gauge is often used in atomic physics to calculate the EM fields pro-
duced by orbiting electrons. In this case, the orbiting electrons produce a current that is
solenoidal.
145
We will illustrate the solution on the equation for Φ:
2 1 ∂ 2Φ
∇ Φ − 2 2 = −ρ/ε0 . (50)
c ∂t
A general solution of the above equation may be found by considering two
limiting cases:
In this limit the wave equation for Φ reduces to the Poisson equation whose
the solution is
1 Z ρ(r0 )
Φ(r) = dV 0 .
4πε0 r0
In this case, the wave equation (50) reduces to the homogeneous equation
1 ∂ 2Φ
∇2 Φ − =0.
c2 ∂t2
This equation has a spherically symmetric solution of the form
f (t − r/c)
Φ(r, t) = ,
r
where f (t − r/c) is an arbitrary function of the retarded time t − r/c. The
retardation r/c is equal to the time needed for the electromagnetic wave to
pass the distance from the source to a given point in space.
Proof:
If there are no charged (boundary) surfaces in the space, the potential can
depend only on r, and must in fact be spherically symmetric. Thus, in
spherical coordinates only the radial part of the Laplacian will contribute to
the wave equation
" #
1 ∂
2 ∂Φ
∇ Φ= 2 r2 .
r ∂r ∂r
146
Since
∂f ∂f ∂tr 1
= = − f0 ,
∂r ∂tr ∂r c
where tr = t − r/c and f 0 = ∂f /∂tr , we have
f0 1 ∂ rf 0
" !# !
2 1 ∂ f
∇Φ = − 2 r2 + 2 =− 2 +f
r ∂r cr r r ∂r c
1 f0 r
" #
1 00 1 0 1
= − 2 + − f + − f = 2 f 00 ,
r c c c c rc
where f 00 = ∂ 2 f /∂t2r .
1 ∂ 2Φ 1
2 2
= 2 f 00 .
c ∂t cr
Consequently, we obtain
1 ∂ 2Φ 1 1
∇2 Φ = 2 2
= 2 f 00 − 2 f 00 = 0 ,
c ∂t cr cr
as required.
147
10.4 Rigorous Solution: Green Functions Method
To solve this equation, we will introduce the Green function of the equation
and solve it as an inhomogeneous Helmholtz equation.
When we insert it into the wave equation, we find that the Fourier transform
Φ(r, ω) satisfies the inhomogeneous Helmholtz wave equation
∇2 + k 2 Φ(r, ω) = −4πf (r, ω) ,
where k = ω/c is the wave number.
Green function
For a unit point source the potential satisfies the Poisson equation
1
∇2
= −4πδ(r) .
r
The function 1/r = G(r) is called a Green function of the above differential
equation.
In analogy, we can define the Green function of the wave equation
1 ∂2
!
2
∇ − 2 2 G(r, t − t0 ) = −4πδ(r)δ(t − t0 ) .
c ∂t
148
The Fourier transform gives
∇2 + k 2 Gk = −4πδ(r)eiωt0 .
1 d2 −iωt0
rG k e + k 2 Gk e−iωt0 = −4πδ(r) .
r dr2
Everywhere except r = 0, the function rGk e−iωt0 satisfies the homogeneous
equation
d2 −iωt0
rG k e + k 2 (rGk e−iωt0 ) = 0 ,
dr2
whose the solution is
In this general solution for the Green function we could equally well choose
the exponential form
e±ikr eiωt0
Gk = .
r
Using the inverse Fourier transform, we find
1 Z ∞ e±ikr −iωτ
G(r, τ ) = e dω ,
2π −∞ r
where τ = t − t0 .
The integral
1 Z ∞ −iω(τ ∓r/c)
e dω
2π −∞
149
is the delta function δ(τ ∓ r/c). Thus
1
G(r, τ ) = δ(τ ∓ r/c) .
r
The Green function is a casual response function, and has the same property
as the scalar potential of a point source.
The general (retarded) solutions of the Maxwell’s equations are given in terms
of the vector and scalar potentials
~
~ =∇×A
B ~ , ~ = −∇Φ − ∂ A ,
E (51)
∂t
with
1 Z ρ(t − r/c)
Φ(r, t) = dV , (52)
4πε0 r
~ − r/c)
1 Z J(t
~
A(r, t) = dV , (53)
4πε0 c2 r
and the potentials satisfy the Lorenz gauge.
Thus, we do not find the fields by a direct integration of the Maxwell’s equa-
tions. If the charge and current distributions are known, we first calculate
the scalar and vector potentials from Eqs. (52) and (53), and then find the
electric and magnetic fields from Eqs. (51).
Revision questions
150
Question 2. Explain the usefulness of the scalar and vector potentials in the
solution of the Maxwell’s equations.
151
11 Electromagnetic Antennas: Hertzian Dipole
In this lecture we will show how electromagnetic waves are generated by oscil-
lating charges. This will also illustrate an application of the general solution
of the Maxwell’s equations in calculations of the electric and magnetic fields
produced by a source system containing time varying charges and currents.
First, we will show that this problem can be solved with the help of only
the vector potential A.~ Next, we will apply this concept to the problem of
generation of electromagnetic waves.
~=− 1 ∂Φ
∇·A .
c2 ∂t
Assume that the position and time variations of the charges and currents can
be separated, so that the charges and currents vary sinusoidally in time
~ = − iω Φ ,
∇·A
c2
152
which gives
c2 ~.
Φ=− ∇·A (55)
iω
~
Thus, the scalar potential can be expressed in terms of the vector potential A.
In other words, the scalar potential can be eliminated from the field equations
leaving only the dependence on A.~ As a result, we can express both E ~ and B~
~
in terms of the vector potential A alone. Substituting Eq. (55) into Eq. (54),
we obtain
2 ~
~ = c ∇(∇ · A)
E ~ − ∂A , B~ =∇×A ~. (56)
iω ∂t
Hence, both the electric and magnetic fields can be found from the vector
~
potential A.
This result may seem rather strange at first, since normally we should expect
to need both the scalar and vector potentials in order to completely determine
the EM fields. The explanation and in fact an another way of saying the same
thing is that time varying charge must satisfy the continuity equation
∂ρ
∇ · J~ = − = −iωρ ,
∂t
so that
∇ · J~
ρ=− .
iω
We see that the time varying charge density can be expressed in terms of the
current density. Then the scalar potential becomes
1 Z ρ(t − r/c) 1 Z ∇ · J~
Φ(r, t) = dV = − dV
4πε0 r 4πε0 iω r
Z ~
1 J c2 ~.
= − ∇· dV = − ∇ · A
4πε0 iω r iω
Thus, specification of J~ alone is sufficient to completely determine all sources
of moving (oscillating) charges, and hence a solution for A ~ in terms of J~ con-
tains all the necessary information to completely specify the time-varying
EM fields.
153
11.1 Generation of electromagnetic waves
We have learnt that the introduction of the concept of displacement current
by Maxwell led to the prediction of electromagnetic waves in vacuum. Now,
we inquire into the sources of electromagnetic waves, i.e. how to generate EM
waves of different wavelengths and different properties, how to control these
properties and how to propagate these waves in desired directions.
For the fields around a small current element, ∆l λ, there are three spatial
regions (zones) of interest:
154
We will see that the fields have different properties in the different zones.
In the near zone the fields have the character of static fields, with a strong
dependence on the properties of the source. In the far field zone, the fields
are transverse to the radius vector and fall of as r−1 , typical of radiation
fields, and are independent of the source.
~ and B
Let us calculate the E ~ fields around the current element. We start by
considering the retarded current element that cab be written as
~ − r/c)dV = I(t
J(t ~ ,
~ − r/c)dl = I0 ei(ωt−kr) dl
where k = ω/c.
Since the current is the same at any point of the antenna (∆l λ), it
~ and then the vector potential
appears as a constant for the integartion in A,
becomes
~= I0 ei(ωt−kr) ~
A ∆l ,
4πε0 c2 r
~ = R dl.
where ∆l ~
In the near zone, where r λ (or kr 1), the exponent exp(−ikr) can be
replaced by unity. In the far field zone kr 1, the exponential oscillates
rapidly, and in this region it is sufficient to approximate exp(−ikr) ≈ 1−ikr.
In the intermediate zone, all powers of kr must be retained.
I0 ∆l cos θ ei(ωt−kr)
Ar = Az cos θ = ,
4πε0 c2 r
I0 ∆l sin θ ei(ωt−kr)
Aθ = −Az sin θ = − , (57)
4πε0 c2 r
Aφ = 0 .
155
~ and B,
According to Eq. (56), to find the fields E ~ we have to calculate ∇ · A
~
~ that in spherical polar coordinates are given by
and ∇ × A,
~
Magnetic field B
Calculate first direction and magnitude of the magnetic field produced by the
antenna. Since, B ~ = ∇ × A,~ we easily find from Eq. (59) that the magnetic
field of the current element is
~ =∇×A
B ~ = Bφ φ̂ ,
where
" #
1 ∂ (rAθ ) ∂Ar
Bφ = − , (60)
r ∂r ∂θ
and Br = Bθ = 0.
156
Calculate the magnitude Bφ . Substituting Eq. (57) into Eq. (60), we obtain
i(ωt−kr)
−I0 ∆l ∂ sin θe ei(ωt−kr) ∂ cos θ
Bφ = +
4πε0 c2 r ∂r r ∂θ
ei(ωt−kr)
" #
I0 ∆l i(ωt−kr)
= ik sin θe + sin θ .
4πε0 c2 r r
Hence
" #
I0 ∆l ik 1
Bφ = + sin θei(ωt−kr) .
4πε0 c2 r r2
~
Electric field E
∂ 1 ∂ φ̂ ∂
∇ = r̂ + θ̂ + ,
∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ
we obtain for the components of the gradient:
ik k 2 ik i(ωt−kr)
" #
h
~
i I0 ∆l cos θ 2
∇ ∇·A = − − − + − 2 e
r 4πε0 c2 r3 r2 r r
2ik k 2 i(ωt−kr)
" #
I0 ∆l cos θ 2
= + − e ,
4πε0 c2 r3 r2 r
" #
h
~
i I0 ∆l 1 ik
∇ ∇·A = 2 3
+ 2 sin θ ei(ωt−kr) ,
θ 4πε0 c r r
h i
~
∇ ∇·A = 0.
φ
I0 ∆l cos θ 2 2
Er = 3
+ 2 ei(ωt−kr) . (61)
4πε0 c ikr r
158
Similarly, we find the polar component of E as
c2 h ~
~ − ∂A
i
Eθ = ∇(∇ · A)
iω θ ∂t
θ
I0 ∆l sin θ ei(ωt−kr)
" #
I0 ∆l sin θ 1 ik i(ωt−kr)
= + e + iω
4πε0 iω r3 r2 4πε0 c2 r
" #
I0 ∆l sin θ 1 1 ik i(ωt−kr)
= 3
+ 2+ e . (62)
4πε0 c ikr r r
Note that the radial part of the electric field, Eq. (61), contributes only to
the near and intermediate zones, whereas the angular polar part, Eq. (62),
contributes to all of the zones.
Theorem:
Proof:
The Coulomb or static field is for ω → 0. In this limit the 1/r3 contribution is
I0 ∆l sin θ 1 i(ωt−kr)
Eθ = e
4πε0 c ikr3
I0 ∆l sin θ 1 1
2
= 1 − ikr + (−ikr) + · · ·
4πε0 c ikr3 2
I0 ∆l sin θ 1
= − ,
4πε0 c r2
where we have taken only the real (physical) part of the field.
∆q sin θ 1
Eθ = − ,
4πε0 r2
159
as required.
Consider first the near field zone (r λ). In this limit the magnetic and
electric fields are
B~ near = I0 ∆l 1 sin θei(ωt−kr) φ̂ ,
4πε0 c2 r2
~ near = −i I0 ∆l 2 ei(ωt−kr) cos θr̂ + sin θθ̂ .
E
4πε0 c kr3
Since the magnetic field is real and the electric field is imaginary, the Pointing
vector involving the near-zone field components is a pure imaginary quantity.
It does not represent any flow of energy. This imaginary quantity represents
energy that oscillates back and forth between the source and the region of
space surrounding the source.
Consider now the far zone or radiation components of the magnetic and
electric fields.
~ rad = EθR θ̂ , I0 ∆l sin θ ik i(ωt−kr)
E EθR = e ,
4πε0 c r
~ rad = BφR φ̂ , I0 ∆l sin θ ik i(ωt−kr)
B BφR = e . (63)
4πε0 c2 r
Note the following properties of the radiation components:
1. The electric and magnetic fields oscillate in phase.
2. The electric and magnetic fields are orthogonal to each other.
EθR
3. The ratio BφR = c, the value for plane waves in free space.
4. The electric and magnetic fields are transverse to the radius vector at
all distances.
5. The Poynting vector N ~ = c2 ε 0 E
~ rad × B
~ rad is a real quantity and is in
the direction of the radius vector, indicating that the energy of the field
propagates away from the current element.
These properties show that in the far zone the EM field is in a form of plane
waves propagating with the speed of light c.
160
11.2 Power Radiated from the Current Element
Consider now the radiation power emitted by the antenna. By the radiation
power we mean that part of energy which is carried by the radiation com-
ponents of the field. We will show that the radiation power is equal to the
radiation losses, i.e. energy carried by the plane electromagnetic wave that
propagates on its own independent of the source.
where
dS = r2 sin θ dθdφ .
Only those partial products in E ~ ×B~ which vary as 1/r2 will have net radi-
ated power. The other partial products are small as they fall off more rapidly
than 1/r2 . Thus, the only part of the fields entering into the expression for
the radiated power is the far field zone part (radiation component) consisting
of the terms varying as 1/r.
On substituting from Eq. (63), we find that the time averaged Poynting
vector is
1 2 I 2 ∆l2 k 2
N̄ = c ε0 0 2 2 3 2 sin2 θ
2 16π ε0 c r
#2
I02 ∆l2 4π 2 I02 ∆l sin2 θ
"
2
= sin θ = .
32π 2 ε0 c λ2 r2 8ε0 c λ r2
161
Hence, integrating over all directions, we get the total power emitted by the
antenna
Z π Z 2π
W = r2 N̄ sin θ dθdφ
0 0
#2
I02 ∆l
Z 2π " Z π
= dφ sin3 θdθ .
0 8ε0 c λ 0
Performing the integration over φ that is equal to 2π, and over θ that is equal
to 4/3, we get
#2 #2
I 2 ∆l πI02 ∆l
" "
4
W = 2π 0 = .
8ε0 c λ 3 3ε0 c λ
We can write the total power radiated in terms of the power absorbed in an
equivalent resistance, called the radiation resistance, as
" #2
1 2π ∆l 1
W = I02 = RI02 .
2 3ε0 c λ 2
where
" #2
2π ∆l
R=
3ε0 c λ
Thus, if ∆l/λ 1, the radiation losses are negligible, that the radiated power
is very small. In terms of the emitted radiation, the emitted EM waves are
very weak in power.
162
With a short linear current element, an appreciable power would be radiated
only if the current amplitude I0 were very large. A large current, on the other
hand, would lead to large amounts of power dissipation in the conductor, and
hence a very low efficiency.
We can conclude that current carrying systems that have linear dimensions
small compared with the wavelength radiate negligible power. An efficient
antenna should have dimensions comparable to or greater than the wave-
length.
N (θ, φ)
gT (θ, φ) = ,
Niso
where
W
Niso =
4πr2
is the energy flux uniform in all directions.
and
#2
πI02 ∆l
"
W = ,
3ε0 c λ
163
we obtain
3 2
gT (θ, φ) = gT (θ) = sin θ .
2
The directivity function gT (θ, φ) defines a three-dimensional surface called
the polar radiation pattern of the antenna.
The function varies as sin2 θ, and
hence the radiation is most intense
in the θ = π/2 direction (perpen-
dicular to the axis of the dipole)
and zero in the directions θ = 0, π
(on the axis of the dipole). The
maximum gain then is 1.5 for di-
rections defined by θ = π/2, in
Figure 40: The polar radiation pattern of the equatorial plane of the dipole.
the dipole antenna.
The gain function is independent
of φ.
The spatial distribution of the radiated power can be shown on a polar di-
agram, such as in Figure 40, which gives the relative values of the radiated
power at different positions on the surface of a sphere centered on the dipole.
164
Revision questions
Question 1. Under what condition the fields can be expressed solely by the vec-
tor potential?
Question 3. What are the properties of the EM field in the far field zone?
Question 4. Show that the power radiated by an antenna is equal to the radia-
tion losses.
165
12 Electromagnetic Theory of Polarizable
Materials
166
study electromagnetic theory of polarizable materials in terms of microscopic
objects, electric dipoles, which we will treat as building blocks of dielectric
materials. As we shall see, despite this simplicity, the model satisfactorily
predicts the macroscopic behavior of dielectric materials.
167
in the spherical coordinates in which the electric field is given by
~ = Er r̂ + Eθ θ̂ + Eφ φ̂ ,
E
168
of P~ . The electric potential at an arbitrary point A distance r from a volume
element dV containing such dipoles is
1 P~ · r̂
dΦ = dV ,
4πε0 r2
where r̂ is the unit vector from dV towards A, and we have assumed that r
is much larger than the extent of the volume element dV .
However, the result can be transformed into a form that can be interpreted
with the help of the general form of the static potentials.
169
~ = Φ∇ · A
Next, applying a vector identity ∇ · (ΦA) ~+A
~ · ∇Φ, we can write
the above expression as
1 P~ ∇ · P~
P~ · ∇ =∇· − .
r r r
Hence, we can write the potential as a sum of two terms both involving
the 1/r function
1 Z P~ 1 Z ∇ · P~
Φ= ∇ · dV + − dV .
4πε0 r 4πε0 r
V V
Note that the second term varies with r explicitly as the 1/r function, but
in the first term, the 1/r function is under the nabla operator. However, we
can use the Gauss’s divergence theorem to transform the first term into the
surface integration. In this case, the first term becomes a simple function
of 1/r, so that the potential takes the form
1 I
P~ · n̂ 1 Z ∇ · P~
Φ= dS + − dV , (65)
4πε0 r 4πε0 r
S V
Figure 44: Surface (left picture) and volume charges (right picture).
On comparing with the general form of the static potential, Eq. (48), the ex-
pression (65) can be interpreted as follows. The first term on the right-hand
170
side, a surface integral, is a potential equivalent to that of a surface charge
density σs = P~ · n̂. The second term is a potential equivalent to that of a
volume charge density σV = −∇ · P~ .
Materials which have a non-zero volume charge density are called inhomo-
geneous materials. Thus, a sufficient condition for a material to be homoge-
neous is that the polarization of the material have a zero divergence.
12.3 ~ in a Dielectric
Maxwell’s Equation for ∇ · E
In general, the electric field in the dielectric can be found from the Maxwell’s
equation I:
~ = ρ
∇·E ,
ε0
16
Why the surface charge density is not taken into account in the Maxwell’s equation I?
171
We may write the Maxwell’s equation I as
~ = ρf + ρp ,
ε0 ∇ · E
where ρf is the ”free” charge density and ρp is the polarization charge density
throughout the volume. If we express ρp in terms of P~ , i.e. if we write
ρp = −∇ · P~ , we obtain
~ = ρf − ∇ · P~ .
ε0 ∇ · E
Hence
~ + P~ ) = ρf .
∇ · (ε0 E (66)
Now it is common practice to drop the subscript f , but one must remember
that ρ now stands for the charge density not counting the polarization charges.
~ =ρ.
∇·D
~ inside a dielectric is
We can read this equation that the source of the field D
the free charge density ρ.
17
The reason for the name ”dielectric displacement” can be easily understood if we refer
to the Maxwell’s theory. Take time derivative of both sides of Eq. (67):
~
∂D ~
∂E ∂ P~
= ε0 + .
∂t ∂t ∂t
We know from the Maxwell’s theory that the first term on the rhs of the above equation
represents displacement current density, and the second term is the polarization current
~
density. Therefore, ∂ D/∂t can be called a generalization of the displacement current
density, and then D~ can be regarded as the dielectric displacement.
172
12.4 Macroscopic Effects of the Polarizability
Ordinary dielectrics (glass, teflon, plastics etc.) are linear in polarization for
fields not strong enough to cause dielectric breakdown i.e. P~ ∝ E. ~
For these materials, we can write
P~ = N αE
~ = χε0 E
~ ,
or
~ = ρ
∇·E ,
ε
if ε is independent of position i.e. if ε is a permittivity of a homogeneous
dielectric.
173
The same result would be obtained by replacing ε0 in Coulomb’s law by ε.
1 q1 q2
F~ = r̂ .
4πε r2
The ratio ε/ε0 then represents the relative shielding of q1 from q2 by the
polarization charges induced in the medium.
P~ = ~ ,
X
p~i = N χm ε0 E
i
ε = ε0 εr = ε0 (1 + N χm )
174
(a) The electric field within the dielectric is:
σ
E= .
εr ε0
175
12.5 Dense Dielectrics: The Clausius-Mossotti Rela-
tion
In the standard calculations of the polarization of macroscopic materials, it is
~ is the same at any point of the material. How-
often assumed that the field E
ever, for an extended dense materials the field E~ may vary with the position
and the calculation of the dielectric constant of the material may not agree
with an experimental measurement. This is what really happens. Therefore
the approach of a constant field through the whole area of the material must
be modified.
It was Lorentz, who proposed an approach that resolved this problem. The
Lorentz theory of polarizability of dense dielectric materials distinguishes be-
tween the mean electric field E~ and the local electric field E ~ loc as seen by a
typical dipole. The typical dipole is considered to be at the center of a small
sphere that has been excavated from the dielectric. E ~ loc is thus the mean
~ ~ ~
field E minus Eplug where Eplug is the field of the spherical volume excavated.
Let us see what would be the field at this area if the dipole is not there.
Thus, the field acting to polarize the molecule is equal to E~ minus the con-
tribution to the total average field from the molecule itself. Hence
~
~+ P .
~ loc = E
E
3ε0
The argument now is that each molecule is at the centre of a small hole
~ loc . If α is the molecular
and the field acting on the molecule is thus E
polarizability, its induced dipole is thus:
~ loc
p~ = αE
176
If there are N molecules per unit volume then:
~
P~ = N p~ = N αE
~ loc ~+ P .
= N α E
3ε0
By definition: P~ = χε0 E
~ = (εr − 1)ε0 E.
~ Substituting for P~ in the above
equation, we obtain
" #
(εr − 1)ε0 E ~ + (εr − 1)ε0 E
~ = Nα E ~ .
3ε0
Hence
εr − 1 Nα
(εr − 1)ε0 = N α 1 + = (εr + 2) ,
3 3
and finally
εr − 1 Nα
= .
εr + 2 3ε0
This is known as the Clausius-Mossotti relation for a dense dielectric. Assum-
ing that α is known, we can compute εr - dielectric constant of the material.
The Clausius-Mossotti relation works pretty well for most of dense materials.
However, it has a weak point. To illustrate this, we solve the Clausius-
Mossotti equation for εr . Since
Nα
εr − 1 = (εr + 2) ,
3ε0
we obtain for εr :
2N α Nα
εr = 1 + / 1− .
3ε0 3ε0
Note that
2N α
1+ 3ε0 Nα
εr = Nα → ∞ as →1.
1 − 3ε0 3ε0
We see that one can adjust the number of the dipoles to get an infinite di-
electric constant of a finite material. This is called the Clausius-Mossotti
177
catastrophe.
This effect can be explained as follows: Removal of the plug leaves polariza-
tion charges, whose field tends to line up the dipole parallel to the field. The
system is self-polarizing (Clausius-Mossotti catastrophe) if N α
3ε0
→ 1, i.e. the
system induces P~ without an external field.
What are the oscillating polarization charges equivalent to? The induced
polarization charges do not produce any currents inside the dielectric. There
is no DC current in response to a DC electric field, but if P~ is changing with
178
~ is changing with time) there will be an AC current density:
time (because E
∂σs ∂ P~
J~ = n̂ = .
∂t ∂t
Thus, ∂ P~ /∂t plays the role of polarization current density.
With the alternating electric field present, the polarization P~ may lag in
~ This means there is internal friction and
phase behind the driving field E.
heat dissipation. If it happen, the capacitor will exhibit resistive as well as
capacitive properties.
Thus, we have to find how quickly the charge on the plates is changing in
time.
Since we are interested in the time variation of the electric field and the
polarization, we express the charge in terms of the field quantities
εA
Q = CV = CEd = Ed = AεE = AD ,
d
from which, we obtain
Q = A(ε0 E + P ) .
179
or
dW d 1 dP
Z Z
2
= ε0 E dV + E dV ,
dt dt 2 dt
V V
where we took into account a possibility that the electric field and polariza-
tion can vary across the capacitor’s plates.
~
The first term in the above equation is the rate of doing work building up E
field.
~
The second term is the rate of doing work on the dipoles by E.
Thus, the supplied energy to the capacitor is used to build up the electric
field inside the capacitor and to polarize the dielectric. Consider separately
both terms.
First term:
The element of work done per unit volume and unit time is
dW
= −ε0 ωE02 cos(ωt) sin(ωt) .
dV
Averaging over a cycle, we get
2π/ω
dW 2
Z
= −ε0 ωE0 cos(ωt) sin(ωt) dt = 0 .
dV
t=0
No energy has been used to build up the electric field inside the capacitor.
Work is done building up the field in one part of the cycle but the stored
energy is given back in another part.
Second term:
180
If P = χε0 E = χε0 E0 cos(ωt) the same zero net energy conversion averaged
over a cycle will happen with this term. If there is internal friction there will
be a phase difference between P and E, that P does not follow the changes
in E. If we write
P = χε0 E0 cos(ωt + φ) ,
where φ represents a phase difference between P and E, we get for the
polarization
P = χε0 E0 cos φ cos(ωt) − χε0 E0 sin φ sin(ωt) .
Taking the time derivative, we get
dP
= −ωχε0 E0 cos φ sin(ωt) − ωχε0 E0 sin φ cos(ωt) .
dt
Hence, the work done per unit volume per cycle will be
2π/ω
dW Z
= − ωχε0 E02 cos φ cos(ωt) sin(ωt) dt
dV
0
2π/ω
Z
− ωχε0 E02 sin φ cos2 (ωt) dt .
0
The integral on the rhs of the above equation is positive and dW/dV must
be positive corresponding to energy dissipation (or the dielectric would keep
getting energy from its interior and building up the field with it).
Thus, sin φ must be negative, so −π < φ < 0. This means that the polariza-
tion lags in phase the electric field.
P = χε0 E0 cos(ωt − φ) .
In summary: Equation (68) shows that an energy is lost in each cycle of the
oscillations. In practice, it is dissipated as a heat in the material. The energy
loss is caused by the work required to change the polarization of the material.
181
12.7 The Complex Susceptibility and Permitivity
P~ = ε0 (χ0 − iχ00 )E
~ 0 eiωt = ε0 χc E0 eiωt = ε0 χc E
~ .
Thus, the phase difference between the polarization and the exter-
nal field leads to a complex susceptibility of a dielectric material.
In other words, the internal friction of the material results in a
complex susceptibility.
With the complex polarization, the dielectric displacement takes the form
~ = ε0 E
D ~ + P~ = ε0 E
~ + ε0 χ c E
~ = ε0 (1 + χc )E
~ ,
or
~ = ε0 (1 + χ0 − iχ00 )E
D ~ = ε0 εr E
~ = εc E
~ ,
182
where εc is a complex permittivity, and εr is a complex relative permittivity
or dielectric constant
εc = ε0 (1 + χ0 ) − iε0 χ00 .
The imaginary part of εr , χ00 , can be determined from the following experi-
ment involving a capacitor filled with a dielectric.
As we have just shown, the imag-
inary part of the dielectric suscep-
tibility represents losses, i.e. cor-
responds to net energy dissipation.
In the circuit theory language the
imaginary component of the dielec-
tric susceptibility adds a resistive
component to the capacitor. The
material filling the capacitor could
Figure 46: also have some ordinary ohmic con-
ductivity (due to the presence of
‘free’ charges as well as ‘bound’ charges in the material). Let us calculate
the magnitude of the total resistance of the dielectric. Simply, we will con-
sider the Ohm’s law for the capacitor and will find the relation between an
external current supplied to the capacitor and voltage. The relation will give
us an information about the resistance of the capacitor.
~ = A dP
Z
Ip = J~p · dA
dt
be the polarization current in the dielectric. Let
~ = AσE = Aσ V
Z
Ic = J~c · dA
d
be the conduction current in the dielectric due to its finite conductivity σ.
183
If σs is the charge density on the plates, then the effective charge on the
plates is
Q = σ s A = qI − qp − qc ,
where qI is the charge supplied by I, qp is the charge removed by the polar-
ization current Ip , and qc is the charge removed by the conduction current Ic .
184
Since the capacitor transmits some
charges through the internal dielec-
tric, in the circuit theory this system
is equivalent to a parallel circuit, as
shown in Figure 47. For the parallel
circuit
1
I= + iωC V .
R
Comparing with the above result for
Figure 47: current flow in the lossy capacitor
we see that the effective capacitance
0
is C0 (1 + χ ) and the effective resistance is
1
R=
σ
,
C0 ε0
+ ωχ00
The properties of a dielectric material are usually specified by giving its di-
electric constant K, and its loss tangent tan δ.
185
generalized permittivity and dielectric constant ε = ε0 εr .
Now if we write
ε = ε0 K(1 − i tan δ) ,
In this equation, tan δ includes the effects of finite conductivity and the effects
of polarization damping force.
18
In practice, it is read out on some AC bridges as an alternative to reading out the
resistive property of a lossy capacitor.
186
Revision questions
Question 5. In real dielectrics, does the polarization vector follow the changes
of an external electric field?
Tutorial problems
(b) Show that the capacity of the capacitor, if the area of the
187
plates is A, is:
ε1 ε2 ε0 A
C= .
ε2 d1 + ε1 d2
Hint :
You can see there will be a volume charge distribution within the
dielectric because:
ρ = −∇ · P~ = −∇ · (χε0 E)
~ 6= 0 , because χ = αx .
188
Also since this is the only charge in the region the polarization
charge density ρ also satisfies the general Maxwell equation:
∇·E ~ = ρ .
ε0
189
13 Electromagnetic Theory of Magnetizable
Materials
In first lecture on electromagnetic theory of polarizable materials, we have
discussed how the polarization of dielectrics by an externally applied electric
field is equivalent to creation of volume and surface distributions of charges.
Analogously, a magnetic field can act on molecular scale current loops exist-
ing in the building blocks of materials, atoms, to produce macroscopic effects.
It was Ampère who first suggested that the magnetism of matter was due to
the cooperative effects of currents circulating in atoms and not, as previously
thought, due to a separate magnetic charge called poles. Thus, the magnetic
properties of materials can be considered from an atomic viewpoint of elec-
tron’s currents, in which case a fundamental understanding of sources of the
magnetic field can be developed.
µ
~ = IAn̂ ,
190
A macroscopic material body contains a lot of current loops, so we can de-
fine a macroscopic dipole moment per unit volume of the material, called
magnetization
~ =
X
M µ
~i .
i
The theorem is proved by showing that the vector potential due to the dipole
distribution in a volume V closed by a surface S can be written in the form
1 Z ∇×M ~ 1 I M ~ × n̂
~=
A dV + dS ,
4πε0 c2 R 4πε0 c2 R
V S
1 Z J~ I I dl~
~=
A dV = . (70)
4πε0 c2 r 4πε0 c2 r
Due to the radial symmetry of the loop, it
Figure 49: A geometry for the cal- is convenient to work in the polar spherical
culations of the vector potential pro-
duced at point X by a current loop 191
of radius a.
~
coordinates, in which the current element dl
can be written as
~ = adφ φ̂ = −a sin φ dφ î + a cos φ dφ ĵ ,
dl
and the distance from dl to X is given by
h i1/2
r = (x − a cos φ)2 + (y − a sin φ)2 + z 2 ,
which for a R can be written as
1/2
r = x2 + y 2 + z 2 − 2ax cos φ + a2 − 2ay sin φ
1/2
≈ R2 − 2ax cos φ − 2ay sin φ
!
ax cos φ ay sin φ
≈ R 1− − .
R2 R2
Hence
!
−1 −1 ax cos φ ay sin φ
r =R 1+ + ,
R2 R2
where we have used the Taylor expansion of 1/(1 − x) = 1 + x + . . ..
~ simplifies to
the formula for A
Z 2π
~= I 2 2 2 2
A −a y sin φ î + a x cos φ ĵ dφ ,
4πε0 c2 R3 0
which can be written as
Ia2 Z 2π Z 2π
~=
A −y î 2
sin φ dφ + xĵ cos2 φ dφ .
2
4πε0 c R 3 0 0
192
Next, since
Z 2π Z 2π
2
sin φ dφ = cos2 φ dφ = π ,
0 0
we obtain
~= Ia2 π h i
A −y î + x ĵ . (71)
4πε0 c2 R3
Using the relation
x y z x y
k̂ × R̂ = k̂ × î + ĵ + k̂ = ĵ − î ,
R R R R R
we can write Eq. (71) as
~ = Ia2 π µ R̂
A 2 2
k̂ × R̂ = 2
k̂ × 2
4πε0 c R 4πε0 c R
1 1
= − ~ ×∇ ,
µ
4πε0 c2 R
where we have used the result
R̂ 1
2
= −∇ ,
R R
and the fact that µ
~ is in the direction normal to the loop, i.e. in the z direc-
tion.
~= 1 ~ × ∇ 1 dV ,
dA M
4πε0 c2 R
193
Figure 50:
where M~ is the magnetic dipole moment
per unit volume.
~= 1 Z
~ × ∇ 1 dV .
A 2
M
4πε0 c R
Using a vector identity
~ = ∇Φ × A
∇ × (ΦA) ~ + Φ∇ × A
~,
In order to transform the second term into a familiar form, we apply a the-
orem that:19
Z ~
M Z ~
M × n̂
− ∇× dV = dS . (73)
V R S R
Thus, the application of the theorem to the second term in Eq. (72) leads to
the vector potential of the form
1 Z
∇×M~ 1 Z ~
M × n̂
~=
A dV + dS ,
2
4πε0 c V R 2
4πε0 c S R
19
Proof of the theorem is given in Appendix B.
194
or
Z ~ Z ~
~= 1 JV 1 JS
A dV + dS .
4πε0 c2 V R 4πε0 c2 S R
We see by refering to the definition of the vector potential that the effective
(Ampere) currents associated with a macroscopic dipole moment M ~ per unit
volume are:
13.2 ~
The Magnetic Intensity Vector H
A similar procedure is used for the magnetic materials, where a new magnetic
~ is introduced to eliminate the magnetization M
intensity vector H ~ . We will
195
illustrate this idea for both static and time-varying fields.
J~ = J~c + J~m ,
where J~c is the conducting current, and J~m is the magnetization current.
Thus
J~ = J~c + ∇ × M
~ ,
and then
~ = µ0 (J~c + ∇ × M
∇×B ~).
or in the form
~
B
∇× −M~ = J~c .
µ0
This shows that the vector B/µ ~ 0−M ~ has as its source only the conduction
current J~c . Therefore, to eliminate the necessity of dealing directly with the
magnetization current J~m , we can define a new vector
~
~ = B −M
H ~ ,
µ0
which is called the magnetic (field) intensity vector.
196
~ the Maxwell’s equation IV for static fields in magnetic mate-
In terms of H,
rials takes the form
~ = J~c .
∇×H
In dealing with magnetic materials we often know J~c but not M ~ (well not
directly anyway.) Think e.g. of an inductor filled with some magnetizable
~ becomes useful. It is a way of avoiding a detailed
material like iron. Then H
calculation of the polarization currents. The magnetic intensity H ~ is the
~
magnetic analogue of the dielectric displacement D in the electric case. We
may drop the subscript c and write
~ = J~ ,
∇×H
but we should remember that J~ is now not the total electric current density
everywhere.
~ M
and then at any point the vectors B, ~ , and H
~ will be in the same direction,
~
and we get the following relation between B and H~
~ = µ0 H
B ~ + µ0 M
~ = µ0 (1 + χm )H
~ = µ0 µr H
~ = µH
~ .
197
The parameter µr = (1 + χm ) is called the relative permeability, χm is the
magnetic susceptibility, and µ = µ0 (1 + χm ) is called the magnetic permeabil-
ity.
Since
~ = µ0 (H
B ~ +M
~),
~ such that
and we have defined M
~ ~
~ = µ0 χ m B = χ m B ,
~ = µ0 χ m H
µ0 M
µ 1 + χm
we get
B~
~ =
H .
µ0 (1 + χm )
~
Thus, if we know the material we use, we can find H.
B = µ0 N I .
B = µ0 I 0 ,
198
which can be written as
µ0 χm
B 1− = µ0 N I ,
µ
or
µ0 N I µ0 N I
B= µ0 χm = χm .
1− µ 1 − 1+χ m
B = µr µ0 N I = µN I . (74)
B = µH ,
H = NI .
Example:
~ depends only on the parameters of
To illustrate further that H
the solenoid, consider an another example which shows that in a
solenoid, the magnetic intensity H is independent of the presence
199
or absence of the magnetic material.
H = (1 + χm )N I − χm H ,
H(1 + χm ) = (1 + χm )N I .
Thus
H = NI ,
as before.
200
their magnetization undergoes a saturation. This is because all the internal
current loops are lined up, which breaks the linear property. The reason for
this unusual behavior is that ferromagnetic materials do not have a unique
value of magnetic susceptibility because of strong magnetic nonlinearities.
~ and H,
For this reason, it is difficult to provide a relation between B ~ and
it is usually presented graphically in terms of the so-called hysteresis. An
example of the hysteresis is shown in Figure 52.
201
In the time dt that it takes to change B by dB, then the work done is
dW = P dt = V H dB. Thus, the work done per unit volume is
dW = H dB .
Hence, the work done per unit volume in one cycle of the hysteresis loop of
a non-linear material is given by the area of the loop.
Figure 53: An example of hysteresis loops of a ’hard’ (iron) and a ’soft’ (ferrite) fer-
romagnetic materials. Hard ferromagnetics retain some magnetization in the absence of
external fields. This property of hard ferromagnetics makes them useful for permanent
magnets.
202
~ is a function of the external
presence of an external magnetic field, i.e. M
~ ∼ B).
field, (M ~ However, there is a class of materials, called ferromagnetics
or permanent magnets in which macroscopic magnetization exists even in the
absence of the external field.
Consider first an exercise, which will illustarte several points that are of in-
terest in designing of ferromagnetic materials.
(b) Can you think of the arguments from Ampère’s theorem for the field
being uniform within the cylinder and zero outside?
13.5.1 ~ and H
B ~ fields of a ferromagnet
We can now easily extend the arguments from the above exercise to analyse
~
the magnetic field a long homogeneous ferromagnetic material. In this case B
203
~:
inside the material is due solely to the M
J~s = M
~ × n̂ ,
~ and H
Let us find B ~ inside and outside the material.
B` = µ0 M ` i.e. B = µ0 M ,
where we have used the fact that B is zero outside the magnet.
Thus
B µ0 M
H= −M = −M =0 ,
µ0 µ0
in the region where M 6= 0, i.e. inside the magnet.
204
13.5.2 Magnetic Poles
~ = 0 always and the lines of B
Since ∇ · B ~ form closed loops, we have
~
~ = ∇·B −M
∇·H ~ = −∇ · M
~ .
µ0
205
Exercise in class: Plane magnetized material
~ everywhere.
(c) Find the magnetic intensity H
206
13.6 Time Dependent Magnetic Fields and Energy Loss
Let
H = H0 cos(ωt) .
Then the magnetisation in a lossy material varies as
M = M0 cos(ωt + φ) ,
where M0 and φ represent the amplitude and phase of the magnetization
response to the magnetizing field. Thus
M = M0 cos φ cos(ωt) − M0 sin φ sin(ωt) .
Now the work done in magnetization per cycle of the AC current producing
the magnetizing field is
2π/ω
Z Z
dM
W = µ0 H dM = µ0 H dt .
dt
t=0
Since
dM
= −ωM0 cos φ sin(ωt) − ωM0 sin φ cos(ωt) ,
dt
we have W = W1 + W2 . Consider the term W1 :
2π/ω
Z
W1 = −µ0 H0 M0 ω cos φ cos(ωt) sin(ωt) dt .
t=0
207
This term represents work done against internal friction during magnetizing
and demagnetizing the material.
Since cos2 (ωt) dt is positive, sin φ must be negative so that work is done on
R
M0 M0
= cos φ − i sin φ H0 eiωt .
H0 H0
This result can be written in terms of real and imaginary susceptibility
M = (χ0 − iχ00 )H0 eiωt = (χ0 − iχ00 )H .
Using this complex number notation, we find
B = µ0 (H + M ) = µ0 H + µ0 (χ0 − iχ00 )H
= [µ0 (1 + χ0 ) − iµ0 χ00 ]H
and then
0 00
B = (µ − iµ )H = µH ,
0 00
where µ = µ0 (1 + χ0 ), µ = µ0 χ00 , and µ is the complex permeability.
208
13.8 Maxwell’s Equations in Dielectric and Magnetic
Materials
We think this is always true provided J~ is the total electric current den-
sity. Applying this in a region where there may be electric and magnetic
polarization effects we can write the current density as
∂ P~
J~ = J~c + J~E + J~M = J~ + ~ .
+∇×M
∂t
Thus, the Maxwell’s equation IV takes the form
~ ~
~ = µ0 J~c + µ0 ∂ P + µ0 ∇ × M
∇×B ~ + µ 0 ε0 ∂ E ,
∂t ∂t
which can be written as
~
B
∇× −M~ = J~c + ∂ (ε0 E
~ + P~ ) .
µ0 ∂t
~ and H,
With the introduction of the new vectorial fields D ~ this equation
takes the form
~
~ = J~ + ∂ D ,
∇×H
∂t
209
In summary: The Maxwell’s equations for the electromagnetic field prop-
agating in a material are of the following form
~ = ρ,
∇·D
~ = ∇·H
∇·B ~ =0,
~
∇×E~ = −µ ∂ H ,
∂t
~
∇×H~ = J~ + ∂ D ,
∂t
but in general
~ = −∇ · M
∇·H ~ .
~ = εE
D ~ and ~ = µH
B ~ .
Revision questions
~ instead of B
Question 3. Explain why it is useful to use the H ~ for a magnetic
field in a magnetic material.
Question 4. What is the form of the Maxwell’s equation IV for static fields in
magnetic materials?
210
Question 5. What it is a hysteresis loop, and what does it correspond to?
211
Tutorial problems
~ per unit
A magnetized sphere has a uniform dipole moment M
volume.
~ M
(a) Find the vectors B, ~,H ~ throughout the solenoid.
(Hint: Study H~ first by integrating the Maxwell equation
~ = J~ ,
∇×H
and use the symmetries of the situation. Show that H ~ is un-
changed by the presence of the magnetizable material).
212
Problem 13.3 Fields in a dense magnetic material
~
~ material − 2M ,
~ hole = B
B
3ε0 c2
~
~ material + M .
~ hole = H
H
3
213
14 Poynting’s Theorem Revisited
We have seen in Chapter 8 how energy of the electromagnetic field may
be transported through vacuum (empty space) by means of electromagnetic
waves. We have shown that the direction of propagation of energy is de-
termined by the Poynting vector. In this lecture, we will reconsider the
Poynting theorem taking into account propagation of the electromagnetic
field in magnetizable materials. A question we will try to answer: How the
energy is propagated inside a magnetizable material?
14.1 ~ and H
Poynting Vector in Terms of E ~
~
We have shown that it is useful to represent the magnetic field in terms of H
~ vector when the field propagates inside a magnetizable
vector rather then B
material.
we can write
I Z
~ × H)
(E ~ · dS
~= ~ × H)
∇ · (E ~ dV
SZ V Z
= ~ · (∇ × E)
H ~ dV − ~ · (∇ × H)
E ~ dV .
V V
214
Now, substitute from the Maxwell equations
~ = − ∂B
∇×E ~ ,
∂t
~ = J~ + ∂ D
∇×H ~ ,
∂t
and obtain
~ ~
~ · ∂ B dV − E ~ · ∂ D dV − E
I Z Z Z
~ × H)
(E ~ · dS
~=− H ~ · J~ dV .
S V ∂t V ∂t V
~ = µH,
If we substitute for B ~ we then get
Z ~
∂B Z
∂ 1
∂ Z 1 B2
~
H· dV = µH 2 dV = dV ,
∂t ∂t 2 ∂t 2 µ
and
~
~ · ∂ D dV = ∂ 1 2 ∂ Z 1 2
Z Z
E εE dV = εE dV .
∂t ∂t 2 ∂t 2
Hence
1 2 1 B2
!
~=−∂
I Z Z
~ × H)
(E ~ · dS εE + dV − ~ · J~ dV .
E
S ∂t 2 2 µ
215
Thus, the rate of flow of field energy out of volume V is equal to the rate of
changing energy of the EM field plus the arte of doing work on the currents
in V .
It is well known that the electromagnetic field (e.g. light) is a real physical
quantity (observable). However, in the electromagnetic theory it is advanta-
geous to represent the real electromagnetic field by complex sinusoidal quan-
tities because of its mathematical simplicity. In addition, what we usually
~ ∗ · Ei,
measure is the average intensity of the field, hE ~ which is a real quantity.
For time varying fields, we usually write
~ =E
E ~ 0 eiωt and ~ =H
H ~ 0 eiωt ,
where E~ 0 and H
~ 0 are complex quantities including both amplitude and phase
information. We understand that the electric and magnetic fields are given
by the REAL PARTS of E ~ and H.
~
The power of the complex exponential scheme lies in the fact that for oper-
ations such as summation, subtraction, integration etc., we take real parts
AFTER the operation. For example:
~ 1 + ReE
ReE ~ 2 = Re E
~1 + E
~2 ,
dE~1 dE~2 d ~
Re + Re = Re ~2 .
E1 + E
dt dt dt
However, some care has to be taken in evaluating the Poynting vector.
~ =E
The Poynting vector is given by N ~ × H,
~ but if we write complex expo-
~ × H,
nential expressions for E ~ we note that
~ = ReE
N ~ c × ReH
~ c 6= Re E
~c × H
~c ,
where we put a subscript c to indicate that we are writing the fields using
complex exponentials.
Proof:
216
We can write the complex electric field as
~c = E
E ~ 0 eiωt = E
~ r + iE
~ i (cos ωt + i sin ωt)
= ~ r cos ωt − E
E ~ i sin ωt + i E
~ r sin ωt + E
~ i cos ωt .
~ r, E
where E ~ i, H
~ r and H
~ i are real vectors.
However, from the above, we see that
~c = E
ReE ~ r cos ωt − E
~ i sin ωt ,
~c = H
ReH ~ r cos ωt − H
~ i sin ωt .
~ c × ReH
ReE ~ c 6= Re(E
~c × H
~ c) ,
as required.
¯~
~ , but rather N
In experiments, we do not measure N , the mean Poynting
vector averaged over the cycles of oscillations.
¯~ 1 ~ ~∗
1 ~∗ ~ ~ ¯ ~
N = Re E c × Hc = Re Ec × Hc = ReEc × ReHc ,
2 2
where the bar over N ~ indicates an average over the whole cycle of the sinu-
soidal field to eliminate the rapid temporal oscillations at frequency ω.
Proof:
217
Calculate the Poynting vector involving measurable (real) parts of the com-
plex fields
~ = ReE
N ~ c × ReH
~c = E
~ r cos ωt − E
~ i sin ωt × H
~ r cos ωt − H
~ i sin ωt
~r × H
= E ~ r cos2 ωt + E
~i × H
~ i sin2 ωt − (E
~r × H
~i + E
~i × H
~ r ) cos ωt sin ωt .
Since
1ZT 1ZT 1
cos2 ωt dt = sin2 ωt dt = ,
T 0 T 0 2
1ZT
and cos ωt sin ωt dt = 0 ,
T 0
we obtain for the average Poynting vector
¯~ 1 ~ ~ ~ ~
N = (E r × Hr + Ei × Hi ) .
2
On the other hand, take
~ c∗ =
H ~ r − iH
H ~ i e−iωt ,
~c =
E ~ r + iE
E ~ i eiωt ,
and then
~c × H
(E ~ ∗ ) = (E
~r × H
~r + E
~i × H
~ i ) + i(E
~i × H
~r − E
~r × H
~ i) .
c
Hence
1 ~ ~ c∗ = 1 (E
~r × H
~r + E
~i × H
~ i) ,
Re Ec × H
2 2
¯~
which is equal to N , as required.
218
Revision questions
~ and H
Question 1. What is the form of the Poynting vector in terms of the E ~
vectors?
Question 2. How do we write the electric and magnetic field vectors for oscillat-
ing fields?
Question 3. What is the useful form of the Poynting vector for complex sinusoidal
fields?
219
15 Plane Wave Propagation in Dielectric and
Magnetic Media
In this lecture, we shall examine in some details how existing radiation field is
modified by the material it passes through. We will consider the propagation
in a linear and homogeneous material and as we shall see, the conductivity
is the most significant parameter for modifications, rather than the dielectric
and magnetic constants.
We have learnt that the properties of a lossy linear and homogeneous dielec-
tric material can be described using a complex permittivity and similarly,
the properties of a lossy magnetic material are described by a complex per-
meability. Thus, for a lossy linear and homogeneous material the Maxwell’s
equations describing the EM field inside the material are of the form
~ = ρ/ε ,
∇·E
∇·H~ = 0,
~
∇×E~ = −µ ∂ H ,
∂t
~
∇×H~ = J~ + ε ∂ E , (75)
∂t
where ε, µ are complex quantities that characterize the material, ρ is a free
charge in the material, and J~ is conduction current only, i.e. J~ = σ E.
~
Note from Eq. (75) that an EM field propagating in a linear and homoge-
~ and H
neous material is solely described by the E ~ fields, and its properties
depend only on the material constants ε and µ. Thus, the only factors that
can modify the wave from that propagating in vacuum are the constants ε
and µ.
220
To answer these questions, consider a plane wave propagating in one dimen-
sion, the z direction
~ =E
E ~ 0 ei(ωt−kz) . (76)
~ to check whether the wave retaines its transverse prop-
First, we shall find H
erties when propagating through the lossy material. Thus, for the electric
field (76), the Maxwell’s equation IV takes the form
~ = σE
∇×H ~ + iωεE
~ = (σ + iωε)E
~ .
Since for a plane wave propagating in the z direction the derivatives ∂/∂x
and ∂/∂y of E~ and H~ are zero, we obtain
î ĵ k̂
0 ∂
0 ∂z
~ .
= (σ + iωε)E
Hx Hy Hz
~ = 0. Also
Since Ez = 0, we have that ∇ · E
~
∂H
~ = −µ
∇×E
∂t
~ ⊥ H.
can be used to show that E ~
In addition, we can find from the above equation that Hz = 0, which means
~ ⊥ ~k.
that H
However, the losses are expected to modify somehow the wave. What kind
of modifications are made by the losess?
221
~ = 0, the quantity ε occurs only in the equation for ∇ × H,
Since ∇ · E ~ and
it is common to proceed as follows:
~
~ = J~ + ε ∂ E = σ E
∇×H ~ + iωεE~ ,
∂t
~ = iω σ + ε E ~ = iω ε − i σ E
∇×H ~ .
iω ω
Now
σ σ σ
ε−i = ε0 − iε00 − i = ε0 − i ε00 + = ε̄ ,
ω ω ω
which gives
~ = iω ε̄E
∇×H ~ .
Physically what has been done is to lump together the conduction and the
lossy dielectric constant term. To an external observer they are inseparable.
Only using some theory of the internal structure of the dielectric, they can
be separated.
We can summarize that the electric and magnetic fields of the propagating
wave in a lossy conducting material satisfy the following equations
~ = 0 ,
∇·E (77)
~ = 0 ,
∇·B (78)
~
~ = −µ ∂ H = −iωµH
∇×E ~ , (79)
∂t
~ = iωεE
∇×H ~ , (80)
where we have left the bar off ε.
222
Thus, we look for plane wave solutions, and will try to find how the propa-
gation number k behaves.
k 2 = ω 2 µε .
This dispersion equation is not as simple as it looks. We cannot just say that
phase velocity is
ω 1
vp = =√ ,
k µε
as we usually do for EM waves propagating in vacuum, because ε and µ are
complex quantities and then k is a complex number.
k = α − iβ ,
223
Clearly from this, the phase velocity is
ω
vp = ,
α
i.e. the real part of k plays the role of the propagation number, and β =
− Im(k) is the attenuation (losses) coefficient.
In practice, the losses come from (1) Conduction currents, (2) Lossy dielec-
tric, and (3) Lossy magnetic material, which are lumped together in ε and µ.
or
1
k = ω p2 + q 2 4
e−iθ ,
224
where θ = 12 arctan (q/p). Hence
1
α = Re(k) = ω p2 + q 2 4
cos θ ,
1
β = −Im(k) = ω p2 + q 2 4
sin θ ,
which in general are quite complicated and difficult to interpret. The inter-
pretation becomes more transparent when we make some simplifications that
are discussed in the following two examples.
225
where
ε00 + σ
ε00 + σ
!
ω ω
Θ = arctan ≈ ,
ε0 ε0
We can then find phase velocity of the wave and refractive index of the
dielectric material
ω ε0
r
vp = =c 0 <c for ε0 > ε0 ,
α s ε
c ε0 √
n = = = εr > 1 .
vp ε0
226
We can summarize, that the theory predicts that the refractive index for a
lossless dielectric is given by
√
n = εr .
σ 5.8 × 107
= = 1.0 × 1012 .
ωε0 2π × 106 × 8.85 × 10−12
Consider general expression for k:
1
σ σ
2
0 0 00 00 0 00
k = ω εµ −µ ε + −i µ ε + + ε0 µ00 ,
ω ω
that for a conductor with no dielectric losess reduces to
1
0σ
2
0 0
k = ω (ε µ − 0) − i µ +0 ,
ω
and finally
1
0σ
2
0 0
k = ω ε µ − iµ .
ω
Now we might as well drop the dashes on ε, µ understanding that they are
real quantities, and obtain
1 1
σ √ σ
2 2
k = ω εµ − iµ = ω εµ 1 − i ,
ω εω
that can be written as
1
2 # 12
"
√
σ σ
2
k = ω εµ 1 + e−i arctan εω .
εω
228
σ
Remembering that for a good conductor εω
1. Thus, we can drop ”1” in
the [ ] brackets, and get
1
√ σ −i π 2 √ σ −i π
r
k = ω εµ e 2 = ω εµ e 4 .
εω εω
√
Since cos(π/4) = sin(π/4) = 1/ 2, we obtain
!
√ 1 1 ωµσ
r
k = ωµσ √ − i √ = (1 − i) .
2 2 2
Then
ωµσ
r
α = Re(k) = = β = −Im(k) .
2
Knowing α, we can find the phase velocity of the wave
s
2ω
vp = ,
µσ
E = E0 e−βz ei(ωt−αz) .
We see, that the amplitude of the electric (and also magnetic) field decreases
exponentially as z increases.
229
1
the distance for attenuation ”e” fold (i.e. amplitude falls to a factor e
of its
original value in a distance β1 ) is
1 λ
z= = ,
β 2π
i.e.
1 λ λ
δ= = ≈ !!
β 2π 6
where δ is called the skin depth in the conductor. It is the distance the wave
must propagate in order to decay by an amount e−1 . This effect is sometimes
called ”skin effect” as with an increasing σ the current flows in a narrower
and narrower layer, until in the limit of σ → ∞ a true current exists only on
the surface of the conductor.
230
Revision questions
Question 4. Why the theoretical and experimental values of the refractive index
of water are significantly different?
Tutorial problems
Problem 15.1 Relations between the electric and magnetic field vectors in dielec-
tric and conductor
231
(c) Show that Ey and Hz each satisfies a second order differential
equation of the form
∂ 2 Ey ∂ 2 Ey ∂Ey
2
= εµ 2
+ µσ .
∂x ∂t ∂t
E = E0 ei(ωt−kz) ,
(b) Compare these values with those for free space propagation
at 1 MHz.
232
(c) Calculate the attenuation coefficient at 1 MHz. How far will
the wave propagate before its amplitude falls to one tenth of its
initial value?
233
16 Transitions Across Boundaries for Elec-
tromagnetic Fields
In the lectures on electric and magnetic properties of materials we have
confined our attention principally to the case of a single material medium
completely occupying the spatial region where electric and magnetic fields
existed. We now investigate the relations between the fields which hold at
a boundary between two different materials. They are of great help in the
calculations of propagation problems in optics, where light can propagate
between different material media.
The question we will address in this lecture is: How the electromagnetic fields
transfer through a boundary between two materials? In the analysis of the
transfer properties of the electromagnetic field across a boundary between
two different materials, it is convenient to decompose the fields into two
components, normal and tangential to the boundary between the materials
and study how each of the components transfers through the boundary.
16.1.1 ~
Normal Component of B
234
~ = 0, to find
To check this, we first apply the Maxwell’s equation II, ∇ · B
how the normal component of B ~ transfers through the boundary between
the two materials.
where the first term is the flux of the magnetic field through the top surface,
the second term is the flux through the bottom surface, and the third term
is the flux through the side surface of the cylinder.
235
Now, if we introduce the notation
n̂1 = n̂ then n̂2 = −n̂ ,
and we find that Eq. (83) becomes
n̂ · (B~2 − B~1 ) = 0 ,
or equivalently, we may write that
B2⊥ = B1⊥ ,
~ in material (1) normal to the
where B1⊥ is the component of the field B
boundary and B2⊥ is the component in material (2) normal to the boundary.
On physical grounds, we can understand this result by noting that the mag-
~ 1 × n̂1 and M
netic fields of polarization currents M ~ 2 × n̂2 are parallel to
the boundary and so do not affect the normal component of B, ~ as shown
in Figure 56.
16.1.2 ~
Normal Component of H
~ = µH,
Since B ~ we have
B1⊥ = µ1 H1⊥ = µ2 H2⊥ = B2⊥ .
Thus, we obtain that
µ2
H1⊥ = H2⊥ ,
µ1
which shows that the nor-
mal component of H ~ is not
continuous across a boundary
between two different materi-
als since µ1 and µ2 are not
equal.
Figure 56: Direction of magnetizations and re-
On physical grounds, this result sulting polarization currents at the boundary be-
for the normal component of H ~ tween two different materials.
is the consequence of different magnetizations of the materials, when µ1 6= µ2 .
236
16.1.3 ~ and E
Normal Component of D ~
~ = εE.
In the case of dielectrics we write D ~ Since the normal component of D
~
is continuous across a boundary, we have
ε1 E1⊥ = ε2 E2⊥ ,
which shows that the normal component of E ~ is not continuous across the
boundary.
On the physical grounds, we can
understand it as follows. The
electric field of the dielectric sur-
face charge P~ · n̂ is normal to
the boundary, as shown in Fig-
ure 57. Since the polarizations
of the dielectrics are different, so
the fields of the dielectrics are
different. This difference causes
the discontinuity in the incident E~
Figure 57: Polarization charges at the field.
boundary between two different materials.
The discontinuity of the normal
component of the electric field leads to a change of the direction of prop-
agation of the field, as it is illustrated in Figure 58. The change of the
direction depends on the ratio ε2 /ε1 . When ε2 /ε1 > 1, θ2 > θ1 .
237
Figure 58: Boundry between two dielectrics showing change of the direction of propa-
gation of an electric field.
16.2.1 ~
Tangential Component of E
~ we will apply the Faraday induction law,
For the tangential component of E,
the Maxwell’s equation III, to a closed path such as shown in the Figure 59.
238
where n̂o is the unit vector normal to the surface a, and t̂1 and t̂2 are unit
vectors along the paths L on the side (1) and (2), respectively.20
Explanation
20
Do not mix the unit vector n̂o normal to the surface a with the unit vector n̂ normal
to the boundary. Actually, n̂o ⊥ n̂.
239
16.2.2 ~
Tangential Component of H
where J~c is the conduction current, i.e. not counting polarization currents.
Both terms on the right-hand side go to zero as δl → 0 because J~c and ∂ E/∂t
~
are finite. 21 Hence
~2 − H
H ~ 1 · t̂ = 0 ,
or
~2 − H
n̂ × H ~1 = 0 .
~ is continuous
Thus, we conclude that the tangential component of H
at all points across a boundary between two different materials.
16.2.3 ~
Tangential component of B
~ the term
Thus, if we examine the corresponding Maxwell equation for ∇× B,
in the integral involving J~ may stay finite as δj → 0.
21
Infinite current density can occur in a material which has infinite electrical conduc-
tivity, but here we ignore this special case.
240
This conclusion can be justified as follows. Since
~ = ε 0 c2 B
H ~ −M
~ ,
we have
~2 − H
H ~ 1 = ε 0 c2 B
~2 − B
~1 − M
~2 −M
~1 .
we obtain
~ 1 · t̂ = 1 M
~2 − B
B ~2 −M
~ 1 · t̂ .
ε 0 c2
~ 1 6= M
It is seen that if M ~ 2 , the differ-
Figure 61: Directions of magnetizations ence between the two magnetizations
and resulting magnetic fields produced at
generates a discontinuity in the B ~
a boundary between two materials.
field, as shown in Figure 61.
Summarizing:
Field components that are continuous across a boundary between
two materials:
~
• The normal component of D.
~
• The tangential component of E.
~
• The normal component of B.
~
• The tangential component of H.
241
Revision questions
Question 1. Which of the Maxwell’s equations are used to analyse the transmis-
sion of the normal components of the EM field through a boundary
between two materials?
Question 2. Which of the Maxwell’s equations are used to analyse the trans-
mission of the tangential components of the EM field through a
boundary between two materials?
Question 3. Explain, using physical grounds, why the normal component of the
~ is continuous across a boundary between two ma-
magnetic field B
terials.
Tutorial problems
242
(a) Find the angle that E~ 0 should make to the boundary normal
~
so that E inside the slab makes an angle π/4 with the boundary
normal.
~
(a) Draw a diagram showing the directions and magnitudes of E
~
and B in the incident, reflected and transmitted waves. Apply
~ and B
the general boundary conditions for E ~ directly. Remem-
ber that B = E/vp .
243
17 Propagation of an EM Wave Across a Bound-
ary
In this lecture, we shall attack these problems from the standpoint of the elec-
tromagnetic theory of light and will show how the propagation phenomenon
can be understood with the help of the Maxwell’s equations. More precisely,
in this and the following lecture, we consider a number of well-known op-
tical phenomena and will show that they can be explained in terms of the
electromagnetic theory of light.
244
17.1 Representation of Plane Waves in Different Di-
rections
Let us first set up the formalism we shall use in the study of propagation
of an EM wave through a boundary between two materials. The question
we will try to answer is: What is the convenient method to represent plane
waves propagating in different directions?
Suppose that a plane wave prop-
agates in the z direction. Then
~ =E
E ~ 0 exp[i (ωt − kz)] .
z = n̂p · ~r .
Thus, if at the point A appear few plane waves propagating in different di-
rections, the observer can distinguish them by different n̂’s. In other words,
the vector ~r sets a reference frame for the observation of different waves at
the point A.
245
17.1.1 ~ in terms of E
Representation of B ~
~ = k n̂p × E
B ~ . (85)
ω
Proof:
We shall show that the relation (85) arises from the Maxwell equation III:
~
~ = − ∂B .
∇×E
∂t
To prove it, we expand both sides of this equation, and obtain
î ĵ k̂ ~
∂B ∂Bx ∂By
∂
0 0 =− = −î − ĵ ,
∂z
∂t ∂t ∂t
Ex Ey 0
where we have used the fact that the wave is transverse and propagates in
the z direction.
Comparing the coefficients standing at the same unit vectors, we find that
the x component gives
∂Ey ∂Bx
− =−
∂z ∂t
from which, we obtain
Ey ω
ikEy = −iωBx or =− .
Bx k
The y component gives:
∂Ex ∂By
=−
∂z ∂t
from which, we obtain
Ex ω
−ikEx = −iωBy or = .
By k
246
Thus
1 ω 2 1 ω
E = Ex2 + Ey2 2
= Bx + By2 2 = B .
k k
~ B,
Since E, ~ n̂p , are mutually orthogonal, E~ ×B~ gives the direction of n̂p
~ gives the direc-
(Poynting result) of the propagation direction. Then n̂p × E
~ Hence, written vectorially
tion of B.
~
~ = B = k n̂p × E
H ~ . (86)
µ ωµ
√
If ε and µ are real, k = ω εµ, and then we have
s
~ = ε ~ .
H n̂p × E (87)
µ
In the next few lectures, we will use the continuity conditions for E~ and H
~ to
analyse different optical phenomena. With the relations (86) or (87), we will
be able to limit the analysis to the electric field alone, as knowing properties
~ we can infer from Eq. (86) properties of H.
of E, ~
The answer to this question is provided by the requirement that the tangen-
~ and H
tial components of E ~ must be continuous through the boundary.
and
Hi + Hr = Ht . (89)
Since
k
H= E,
ωµ
the relation (89) takes the form
k2
Ei + Er = Et , (90)
k1
248
as for a dielectric µ1 = µ2 = µ0 .
cos θt
Ei = Et ,
cos θi
while Eq. (90) gives
k2
Ei = Et .
k1
Thus, without Er we would get two different values for Ei or Et , which we
cannot accept as both continuity conditions Eqs. (88) and (89) must be satis-
fied at the same moment. Hence, we conclude that the continuity conditions
~ and H
for E ~ will be satisfied only if Er 6= 0.
The same argument applies to the need of the transmitted wave. Without Et ,
we get two equations
cos θi
Er = Ei and Er = −Ei ,
cos θr
which evidently cannot be in general satisfied simultaneously.
To answer this question, we use the boundary condition for the tangential
~
component of E:
~i + E
n̂ × E ~ r = n̂ × E
~t ,
i.e.
n o
~ 0 exp [i (ωt − n̂i · ~r k1 )] + E
n̂ × E ~ 1 exp [i (ωt − n̂r · ~r k1 )]
n o
~ 2 exp [i (ωt − n̂t · ~r k2 )]
= n̂ × E .
249
This relation must hold over the whole surface S for all ~r (subject to n̂·~r = 0).
Thus, the exponential phase factors must all be the same. Otherwise, if it
was true for one ~r it would not be true for other ~r’s, but we have a freedom
of choosing ~r. Hence
and
k2
n̂i · ~r = n̂t · ~r .
k1
These relations will help us to prove that:
In other words, n̂i , n̂r , n̂t are coplanar, the property observed in experiments.
To show this, we first define planes determined by pairs of the unit vectors
(n̂i , n̂), (n̂r , n̂) and (n̂t , n̂), and next will show that all the pairs of the unit
vectors form the same plane.
It is well known from the vector analysis that a cross product between two
vectors determines a plane in which these two vectors are. Thus, we will
determine the cross products n̂i × n̂, n̂r × n̂ and n̂t × n̂, and then will show
that the cross products are equal.
In order to find the cross products, we use the following relation valid for
arbitrary ~r and n̂, such that n̂ · ~r = 0.
Proof:
Since
250
and n̂ · ~r = 0 as the vector ~r lies on the plane S, we obtain
n̂ × (n̂ × ~r) = −~r ,
as required.
Using Eq. (92), we can then write
Eq. (91) as
n̂i · [n̂ × (n̂ × ~r)] = n̂r · [n̂ × (n̂ × ~r)] .
Interchanging (·) and (×) products, we
find
(n̂i × n̂) · (n̂ × ~r) = (n̂r × n̂) · (n̂ × ~r) .
This must be true for all ~r in
Figure 64: Illustration that the inci- plane S. Thus:
dent and reflected beams are coplanar.
n̂i × n̂ = n̂r × n̂ .
This implies that n̂r is in the ”plane of incidence”, i.e. the plane containing n̂
and n̂i , as shown in Figure 64.
The coplanar property of the waves is observed in any experiment. Note that
what we have just shown is an another example of a remarkable triumph of
the Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory.
251
17.3 Angle of Reflection and Snell’s Law of Refraction
We now illustrate that other familiar laws of elementary optics can also be
derived from the Maxwell’s equations.
In the case where k1 and k2 are purely real (e.g. in dielectrics), the refractive
index has a simple physical interpretation
k2 ω/k1 v1
n12 = = = ,
k1 ω/k2 v2
i.e. the refractive index in equal to the ratio of phase velocities.
252
Revision questions
Question 1. Why there are three waves, incident, reflected and refracted in a
propagation of an EM wave between two dielectric materials?
Question 4. State the Snell’s law, and briefly explain how it is derived from the
Maxwell’s equations.
253
18 Fresnel’s Equations
In the propagation of an EM wave between two different materials, it is im-
portant to know how much of the energy of the incident beam is reflected
and transmitted. In this lecture, we will find relations between the ampli-
tudes of the incident, reflected and refracted beams. More precisely, we will
express the amplitudes of the reflected and transmitted beams in terms of
the amplitude of the incident beam. We shall see that the relations depend
on the angle of propagation of the incident beam and the material constants.
Since
~
~ = B = k n̂p × E
H ~ ,
µ ωµ
where n̂p is a unit ray vector in the direction of propagation, we have an
equation
! !
k1 ~ i + k1 n̂r × E
~ r = n̂ × k2 n̂t × E
~t
n̂ × n̂i × E , (93)
ωµ1 ωµ1 ωµ2
which together with
~i + E
n̂ × E ~ r = n̂ × E
~t , (94)
~ r and E
contains sufficient information to determine E ~ t in terms of E
~ i.
254
Since these two equations involve vectors of an arbitrary polarization, the
solution of these two equations is greatly facilitated by decomposing each
of the vectors into two components: electric field components parallel and
normal to the plane of incidence. Then, we can solve these two cases sep-
arately that are necessary and sufficient to determine the relations between
the amplitudes valid for an arbitrary polarization since a superposition of
these two cases gives the solution for an arbitrary polarized incident wave.
Equations (93) and (94) also provide a simple explanation of why we need
reflected and transmitted fields at the boundary to obtain the correct results
for the field amplitudes.
gives
~0 + E
E ~1 = E
~2 . (95)
Figure 65: Incident beam with the elec-
tric field normal to the plane of incidence.
255
~ α exp i(ωt − n̂α · ~r k) are the same, we obtain
Since the phase factors in E
k1 h
~ 1 = k2 n̂ × n̂t × E
~ 0 + n̂ × n̂r × E
i
~2 .
n̂ × n̂i × E
ωµ1 ωµ2
E0 + E1 = E2 , (97)
k2 µ1
E0 cos θi − E1 cos θi = E2 cos θt . (98)
k1 µ2
Eliminating E1 using Eq. (97), that E1 = E2 − E0 , we get
k2 µ1
E0 cos θi − (E2 − E0 ) cos θi = E2 cos θt ,
k1 µ2
which can be written as
!
k2 µ1
2E0 cos θi = cos θi + cos θt E2 ,
k1 µ2
or
256
Thus
2k1 µ2 cos θi
E2 = E0 . (99)
k1 µ2 cos θi + k2 µ1 cos θt
Using the Snell’s law
k1 sin θi = k2 sin θt ,
Equations (100) and (101) are called Fresnel equations for the electric field
amplitudes.
~ = k n̂ × E
H ~ i.e. H=
kE
.
µω µω
257
becomes
~0 + H
H ~1 = H
~2 .
~ is given by
The continuity of tangential E
~0 + E
n̂ × E ~ 1 = n̂ × E
~2 .
E~ = − ω n̂ × B ~ = − µω n̂ × H
~ .
k k
Hence
µ1 ~ 0 + µ1 n̂r × H
~ 1 = n̂ × µ2 n̂t × H
n̂ × n̂i × H ~2 .
k1 k1 k2
~ i normal to plane of
Continuing with a procedure similar to the case of E
incidence, we obtain
q
k22 µ2 cos θi − µ1 k1 k22 − k12 sin2 θi
H1 = q H0 , (102)
k22 µ1 cos θi + µ2 k1 k22 − k12 sin2 θi
2k22 µ2 cos θi
H2 = q H0 . (103)
k22 µ1 cos θi + µ2 k1 k22 − k12 sin2 θi
Equations (102) and (103) are called Fresnel equations for the magnetic
field amplitudes.
258
In a dielectric: conductivities σ1 = σ2 = 0, µ1 = µ2 = µ0 , k = 2π/λ =
real, and
ω 1
vp = =√ .
k εµ0
√
Since k ∼ 1/λ ∼ 1/vp ∼ ε, the Snell’s law (k1 sin θi = k2 sin θt ) becomes
√ √
ε1 sin θi = ε2 sin θt ,
and then
s
sin θi ε2 v1
= = = n12 .
sin θt ε1 v2
E2 2k1 µ2 cos θi
= .
E0 k1 µ2 cos θi + k2 µ1 cos θt
Since for a dielectric
k2 sin θi
µ1 = µ2 = µ0 and = ,
k1 sin θt
we obtain
E2 2 cos θi 2 cos θi
= k2 = sin θi
E0 cos θi + k1 cos θt cos θi + sin θt
cos θt
2 cos θi sin θt
= .
cos θi sin θt + sin θi cos θt
Hence
E2 2 cos θi sin θt
= .
E0 sin (θt + θi )
259
Similarly, we can readily show that
E1 sin(θt − θi )
= . (104)
E0 sin (θt + θi )
and similarly
E1 tan(θi − θt )
= .
E0 tan (θt + θi )
It is seen from the above examples that the reflection and refraction ampli-
tudes are different for linearly polarized waves with the electric field vector
oscillation in the direction normal to the plane of incidence and for waves
with the electric field vector oscillating in the plane of incidence. However,
the above examples show an interesting feature that for normal incidence,
(θi = 0), the reflected and refracted amplitudes are independent of the po-
larization.
Revision questions
Question 2. Under which conditions the ratios of the reflected to the incident
and transmitted to the incident beams amplitudes depend solely on
the angles involved?
260
Tutorial problems
Problem 18.1 Reflected and transmitted fields at a boundary between two non-
conducting materials
261
19 Applications of the Boundary Conditions
and the Fresnel Equations
In this lecture, we examine some of the consequences of the Snell’s law. There
are two cases possible: n2 > n1 and n1 > n2 . In the first case, an optical
wave travels from an optically ”rarer” to optically ”denser” medium. In the
second case, we have the inverse situation. We will consider these two cases
separately for dielectrics and for conductors.
E1 tan(θi − θt )
= .
E0 tan(θi + θt )
E1 = 0 .
262
~ i has arbitrary polarization then E
Thus, if E ~ r will be plane polarized with E
~r
normal to the plane of incidence.
π π
If θi + θt = 2
then θt = 2
− θi . Thus
s
sin θi ε2 sin θi
= n21 = = = tan θi .
sin θt ε1 sin( π2 − θi )
Hence, the angle of incidence for total linear polarization of the reflected
wave is
s
ε2
θi = arctan .
ε1
Alternatively, it can be proved using the continuity conditions for the tan-
gential components of E~ and H,
~ from which we have
and
H0 + H1 = H2 . (106)
Since
k
H= E, (107)
ωµ
π
and θt = 2
− θ, we get
E0 − E1 = E2 tan θ ,
E0 + E1 = n12 E2 , (108)
263
However, from the Snell’s law we have that
sin θ sin θ sin θ
= = = tan θ = n12 .
sin θt sin π2 − θ cos θ
~ i polarized normal
We now prove that the above conclusion is not true for E
to the plane of incidence. In this case
H0 cos θ − H1 cos θ = H2 cos θt , (109)
and
E0 + E1 = E2 . (110)
From Eq. (109) we find, after applying Eq. (107), that
cos θt
E0 − E1 = E2 = n12 E2 .
cos θ
Thus, E1 must be present, otherwise E0 or E2 would have two different values.
We now illustrate an another interesting effect that has many practical ap-
plications: Total internal reflection at a boundary between two dielectrics.
It is well known from experiments that in the case of propagation from an
optically more dense to optically less dense medium, e.g. from water in to
air, the incident beam can be completely reflected at the boundary with no
transmission. Does it mean that there is no refracted beam? If this is the
case, one can easily find from the conditions of continuity of the tangental
components of E ~ and H~ that the refracted beam has to be present to satisfy
those two conditions.
It looks that the EM theory is in a trouble, but no panic, lets see how we
can handle this problem in terms of the EM theory.
264
Consider the Snell’s law
s
sin θi ε2
sin θt = , where n21 = .
n21 ε1
One can see that in the case of n21 < 1, that happens when ε2 < ε1 , and
when the wave is going from an optically more dense to optically less dense
medium, real angles θt are obtained only for sin θi ≤ n21 .
sin θi = n21
For greater θi , sin θt > 1, and then the angle of refraction θt becomes imagi-
nary. In this case, there is no real refracted wave, only a reflected wave.
We see that although sin θt is still real, cos θt becomes imaginary when
sin θt > 1.
Consider the propagation of the transmitted wave in the less optically dense
medium, as illustrated in Figure 67, for which
Et = E2 e−i(ωt−n̂t ·~rk) ,
265
with the propagation distance
Then
0 0 0 0
Et = E2 e−i(ωt−iβ z−α x) = E2 e−β z e−i(ωt−α x) .
Here β 0 = kβ and α0 = kα. One can see that there is attenuation of the field
amplitude in the z direction but no phase propagation. Phase propagation
occurs in the x direction along the boundary.
Thus, for sin θt > 1, an evanes-
cent wave exists along the bound-
ary (in the x direction) which is at-
tenuated exponentially in the second
medium in the normal z direction. We
may say that the field enters into the
second material, but the wave does
not.
266
19.2 Transmission and Reflection at a Conducting
Surface
Propagation of EM fields in conductors (metals) is more complicated phe-
nomenon than in dielectrics. Consider a propagation of an EM wave in a
medium composed of a dielectric and a conductor, and assume that the in-
cident wave originates in the dielectric.
~ and H
As a consequence, the field vectors E ~ in the conductor lie tangential
to the boundary and so the normal components of these vectors on the con-
ductor side of the boundary are zero.
267
It follows that:
• In a good conductor
k2
iσ
σ
2
2 = K 1 − →∞ as 1,
k1 εω εω
E2 → 0 and E1 → −E0 .
This means that the electric field in the conductor (which is tangential to
the boundary) → 0.
Since Ek is continuous across the boundary, we have that Ek is zero also in
the dielectric at the boundary.
Thus, the tangential component of E~ of the reflected wave must be equal and
opposite to that of the incident wave.
268
19.2.1 Field vectors at normal incidence
We now consider the special case of normal incidence at a boundary, i.e. when
the wave propagation vector coincides with the normal to the boundary.
Figure 69 shows how the field vectors
must look in the plane of the surface be-
tween dielectric and conductor. Since we
already know that for a good conductor
for which
σ
→∞,
εω
the tangential component of the trans-
mitted electric field Et = 0, and the tan-
gential component of the reflected mag-
Figure 69: The field vectors in the netic field Hr = Hi , we find that the re-
plane of the surface between dielectric
lations between the field components take
and conductor.
the form
Et = Ei − Er → 0,
Ht = Hi + Hr → 2Hi .
Er Hr E2 σ
αp = = r2 → 1 as →∞.
Ei Hi Ei εω
Thus, we have the total reflection of the energy carried by the EM wave.
1. The energy of the wave is completely reflected, and in fact the total
reflection is independent of the angle of incidence.
Before concluding the lecture, let us clarify a problem regarding the reflec-
tion at the normal incidence. Namely, one could think that under the normal
incidence, there is only the incident and transmitted wave with no reflected
269
wave. Here, we prove the necessity of assuming the existence of the reflected
wave.
Assume that E~ is normal to the plane of incidence. Then, from the continuity
of the tangential components at the boundary, we have
Ei − Er = Et , (111)
Hi + Hr = Ht . (112)
However
s s s s
ε ε ε0 ε0
H= E= E=n E.
µ0 ε0 µ0 µ0
n1 Ei + n1 Er = n2 Et ,
and then we get two equations for the amplitudes of the electric field
Ei − Er = Et ,
n2
Ei + Er = Et .
n1
If Er is missing, we could not simultaneously satisfy both equations. Thus,
there always is a reflected wave in the normal incidence.
270
Revision questions
Question 1. What is a Brewster’s angle and why one could call it a polarizing
angle?
Question 2. Under what conditions will the reflected and transmitted amplitudes
for perpendicular polarization be the same as those for parallel po-
larization?
271
Tutorial problems
Show, using the Fresnel’s equations that under the total inter-
nal reflection, energy of an incident wave is completely reflected
independent of polarization of the wave.
272
20 Propagation of an EM Wave in a Rectan-
gular Waveguide
273
dependence of any field component in the form
∂
e−γz Thus ≡ −γ ,
∂z
where γ describes the propagation conditions, e.g. γ purely imaginary de-
scribes a wave propagating without loss.
~ H,
We describe the electromagnetic field by the vector pair E, ~ and we use
the Maxwell’s equations in the form
∇·E ~ = ρ =0,
ε
~
∇ · B = 0 or ∇ · H ~ =0,
~ ~
∇×E ~ = − ∂ B = −µ ∂ H ,
∂t ∂t
~ ~
∇×H ~ + ε ∂E ,
~ = J~ + ε ∂ E = σ E
∂t ∂t
where σ is the conductivity of the interior of the waveguide, not the bounding
metallic surfaces. We assume the interior if filled with a dielectric, but allow
a possible non-zero conductivity of the dielectric.
274
20.1 Transverse Electric (TE) Modes
To show this, we will look for the solution of the Maxwell’s equations with
Ez = 0 that satisfies the good conductor boundary conditions.
Hence
~ = 0, we have
• From II, ∇ · H
∂Hx ∂Hy ∂Hz
+ + =0,
∂x ∂y ∂z
275
and from the fact that ∂/∂z = −γ, we get
∂Hx ∂Hy
+ − γHz = 0 . (116)
∂x ∂y
~ + ε ∂ E~ ) = 0, we have
~ − (σ E
• From IV, ∇ × H ∂t
î ĵ k̂
∂
∂x ∂
−γ − (σ
~ =0,
+ jωε)E
∂y
H Hy Hz
x
∂Ex ∂Ey
+ =0 (Ez = 0) , (120)
∂x ∂y
Ex Ey iωµ
=− = . (121)
Hy Hx γ
276
Thus, we use Eq. (121) in Eqs. (117) and (118). In Eq. (117) substitute
for Ex :
∂Hz iωµ
+ γHy − (σ + iωε) Hy = 0 .
∂y γ
Hence
−1 ∂Hz
Hy = iωµ
γ − (σ + iωε) γ ∂y
−γ ∂Hz γ ∂Hz
= =− 2 , (122)
γ2 − iωµ(σ + iωε) ∂y k ∂y
−γ ∂Hz γ ∂Hz
Hx = = − , (123)
γ 2 − iωµ(σ + iωε) ∂x k 2 ∂x
Using Eqs. (121), (122), and (123), we find that Eqs. (119) and (120) are
automatically satisfied.
Substituting Eqs. (122) and (123) into Eq. (116), we obtain two equations
−γ ∂ 2 Hz
,
γ 2 − iωµ(σ + iωε) ∂x2
γ ∂ 2 Hz
− − γHz = 0 ,
γ 2 − iωµ(σ + iωε) ∂y 2
which can be written as
∂ 2 Hz ∂ 2 Hz
+ + k 2 Hz = 0 , (124)
∂x2 ∂y 2
We have obtained the wave equation for Hz which we will solve assuming the
good conductor boundary conditions.
277
Now, we proceed to solve Eq. (124) for Hz with the boundary conditions for
the field components at the surface of a good conductor. Having Hz , then we
can solve Eqs. (122) and (123) for Hx and Hy . With these solutions, we then
will be able to solve Eq. (121) for Ex and Ey . After that, we will know all
the field components. In other words, we will know how the fields propagate
through the rectangular waveguide.
Let us proceed with the steps mentioned above. First, we solve the wave
equation (124) with the known boundary conditions at the surface of a good
conductor:
~ normal to boundary (in xy plane) = 0.
1. H
~ tangential to boundary (in xy plane) = 0.
2. E
According to Figure 71: We must have at the boundaries along the x-axis,
x = 0 and x = a, the field components Hx = 0 and Ey = 0. Looking at
Eq. (118), we see that this means that the derivative ∂Hz /∂x must be equal
to zero at x = 0 and x = a.
278
with kx x and ky y satisfying the standing wave conditions:
kx a = mπ and ky b = nπ .
Hence, possible values for Hz inside the waveguide are
mπx nπy
Hz = H0 cos cos eiωt−γz , (125)
a b
where m, n = 0, 1, 2 . . ..
What left is to determine the coefficient γ. With the solution (125), the wave
equation (124) gives a condition for k:
" 2 2 #
mπ nπ
2
− − +k Hz = 0 .
a b
For a non-trivial solution, Hz 6= 0, and then
2 2
mπ nπ
2
k = + .
a b
Since that on the other hand
k 2 = γ 2 − iµω(σ + iεω) ,
we find that
2 2
mπ nπ
2
γ = + + iµω(σ + iεω) . (126)
a b
We see that in general the propagation constant γ is a complex number. We
can write γ = β + iα. Then the solution (125) takes the form
mπx nπy
Hz = H0 cos cos e−βz ei(ωt−αz) .
a b
Thus, α = 2π/λg , where λg is the wavelength in the waveguide at frequency ω.
The phase velocity in the waveguide is vp = ω/α.
279
• Ohmic resistivity (σ of the medium finite).
ω2
2 2
mπ nπ
2
γ =− 2 + +
v0 a b
√
where v0 = 1/ εµ is the phase velocity of propagation of waves in an
infinite (unbounded) medium of the type filling the waveguide.
One can see that the parameter γ 2 can be negative or positive even after
all the assumptions of a lossless propagation. The nature of the propaga-
tion depends on the size of the cross section of the waveguide, and changes
according as:
280
1. Assume that γ 2 negative. In this case, γ is purely imaginary, and we
have a propagating wave
mπx nπy
Hz = H0 cos cos ei(ωt−kg z) ,
a b
where we have put γ = ikg , with kg the guide propagation constant.
The wave then propagates with a guide wavelength λg given by
s 2 2 2
2π 2π mπ nπ
= kg = − − .
λg λ0 a b
There is a maximum wavelength λ0 (= λc say) such that kg is real
2 2
1 m n
2
= + .
λc 2a 2b
Thus, there is a minimum frequency fmn such that the TEmn mode will
propagate down the waveguide
s
2 2
m n
fmn = vm + .
2a 2b
This can be derived from the cut-off condition fmn λc = vm .
Thus, the waveguide acts as a high-pass filter for any (m, n) mode.
Since
mπx nπy
Hz ∼ cos cos eiωt−γz ,
a b
281
we find from Eq. (122) the Hy component of the field
!
∂Hz mπx nπy
Hy ∼ ∼ cos sin eiωt−γz .
∂y a b
Next, from Eq. (121), we find the components of the electric field
mπx nπy
Ex ∼ Hy ∼ cos sin eiωt−γz ,
a b
and
mπx nπy
Ey ∼ Hx ∼ sin cos eiωt−γz .
a b
We see from the above equations that the mode m = n = 0 is not allowed to
propagate through the waveguide, since Ex , Ey , Hx and Hy all contain sine
terms so all the field components vanish for m = n = 0. All other TEmn
modes are allowed.22
22
The mode m = n = 0 is never possible in a transmission line consisting of a single
closed conductor like a rectangular waveguide. It is possible in 2-conductor lines e.g. the
coaxial line or the twin wire transmission line.
23
This is an interesting difference between properties the TE and TM modes, and the
student is encourage to analyze, as a tutorial problem, where the difference is coming from.
282
Special properties of the TE10 mode
Consider the velocity with which the wave propagates inside the waveguide.
We look into the phase velocity, the velocity the wave front propagates
ω ω
vp = f λg = = r .
kg 2π
2
mπ
2
nπ
2
λ0
− a
− b
Thus
v0
vp = r 2 2 ,
mλ0 nλ0
1− 2a
− 2b
283
where v0 is the phase velocity in the unbounded medium.
We see that the phase velocity of the wave inside the waveguide is greater
than in an unbounded medium, and so may be greater than the speed of
light in vacuum.
Since vp > c typically, we see that the phase velocity vp is not the velocity
of propagation of energy or information down the waveguide. It is prop-
agated with the group velocity which is smaller than the phase velocity if
the medium is dispersive. When dispersion is not present, phase and group
velocities are equal. According to Eq. (127), the waveguide is a dispersive
medium, since the phase velocity depends on frequency, so the energy or
information is propagated with the group velocity vg = dω/dkg that differs
from the phase velocity vp = ω/kg .
Just a brief explanation how do we define the group velocity. The group
velocity is the velocity of propagation of some modulation of multi-frequency
wave that carries information. A single frequency harmonic wave carries no
information. It is just there. A finite bandwidth is required to carry infor-
mation.
284
We can illustrate the concept of group velocity by considering a sum of two
cosine waves of slightly different frequencies, ω and ω + dω:
Finally
q s
dω vm ω 2 − ωc2 2
ωc
vg = = = vm 1 − < vm .
dkg ω ω
Thus, the group velocity of a wave propagating inside the waveguide is smaller
than the phase velocity. Moreover
s
2
ωc vm
2
vg vp = vm 1 − r = vm .
ω
ωc
2
1− ω
285
In a vacuum-filled waveguide vg vp = c2 . Thus, relativity is still all right.
Revision questions
Question 2. Explain briefly the procedure of finding the components of the elec-
tric and magnetic fields transmitted through a waveguide.
Question 6. Define the phase and group velocities and the relation between them.
286
21 Relativistic Transformation of the Elec-
tromagnetic Field
The final part of the course is devoted to relativistic effects in the EM theory.
Using the argument that the Maxwell’s equations, as physical observables,
are invariant under the Lorentz transformation, we shall show how the fields
transform according to the relativistic rules. Then, we will illustrate on few
examples, how the fields change when one goes between different inertial
frames and how this affects propagation of an EM wave. Finally, we show
how frequency and energy transform according to the transformation rules
and point out the evidence of the dependence of the energy on frequency.
1. The laws of physics are the same in all inertial reference frames.
x0 = γ(x − βct) ,
y0 = y,
z0 = z,
ct0 = γ(ct − βx) ,
−1/2
where γ = (1 − β 2 ) is the Lorentz factor, and β = u/c.
287
The above transformation corresponds to a situation of ~u parallel to the x
axis. If the axis in S and S 0 remain parallel, but the velocity ~u of the frame S 0
is in an arbitrary direction, the generalization of the above transformations is
~ β~
(~r · β)
~r 0 = ~r + (γ − 1) ~ ,
− γ βct
β2
ct0 = γ ct − β~ · ~r ,
where β~ = ~u/c.
Proof:
~r = ~rk + ~r⊥ .
Hence
~
~r 0 = ~rk0 + ~r⊥0 = γ ~rk − βct + ~r − ~rk
~ β~
(~r · β)
= ~r + (γ − 1) ~ .
− γ βct
β2
The transformation of time can be proved in the similar way. Since
ct0 = γ ct − βrk ,
and
~
(~r · β)
βrk = β~ · ~rk = β~ · β~ = ~r · β~ ,
β2
288
we obtain
ct0 = γ ct − β~ · ~r ,
as required.
Thus, the Maxwell’s equations together with the continuity equation have
the same form in two different inertial frames.
If in the frame S:
∇·D ~ = ρ, ~ =0,
∇·B
~ ~
∇×E ~ = − ∂B , ∇×H~ = J~ + ∂ D ,
∂t ∂t
∂ρ
∇ · J~ = − ,
∂t
then in the frame S 0 :
~ 0 = ρ0 ,
∇0 · D ~0 = 0 ,
∇0 · B
~0 ~0
∇0 × E ~ 0 = − ∂B , ∇ 0
× ~ 0 = J~ 0 + ∂ D ,
H
∂t0 ∂t0
0
∂ρ
∇0 · J~ 0 = − 0 ,
∂t
where the prime variables are functions of the transformed variables, t0 and ~r 0 .
289
Of course, the EM fields together with the current and charge densities in
the S 0 frame must be different from that in the S frame in order to match the
same Maxwell equations. From this, an interesting question arises: What are
the relations between the EM fields, charge and current densities in the S 0
and S frames?
αx = 1 + (γ − 1)βx2 /β 2 .
∂ F~
∇ · F~ = ᾱ ∗ (∇0 · F~ ) − γ β~ · ,
∂(ct0 )
where ᾱ is a 3 × 3 diagonal matrix
2
1 + (γ − 1) ββx2 0 0
β2
ᾱ = 0 1 + (γ − 1) βy2 0 ,
2
0 0 1 + (γ − 1) ββz2
as required.
Using the above transformations, we can derive transformations for the cur-
rent density J~ and the charge density ρ.
In order to do it, we consider the continuity equation, that can be written as
∂cρ
∇ · J~ = − .
∂(ct)
Hence
~
!
0~ − γ β~ · ∂ J = −γ
ᾱ ∗ (∇ · J)
∂
− β~ · ∇0 cρ ,
∂(ct0 ) ∂(ct0 )
or
~ − γ β~ · ∇0 (cρ) = −γ ∂
~ · J~ .
∇0 · (ᾱ ∗ J) cρ − β
∂(ct0 )
291
Since
β~ · ∇0 (cρ) = ∇0 · (cρβ)
~ ,
we obtain
∂ h i
∇0 · ᾱ ∗ J~ − γcρβ~ = − γ cρ − ~ · J~ .
β
∂(ct0 )
Thus, the continuity equation will be invariant under the Lorentz transfor-
mation if
cρ0 = γ cρ − β~ · J~ ,
J~ 0 = ᾱ ∗ J~ − γcρβ~ . (128)
Example
In the S frame
J~ = 0 , ρ 6= 0 .
J~ 0 = −γcρβ~ , ρ0 = γρ .
Thus, there is a current in the S 0 frame. As seen from S 0 a given part of the
charge is length contracted in the direction of motion so the charge density
is correspondingly increased by the factor γ > 1. The length contracted
charge density appears from S 0 to move in the opposite direction. We can
understand this result: The stationary charge in the S frame moves with
velocity −~u in the S 0 frame. This effect is predicted by the Galileo transfor-
mation.
292
Less obvious and more interesting is the following situation. Let’s in the S
frame one observes
J~ 6= 0 , ρ=0.
Then, according to Eq. (128), someone will see a non-zero charge density
ρ0 6= 0 in the S 0 frame.
This is a pure relativistic effect, which cannot be predicted by the Galileo
transformation. Note, the charge ρ0 is proportional to u/c2 .
To find the transformation rules for electric and magnetic field components
we will use the transformations of the time and space derivatives derived
above.
~ 0 = ρ0 ,
∇0 · D
~0
~ 0 = J~ 0 + ∂ D ,
∇0 × H
∂t0
in the S 0 frame.
293
Substituting the transformations of J~ and ρ, we find that the D
~ and H
~
vectors transform as
cD ~ + β~ × H
~ 0 = γ ᾱ−1 ∗ cD ~ ,
~ 0 = γ −β~ × cD
H ~ + ᾱ−1 ∗ H
~ , (129)
Suppose that the frame S 0 is moving with speed u in the direction paral-
lel to the z axis. In this case, βx = βy = 0, βz = β 6= 0, and then the
transformations take the form
~ 0 = γcDx î + γcDy ĵ + cDz k̂ + γβ k̂ × H
cD ~ ,
~ 0 = −γβck̂ × D
H ~ + γHx î + γHy ĵ + Hz k̂ ,
~ 0 = γEx î + γEy ĵ + Ez k̂ + γcβ k̂ × B
E ~ ,
~ 0 = −γβ k̂ × E
cB ~ + γcBx î + γcBy ĵ + cBz k̂ . (131)
294
It is useful to rephrase the transformation rules in terms of components
parallel and normal to ~u. The parallel components are the z components
and the normal components lie in the xy plane. For example
~ =E
E ~⊥ + E
~ k = Ex î + Ey ĵ + Ez k̂ ,
~ H
and the same for D, ~ and B.
~
and similarly
~ k0 = B
B ~k , ~ k0 = H
H ~k , ~ k0 = D
D ~k .
Thus, the components parallel to the direction of ~u are invariant under the
transformations (129) and (130).
~ 0 = H 0 î + H 0 ĵ
H⊥ x y
~ ⊥0 = Ex0 î + Ey0 ĵ
E
= γ (Ex − βcBy ) î + γ (Ey + βcBx ) ĵ ,
295
~ 0 = cB 0 î + cB 0 ĵ
cB⊥ x y
~ 6= 0 but B
Suppose that in S, one observes E ~ = 0.
0
Then from the transformation rules, in S :
~ k0 = E
E ~k , ~ ⊥0 = γ E
E ~⊥ ,
~ k0 = 0 ,
B ~ ⊥0 = − γ ~u × E
B ~⊥ .
c2
Thus
~ ~
~ ⊥0 = − ~u × E⊥ = − ~u × E ,
~0 =B
B
c2 c2
~ k = 0.
since ~u × E
296
~ = 0, but B
Now suppose that in S, one observes E ~ =
6 0.
0
Then using the transformation rules, in S :
~ k0 = B
B ~k , ~ ⊥0 = γ B
B ~⊥ ,
~ k0 = 0 ,
E ~ ⊥0 = γ~u × B
E ~⊥ .
Thus
~0 =E
E ~ 0 = ~u × B
~ ⊥ = ~u × B
~ .
⊥
We see that what appears to be a purely magnetic field for one observer will
appear to be both an electric and a magnetic field to a relatively moving ob-
server.
This result could be used to calculate the emf in an electric dynamo from
the point of view of an observer watching the conductor move in a magnetic
field or from the point of view of an observer moving with the conductor.
Example 1
Suppose that a plane wave propagates in vacuum along the z axis. Then the
electric and magnetic fields of the wave are
E~ = îEei(ωt−kz) = îE0 = îEx ,
~ = ĵBei(ωt−kz) = ĵB0 = ĵBy .
B
Hence from the transformation rules (132), in the S 0 frame moving in the
same direction:
~ 0 = γ E0 î − βcB0 î = γ (E0 − uB0 ) î ,
E
~ 0 = γ cB0 ĵ − βE0 ĵ = γ (cB0 − βE0 ) ĵ .
cB
297
Since in vacuum
cB0 = E0 ,
we obtain
s
u
~0 =γ 1− u 1− c−u
c
E E0 î = r E0 î = E0 î ,
c 2
u c+u
1− c
and
s
~ = γ 1 − u cB0 ĵ = c−u
0
cB cB0 ĵ .
c c+u
Thus, we observe that the amplitudes of the fields are reduced, but the ratio
~ 0 |/|B
|E ~ 0 | = |E0 |/|B0 | is constant and independent of u, as it should be, since
speed of light is the same in all inertial frames.
This is consistent with the principle of relativity that speed of light is inde-
pendent of the motion of the observer.
Example 2
~ 0 = E0 î + γβcB0 k̂ = î + γ u k̂ E0 ,
E
c
and
~ 0 = γcB0 ĵ .
cB
298
An interesting situation occurs when the
velocity u → c. In this case, we have
u 1 u
γ =r →∞,
c
u
2 c
1− c
and then
~ 0 = E k̂ ,
E
~ 0 becomes perpendicular to ~u.
i.e. the direction of E
However, the Poynting vector of the wave is still in the direction of ~u:
~ = γ u E0 γB0 k̂ × ĵ = −γ 2 u E0 B0 î .
~0×H
E
c c
In the moving frame S 0 this wave will have a different frequency ω 0 and the
wave vector ~k 0 , but the phase of the wave will remain unchanged as it is
invariant under the transformation, i.e.
φ = ωt − ~k · ~r = ω 0 t0 − ~k 0 · ~r 0 .
we will find the relations between ω 0 , ω and k 0 , k that ensure the invariance
of the phase of the wave.
299
Thus, with the above transformations, we find
ω 0 t0 − ~k 0 · ~r 0 = ωt − ~k · ~r
ωγ
= ct0 + β~ · ~r 0 − ᾱ ∗ ~k · ~r 0 − γ~k · βct
~ 0
c
ωγ ~
0 0~ ~
= ωγt − γt k · ~u + β − ᾱ ∗ k · ~r 0
c
ωγ ~
~
= γ ω − k · ~u t − 0 ~
β − ᾱ ∗ k · ~r 0 .
c
Hence
ω 0 = γ ω − ~k · ~u ,
~k 0 = ᾱ ∗ ~k − ωγ ~u .
c2
Consider two special cases. In the first case, assume that the wave propagates
ˆ
in vacuum, ~k = (ω/c)~k. Then
u
ω 0 = γω 1 − cos θ ,
c
where θ is the angle between the direction of propagation of the wave and
the direction of the motion ~u.
For the propagation direction θ = 0
s
c−u
ω0 = ω .
c+u
The frequency in S 0 is smaller than that
in S, and ω 0 → 0 as u → c. On the
other hand, the frequency ω 0 → ∞ when
u → −c.
300
For the case of θ = 0
u
1− vf
ω0 = ω r 2 .
u
1− c
When u = vf , the frequency ω 0 = 0, but for c > u > vf , we obtain that the
frequency ω 0 < 0.
E ~ + γ β~ × cB
~ 0 = γE ~⊥
~ + γ cos φ β~ × cB
= γE ~ .
301
Since, we have assumed that the observer (S 0 frame) moves in the direction
of the z axis, and the wave propagates in the direction ~k · ~u = u cos φ, we
obtain
∆V 0 = ∆x∆y∆z 0 ,
where
∆z
∆z 0 = .
γ 1 − uc cos φ
Hence
2
1 u ∆V
We0 = ε0 E02 γ 2 1 − cos φ
4 c γ 1 − uc cos φ
u
= We γ 1 − cos φ .
c
It is interesting to compare the transformation of energy with the transfor-
mation of frequency. Since
u
We0 = We γ 1 − cos φ ,
c
and
u
0
ω = ωγ 1 − cos φ ,
c
we see that the energy and frequency transform in the similar way!
302
Revision questions
Question 1. Are the Maxwell’s equations invariant under the Lorentz transfor-
mation? Explain.
Question 2. What are the rules for transformation of the electric and magnetic
field components?
303
Tutorial problems
304
in the direction of propagation of the wave (z-axis), the ratio
~ 0 |/|H
|E ~ 0 | depends on the velocity u.
If yes, find the amplitude of the measured field and the veloc-
ity u of the frame S 0 .
305
Revision Questions for the Final Examination
Question 4.1 Prove that the total electric flux through a closed surface S is
proportional to the total charge inside the surface.
Question 4.3 Derive the integral form of the Faraday’s law and then transform
it into the differential form
~
∂B
~ =−
∇×E .
∂t
Question 5.1 Starting from the Maxwell’s equations derive the continuity equa-
tion, i.e. show that conservation of charge is built into the Maxwell’s
equations.
Question 6.2 Show, using the proof of solution of the wave equation, that
f (z + ct) represents a signal propagating in the negative z direc-
tion with speed c.
Question 7.1 Show that magnetic and electric fields of a charge moving with a
constant velocity ~v are related by
~
~ = ~v × E .
B
c2
Question 7.2 Show that the magnetic field lines produced by a charge moving
with a constant velocity ~v form concentric rings about ~v .
Question 7.3 Show that the electric field produced by a moving charge satisfies
the Gauss’s law.
Question 7.4 Explain the statement: Electric and magnetic fields do not pro-
duce each other - they are both due to electric charges.
306
Question 8.1 Using the Maxwell’s equations derive the continuity equation for
the Poynting vector.
Question 8.2 Show, using the field theory calculation, that the power dissipated
along a resistive wire is P = V I, the same predicted by the circuit
theory.
Question 9.1 (a) Obtain a series solution of the Laplace equation in the cartesian
coordinates for the electrostatic potential inside a closed three di-
mensional area.
Question 10.1 Show that in general the Maxwell’s equations cannot be simpli-
~ and B
fied to two separate differential equations for the E ~ fields.
Then show that by introducing the concept of vector and scalar
potentials one can arrive to differential equations for A~ and Φ
that can be separated from each other under the Lorenz gauge.
Question 10.2 Explain, why the Coulomb gauge is often called ”Transverse
gauge”.
1 ∂2Φ
∇2 Φ − =0
c2 ∂t2
has the solution of the form
f (t − r/c)
Φ(r, t) = ,
r
307
where f (t − r/c) is an arbitrary function of the retarded time
t − r/c.
Question 11.1 Show that in spherical polar coordinates, the magnetic field of a
~ = ∆lI
short current element I ∆l ~ 0 exp(iωt) has only an azimuthal
component of the form
~ = I0 ∆l ik + 1 sin θ ei(ωt−kr) φ̂ .
B
4πε0 c2 r r2
Question 11.2 Show that in the far field zone of a radiating short current ele-
ment, the electric and magnetic fields oscillate in phase and are
orthogonal to each other.
Question 11.3 (a) Given the expressions for the EM field of a Hertzian dipole,
show that the total radiated power from the dipole is
2
πI02 ∆l
W = .
3ε0 c λ
(b) Show that the emitted power is equivalent to the power lost
on a resistor of resistance
2
∆l
R = 80π 2 .
λ
Question 11.4 Show that the time averaged Poynting vector of the EM field
emitted by a short current element is maximal in the equatorial
plane of the element.
Question 12.1 Show that the electrostatic potential due to a distribution of elec-
tric dipoles of moment per unit volume P~ throughout a volume V
enclosed by a surface S is that of a volume charge density −∇ · P~
together with a surface charge density P~ · n̂.
Question 12.3 Show that the polarization of a dielectric driven by a time varying
electric field lags in phase the driving field.
308
Then show that the phase difference between the polarization and
a time-varying electric field results in a complex permittivity of
the dielectric.
Question 13.1 Explain the concept and advantage of introducing the magnetic
~
intensity vector H.
Question 13.2 Show that inside a ferromagnet H = 0 and explain the physical
meaning of this result.
Question 13.3 Derive the Maxwell’s equations for the EM fields in electric and
magnetic materials.
Question 14.1 (a) Derive the special form of Poynting’s Theorem applicable in
certain material media
~ ~
~ · ∂ B dV − ~ · ∂ D dV −
I Z Z Z
~ × H)
(E ~ · dS
~=− H E ~ · J~ dV .
E
S ∂t ∂t
(b) Interpret the above equation in terms of energy storage and
energy flow etc.
Question 14.2 Prove that the useful formula for the mean Poynting vector for
sinusoidal fields is
¯~ 1 ~
~∗ ,
N = Re E c × Hc
2
~c = E
where E ~ 0 exp(iωt) and H
~ c∗ = H
~ ∗ exp(−iωt).
0
Question 15.1 Show that the amplitude of a plane wave propagating in a non-
conducting material is damped with the rate β which arises from
the imaginary parts of the complex permittivity and permeability.
Question 15.2 Derive the expressions for the attenuation coefficient and the
phase velocity of an EM wave propagating in a conducting medium.
What are the values of the quantities for a propagation inside a
309
good conductor?
Question 17.1 Show, using the Maxwell’s equations that the electric and mag-
netic vectors of an EM wave are related by
~
~ = B = k n̂p × E
H ~ ,
µ ωµ
where n̂p is the unit vector in the direction of propagation of the
wave.
Question 17.2 Prove that in the reflection and refraction at a bounding surface,
the direction of incident, reflected and refracted waves are copla-
nar.
Question 17.4 Show, using the continuity conditions for E ~ and H ~ that both
reflection and refraction takes place in the incidence of light on a
boundary between two dielectrics.
310
Question 19.1 Show that under the Brewster’s angle of incidence there is no
reflected electric field in the plane of the incidence.
Question 21.1 Find the condition under which the continuity equation for ρ
and J~ is invariant under the Lorentz transformation.
Question 21.2 Show that electric charge Q is invariant under the Lorentz trans-
formation.
311
Appendix A: Proof of the Amperes Law
Figure 77: The source circuit and the integration path to prove the Ampere law.
~ µ0 I I d~s × (−r̂)
B= .
4π s r2
Thus due to the path element d~`, the change in solid angle subtended at P
by the circuit is:
I
d~s × (−r̂)
dΩ = d~` · .
s
r2
312
Hence
4π I ~ 4π ~ ~
dΩ = d~` · dB = B · d` ,
µ0 I s µ0 I
~ at some
where integration is around the circuit s giving the magnetic field B
point P as shown in the diagram.
~ · d~` = µ0 I dΩ .
I I
B
4π
` `
If P moves round a closed path (returning to its original position but not
circulating through the current loop:
I
dΩ = 0 .
`
and then
~ · d~` = µ0 I 4π = µ0 I .
I
B
4π
`
We conclude that the line integral of the magnetic field round a closed loop
path is equal to µ0 I, where I is the current passing through the loop.
313
Appendix B
Proof of the vector theorem, Eq. (73):
Z ~
M Z ~
M × n̂
− ∇× dV = dS .
V R S R
This is an application of the more general theorem
Z Z
− ∇ × F~ dV = F~ × n̂ dS .
V S
Hence
Z Z
~·
C ∇ × F~ dV = − ~ × F~ · n̂ dS .
C
V S
However
~ × F~ · n̂ = C
C ~ · F~ × n̂
~ we finally have
Since this is true for arbitrary C,
Z Z
∇ × F~ dV = − F~ × n̂ dS ,
V S
as required.
314
Appendix C: PHYS3050 Facts and Formulae
I Z
Gauss0 Divergence Theorem : F~ · n̂ dS = ∇ · F~ dV
S V
I Z
Stokes0 s Theorem : F~ · d~` = ∇ × F~ · n̂ dS
` S
1 q1 q2
Coulomb0 s Law : F~ = r̂
4πε0 r2
~ = µ0 I d~` × r̂
Biot − Savart Law : dB
4π r2
~ · n̂ dS = Q
I
Gauss0 Law : E
ε0
I
0
Ampère s Circuital Law : ~ · d~` = µ0 I
B
~ =ρ,
∇·D ~ =0,
∇·H
~ ~
~ = − ∂B ,
∇×E ~ = J~ + ∂ D .
∇×H
∂t ∂t
315
Poynting vector:
~ = ε 0 c2 E
N ~ ×B
~
Poynting’s Theorem:
1 B2
!
~ · J~ dV − ∂ 1
I Z Z
2~ × B)
ε0 c (E ~ · n̂ dS = − E ε0 E 2 + dV
∂t 2 2 µ0
S V V
~ = ε0 E
but in polarizable materials where it is convenient to define D ~ + P~
~
~ = B −M ~:
and H µ0
~ ~
~ · ∂ B dV − E~ · ∂ D dV − E
I Z Z Z
~ ×H
E ~ · n̂ dS = − H ~ · J~ dV
∂t ∂t
S V V V
~ 1 Z ∇ · F~ 1 Z
∇ × F~
F = − ∇ dV + ∇× dV
4π V r 4π V r
= F~l + F~t
~
~ = −∇Φ − ∂ A ,
E ~ =∇×A
B ~
∂t
316
Differential equation for the vector potential:
2~
!
~ − 1 ∂ A = −µ0 J~ + ∇ ∇ · A
∇A2 ~ + 1 ∂Φ
2
c ∂t 2 c2 ∂t
In the Lorentz gauge:
∇·A ~ = − 1 ∂Φ
c2 ∂t
the differential equations for the electromagnetic potentials are:
1 ∂ 2Φ ρ
∇2 Φ − 2 2
=−
c ∂t ε0
2~
∇2 A~ − 1 ∂ A = −µ0 J~
c2 ∂t2
and these have solutions of the form:
1 Z ρ
Φ= dV
4πε0 r
~= 1 Z J~
A dV
4πε0 c2 r
317
A series solution in 2 dimensions to Laplace’s equation in Cartesian coordi-
nates:
X
Φ(x, z) = [Ak sin(αx) + Bk cos(αx)][Ck sinh(αz) + Dk cosh(αz)]
k
318
Properties of Legendry polynomials:
Z1
Plm (cos θ) Pkn (cos θ) d(cos θ) = 0 unless m = n and l = k
−1
Z1
2 (l + m)!
[Plm (cos θ)]2 d(cos θ) =
2l + 1 (l − m)!
−1
1
P0 = 1 , P10 = cos θ , P11 = sin θ , P20 = (3 cos(2θ) + 1) ,
4
3 3
P21 = sin(2θ) , P22 = (1 − cos(2θ)) ,
2 2
Pl (1) = 1 , for all l .
1 I P~ · n̂ 1 Z ∇ · P~
Φ= dS + − dV
4πε0 r 4πε0 r
S V
1 Z ∇×M ~ 1 I M ~ × n̂
~=
A dV + dS
4πε0 c2 r 4πε0 c2 r
V S
A dispersion equation:
1
σ σ
0 0 00 00 0 00
0 00 2
k=ω εµ −µ ε + −i µ ε + +εµ
ω ω
319
The skin depth in a good conductor:
s
2
δ=
ωµσ
320
Transmission:
2µ1 k22 cos θi
H2 = q H0
µ1 k22 cos θi + µ2 k1 k22 − k12 sin2 θi
Rectangular waveguides:
~ satisfies:
For TE modes, the longitudinal component of H
∂ 2 Hz ∂ 2 Hz
2
+ 2
+ k 2 Hz = 0 ,
∂x ∂y
where
k 2 = γ 2 − iωµ(σ + iωε)
Then satisfying the boundary conditions (assuming the walls are perfect con-
ductors) requires:
2 2
mπ nπ
γ2 = + + iµω(σ + iεω)
a b
For the lossless waveguide:
321
Cut-off frequency for the mn mode:
s
2 2
m n
fmn = vm +
2a 2b
Phase velocity:
vm
vp = r
fc 2
1− f
Group velocity:
v
u !2
u fc
vg = vm t
1−
f
VECTOR FORMULAS
∇(Φ + Ψ) = ∇Φ + ∇Ψ
~ + B)
∇ · (A ~ = ∇·A
~+∇·B~
∇ × (A~ + B)
~ = ∇×A~+∇×B ~
∇(ΦΨ) = Φ∇Ψ + Ψ∇Φ
~ = A
∇ · (ΦA) ~ · ∇Φ + Φ∇ · A
~
~ × B)
∇ · (A ~ = B
~ · (∇ × A)
~ −A ~ · (∇ × B)
~
∇ × (ΦA)~ = ∇Φ × A ~ + Φ∇ × A~
∇ × (A~ × B)
~ = A∇
~ ·B ~ − B∇
~ ·A ~ + (B~ · ∇)A
~ − (A
~ · ∇)B
~
∇ · ∇Φ = ∇2 Φ
~ = 0
∇ · (∇ × A)
∇ × ∇Φ = 0
∇ × (∇ × A)~ = ∇(∇ · A) ~
~ − ∇2 A
~ · (B
A ~ × C)
~ = B
~ · (C
~ × A)
~ =C ~ · (A
~ × B)
~
~ × (B
A ~ × C)
~ = B(
~ A~ · C)
~ − C(
~ A~ · B)
~
322
FORMS OF VECTOR OPERATIONS IN CYLINDRICAL
COORDINATES
∂Φ φ̂ ∂Φ ∂Φ
∇Φ = ρ̂ + + ẑ
∂ρ ρ ∂φ ∂z
! ! !
~ = ρ̂ 1 ∂Az − ∂Aφ
∇×A + φ̂
∂Aρ ∂Az
− + ẑ
1 ∂(ρAφ ) ∂Aρ
−
ρ ∂φ ∂z ∂z ∂ρ ρ ∂ρ ∂φ
1 ∂ 2Φ ∂ 2Φ
!
2 1 ∂ ∂Φ
∇Φ = ρ + 2 2 + 2
ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ ρ ∂φ ∂z
∂Φ 1 ∂Φ 1 ∂Φ
∇Φ = r̂ + θ̂ + φ̂
∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ
323
~ = 1 ∂ (r2 Ar ) 1 ∂ (sin θAθ ) 1 ∂Aφ
∇·A + +
r2 ∂r r sin θ ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ
" # " #
~ = r̂ ∂ (sin θAφ ) ∂Aθ θ̂ 1 ∂Ar ∂ (rAφ )
∇×A − + −
r sin θ ∂θ ∂φ r sin θ ∂φ ∂r
" #
φ̂ ∂ (rAθ ) ∂Ar
+ −
r ∂r ∂θ
∂ 2Φ
! !
2 1 ∂ ∂Φ 1 ∂ ∂Φ 1
∇Φ = 2 r2 + 2 sin θ + 2 2
r ∂r ∂r r sin θ ∂θ ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ2
324