THERMO A SUPPLEMENTARY TEXT FOR INTRODUCTORY THERMODYNAMICS 2008 R.A. CHAPLIN UNIVERSITY OF NEW BRUNSWICK © copyright R.A. ChaplinPREFACE This is a text for those confounded by thermodynamics. Thermodynamics is a difficult subject and one has to keep going back to the basics to understand it. In this book only the basics are covered with just enough supporting information to understand the theory that is required to do practical problems. It has a practical bias and proceeds quickly into engineering applications. An effort has been made to show clearly the derivation of all mathematical formulae but at the same time to restrict the scope of the mathematics to only that which is necessary to apply the scientific theory to engineering applications. Although the written text and figures are not cross referenced the nomenclature and arrangement should allow the reader to make the appropriate connections. Two phase thermodynamics using water and steam and ideal gas thermodynamics using air are dealt with equally. With the first and second laws of thermodynamics as a base the emphasis is on the analysis of power cycles. Several major prime movers producing work from heat energy for electricity or transport are considered. Combustion is dealt with briefly to emphasize the importance of energy and mass balances, Since this text is based on a twelve week course it is of necessity brief and incomplete with respect to the traditional scope of thermodynamics. Nevertheless a few key aspects are addressed in depth to demonstrate the real value of thermodynamics in engineering. With appropriate knowledge and understanding students should be able to apply themselves to any number of other important aspects not covered here. Robin ChaplinPREAMBLE TABLE OF CONTENTS Reference Texts Acknowledgements Preface Table of Contents Philosophy INTRODUCTION Section 0 Section 1 Section 2 Section 3 Section 4 Section 5 Section 6 Section 7 Section 8 Section 9 Section 10 Section 11 Section 12 Section 13 ‘Appendix A Appendix B Calculation Notation and Accuracy Nomenclature Constants Equations FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS NON-FLOW PROCESSES STEADY FLOW PROCESSES HEAT ENGINES AND ENTROPY STEAM TABLES POWER CYCLES GAS PROCESSES STEAM POWER CYCLES GAS POWER CYCLES - NON-FLOW GAS POWER CYCLES - STEADY FLOW COMBUSTION COMPRESSIBLE FLOW REFRIGERATION ENERGY BALANCES LABORATORY ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES USE OF STEAM TABLESCHE 2012 Introduction Page Intro-1 INTRODUCTION CALCULATION NOTATION AND ACCURACY USE OF UNITS In thermodynamics the basic units are kg and kJ since the fundamental units are too small. Hence we have kJ/kg (not J/g). Heat and work have the same units but when converted to a rate of heat transfer or a rate of doing work a distinction should be made by using kd/s for the former and KW for the latter. When power outputs become larger use MW as is normal in the power industry. ENGINEERING NOTATION When numbers are very small or very large use powers of 10 in multiples of 3 so as to be able to convert easily to milli- and micro- or to kilo- and mega-. The following are given as examples 0.000 00123 1.23x 10° 0.0648 64.8 x 10° 82 600 82.6 x 10° 965 000 000 = 965x 10° 3480 000 000 = 3480 x 10° Note that in the above when numbers are written out in full the zeros should be grouped in threes to make for easier reading. Also if the final answer has four places it is sometimes convenient to write out the four figures rather than use an exponential form or an unusual unit. For example 3480 MW is better than 3.48 GW or 3.48 x 10° MW. ‘SIGNIFICANT FIGURES Remember that the answer cannot have a greater degree of accuracy than the data given. Generally work to four significant figures and give the answer to three significant figures (three figures represent an accuracy of 1 part in a thousand which is very seldom achieved in practical engineering). GRAPHICAL ANALYSIS In Thermodynamics many problems may be solved quickly and easily by plotting the processes on a chart. To obtain accurate answers, to say two significant figures, the plotting must however be very precise.Page Intro-2 Introduction CHE 2012 DESCRIPTIVE WORK When preparing a descriptive answer ensure that the question is fully answered with sound explanations. Generally for a 5 mark question at least five significant points need to be presented. Each may take two or three sentences to explain fully so that the full answers should take up a full page in handwritten form. Where appropriate, sketches should be used to support the explanations. Sample solutions are not given for descriptive problems as reference should be made to notes. CALCULATIONS Generally follow the following guidelines when doing calculations: * For calculations from given data work to four significant figures and give the answer to three significant figures. Assume that the given data has a three figure accuracy even if only one or two figures are given. * For calculations from steam tables record all five figures given in the tables, work to four significant figures and give the answer to three significant figures. * For calculations from charts or diagrams or from scaled drawings read the values. to at least two significant figures, three if possible, work to three significant figures and give the answer to two significant figures. ‘When doing continuing calculations keep the number in the calculator but only write down the appropriate number of significant figures for the intermediate steps. The above are guidelines and not rules since the number of significant figures does not ensure a particular degree of accuracy. Note that for an accuracy of approximately 1% only two significant figures are required for numbers just less than 100 (e.g. 97-98) while three significant figures are required for numbers just greater than 100 (e.g. 104-105). In engineering it is the degree of accuracy that is important so the number of significant figures may vary depending upon the first digit of the number. Another consideration is the addition or subtraction of numbers of different magnitudes (e.g. 121 +4 = 125). The first figure has three significant figures while the second has only one to give an answer with three significant figures. To avoid rounding off errors in the preceding calculations the first number should be calculated to four significant figures while the second need only be calculated to two significant figures. Generally use judgment in the calculations and be aware of the impact of different numbers on the accuracy of calculations. The most important rule is that excessive numbers of significant figures must not be used as this will indicate an unrealistic degree of accuracy in the calculations.CHE 2012 Introduction Page Intro-3 NOMENCLATURE MASS m kg LENGTH Loom ELEVATION z om AREA A m@ TIME t os TEMPERATURE t ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE T * VELOCITY Vv oms ACCELERATION amis? FORCE FON (kg m/s?) WEIGHT wi oN (kg m/s*) PRESSURE p Pa (Nim?) VOLUME vo om DENSITY p kg/m? SPECIFIC VOLUME v milkg *SPECIFIC GRAVITY s HEAT QJ (Nm) ENERGY ed (Nm) WORK wid (Nm) TORQUE + Nm HEAT FLOW Q Js POWER Pls 1) INTERNAL ENERGY uid (Nm) ENTHALPY HJ (Nm) ENTROPY Ss JrK ‘SPECIFIC HEAT Cc — dikg’C (kukg°C) ‘SPECIFIC HEAT c, — Jhkg°C (kd/kg°C) SPECIFIC ENERGY i) tig (kJ/kg) ‘SPECIFIC ENTHALPY ho Jikg (kJ/kg) ‘SPECIFIC ENTROPY s Jikg°k (kJ/kg?) HEAT PER UNIT MASS. a Jikg WORK PER UNIT MASS w dik MASS FLOW RATE M kgs VOLUME FLOW RATE Q ms GRAVITATIONAL ACCELERATION g ——mis* SPECIFIC GAS CONSTANT R Jikg°k (ku/kg?K) UNIVERSAL GAS CONSTANT to _Jikg-mole*K (kJ/kg-mole*K) RATIO OF SPECIFIC HEATS k GAS EXPANSION INDEX nPage Intro-4 Introduction CHE 2012 CONSTANTS In engineering calculations a high degree of accuracy is seldom attained due to the neglect of minor influences or the inaccuracy of available data. For consistency in calculations however the following reasonably accurate constants should be used: Gravitational Acceleration g = 9.81 mis* Atmospheric Pressure p = 100kPa Universal Gas Constant Ro = 8.314 ku/kg mole*K Density of Water p = 1000 kg/im® Specific Heat of Air Cp = 1.005 kd/kg’C Specific Heat of Air © = 0.718 kd/kg’C Specific Gas Constant for Air R= 0.287 kilkg’KCHE 2012 Non-Flow Processes Page 1-1 SECTION 1 NON-FLOW PROCESSES THERMODYNAMIC RELATIONS Thermodynamics is, according to the Concise Oxford Dictionary, the science of relations between heat and other (mechanical) forms of energy and, according the Chambers Etymological Dictionary, the branch of physics which treats heat as a mechanical agent. It is evident therefore that there is a close relationship between sensible heat, various forms of energy and mechanical work. Actually all have the same scientific units (joules) but are very different in physical form. Itis therefore necessary to define each and to establish the relationships between them. It is even more important to determine the limitations governing their relationships. In engineering the conversion of heat to work is of fundamental importance in the production of power but what are the limitations? In the conversion of energies into different forms can all heat be converted into work? DEFINITIONS The following definitions come from an old Chambers Etymological Dictionary. These English definitions are remarkably close to the correct mathematical definitions commonly used in science. Heat, n. that which excites the sensation of warmth Energy, n. power of doing work Work, n. effort directed to an end Heat Q is an interaction due to a temperature difference between two bodies. The amount of heat flowing from the hot body to the cold body depends upon the temperature difference AT and an interface constant Q = (interface constant ) AT (Joules) The interface constant is high for a conducting interface and low for an insulating interface. The flow of heat excites the sensation of warmth. Energy E is the power or potential of doing work. A body at an elevation above the datum has potential energy due to its mass m and elevation z. Enotential = Mg Z (Joules) A body in motion has kinetic energy due to its mass m and velocity VPage 1-2 Ekinetc = 2m V? Non-Flow Processes CHE 2012 (Joules) Any body at a positive absolute temperature has internal energy by virtue of the motion and interaction of the molecules. Work Wis the effort or force F directed to an end or applied over a distance L. We FxL (Joules) Heat, energy and work all have the same units but are distinctly different. HEAT - ENERGY - WORK. THERMODYNAMIC RELATIONS RELATIONSHIPS HEAT - ENERGY - WORK HEAT Interaction due to temperature dterence G1 = (INTERFACE CONSTANT) AT (Joules) ENERGY ‘The potential of doing work Eprom = mae (Goutes) Coens = mVEZ ‘at nena ° ERoY work Effort dircted to an end Were (Wout) THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEM Consider a thermodynamic system within a boundary across which heat and work can flow. Heat Q crosses the boundary due to the temperature difference AT between the system and its surroundings. Work W is produced at the boundary by the displacement of the boundary through a distance Ax. The intemal energy of the system changes by an amount AU equal to the difference between the heat Q entering and the work W leaving the system. AU = Q-W Note that in this equation the flow of heat to the system and the flow of work from the system are both taken as being positive. This is the convention in engineering where, in a heat engine, fuel is burnt to produce a heat input and the result is a useful work output. Fuel flow rate and power output are always positive.CHE 2012 Non-Flow Processes Page 1-3 In this process heat, energy and work are all measured in joules. There is no loss and all energy is accounted for. This is conservation of energy and is a statement of the First Law of Thermodynamics to be defined later. REVERSIBILITY AND IRREVERSIBILITY In thermodynamics a clear distinction must be made between reversible processes and irreversible processes. Reversible processes are processes that can recreate the initial conditions without additional energy input. This implies no losses or degradation from the original conditions. Irreversible processes are ones that cannot be reversed and hence cannot restore the initial conditions. MIXING OF FLUIDS FLOW OF HEAT {seat fow rom a hot body toa cold body reversible? 5 mixing ovorsbio? The mixing of two fluids at different temperatures is an irreversible process. Once mixed the hot and cold fluid particles share their energy and separation into two bodies at different temperatures is not possible. The flow of heat across a temperature difference is an irreversible process. When boiling water in a pail heat flows from the fire to the water but can never flow in the opposite direction The heat generated by friction is an irreversible process. A block sliding down a slope with friction will generate heat. Applying heat to a block at the bottom of the slope cannot drive the block up the slope.Page 1-4 Non-Flow Processes CHE 2012 The compression of a spring is a reversible process. Once compressed by a force it can expand, upon the release of that force, to its original condition. MECHANICAL FRICTION COMPRESSION OF SPRING [LOCK ON FRICTIONAL SURFACE wonon SN = " 22g a FRICTIONAL HEAT GENERATED Weeiseenaes ests = Be i A ae ext npuT Is this process reversible? Can heat input dive the block tits original position? The adiabatic compression of a gas in a cylinder is a reversible process. The pressure built up in the cylinder can drive the piston back to its original position, upon release of the initially applied force, provided there is no energy loss due to. heat transfer. The adiabatic pumping of water to a high elevation is a reversible process. This water can be returned to the lower elevation through a turbine to generate an equivalent amount of power as was required by the pump to lift the water initially. Note that reversible processes are generally idealistic processes since any mechanical or fluid friction that may occur in the process wil itself develop a mini- itreversible process which will prevent the supposedly reversible process from achieving exactly the initial conditions. HEAT AND WORK It should be evident from the above that work can always be completely converted into heat by allowing all the mechanical energy to be dissipated by friction. The application of heat however does not necessarily create work. The conversion of heat to work requires some manipulation and has inherent limitations. This is what makes Thermodynamics such a fascinating and difficult subject. Heat and work have the same units and can be converted from one to the other within certain limits but are not equivalent and are generally very different from one another.CHE 2012 Non-Flow Processes Page 1-5 ADIABATIC GAS COMPRESSION POTENTIAL ENERGY STORAGE canoes ™ ENERGY INTO SYSTEM i ene — ‘COLD GAS AT LOW PRESSURE saeeeeeeeeaee rf work our sveney outor wveran Lemmmemabl, ‘woe |] See coco pen oe REVERSIBILITY: LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS Areversie process is any process performed so that ‘he system and all is surounalngs can be restored fo thelr inva states by performing the process In revores ‘One of te many consequences of th second aw of ‘thermodynamics isthe conclusion that all natural Droceseae are ireveribie, thas already been shown {hat the presence of ction willeause a process to be lnreversble, Some processes that ae reversible are 1. Mixing of ude of erent temperatures. 2 Any process in which works transformed into Internal energy via the agency of mechanical ition orinelastc action. 3. Any process in which inelastic molecular action (Pate tetion) occurs. 44 Any proctssthat transfers heat from one portion of ‘yet to another by vituo ofa fine temperature ‘difference. 5. Any process Involving combustion or chemical teattions. ZEROTH LAW (nature of heat) “wo objects that ae in thermal equim with # harmal egulbrium with FIRST LAW (conservation of energy) Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, but only converted from one for to another. ‘SECOND LAW (conversion af heat to work) [No heat engine can generate work without nst ‘ejection of eat oa low-temperature res0rvOKrPage 1-6 Non-Flow Processes CHE 2012 LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS The Zeroth Law The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics deals with the nature of heat and is unrelated to other natural circumstances. It states that: Two objects that are in thermal equilibrium with a third object will be in thermal equilibrium with each other. The First Law The First Law of Thermodynamics is sometimes called the law of conservation of energy and deals with the transformation of energy. It states that: Energy can neither be created nor destroyed but only converted from one form to another. Much of the work covered in the initial part of this text will be based on this law which is one of the fundamental laws of science. ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS INATURE OF HEAT (CONSERVATION OF ENERGY) "Energy can neither be crested nor destroyed bouton converted rom one form to another. ‘Two objects that are in thermal equilibrium with a third ‘object willbe in thermal equilibrium with each other, Therefore ge = ta- ow = E = small change in E 30 = small amount of @ 2 = small amount of W © "Moweterin oneal you ceranly cannot expect that a eation ‘oping between And Band betwen Aan wl ictaly apy Fora system absorbing heat and doing work = tatenantabout the mature ofthe wold nt derbi or 3 more ‘ohn 8 FeoCHE 2012 Non-Flow Processes Page 1-7 The Second Law ‘The Second Law of Thermodynamics is concemed with the conversion of energy. Since not all heat can be converted into work it defines the limitations of this process. It states that: No heat engine can generate work without net rejection of heat to a low temperature reservoir. The Second Law of Thermodynamics is usually expressed in the ways in which it was originally formulated. The Kelvin-Planck Statement expresses it as follows: Itis impossible for any device that operates on a cycle (heat engine) to receive heat from a single (high temperature) reservoir and produce a net amount of work and no other effect. Much of the work covered in the latter part of this book will be based on this law which is crucial to the operation of all power generating systems which use a heat ‘source to generate work. THE FIRST LAW Consider a thermodynamic system receiving heat Q and producing work W. The change in the intemal energy AU of the system is: AU =Q-W Energy is conserved, that is all energy is accounted for and this is a mathematical statement of the First Law of Thermodynamics. It is more usual however to express it in differential form where a small change in internal energy dE is the result of the addition of a small amount of heat 5Q and the production of a small amount of work 5W. Thus for a system absorbing heat and doing work dE =6Q- dw The First Law of Thermodynamics applies to all processes where there are initial and final conditions. All energy transfers must be accounted for and the total energy at the end of the process must be equal to the total energy at the beginning. THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES Consider a thermodynamic system in which heat and work cross the boundaries. By restricting these flows and controlling the boundaries a series of unique thermodynamic processes can be created. If only heat and work but no fluid cross the boundaries the processes are known as non-flow processes and the system as a closed system. The most important of these are:Page 1-8 Non-Flow Processes CHE 2012 Constant Volume (Isometric) Process Constant Heat (Adiabatic) Process Constant Temperature (Isothermal) Process Constant Pressure (Isobaric) Process Each of these processes can be defined mathematically and the final conditions calculated from the initial conditions. Conversely if the initial and final conditions are known the amount of heat entering or work leaving the system can be determined. Most non-flow processes will be considered to occur in a closed cylinder with a movable piston. The working fluid, usually a gas, is trapped inside while heat is assumed to flow through the cylinder walls. Heat may flow into the working fluid (positive heat) or out of it (negative heat). Any movement of the piston changes the system boundary and results in work being done by the fluid (positive work) or on the fluid (negative work). CONSTANT VOLUME PROCESS Ina closed tank, or in a cylinder where the position of the piston is fixed, the volume within the system boundary is constant. Any change to the fluid therefore occurs as a constant volume process. Since the system boundary does not move no work is done and the equation for the First Law reduces as follows: AU = Q-w AU=aQ (since W = 0) Au = (J/kg) This is the equation for a constant volume process. CONSTANT “HEAT” PROCESS Ifa cylinder with a movable piston is perfectly insulated so that no heat can cross the system boundary the result is an adiabatic process and the “heat” within the system is essentially constant. Heat is really defined as the flow of thermal energy so the proper terminology is ‘adiabatic’. If the piston moves to produce work the equation for the First Law reduces as follows: AU = Q-W AU = -W (for Q = 0) Au =-w (J/kg) This is the equation for an adiabatic process. Note that for the change in internal energy AU to be positive the work W must be negative. This shows that to increaseCHE 2012 Non-Flow Processes Page 1-9 its internal energy the gas must be compressed by the piston moving inwards and doing work on the system. CONSTANT VOLUME PROCESS. CONSTANT "HEAT" PROCESS FIRST LAW : AU = - W FIRSTLAW : AU = Q = W howe Tan No Work Done weo CONSTANT TEMPERATURE PROCESS. Experimentally it may be shown that, if the temperature of a gas in a cylinder is kept constant, the product of pressure p and volume V is a constant. pv 0 constant pv = constant (J/kg) This is Boyle's Law and the above equation is the equation for a constant temperature process. As the piston moves the work done W is equal to the product of the force F and the distance AL. The force F however is equal to the pressure p which varies and the piston area A. The work done can be obtained by integrating the area under curve pv equals a constant. Alternatively it can be noted that, since there is no change in temperature, there is no change in internal energy hence the work W must be equal to the heat transferred Q AT = 0Page 1-10 AU = 0 = Q-W Ww =Q Non-Flow Processes CHE 2012 CONSTANT TEMPERATURE PROCESS FIRST LAW : aU = a=W U= constant) x AU=0 3s W=a PAY, = Vy pv = constant = sonstant . v CONSTANT PRESSURE PROCESS FIRSTLAW : aU = @ = W (Quasistatic nontow constant pressure process [a Pav ] CONSTANT PRESSURE PROCESS Consider a cylinder with a movable piston. If the movement of the piston just balances the amount of heat crossing the system boundary so that the pressure of the gas inside remains constant the result is a constant pressure process. In the ‘As the piston moves the work done W is equal to the product of force F and distance ‘AL which is the same as the product of pressure p and change in volume AV. Ww FxAL W = pxAV Substitution gives: AU = Q-pav U- Ur = Q-p (V2- Vi)CHE 2012 Non-Flow Processes Page 1-11 Q = UrtpV2-Ur-p Vr Since the pressure is kept constant, p = p1 = pa Q = (Us + pe V2 )- (Ur + pi Vi) Q = Hee Q= AH a= 4h (J/kg) This is the equation for a constant pressure process. In this equation the internal energy and the product of pressure and volume have been combined to create a new property enthalpy defined as follows: H=U+tpv h=utpv (kg) This is widely used in Thermodynamics since many processes occur at constant pressure and it is convenient to combine the three parameters into a single property. ‘SUMMARY OF NON-FLOW PROCESSES Constant Volume Au = q-w w=0 q = Au = up-uy Constant Heat -w = Au = ug-u; Constant Pressure Au = q-w Ww = p(va-v1) = p dv q = ha-hr= AhPage 1-12 Au = q-w=Ah-pdv Constant Temperature qew weq Pivi = Pave Non-Flow Processes CHE 2012 Each of the above non-flow processes can be illustrated diagrammatically using a piston in a cylinder and plotted graphically on a pressure-volume diagram. ENTHALPY DEFINITION NON-FLOW PROCESSES From FirstLaw FIRSTLAW Su = q-w ‘CONSTANT VOLUME weo Consider piston in cylinder W = force x distance a pan I wep ay wr pay kg) dhe ‘Substituting and considering p to be constant ms q-par = a-Ptew) oe tet t pe PM (059 Ba) (4)# PVD beh, wheres u+ py teenthalpy - ‘CONSTANT HEAT (ADIABATIC) we sae ‘CONSTANT PRESSURE ao heh = ah EE ‘CONSTANT TEMPERATURE Paw = YsCHE 2012 Steady-Flow Processes Page 2-1 SECTION 2 STEADY FLOW PROCESSES NON-FLOW AND STEADY FLOW In non-flow processes the working fluid is trapped in a vessel or cylinder creating a closed system while it undergoes various thermodynamic processes on an intermittent basis. The operation of a reciprocating internal combustion engine such as that used in a car is based on a series of non-flow processes occurring as the pistons move to different positions in the cylinders. In steady flow processes the working fluid passes continuously through a device, known as an open system, where it transfers heat or work on a continuous basis. The operation of a continuously rotating turbine such as that used in a power plant is based on an appropriate steady flow process as the fluid passes through the machine. CONTINUITY EQUATION In steady flow fluid enters and leaves a system such as a vessel continuously. There is no accumulation or loss of fluid within the system so that the mass flow rate M; across the inlet boundary is equal to the mass flow rate M; across the outlet boundary: Mi = Me (kg /s) The mass flow rate M is equal to the volume flow rate Q multiplied by the fluid density p. Furthermore the volume flow rate Q is equal to the fluid velocity V multiplied by the flow area A. This gives the continuity equation usually written as follows: NON-FLOW AND STEADY FLOW NON-FLOW PROCESS ‘STEADY FLOW PROCESS °F) cotrane =) CONTINUITY EQUATION ak SC var 4 Ba EE CContouty Equation states that: for stoady mass flow rate ofPage 2-2 ‘Steady-Flow Processes CHE 2012 prViAs = pe V2 Ag (kg/s) This is an important equation used widely in Thermodynamics and Fluid Mechanics in steady flow applications. FLOW WORK an Flow work is the work required to push a slug of fluid across a system boundary. Since work W is the force F multiplied by the distance L over which the force is applied and the force F is the pressure p multiplied by the area A the work done is given by: W=pAL (Nm) Systm Boundary Work to push plug of fu theough System Boundary ls: W = force x distance (Nm) Since L is the length of the slug of fluid and Ais the diameter of the pipe the work can be given in terms of the volume of =o om) fluid pushed across the boundary. ws py ‘tay Fou work: W=pv ) we oy (i enaray: w=pv (Wkg) sen Once inside the system the flow work is related to the pressure p and specific volume v of the fluid. In compressible fluids both are variable making flow work not directly related to pressure. For this reason flow work is a unique term commonly used in Thermodynamics In Fluid Mechanics most fluids considered are effectively incompressible making flow work directly related to pressure. Itis then simply pressure energy. ENTHALPY Enthalpy h is a thermodynamic property combining internal energy u, pressure p and specific volume v. At any particular temperature and pressure the three latter properties are unique so that the enthalpy is also unique for the same conditions. In thermodynamic calculations it is very convenient to use a single value instead of three different ones. Thermodynamic tables and charts therefore present enthalpy as a key parameter defined as follows: h=utpy (J/kg)CHE 2012 Steady-Flow Processes Page 2-3 Invariably values presented in tables and charts are given in units of kilojoules per kilogram so that the numbers are easier to use in engineering calculations. ENTHALPY DEFINITION SPECIFIC HEAT From FrstLaw A oa Transfer / Unit Mase ee Noe Specie Hoa» Cange in Tenrature ¥,-u, = a-w “Gi, 44 = hy-hyat constant pressure ‘an Consider piston in cylinder Force x Distance we pay Substituting and considering p to be constant ag o(. 4 #uy-u at constant volume yaw, = apa = a-Pt%-¥) yay Pate ey (2,4 Ba)~ (0, Bir) bychy = ah “py is Entapy Wi SPECIFIC HEAT Specific heat is a widely used parameter defined as the amount of heat transferred per unit mass for a given change in temperature. The units are therefore joules per kilogram per degree Celsius. The amount of heat added to raise the temperature varies however depending upon the conditions maintained during the heat transfer process. A clear distinction must therefore be made between two distinct conditions Which give different values for specific heat. When heat q is added to a fluid at constant pressure: q = he-hy (non-flow process) q= 4h The specific heat at constant pressure c, is then: cp = q/ AT cp = Ah/ AT (definition) When heat q is added to a fluid at constant volume:Page 2-4 ‘Steady-Flow Processes CHE 2012 0 @ = U-uy (non-flow process) q = Au The specific heat at constant volume o, is then: oy = q/AT oy = AU/AT (definition) Note that cp is always greater than c, since pv which, always being positive, is ENERGY EQUATION added to internal energy u to give enthalpy h. For constant temperature pv is | [HEAIRSTLAWOF IHERMODYNAMNS stares THAT constant. For any increase in temperature pv increases as does u to give an increase in h. Hence Ah is always greater than Au. Combining st types of energy ito a single equation Zar V124 U2 Bin e nat? =u+ For constant and now or thi equtonedces to a LA ‘the Bernoulli Equation 2a+ViI2 + py = 29+ V2 + pave AV /29 + pylpa = 25 6 VEI20 + plo Note that: u + py = Ah = Au+A(pv) The ratio of the specific heat at constant pressure o, to the specific heat at ence rewting constant volume is the ratio k tent) D012 “WIE (-) += Mand tay aoa) = 2 k= ole, ‘rs ezutton canbe aap a fw pocses by ‘substituting appropriate values The value of k is naturally always greater than unity. Po ENERGY EQUATION All types of energy encountered in Thermodynamics have been discussed or defined and may be listed as follows: Potential Energy 2 (J/kg) Kinetic Eneray 12 (J/kg) Intemal Energy u (J/kg) Flow Work pv (J/kg) Work w (J/kg) Heat qa (J/kg) The First Law of Thermodynamics states that energy is always conserved. After any energy transformations the total amount of energy remaining must be equal to thatCHE 2012 ‘Steady-Flow Processes Page 2-5 initially present. If all the types of energy are accounted for and summed at the beginning of a process the total energy at the end of the process must be the same. This can be expressed mathematically as follows: Zig + Vs /2 + uy +1 Vi + Win + Gin = Ze. + V2P/ 2 + Us + Po Vo + Wout + Gout This is the energy equation which can be applied to all thermodynamic processes. Note that the subscripts “in” and “out” are used for work and heat to indicate that these energies cross the system boundary separately from the working fluid. The other subscripts refer to the conditions of the working fluid at the inlet and outlet boundaries respectively. The energy equation has many applications and may be written in different ways. If the internal energy u and flow work pv are combined into enthalpy h and similar terms written as differences the equation may be presented as follows: (21 ~ 22). 9 + (Vi? = Wz?) 2 + (Is = ha) + (Win = Wout) + (Cin ~ Gout) = O In Fluid Mechanics where heat flows are not considered the internal energy and heat terms disappear and density is used instead of specific volume so that the equation becomes NOZZLE AND THROTTLE 219 +Vi7/2+pi/ pr + Win = 229 + Vo" + po! pa + Wout The units of this equation are in joules per kilogram but in Fluid Mechanics it is ‘common to use units of metres to signify a head of fluid which is equivalent to a pressure. The equation then becomes: Nozzue THROTTLE 2+VP/2g+ pil pig +Wn/g = No work 22+ V2 12g + pe! page + Wot! 9 ohecivcnater ote ater If there is no work crossing the system Lehi) ee Reversible aiabaue ——_treveratiaiabatic boundary and if the fluid is incompressible " Teepe) this becomes the Bemoulli Equation. ae ee “ast nto protec igh roradce pressure z+V2/2g+pi/pg = “elt How ‘orrestiet ow Z2+V2/2g+p2/pg There are many other applications of the energy equation. When using the energy equation always start with the complete version of it and rationalise it as has been done above.Page 2-6 ENERGY EQUATION APPLICATIONS Turbine When steam or a hot gas passes through a turbine to produce work Wax certain energy changes in the energy equation can be considered to be zero or negligible and may be eliminated. The internal energy and flow work terms may be combined into enthalpy and the resulting equation for a turbine is Wow = hi he (J/kg) This is the mechanical work output of the turbine. Boiler When steam is produced in a boiler from a hot gas certain assumptions can also be made resulting in the following equation for the heat received by the steam Qin = ha-hi (J/kg) This equation considers only the steam flow side of the boiler. Steady-Flow Processes TURBINE ENERGY EQUATION Vg12u, # BAY Wd, Fg +Vj126 6s $ Dave Wane Moar CHE 2012 fae ety eneraly eatin = ah ASSUMPTIONS Vievs No work input ward No heat input auze No eat ouput far ‘TURBINE EQUATION yt Bp = Wat Peat Wr hy ht Maur ton = hy Gonaaty our = ah FOR GAS TURBINE wean * 6,87 BOILER ENERGY EQUATION (STEAM SIDE) 292126 w+ BY +g +O Sige gr teurs py wy dour ASSUMPTIONS, Unknown change nelevation 2,27, Smallchangeinvalocty— VssVy Nowork input wut No work output wore Noheat outptfrom steam Gaur BOILER EQUATION eB ay = Mth nega = heCHE 2012 Nozzle Anozzle is used to create a high velocity fluid stream using the existing energy in the fluid. Many types of turbines operating on the impulse principal use nozzles to accelerate the working fluid to a high enough velocity to drive the blades. Making appropriate assumptions the following equation is obtained: VP -Vi? = 2 (hy - ha) In many cases V; is small compared with Vz and, when squared, has a negligible effect. This then gives the following equation: Ve = [2 (hi ha)]"? Throttle A throttle is used to reduce pressure or to restrict flow. A control valve is in effect a throttle. Although certain losses occur in a throttle the enthalpy remains constant giving the following characteristic equation demonstrating that the process is one of constant enthalpy hy = he Throttles and similar devices are used in Fluid Mechanics for flow measurement. As the flow velocity increases in the orifice pressure energy is converted into kinetic energy. The change in pressure which is measured gives an indication of the velocity and hence flow rate. Steady-Flow Processes Page 2-7 NOZZLE ENERGY EQUATION 249 #2124 +B + Hy Oy Sng EVEI24 Uys Bars ar Goce ASSUMPTIONS No change levation No workinput No work output No heat input No heat output NOZZLE EQUATION Vp12 6 U4 Bir = VaI2 +H Bi Vglaen = VzI2+ ny Va-vs = 2H)—h) inital votcty fs negigibe Ve = VaR AAD vy, = vat Velocity = Function of Vif Forgas tow: General THROTTLE ENERGY EQUATION 2g e124 4, + By Wt Fg eV 312+ U,* BY, Moar Gost ASSUMPTIONS ‘No change in ovation ane, Smallchange invelocty ——Yy=Vy Nowork input Wa 20 No work ouput wan eo No heat input awe No heat output ur ‘THROTTLE EQUATION Bem = ue hth ‘CONSTANT ENTHALPY PROCESS the fidin a by turbulent deceleration with fetionat heating the flow vloety returns to normal.Page 2-8 Steady-Flow Processes CHE 2012 Hydro Turbine Plant Ifthe energy equation is applied to a complete hydro plant from reservoir to tail- race it is seen that it is only the potential energy that changes. The work done is thus proportional to the difference in elevation between the reservoir surface and the tail-race surface. Wout = (Z1 - Z2)g The energy equation may also be applied between the inlet and outlet of the hydro turbine itself as is done in Fluid Mechanics. This is more complicated as pressure and velocity have to be considered as well as elevation. Pump (General Equation) If the energy equation is applied to the inlet and outlet of a pump assumptions similar to a turbine can be made. A pump is in effect a turbine running in reverse and driving a fluid. This gives the work input as: Wn = he-hy This is a completely general equation and may be applied differently for compressible and incompressible fluids. HYDRO TURBINE PLANT ENERGY EQUATION (WHOLE PLANT) 2g V2 + u,+ Bey Sg V212 6s # Pay? our? do ASSUMPTIONS Smallchange invelociy V4, Lite change in internal energy v= uy HYDRO TURBINE EQUATION 2g =H 0+ Wo Wor = @-nI8 Goneraty Workout = gaz Power P= pgQH whoreH = ax PUMP (GENERAL EQUATION) ENERGY EQUATION (ACROSS PUMP) 29 +1244, +BY, + +d © eg + VPI2+U,+ BY, + Wout Sour ASSUMPTIONS No change in elevation nen Smallchange nvelocty —V,"V, No work ouput Won=0 No heat input No heat output oun PUMP EQUATION BFP tia Ut PH Aten = Me = Mey Generally Workin = ahCHE 2012 Compressor (Compressible Fluids) Compressors are generally used for pumping gases of known specific heat. If the same assumptions are made as for a pump the equation above is obtained: Win = he - hy This equation can then be modified by applying the equation for specific heat relating enthalpy and temperature: 0 cp = Ah/ AT Cp = (he-hy)/ (T= Ts) Combining these equations gives the work required to drive a compressor in terms of the temperature rise of the gas: Win = Cp (T2- Ts) This is a very useful relationship as temperature can be easily measured. Pump (Incompressible Fluids) Pumps are generally used for pumping liquids which are assumed to be incompressible. This assumption allows the specific volume v to be kept constant giving the following equations: Win = (P2- Pi)v Wn = (P2-pi)/p. This is a very useful relationship as pressure can be easily measured In cases where the pressure rise is so great that the density changes, the general equation using enthalpies should be used. Steady-Flow Processes Page 2-9 COMPRESSOR Energy Equation HOPVERS Bt mt y = ng HV Ut Dave Mas Mow ‘Assumptions No change in tevation ‘Small change in veloety No work output No heat input No heat output ate owe Compressor Equation By $B. Hg + as nem Meehehy Workin =an e(y-T) PUMP ENERGY EQUATION 29 #VG/2U,* Bey # Was Png + VEI2 + ata Moor our ASSUMPTIONS. No changein elevation ‘Sma ehange n ve Lite change in interna energy = Lite change in specie volume. ve=¥y= ¥ No work output won No heat input an" 0 No eat ouput Fo 0 PUMP EQUATION BYE wy BY My = O-POY My OP) Generally Workin = ApipPage 2-10 Heat Exchanger A heat exchanger transfers heat from a hot fluid to a cold fluid. Itis similar toa boiler except that both fluids have to be considered. This gives two equations: Gout = (h1~He)rot (J/kg) for hot fluid Gin = (ha ha)eos (J/kg) for cold fluid Both equations are in units of joules per kilogram. Usually the mass flow rates of the two fluids are different so that the equations cannot be related to one another. If each equation is multiplied by the respective mass flow rates the following are obtained: Steady-Flow Processes CHE 2012 HEAT EXCHANGER Energy Equation G4 V 22 +H, BH Mgt 2G ONZE PA Mae Oo ‘Assumptions, No change in slevation Small change In velocity No work input No work output Equation for hot fluid Uy + Bar #8 = UE BE y= My de r Met, Doe Medan) Equation for cold fuld HF Ue FPS ahh (na) Mes Gn = Maca Miers (ais), Mnot Gout = Mnot (Ii - ha)rot (J/'8) Meott Qin = Meats (ha - Ai)cou (J/8) Both equations are now in units of joules per second which is consistent to both. The equations can be equated since the heat lost per unit time by the hot fluid Mice ou is equal to the heat gained per unit time by the cold fluid Mea Ga Mhot (Bit ~ Ra)not = Meoia (ha - f)eoia ASSUMPTIONS In using the energy equation assumptions are made to eliminate those terms which do not apply. In engineering the eliminated terms are never really zero but would be negligible if carried through to a final answer having the required degree of accuracy. In some cases sufficient data is given to permit the calculation of lesser terms. Experience with such calculations will indicate the magnitude of the potential error in making various assumptions. Generally kinetic eneray is small compared with enthalpy in most pumps and turbines. Also potential energy is small when dealing with gases but significant when dealing with liquids.CHE 2012 Steady-Flow Processes ENERGY EQUATION APPLICATIONS THINGS TO REMEMBER ENTHALPY h 1B # Bah Ue Dal = My = hy SPECIFIC HEAT c, AND c, y= hy = 65th =) wow = eT UNITS OF ENERGY EQUATION stk (hand ware in kts) KINETIC ENERGY V#/2 Rs Rg RATE OF HEAT FLOW OR POWER energy x mass flow ate sxk ld Bt Sedew Page 2-11CHE 2012 Heat Engines and Entropy Page 3-1 SECTION 3 HEAT ENGINES AND ENTROPY EFFICIENCY The efficiency of anything is defined generally as the ratio of output obtained over the input provided: Efficiency = output obtained / input provided ===) if there are no losses the output obtained HEAT ENGINE EFFICIENCY is equal to the input provided and the efficiency is 100%. For a heat engine MEAT ENGINE ‘a producing work from heat the efficiency a | is work output W over heat input Qin ny = work output / heat input n= W/Qn A power plant is simply a large heat engine and its efficiency n is n = electrical output / fuel input Output and input must naturally always be expressed in the same units that is either joules per kilogram or joules per second whichever is appropriate. ‘As will become evident later, the production of work from heat will always result in heat rejection to a low temperature reservoir and the work output is never equal to the heat input. According to the First Law of Thermodynamics the work output W plus the heat rejected Q,., must be equal to the heat input Qin: W + Qo) = Qn W = Qin ~ Qrej The efficiency n may then be defined in terms of heat input Qin and heat rejected Qe; 1 = (Qin- Qi) / QinPage 3-2 Heat Engines and Entropy CHE 2012 n= 1- Qi / Qin Since there is always heat rejected the efficiency is always less than 100%. WORK CYCLE A simple work cycle can be set up using an incompressible liquid pumped to and from an hydraulic cylinder with a piston. The pressure in the cylinder and movement of the piston can be plotted on a pressure-volume diagram. The complete work cycle is as follows: Process1-—2 Liquid is supplied to the cylinder and the pressure increases before the piston begins to move. Process 2-3 When subject to high pressure the piston begins to move and more liquid is supplied to the cylinder to maintain the pressure and sustain the movement of the piston to the end of its stroke. Process 3-4 At the end of the stroke liquid pressure is released and the pressure in the cylinder drops to its original value. Process 4-1 Liquid is withdrawn from the cylinder causing the piston to move back to its original position. In this complete cycle positive work is done in Process 2 - 3 and negative work WORK CYCLE in Process 4-1. Since the work done in each case is the area under the curves a the net work done is the area enclosed by tI Ef aan the cycle. Ona pressure-volume diagram | % 7 this area represents work in joules = vi (Newton metres). THE fe This is a purely mechanical cycle with no heat input or output. The work produced Pie Oo nh is derived from the pressure energy in the ei liquid. Many hydraulically actuated - ig dae devices (as used on road building machinery for example) work on this a. ee principle using oil as the driving fluid T a 2 presonpvdgeanCHE 2012 Heat Engines and Entropy HEAT CYCLE The principles of the work cycle can be adapted to a heat cycle. A similar series of processes can be created to produce work using only heat as the driving energy. As before a cylinder and piston are employed but the cylinder is completely closed and contains a gas. Changes in the gas pressure due to temperature changes drive the piston. ‘Temperature is changed by applying or removing heat using hot and cold + Flow of heat trom hot reservoirs or blocks. Insulation prevents unwanted heat transfers. The pressure in ara the cylinder and movement of the piston can be plotted on a pressure-volume paeeeearana diagram. The complete heat cycle is as Ae follows: Process 1-2 The hot block is slid into place to provide heat to the gas. As the gas is heated the pressure rises but the piston remains stationary until the pressure is high enough. Process 2-3 The hot block continues to provide heat and the gas expands to drive the piston along the cylinder. The pressure is assumed to. remain constant during this process. Process 3-4 The hot block is slid away and the cold block slid into position to remove heat from the gas. As the gas is cooled the pressure drops but the piston remains stationary until the pressure is low enough. Process 4-1 The cold block continues to remove heat and the gas contracts to allow the piston to return to its starting point. The pressure is assumed to remain constant during this process. In this complete cycle positive work is done in Process 2 - 3 and negative work in Process 4 - 1. The net work is the area enclosed by the cycle. On a pressure- volume diagram this area is in joules. To obtain this work output only heat was used. It should be noted that: = Since heat was used to produce work a thermodynamic cycle has been established.Page 3-4 Heat Engines and Entropy CHE 2012 = To produce work a net flow of heat from a hot reservoir to a cold reservoir was required. = Ifthe temperatures of the hot and cold reservoirs are constant heat must have been transferred across temperature differences leading to irreversibilities. ENTROPY Queer definitions of entropy appear in various text books. It is not a parameter that can be measured directly as is temperature or pressure but is imaginary and seems at first sight to have been conceived to cause confusion in all but the most learned professor's minds. Entropy is however a very useful engineering parameter and is used widely in industry by engineers who may be somewhat unsure of the theory behind it A pressure-volume diagram is useful in that the area enclosed by the mechanical or thermodynamic cycle is the work in joules. In a thermodynamic cycle where heat is involved it is useful to plot the variation of temperature on the vertical axis in degrees Kelvin. Itis stil desirable for the area enclosed by the cycle to represent the work in joules. The only way that these two requirements can be met is to create a third parameter on the horizontal axis which is compatible with the other two. The units of this parameter must be joules per degree Kelvin. The parameter so created is called entropy. The resulting temperature-entropy diagram is extremely useful in illustrating thermodynamic cycles and is found everywhere in thermodynamic literature, Since entropy was created as joules per degree Kelvin it may be defined mathematically as follows: AS = Q/T AS=q/T (U1 kg°k) This definition implies that q is the heat transferred and As is the change in entropy associated with that transfer. Itis evident that the entropy increases when heat is added and decreases when heat is removed. This is logical since entropy was created as joules per degree Kelvin. Entropy therefore is also a measure of the amount of heat added or removed from a system. Since entropy change s is also a function of temperature T there will be a lesser change in entropy s as temperature T increases for a given transfer of heat q. The heat cycle previously described may be plotted on a temperature-entropy diagram without too much difficulty. Referring back to the various processes itis. seen that all transfers of heat were with the gas at either constant volume or at constant pressure. Referring now to the definitions of specific heat it is seen that:CHE 2012 Heat Engines and Entropy AT constant pressure = 4 / Cp ATeonstant volume = q / Cy Since cp is always greater than c, then AT constant pressure [S always less than ATeonstat volume fOr a given addition of heat q. For a steady rate of heat addition therefore the rate of temperature increase at constant pressure will be less than the rate of temperature increase at constant volume. This will be reflected as a steeper slope on the temperature-entropy diagram for a constant volume process than for a constant pressure process. This is logical because with a constant pressure process there is some expansion of the gas during heat addition and some slight cooling due to this expansion is superimposed on the overall heating process. Page 3-5 HEAT CYCLE ate Fe + oi oat is the result of temperature differences and work output (kg) 35 an area ‘on pot with temperature on fone ale, Thus we get units of ‘gon the other ais. This is ontropys. Considering the four processes previously described, the complete heat cycle may be plotted on a temperature-entropy diagram as follows: Process 1-2 Heat addition at constant volume. Rapid rise in temperature as entropy increases. Process 2-3 Heat addition at constant pressure. Slow rise in temperature as entropy increases. Process 3-4 Heat removal at constant volume. Rapid drop in temperature as entropy decreases. Process 4-1 Heat removal at constant pressure. Slow drop in temperature as entropy decreases. The net work output is the area enclosed by the cycle.Page 3-6 OPTIMISED HEAT CYCLE In the heat cycle developed above the area enclosed on the T-s diagram represents the work output of the cycle on a per kilogram basis. It is obviously desirable to increase the amount of work per kilogram. How can this be done? Assuming flexibility in shaping the diagram, it can be seen that extending Point 2 and Point 4 will increase the area and hence the work done. This will ater the processes occurring before and after these points but does not prevent the flow of heat into or out of the system since the processes are still within the original temperature limits. Ultimately the maximum area and hence the maximum work per kilogram is obtained when the working fluid receives all incoming heat at the maximum temperature and rejects all outgoing heat at the minimum temperature. This is known as the Camot Cycle. CARNOT CYCLE (MAXIMUM WORK) 3 Hottesenir Temperature Process 12: Temperature increase witout heat adition and no ud fctton -reversibesalabatc-senopie Process 2:3: Heat ation at maximum temperature with no Aemperture ference - reversible isothermal Process 34: Temperature decreas wthout heat removal and no uid retlon reverse acaba isentropic Process 4; Heat ejection at minimum temper temperature ference - rovers Heat Engines and Entropy CHE 2012 OPTIMISED HEAT CYCLE FIXED HOT AND COLD RESERVOIR TEMPERATURES Expansion of diagram gives increased work. nthe Him, al heat is ocsived and eocted a Toy 304 Teow respectively as ts as at CARNOT CYCLE EFFICIENCY (THEORETICAL MAXIMUM) Tape potenCHE 2012 Heat Engines and Entropy Page 3-7 CARNOT CYCLE Before optimization as described above the heat cycle suffered some irreversibility due to the transfer of heat across a temperature difference. This was due to the differences in temperature between the hot reservoir and the working fluid and between the working fluid and the cold reservoir. The optimised cycle eliminates these temperature differences and hence the irreversibilities. Ideally, with the system so arranged, the temperature differences are zero and heat is transferred from the hot reservoir only when the gas is at a high temperature and to the cold reservoir only when the gas is at a low temperature. This produces a rectangular plot on the temperature-entropy diagram. The change in entropy AS multiplied by temperature T is a measure of the heat Q added or rejected. The area enclosed by the cycle is the work W done. Itis evident that a rectangular plot of this type will maximise the amount of work produced. The upper and lower temperatures of the cycle will correspond with the hot and cold reservoir temperatures respectively. The heat received by the cycle Qi, is the area under the line corresponding with the hot reservoir temperature and the heat rejected by the cycle Qj is the area under the line corresponding with the cold reservoir temperature. The difference between these is the work done by the cycle W. The cycle efficiency is therefore: n= W/Qn ‘Since these areas can also be expressed in terms of temperature T and entropy difference As the cycle efficiency is also: 1 = (Tu- Te) AS/ (TH 0) AS 0 (Ta = To) / Ta 1-TolTu Itis evident from this that the cycle efficiency is limited by the hot reservoir temperature Ty and the cold reservoir temperature Tc provided the cycle remains rectangular in shape. The vertical processes involve no transfer of heat so that the thermodynamic cycle consists of constant temperature and constant “heat” (adiabatic) processes. Itis also assumed that there is no fluid friction to generate heat. With reference back to the non-flow processes these may be plotted on a pressure-volume diagram. It is seen that pressure increases with decreasing volume. In the adiabatic process the pressure rises rapidly as volume decreases. In the constant temperature process the pressure rises slowly as volume decreases since heat must be removed to maintain the gas at constant temperature. The slopes of the two process on a pressure-volume diagram are therefore different. Considering the four processes the complete heat cycle may be plotted on a pressure-volume diagram as follows:Page 3-8 Heat Engines and Entropy CHE 2012 Process 1-2 Temperature increase with no heat transfer. Rapid rise in pressure with decreasing volume. Process 2-3 Heat addition at constant temperature. Slow drop in pressure with increasing volume. Process 3-4 Temperature decrease with no heat transfer. Rapid drop in pressure with increasing volume. Process 4-1 Heat rejection at constant temperature. ‘Slow rise in pressure with decreasing volume. CARNOT CYCLE (NO IRREVERSIBILITIES) n= W/ain FQ Og) #124 Oy Heat is received at constant temperature. Heat is ejected at constant temperature The change in temperature without heat transfer is an adiabatic process. In the ideal case as represented here there is no change in entropy. A constant entropy or isentropic process is therefore an ideal adiabatic process. Ideal processes do not have losses such as fluid friction and can be returned to their original state without energy input. An isentropic or ideal adiabatic process is therefore generally called a reversible adiabatic process. The cycle described above is an ideal thermodynamic cycle which converts the maximum amount of heat energy into work. This cycle, the Camot Cycle, provides a base or ideal condition against which the performance of all real heat engines, operating between the same temperature limits, can be measured. Real heat engines suffer all kinds of losses in various processes and have an actual efficiency somewhat lower than that of the ideal or Carnot cycle efficiency.CHE 2012 Heat Engines and Entropy Page 3-9 AVAILABLE AND UNAVAILABLE ENERGY When considering the heat received Ty AS and the heat rejected Tc AS by a Carnot cycle it is evident that the difference (Tu - Tc) AS is converted into work W. The original heat input can therefore be divided into two parts. One part is that which is available for conversion into work (Ty -Tc) AS. The other part is that which must be rejected to the cold reservoir Tc AS. These two parts are called available energy and unavailable energy respectively. In any heat engine the available energy is available for conversion into work and will all become work provided there are no losses in the conversion process. Unavailable energy can never be converted into work since it is the heat which must be rejected to the low temperature reservoir. AVAILABLE AND UNAVAILABLE ENERGY | xno } = Ambiont Temperature Heat Siok) ‘Maximum Temperature of Heat source THAT, = Cycle Working Flu Temperatures When a heat engine is in operation heat can be considered to be flowing through it in order to produce work. Without this flow there can be no work. A consequence of this flow is that some of the original heat must be rejected. THE SECOND LAW The Second Law of Thermodynamics deals with the conversion of heat to work. As has been demonstrated in the previous section there must be heat rejection in the process. This is a fundamental law of thermodynamics and may be expressed as follows: No heat engine can generate work without net rejection of heat to a low temperature reservoir Other vague hypothetical statements found in some theoretical text books are not acceptable in practical engineering. However the Kelvin-Planck Statement is quite clear: Itis impossible for any device that operates in a cycle (heat engine) to receive heat from a single (high temperature) reserve and produce a net amount of work and no other effect.Page 3-10 Heat Engines and Entropy CHE 2012 SECOND LAW OF ENTROPY DEFINITION THERMODYNAMICS ae cmcesaeea ei reece ceeea cnet eer prc tae Ifthe cold reservoir could be a absolute zero (no ‘molecular motion and hence no internal energy) then the oficioncy ofthe carot cycle would be 100% and alle heat would be convert nto work, 2.Mtathratcaly maybe feteedas neal [= ‘The second tne thus defines portonathet which = Is avalai for conversion to work under ambient conditions, Entropy it # property ofthe stato of th Mud a dened by and andi unique fr any given conditions. ENTROPY Entropy has been defined mathematically as follows: AS = Q/T (J/°K) As = q/T (J/ kg*k) This definition was based simply on the creation of entropy as a parameter using heat Q and temperature T. In developing a temperature-entropy diagram temperature and entropy are used as axes to give heat or work as an area. Units of entropy are joules per degree Kelvin. This mathematical formula indicates that the entropy change is different at different temperatures even if the same amount of heat is added. As the temperature at which the heat is added increases, the change in entropy decreases for a given amount of heat added. In many thermodynamic processes it is this change in entropy which is important in the analysis of the process. In engineering practice it is convenient to find the values for entropy before and after the process and to calculate the change by subtraction.CHE 2012 Heat Engines and Entropy Page 3-11 ENTROPY DETERMINATION con Two-phase condone e ‘Start at absolute sro anda heat voi % t 9 1, [si a ° 1 samo) 9 By dotition aecaT assqiT By substitution aaec,at/T demcjQrir yintgration sinsie f'gatiT 6st, = int) From arbitrary zero pot B= 8 = la T) Forhesting of iid te = 6AT angry") For oxapration of iu at constant pressure i) Enrpy at various points B= Gln T)=0 BF Gln) tty = etait, = elas) +h T, To determine specific values for entropy some arbitrary base must be set. Consider a hypothetical situation with a fluid that has constant specific heat c, and no phase change. Start at absolute zero with a given mass of this fluid and add heat at constant pressure. The following equations define the processes on a per unit mass basis: cp = q/AT (specific heat) As = q/T (entropy change) Combining these equations gives the following in finite difference form: As = c,AT/T In differential form this would be: ds = o)dT/T If this is integrated from point 1 to point 2 the following is obtained 82-8; = Gpin (T2/Ts) (constant pressure conditions) Ifa similar analysis is done under constant volume conditions the following relationship is obtained:Page 3-12 Heat Engines and Entropy CHE 2012 82-81 = cy In (T/T) (constant volume conditions) This is the basic formula for the determination of an entropy change in terms of temperature. If specific values of entropy based on an arbitrary reference temperature are required the formula may be adapted as follows: 8-8 = Cp In (T/To) If To is the base temperature (0°C is used for water and steam) and sp is set equal to zero at this temperature then s is the entropy at any temperature T. $= cp In(T/ To) WHAT IS ENTROPY? If the fluid changes phase from liquid designated by subscript f to gas Be has feel erat lament designated by subscript g then the latent heat added qjg is equal to the change in * ities ne enthalpy hg in going from the liquid to the | ee 5 gas phase and must be taken into reassure ofthe ireversynathemadynarle account. If the whole process occurs at roses constant pressure and temperature: Og = iy The change in entropy is therefore: AS = hy Teouraton This increase in entropy must be added as the liquid changes phase into a gas. ENTROPY AND IRREVERSIBILITY ———— ‘There are a number of processes which result in an increase in entropy. Three major ones will be considered. Heat Transfer across a Temperature Difference Consider a hot fluid transferring a given quantity of heat to a colder fluid through a temperature difference. On a temperature-entropy diagram the area representing heat gained by the cold fluid will be equal to the area representing heat lost by the hot fluid. Since the temperature at which heat is received by the cold fluid is less than the temperature at which heat is lost by the hot fluid the increase in entropy of the cold fluid As. will be greater than the decrease in entropy of the hot fluid Ass. There will thus be a net increase in entropy equal to (As2- Asi).CHE 2012 Heat Engines and Entropy Page 3-13 Heat transfer from a hot to cold body has been shown to be irreversible. It follows therefore that an increase in entropy is associated with an irreversible process. Itis also evident that this irreversible process results in an increase in unavailable energy. Thus, if the colder fluid were now used in a thermodynamic cycle, more heat would have to be rejected leaving less available for useful work. ENTROP" HEAT TRANSFER ACROSS A eens TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE "TRANSFER OF HEAT FROM HOT FLUD TO COLD FLD "yale cng Pacers oer Egon feng ante Gusces) a, ot (stam) + Cotte % Heat lost by hot ult avaiable E ‘enemy Heat gsned by old id + Haat ost by hot fui gy = heat gained by cola fad ay * Mot tid deeroases in tomperature and col uid Inereases in temperature aso ass + Hotis wanatredacros atamperature ference eo ee a0 {reverie process) a1 38, = 100035, Bey ee ee + Engopy change ofeach id rena ina netnrese of ay amy er) ontop : + Unavatabeeneray (at must be ejected na ts, 5,5, entropy ha ineeased from 8 10, ‘hemodyrame yee merensed Mixing of Fluids at Different Temperatures Consider the variation of temperature with entropy of a fluid under constant pressure conditions. The following equations apply: ©» = q/AT (specific heat) As = q/T (entropy change) Combining these equations gives the following in finite difference form: AT/ As = T/ cp In differential form this would be aT /ds = TicPage 3-14 Heat Engines and Entropy CHE 2012 Itis seen that the variation of temperature with respect to entropy is proportional to temperature T if the specific heat is constant. The slope of the line on a temperature-entropy plot therefore increases with increasing temperature. If two equal quantities of a fluid at two different temperatures are mixed, the final temperature will be the average of the initial hot and cold fluid temperatures. The final entropy of the mixture however will be higher than the average of the initial values due to the ever increasing slope of the line. There is a greater increase in entropy of the cold fluid As; than decrease in entropy of the hot fluid As. The net result is an increase in entropy. Mixing of two fluids at different temperatures has been shown to be irreversible. It follows again that an increase in entropy is associated with an irreversible process. Frictional Heating of Fluids It has been shown that friction of a block on a surface causes heating and that this, is an irreversible process. When a fluid slides over a surface as ina pipe, there is friction of the fluid against the surface. This causes heating of the fluid. Heating causes an increase in entropy from the definition: As = q/T Fluid friction like mechanical friction is an irreversible process. It follows yet again that an increase in entropy is associated with an irreversible process. The effect of friction in a long pipe is the same as the effect of throttling in an orifice and the same equations apply to both. Throttling creates excessive local [MIXING OF FLUIDS AT DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES ° = = General Equation fe QiT and que, aT T= gids = Gat/ts = 6,at lds arid“ tide = The, oF ‘Slope of curve increases with T ‘Assume mining of equal massos of fide st, and, heat oat = heat gained Ope as, = bss SAT = aT, (SIT SIT: an =a heh Tee TT ad? Te temeT) a> ies) FRICTIONAL HEATING OF FLUIDS Fluid Flowing in Pipe 2 ? ceciitiiita ee ee Friction on surface generates heat * Heat ie also generated in fd near surface 1 Fluide heated by heat ation * Entropy increases by! ara] + Fluid frlcton results in increase in entropyCHE 2012 Heat Engines and Entropy Page 3-15 turbulence in which fluid particles slide against one another hence generating heat due to fluid friction. PROPERTY RELATIONSHIPS The equation for entropy change may be combined with the equation for the first law of thermodynamics and the definition of enthalpy to obtain alternative useful relationships which will be used in later derivations. PROPERTY RELATIONSHIPS 0 Entropy: As = q/T FirstLaw: Au = q-w Fintlw dE = 3Q-aW Enthalpy: oh =utpy Aus q-w au = a> paw Ah = Au+ A(pv) ae ‘These new relationships are: Entrooy 4 = Ths Au+pav a vse] ah-v Ap heen ary ah = ausmpeapnys not Although there may seem litle use for Be aceon these relationships, once developed they are the foundations for a series of other | susssmang tis th-vip-pi) rpov equations which ultimately have practical ers application. fr TAs TAs REVERSED CARNOT CYCLE Since all processes in the Camot cycle are idealistic and therefore reversible it is theoretically possible to drive the cycle in reverse. All heat and work flows are thus reversed in direction and work is put into the system to pump heat from a low temperature reservoir to a high temperature reservoir. Such a system is a heat pump of refrigerator. A refrigerator removes heat from a cold space thus cooling it while a heat pump rejects heat into a warm space thus heating it. When considering an idealistic refrigerator it should be considered as a regular or normal Carnot cycle which will subsequently be reversed. The unknowns should be calculated using the definitions of efficiency for a Carnot cycle: N= (Qin - Qrej) / Qn 1 = (TH-To)/ ThPage 3-16 Heat Engines and Entropy CHE 2012 W = Qi - Qeej When all heat and work flows have been ascertained these can then all be reversed in direction. To avoid confusion the heat pumped from the cold reservoir and that Pumped to the hot reservoir should be defined as Qc and Qx respectively and set equal to the corresponding reversed flows: Cold reservoir: Qo = Qe Hot reservoir: Qu = Qin ‘When the work flow is reversed it becomes negative. In accordance with engineering convention work put into a system is negative. It must be emphasised that when carrying out calculations on reversed Camot cycles they must be analysed initially as direct or regular Carnot cycles with the heat flows calculated accordingly. This is because the efficiencies are based on the direct or normal Carnot cycle. Once all the heat flows have been determined they can be reversed and the appropriate answers for the reversed Camot cycle derived Gartu Jeo REVERSED CARNOT CYCLE SECOND LAW ae eee (ALTERNATIVE STATEMENT) NonMAL vet ee oe oat cannot ofl flow roma col body toa ‘Assume = 20% pe ee hot body but requires a finite amount of work to Wo! = 30/100 O-s Induce such Howe Won * oou| es REVERSED CYCLE Wa. = Work input a a, processes are reversible heat flows are exactly reversed, Hence: Wy Wout eos cou Oy = Oy Heat to hot reservoir In the context of the reversed Carnot cycle an alternative statement of the Second Law of Thermodynamics may be formulated: Heat cannot of itself flow from a cold body to a hot body but requires a finite amount of work to induce such flow.CHE 2012 Steam Tables and Charts Page 4-1 SECTION 4 STEAM TABLES AND CHARTS WATER AND STEAM Consider the heating of water at constant pressure. If various properties are to be measured, an experiment can be set up where water is heated in a vertical cylinder closed by a piston on which there is a weight. The weight acting down under gravity ‘on a piston of fixed size ensures that the fluid in the cylinder is always subject to the same pressure. Initially the cylinder contains only water at ambient temperature. As this is heated the water changes into steam and certain characteristics may be noted. WATER AND STEAM HEATING OF WATER CHARACTERISTICS ee a lol ol fol EB piey fies anes 7 aoe . Water and Steam Mixture Slope = AT/a8 = Tle Saturated Steam Only | . ted Steam ‘Slope creates wth T = wale Initially the water at ambient temperature is subcooled. As heat is added its temperature rises steadily unti it reaches the saturation temperature corresponding with the pressure in the cylinder. The volume of the water hardly changes during this process. At this point the water is saturated. As more heat is added, steam is, generated and the volume increases dramatically since the steam occupies a greater space than the water from which it was generated. The temperature however remains the same until all the water has been converted into steam. At this point the steam is saturated. As additional heat is added, the temperature of the steam increases but at a faster rate than when the water only was being heated. ThePage 4-2 Steam Tables and Charts CHE 2012 volume of the steam also increases. Steam at temperatures above the saturation temperature is superheated. If the temperature T is plotted against the heat added q the three regions namely subcooled water, saturated mixture and superheated steam are clearly indicated. The slope of the graph in both the subcooled region and the superheated region depends on the specific heat of the water and steam respectively. cp = q/AT The slope however is temperature rise AT over heat added q. This is the inverse of specific heat cp. Slope = 1/ cp Since heat added at constant pressure is equal to the enthalpy change this plot is really a temperature-enthalpy diagram. As has already been demonstrated, a temperature-entropy diagram is useful is showing thermodynamic cycles. The temperature-enthalpy diagram may be converted into a temperature-entropy diagram by using the two relations: Cp = q/aT As=q/T Combining these gives: op AT =TAs AT/A8=T/ cp The ratio of change in temperature over change in entropy AT/As is the slope of the graph on a temperature-entropy diagram. fc, is constant in one or other region of the plot the slope is proportional to temperature T and will increase as the temperature rises. The area under the curve represents the heat added q up to any point or between any points. This plot shows just one line of a temperature-entropy chart. If the experiment is repeated under different conditions, families of lines can be developed to obtain a complete chart, TEMPERATURE-ENTROPY CHART Consider the heating of water at different pressures each time maintaining the selected pressure constant. A series of similar lines will be obtained with those at higher pressures being above those at lower pressures. As pressure increasesCHE 2012 Steam Tables and Charts Page 4-3 however the amount of latent heat added to completely evaporate the water decreases. This is because, at higher pressure, since the increase in volume from liquid to vapour is not as great, less energy is required to expand the fluid to its new condition. Eventually, at very high pressures, the density of the steam becomes equal to that of the water and no latent heat is required to expand the fluid. If the points at which the water and steam respectively become saturated are joined up a Saturated water line and a saturated steam line are formed. These join at the critical point where steam and water densities are equal to form the characteristic bell shaped curve. The subcooled water region is to the left and the superheated steam region to the right of the bell curve. The saturated water-steam mixture region lies under or within the bell. VARIATION OF PRESSURE QUALITY AND MOISTURE + When water tolls its spect volume v increases pressure increases v, remains nearly contant + As pressure increases v, decreases due to compression + Athigh pressure: v, = v, + Athigh pressure: Latont heathy “> 0 + Athigh pressure: no liquid vapour mixture (1-2 _Atpoint for unit mass of mitre: Mass of vapour = x Qualiy=x Maes of quid = (1-3) Molture= m= (t=) Entalpy otvapour = ah, Entalpyofiuid = (10h, Tota ental = any 2h, = thea = Bethy) = Nery Within the saturated water-steam mixture region there are intermediate conditions. When only part of the total latent heat to evaporate the water has been added a unique point X on the particular constant pressure line is reached. At this point the mass fraction of vapour is x and the mass fraction of liquid is (1 - x). Each fraction has associated with it either the enthalpy of the water at saturation conditions hy or the enthalpy of the steam at saturation conditions hy. The total enthalpy of the mixture is therefore: ho= xhy+(1-x) hy h = hy+x (hg hy) h = bet x hyPage 4-4 ‘Steam Tables and Charts CHE 2012 The value hy is equivalent to the latent heat required to convert the water into steam. Similar formulae may be derived for internal energy u and entropy s U= UF +X Uy S=S;+X Sig Ifall these unique points X for a given mass fraction of vapour under different pressures are joined, a line of constant mass fraction or steam quality is obtained. For other unique mass fractions, other lines of steam quality can be drawn to create a whole family of lines. Note that these lines all meet at the critical point. ===] Another important family of lines is that VARIATION OF ENTHALPY showing constant enthalpy conditions. The change in enthalpy h is equal to the heat added q under constant pressure conditions. If given amounts of heat are added from an arbitrary zero condition for different pressure conditions, this heat q will be represented by the area under the respective constant pressure lines. These areas must all be equal for a given amount of heat added and thus a given change in enthalpy. Joining up the points on each constant pressure line at which the given amount of heat has been added will produce a line of constant enthalpy. Adding different amounts of heat will produce a family of constant enthalpy lines. Note that these have a steep slope in the saturated region but a lesser slope in the superheated region. FLUID PROPERTIES The following properties for liquids and gases may be determined by experiment and are plotted on thermodynamic diagrams: Pressure Temperature Specific volume Internal energy Enthalpy Entropy ose<40CHE 2012 Steam Tables and Charts Page 4-5 Pressure and temperature can be measured directly. Specific volume can be obtained by measurement of the physical size of the container. Enthalpy can be obtained by measurement of the amount of heat added at constant pressure. Internal energy can be calculated from the formula for the definition of enthalpy: h=utpy Entropy can be calculated from its formula in terms of temperature: 8 = opin (T/T.) ‘Temperature T. is an arbitrary base temperature (273°K for water) and specific heat > may be obtained from the formula: cp = q/AT " Cp = AH/ AT In the saturated water-steam mixture region the change in entropy is obtained as. follows: As = q/T AS = hig/ Teaturation All relevant parameters may thus be obtained and plotted as families of curves on a temperature-entropy diagram. It is not always sufficiently accurate to read values from such a diagram. To ‘overcome this problem the calculated values which would be plotted are instead presented in tabular form in a set of thermodynamic tables. These have high accuracy but, since only discrete values in a continuum are presented, interpolation is often necessary to obtain the desired values. THERMODYNAMIC EQUATIONS Certain steam and water properties can be determined by experiment and others subsequently by calculation from basic formulae already given. Steam does however follow to some degree the gas laws, that is, as pressure increases specific volume decreases and as temperature increases specific volume increases. Experimental determination of the properties allows the deviation from the gas laws to be ascertained. Thus using a combination of the gas laws, the equations already derived and experimental results it is possible to develop suitable semi-empirical equations which will allow the properties of water and steam to be computed. Such equations are used for developing steam tables where each tabulated value is calculated. These equations are usually polynomials with several constants. ThePage 4-6 Steam Tables and Charts CHE 2012 more complex the polynomial the more accurate the results and often as many as six constants are used in the equation. Equations of this type are also used in PROPERTIES AND CHARTS computer routines to find required properties. Commercially available programs are available on computer diskettes. Many of these however allow the calculation of properties from temperature and pressure and not vice- versa so are limited in their usefulness unless additional iterative routines are devised. Suitable equations for the calculation of certain properties are given in the book “Steam and Gas Tables with ‘Computer Equations” by T-F. Irvine and P.E. Liley. This book also gives tables of values obtained from the equations so the application of any equation can be readily checked. ENTHALPY-ENTROPY CHART It has previously been shown that a pressure-volume diagram is useful in showing mechanical cycles and that a temperature-entropy diagram is useful in showing thermodynamic cycles. Since there are six main thermodynamic properties, as given above, any number of diagrams using two properties as axes are possible. Two other commonly used diagrams are the pressure-enthalpy diagram used for refrigeration cycles and the enthalpy-entropy diagram used for steam turbines. The choice of diagram depends primarily on what is to be shown and what processes are constant. In refrigeration cycles some processes occur at either constant pressure or constant enthalpy. These processes are simply horizontal lines or vertical lines respectively on a pressure-enthalpy diagram. For steam turbines some processes occur at either constant enthalpy or constant entropy. These processes are also simply horizontal and vertical ines respectively on an enthalpy-entropy diagram. Furthermore a change in enthalpy on such a diagram shows the work done by the turbine and a change in entropy indicates the degree of irreversibility and hence loss in the turbine.CHE 2012 ‘Steam Tables and Charts Page 4-7 It has been shown how a temperature-entropy diagram can be developed. All other diagrams are related in that the parameters illustrated must maintain their relationship with one another. Thus any diagram is simply a skewed version of a temperature-entropy diagram with new axes being created. To convert a temperature-entropy diagram into an enthalpy-entropy diagram the entire diagram is rotated slightly and stretched such that the constant enthalpy lines become horizontal. The saturation curve changes from a bell shaped curve into a curve with two nearly straight portions at almost right angles to one another and the critical point moves down to the left. Failure to recognise this change in shape is a common fault in Thermodynamics. T-SAND h-s DIAGRAMS Constant, STEADY FLOW PROCESSES With non-flow processes the working fluid is contained within a system and undergoes change from an initial to a final condition. These changes can be shown on thermodynamic diagrams. If the process maintains a certain parameter (for example pressure) constant that process simply follows that constant parameter line on the diagram. In steady flow processes the working fluid passes through a component continuously and undergoes changes, while flowing, from an initial inlet condition to a final outlet condition. These changes can also be shown on thermodynamic diagrams. Processes occurring at constant conditions (for example enthalpy) will also follow the appropriate constant parameter line on the diagram.Page 4-8 Steam Tables and Charts CHE 2012 The non-flow processes previously described and listed below can all occur in steady flow devices. = Constant Pressure "Constant Temperature = Constant Volume = Constant “Heat” In steady flow however the constant “heat” or adiabatic process in which there is no heat transfer may be reversible or irreversible. If it has no fluid friction it is reversible adiabatic or isentropic as is the case in an ideal or frictionless turbine. fit has fluid friction it is irreversible adiabatic or isenthalpic as is the case in a throttle. There are thus five main steady flow processes: Constant Pressure or Isobaric Constant Temperature or Isothermal Constant Volume or Isometric Reversible Adiabatic or Isentropic Irreversible Adiabatic or Isenthalpic Each of these processes has important engineering applications. A knowledge of the type of process allows unknown conditions to be determined from basic measurements, FLOW PROCESSES ‘CALCULATION STRATEGY remtietty on ate oroces necro sett Speci = ey Egan ie ere : esomae Constant Entropy (Reversible Adiabatic) {teentropie) ‘Aplications: Turbine (Expansion) aeT Compressor compression ( Pump (Pressurisaon) a2 PROCESS SOLUTION Aa? = Write nt and final contons aed “Two parameters define starting point Process equation defines constant parametor ‘Constant parameters ame at start and finish Process tne though start and fish Is fixed * Intersection with na eondtions gives finishing point Constant Temperature (eothorma!) : ions: Boller (Boling) y Condenser (Condensation)CHE 2012 Steam Tables and Charts Page 4-9 CALCULATION STRATEGY In solving an engineering problem involving a thermodynamic process there is a particular strategy to be followed. With practice and experience some of the steps soon become intuitive or obvious but intially the full process should be followed. Process Identification The first stage is to identify the process. This should be done as follows: + Write out the complete energy equation "Make appropriate assumptions regarding minor terms "Derive the basic process equation Process Solution The second stage is to solve for the unknown condition. If this is one of the final conditions after the process the following procedure should be followed: Write down the known initial and final conditions Two parameters will define the starting point The process equation defines the constant parameter The constant parameter is the same at the starting and finishing points The process line is drawn through the starting and finishing points Intersection of the process line with any final condition gives the finishing point. This procedure may be adapted to find any unknown. If one of the initial conditions is unknown it is possible to work backwards along the process line from the known final conditions to find the unknown initial condition.CHE 2012 Power Cycles Page 5-1 SECTION 5 POWER CYCLES POWER CYCLES Itwas shown previously how work could be produced by using heat in a thermodynamic cycle. In the hypothetical example used heat was added to and removed from a gas in a closed cylinder. The change in pressure due to the heating and cooling of the gas provided the driving force for the piston which produced work in moving back and forth. A certain amount of heat flowed through the system to be ejected and a certain amount of work was produced. This heat engine operated as a series of non-flow processes. In a real heat engine of this type it is convenient to add heat to the gas by burning a fuel inside the cylinder. The combustion products have subsequently to be removed from the oylinder and replaced by new fuel and gas such as air. Heat is added and work extracted intermittently though so frequently as to give an effectively steady power output. Such a heat engine is known as the reciprocating internal combustion engine or simply the internal combustion engine and is used widely for transport applications. Internal combustion engines using gasoline as a fuel are used in cars and those using diesel oil as a fuel are used in trucks, heavy machinery, railway locomotives and ships. Power cycles can also be made up of a series of steady-flow processes. Heat engines of this type have a steady flow of working fluid through various components and a continuous addition of heat. Power is developed continuously by a rotating turbine through which the working fluid passes. If the working fluid is a gas such as. air and heat is added to it directly by burning fuel in it, the engine is known as a gas turbine. If the working fluid is a vapour such as steam and heat is added to it indirectly by a separate boiler, the engine is known as a steam turbine. Gas turbines are used in most modern aircraft and for small scale electric power generation. Steam turbines are used in all large scale thermal electric power plants whether using fossil fuels (oil or coal) or nuclear energy. Hydro turbines using water as a working fluid are used in hydro-electric power plants. In the remainder of this section the thermodynamic processes making up the following cycles will be reviewed. * Steady Flow Steam Cycle (Steam Boiler and Turbine) * Steady Flow Gas Cycle (Gas Turbine) + Non-Flow Gas Cycle (Internal Combustion Engine)Page 5-2 Power Cycles CHE 2012 STEAM BOILER AND TURBINE The steam boiler and turbine together make up a steady flow steam cycle using water and steam as the working fluid. Heat is added continuously in a boiler which is effectively a rather complex heat exchanger. Work is produced by a turbine through which steam flows steadily from a high pressure to a low pressure. Heat is rejected in a condenser to establish a net flow of heat from the high temperature reservoir (boiler furnace) to the low temperature reservoir (cooling water). Since the boiler must operate at high pressure to produce high pressure steam, the water is. pumped to a high pressure before entering the boiler. Specific thermodynamic Processes occur in each component of the system. These four processes together make up the complete thermodynamic cycle. STEAM BOILER AND TURBINE ote Pant Tine Pat —— rc Boiter 1:2 Turbine 2-3 Condenser 3-4 Pump at Component Process Boller 4-2 Turbine 23 Condenser 34 Pump an In the boiler, water at a high pressure is heated and evaporated to form steam also ata high pressure. The turbine receives this steam at a high pressure. In expanding to a low pressure the steam drives the turbine blades and some if its energy is converted into work. Ideally this process occurs with no fluid friction and no transfer of heat. The condenser receives the exhaust steam at a low pressure and condenses it back to water, also at a low pressure. Finally the pump pumps the low pressure water back into the boiler at a high pressure. Ideally this process cours with no fluid friction and no transfer of heat. GAS TURBINE The gas turbine operates on a steady flow gas cycle using air as a working fluid. The atmosphere completes the cycle in that air discharged to the atmosphere couldCHE 2012 Power Cycles Page 5-3 find its way back to the intake to the engine. Heat is added directly and continuously to the air by burning fuel in a combustion chamber within the engine. Fresh air is dram in by a compressor which increases the air pressure before combustion. After combustion the hot gases at a high temperature and pressure drive a turbine to produce work or they expand to a low pressure in a nozzle to produce thrust. Some of the work from the turbine drives the compressor and the remainder is the net work output of the gas turbine. There are thus four distinct processes making up the complete thermodynamic cycle. GAS TURBINE In the compressor, air at ambient temperature and pressure is compressed to a high pressure. Ideally this process occurs with no fluid friction and no transfer of heat. The high pressure air passes to the combustion chamber where fuel is burnt to increase the gas temperature and hence its energy. This gas, still at high pressure, passes through the turbine giving up energy to the rotating turbine blades as it ‘expands to ambient pressure. The gas temperature is still high at the exhaust and the atmosphere is effectively the heat sink or cold reservoir to which heat is rejected. Air entering the compressor at the beginning of the cycle comes from this same cold reservoir. GAS AND STEAM TURBINES Conventional steam turbines and industrial gas turbines are very similar in that the working fluid flows in an axial direction and increasing blade length provides for an increased flow area to accommodate the increased specific volume as the pressure decreases. The main differences are in the design requirements. Gas turbines receive hot combustion gas at temperatures high enough to damage the blades atPage 5-4 Power Cycles CHE 2012 the inlet. Provision must therefore be made to limit the gas temperature and to provide special materials and cooling for the first stage of blading. Steam turbines do not have this problem but instead suffer the most severe conditions at the exhaust where the steam is wet. The last stage blades must therefore be designed with special provision to withstand the impact of moisture droplets in the steam and precautions must be taken not to operate outside the design moisture limits. INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE Although gas turbines are sometimes classified as internal combustion engines the real internal combustion engine is one in which combustion occurs within a closed cylinder in a non-flow process. Before analysing the various non-flow processes it is necessary to consider the mechanical sequence in a typical gasoline four stroke internal combustion engine. As the crank shaft rotates, the piston moves up and down in the cylinder and separate inlet and exhaust valves control the flow of gas into and out of the cylinder respectively. The sequence starts with the piston at the top of the cylinder. As the piston descends an air-fuel mixture is drawn into the cylinder through the open inlet valve. The piston then ascends against closed valves and compresses the air-fuel mixture. In the ideal case, when the piston reaches the top of the cylinder a spark occurs to ignite the fuel. Ideally the fuel bums instantaneously within the confined space before the piston has time to move. The hot gases so created drive the piston down in the cylinder with the valves stil closed. As the piston ascends on the fourth and last stroke the exhaust gases are discharged through the open exhaust valve. ~*=" During this whole mechanical process. INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE | four strokes of the piston and two revolutions of the crankshaft have been completed. There is thus one power stroke for every two revolutions of a one cylinder engine. In multiple cylinder engines similar processes occur in other cylinders simultaneously but out of phase with one another. When running at high speed therefore multiple cylinder engines produce a very nearly steady power output.CHE 2012 Power Cycles Page 5-5 The four thermodynamic processes occurring in an internal combustion engine do not match the four mechanical strokes and have to be considered carefully. The beginning of the thermodynamic cycle starts with the second stroke of the engine which compresses the air-fuel mixture. Ideally this process occurs with no heat transfer. The next process is that of combustion with no movement of the piston so there is no stroke. This process is assumed to occur in a fixed space with no external heat transfer. The third thermodynamic process coincides with the third stroke of the engine. This is the power stroke which ideally occurs with no heat transfer. The final thermodynamic process is that of recharging the cylinder. This requires two strokes, exhaust and intake, to replace the exhaust gas with a fresh air- fuel mixture. At the end of the recharging process the piston is at the same point as at the beginning of the process so effectively the mechanical strokes can be disregarded and contents of the cylinder imagined to have been changed instantaneously, that is without a change in volume. INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE . Phase ‘Compression Combustion Power Recharge t eel j : Cas Phase, Process > ‘Commpresion 4-2 2 4 Combustion 2a —~ Power (Expansion) a4 7 Recharge at THERMODYNAMIC DIAGRAMS Once the thermodynamic processes of the above heat engines have been identified they can be plotted on temperature-entropy or pressure-volume diagrams. In both diagrams the net work output of the thermodynamic cycle is the area enclosed by the cycle. A review of these diagrams will indicate in what ways the work output of a given cycle can be increased or optimised.CHE 2012 Steam Power Cycles Page 7-1 SECTION 7 STEAM POWER CYCLES RANKINE CYCLE The Camot Cycle is the most efficient thermodynamic cycle that can be obtained when operating between given temperature limits. All the energy is received at a high temperature and all the unavailable energy is rejected at a low temperature. All the available energy is converted into work without loss. CARNOT & RANKINE CYCLE EFFICIENCY DEFINITION a ns 042 = 42% TOS Rankine Cycle 4-2-4-5-6 126 tay 190 tap 1085 tates 202, taKg 1835 hatkg hy 2002-1095 676 2 028 = 36% yt 2002~190 2678 D When using a liquid and vapour, such as water and steam, as the working fluid in a thermodynamic cycle the process can be arranged so that heat is transferred to and from the fluid under phase change conditions. In this way the upper temperature of heat acceptance and the lower temperature of heat rejection can be kept constant during the processes of boiling and condensing. This creates the same conditions as dictated by the Carnot Cycle. In a cycle operating on this basis water is boiled to steam at a high temperature and pressure in a boiler and condensed back to water at a low temperature and pressure in a condenser after having done work in the turbine. During expansion in the turbine, initially saturated steam becomes a wet mixture due to the bell shape of the saturation line on a temperature-entropy diagram. Itis impractical and inefficient however to compress a wet mixture back to saturated water at the high pressure required to complete a cycle equivalent to the Carnot Cycle. The steam is therefore condensed completely, pumped into the boilerPage 7-2 Steam Power Cycles CHE 2012 at high pressure and then heated to saturated conditions. Such a cycle is known as a Rankine Cycle. Expansion in the turbine and compression in the pump are assumed to be isentropic. The only part of this cycle which is different from the Carnot cycle is the constant pressure water heating process prior to the onset of boiling. Some heat is therefore transferred into the cycle at a lower temperature than the optimum. This decreases the efficiency below that of a Carnot cycle but nevertheless represents the best possible efficiency for a steam water cycle of this type. The Rankine Cycle is thus a base against which actual steam-water cycles may be compared when analysing their efficiency. It may be demonstrated that the Rankine Cycle is less efficient than the Carnot Cyole operating between the same temperature limits. Consider a Carnot Cycle drawn around the extreme limits of the Rankine Cycle . The Rankine Cycle cuts off a comer of the Camot Cycle. This cut off area represents a loss of heat input dios: aS well as a loss of work output Wiss where Wie is equal to dust (Same area on temperature-entropy diagram). The efficiencies are therefore: Neamt = W/ Qn MRankine = (W - Qiost) / (Qhin ~ Ghost) Since the work W is less than the heat input Qj, subtracting the same quantity from each will reduce the ratio of work to heat input and hence the cycle efficiency. A further consideration is the work required to pump the water back into the boiler. This work input Win must be subtracted from the work output Wou of the overall cycle. The efficiency of the cycle is then the net work output (Weut - Win) divided by the heat input Qin Meyts = (Wout = Win) Qin ‘SATURATED RANKINE CYCLE The Rankine Cycle in its simplest form assumes that saturated steam is produced in the boiler and delivered to the turbine. This is the Saturated Rankine Cycle. The Rankine Cycle, being a series of ideal processes, assumes isentropic expansion in the turbine from saturated steam conditions and isentropic compression in the pump from saturated water conditions. Knowing only the boiler pressure and condenser pressure therefore allows all points in the cycle to be fixed and the steam and water properties calculated. From the enthalpies at the various points the heat input and work output can be calculated and the cycle efficiency determined.CHE 2012 ‘Steam Power Cycles This cycle has a major drawback. As the steam expands in the turbine its conditions depart from saturation and it becomes wetter. This wetness is in the form of water droplets carried with the high velocity steam like a mist. Since the blade velocities are high these droplets impinge upon them causing retardation and erosion. A reduction in moisture content of the steam is thus desirable. If the exhaust point of the turbine could be moved to the right on the temperature-entropy diagram the steam passing through the last stages of the turbine would be less wet. SUPERHEATED RANKINE CYCLE Ifthe steam leaving the boiler is superheated by further heating ina suitable heat exchanger the inlet steam conditions to the turbine are changed and the Superheated Rankine Cycle is established. This in turn changes the exhaust steam conditions. The net result is a shift in the turbine expansion process towards the right on the temperature entropy diagram. The steam leaving the turbine has less moisture and there is less erosion damage to the turbine blades. There is another advantage in superheating. The enthalpy drop in the turbine is greater than it would have been with saturated steam. This means that more work is produced per unit mass of steam. Naturally more heat has also to be added per unit mass of steam but itis generally advantageous to obtain the greatest work per unit mass of fluid as less fluid has to be circulated around the system for the same power output. Page 7-3 RANKINE CYCLE (SATURATED) oat Input ay = thet) Work Output Heat Input a = eh Work Output wo teeny Pump Work w= aot)Page 7-4 Steam Power Cycles CHE 2012 A further advantage is that the heat added for superheating is added at a high temperature, This increases the average temperature of heat addition and hence increases the overall cycle efficiency. The cycle efficiency can be calculated in the usual way by determining the work output and heat input from the enthalpies. REHEATED RANKINE CYCLE RANKINE CYCLE (REHEATED) If superheating does not produce steam of adequate quality at the turbine exhaust reheating may be adopted. In the Reheated Rankine Cycle steam, after Partial expansion in the turbine, is passed to a heat exchanger similar to that for superheating. Here the temperature of the steam is increased under constant pressure conditions to a point further to the right on the temperature-entropy diagram. This produces steam at the turbine exhaust with a minimal amount of | Heatinput moisture which is desirable for the turbine. ae = Rd hD Work Output Note that work is obtained in two separate We Mone teohd stages and that heat is added in two Pump Work separate stages at different pressures. ws tek These must be taken into account in Efficiency calculating the efficiency for the cycle. = yA) The cycle efficiency is the total work output divided by the total heat input with an allowance for the pump work input. ad = Bde Oh The advantages of superheating apply also to reheating. Even more heat is added at a high temperature so increasing further the cycle efficiency. More work is also produced per unit mass of steam and even less fluid has to be circulated around the system to obtain the same power output. SUPERHEATING AND REHEATING The heat exchangers for superheating and reheating are incorporated into the boiler plant and heat is transferred from the hot gases as is the case for the evaporation of the water in the boiling section of the boiler. This increases the complexity of the boiler plant. The advantages of superheating and reheating usually offset the increased cost of the plant and are summarised as follows: * Less moisture in the steam passing through the last stages of the turbine + Increased efficiency due to more heat being received at a high temperature = Reduced mass flow rate around the system due to more work being produced per unit mass of steamCHE 2012 Steam Power Cycles Page 7-5 The advantages are the same for both superheating and reheating with the latter having a greater advantage than the former since reheating is always employed in conjunction with superheating in fossil fuel fired boilers. TURBINE EFFICIENCY So far the expansion in the turbine has been considered to be ideal or reversible. With no heat transfer this is reversible adiabatic or isentropic. On an enthalpy- entropy diagram this process is a vertical line since there is no change in entropy. The difference in enthalpy between the inlet and outlet conditions is the ideal or isentropic work output of the turbine. This however does not occur in actual practice, TURBINE INTERNAL EFFICIENCY When dealing with a real fluid such as steam passing through a turbine there is fluid friction wherever the flowing fluid is in contact with the solid surfaces, This friction generates heat in the fluid just as mechanical friction generates heat in a solid. The net result is that, after the expansion process, there is more heat in the fluid than there would have been after a frictionless expansion process. The actual expansion process is equivalent to a frictionless expansion followed by a heat addition equal to that produced by friction. This is a constant entropy process plus a constant pressure process and may be shown on the enthalpy-entropy diagram as two distinct processes. In reality of course friction occurs concurrently with the expansion and the process goes directiy to the end point. hy Bue to Fetona Le ata suelo Factions ‘everest Since heat is generated during the friction process the final enthalpy after the actual expansion is higher than that after the isentropic expansion. Overall less work can be produced by a turbine with fluid friction than by one without it. The internal efficiency Nintemai Of the turbine may thus be defined as the actual work output Wactus! over the ideal or isentropic work output Wise Ninternal = Wactuat / Wigeal This may be rewritten in terms of the enthalpy changes. Ninteat = Actas / Abideat This internal efficiency is not to be confused with the cycle efficiency. Cycle efficiency is the thermal efficiency of the whole system and is governed by the lawsPage 7-6 Steam Power Cycles CHE 2012 of thermodynamics. Internal efficiency is a mechanical efficiency applicable to the turbine only and is governed by fluid and surface properties. PUMP EFFICIENCY PUMP INTERNAL EFFICIENCY trees c= C) cap rnwou eames nS panne D Genaanecty (retain inFay Internal Efictency: a= BoM geal Work Regula) TRB Actual Work (Pertormed) Up to this point compression in a pump has also been assumed to be ideal or reversible. With no heat transfer this is reversible adiabatic or isentropic. When dealing with a real fluid however there is fluid friction wherever the flowing fluid is in contact with the solid surface. This has the same effect in a pump as in a turbine. The friction generates heat in the fluid. The net result is that, after compression in the pump, there is more heat in the fluid than there would have been after a frictionless process. The actual compression process is thus equivalent to a frictionless compression followed by a heat addition equal to that produced by friction. In reality the constant entropy process and constant pressure process occur simultaneously and can be superimposed so that the process goes directly to the end point. Since heat is generated during the friction process the final enthalpy after the actual compression is higher than that after the isentropic compression. Overall more energy has to be put into the pump than is theoretically required. The internal efficiency Noun of a pump may thus be defined as the ideal or isentropic work required Widesi Over the actual work input Wectua Npump = Wideat / Wactuat This may be rewritten in terms of the enthalpy changes: Nioump = Alfigeai / ANsctuat This may be confusing since it is opposite to that derived for a turbine. If however the basic definition of efficiency is considered it may be noted that the input is the total work performed based on mechanical energy and that the output is the hydraulic work required based on pressure and flow. 0 Nounp = output / input Fume ideal work required / actual work performedCHE 2012 Steam Power Cycles Page 7-7 Apump = Ahideat / Afactuat Furthermore if the pump is considered simply as a black box in which losses occur then the mechanical power input must be greater than the hydraulic power output. Noume = Output / input Npump = hydraulic energy / mechanical energy Alpump = V Ap / Wioiat pump = Wideai/ (Widest + Wiosses) COMPRESSOR EFFICIENCY A compressor is similar to a pump in that it increases the pressure of a fluid passing through it. A compressor, as its name implies, compresses a gas ( compressible flow) while a pump pumps a liquid (incompressible flow). The efficiency of a compressor is defined in exactly the same way as that of a pump. W Neompressor = output / input Theompressor = ideal work required / actual work performed Neompressor = Anideai / ANactuat Neompressor = Op ATideai / Cp AT act BOILER-TURBINE UNIT In a power plant a boiler and turbine are combined to create a single steam cycle. Usually the turbine is divided into a high pressure cylinder and a lower pressure cylinder and the boiler invariably has superheating at full boiler pressure and reheating at a lower pressure. The high pressure turbine receives superheated ‘steam and the low pressure turbine reheated steam. Variations of this general arrangement are common. To improve the thermal efficiency of the cycle feedwater heating is nearly always employed, Some steam is taken from the turbine at an intermediate pressure and used to preheat the feedwater in a feedwater heater. This steam has already done some work in the turbine but still has sufficient heat to heat the feedwater and reduce the heat required from the boiler. Naturally if the steam had been left in the turbine it could have done a little more work. There is however a net gain in efficiency in reducing the heat input at the boiler while reducing the work output at the turbine. To obtain optimum efficiency steam is drawn from the turbine at different pressures (and temperatures) and supplied to a series of feedwater heaters. Large turbine-generator units have up to eight separate feedwater heatersPage 7-8 Steam Power Cycles CHE 2012 and draw off up to 30% of the initial steam flow. This naturally results in a complex system of steam flows and the calculation of the cycle efficiency is quite tedious. Any steam cyole can be drawn ona temperature-entropy diagram, Such a diagram facilitates the understanding of the thermodynamic processes occurring within the cycle. When steam is extracted for feedwater heating it is condensed and joins the feedwater flow. The heat given up during condensation is put back into the feedwater. Temperature changes and zones of heat addition or heat removal can be easily seen on a temperature- entropy diagram. REGENERATIVE FEEDWATER HEATING Itwas noted when introducing the Rankine Cycle that the ideal Rankine Cycle was not as thermodynamically efficient as the ideal Carnot Cycle when operating between the same upper and lower temperature limits. It should be noted that, in the Rankine Cycle, heat is added from the boiler immediately after pumping to a high pressure. Since there is very little temperature rise in the pump some heat is added at temperatures below the upper temperature. This leads to a reduction of the average temperature of heat addition and hence a lower cycle efficiency than exhibited by the Carnot Cycle which receives all its heat at the upper temperature. aay BOILER - TURBINE UNIT EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENT WITH FEEDWATER HEATING «Some heat transferred to feedwater from 2t033 + Stightly les work produced in turbine from 710.8 + Stighly les heat rected in condenser from 8to 4 + Hest added n aller ony from 4 to 6 + Closerte Camot Cyto therefore higher efieloney + With multiple heaters more fedwator heating + Innit bolle ads neat ony from 506 Equal to Carot Cycle therefore maximum efficiency.CHE 2012 Steam Power Cycles Page 7-9 If the Rankine Cycle could be modified so that heat was only received at the upper temperature and rejected only at the lower temperature it would then be equivalent to the Camot Cycle and have the best possible cycle efficiency. This can be achieved with the Saturated Rankine Cycle using an ideal system of regenerative feedwater heaters. Such heaters use some steam extracted from the turbine after partial expansion to preheat the feedwater entering the boiler. Only enough steam is. extracted to provide the necessary heating. For an ideal system, an infinite number of extractions are required to ensure progressive heating over the whole range with no temperature differences to cause irreversibilities. In practice large power plant steam cycles usually utilise six to eight feedwater heaters. Having just one heater makes a significant improvement to the cycle efficiency and hence the operational economy. Each subsequent feedwater heater provides a smaller and smaller improvement so that itis not worth the additional capital investment to add an extra feedwater heater beyond a certain number depending upon the size and design of the power plant. Thus all steam power cycles make use of some regenerative feedwater heating. FEEDWATER HEATERS Feedwater heaters may be direct contact or surface (tubed). These are also known as open or closed heaters respectively. — cm FEEDWATER HEATING FEEDWATER HEATING DIRECT CONTACT HEATER SURFACE (TUBED) HEATER ow 21 ow = =m fowst rows Feo Hester i — hy hy) = (1 =m) (hy= ho) . uty =h) = (hgh) =m (hgh) my) * (1)(05-h) m(hy—h) +m fhe “hd = the hd im ® Oy=Dy) hy BQ) FBR heetehd a= thn) eect w= H0h)=99 (1) fe) (Bump work) aaa = Aig) (1m (he) ~(pump work) newia newiaPage 7-10 Steam Power Cycles CHE 2012 Direct Contact Feedwater Heaters Direct Contact or Open Feedwater Heaters allow for intimate mixing of the steam extracted from the turbine and the feedwater to be heated. This is done by an arrangement of spray nozzles and trays to distribute the water evenly and in drop form throughout the steam space. The water is heated by the steam which condenses and both leave together as a single flow. Surface (Tubed) Feedwater Heater Surface (Tubed) or Closed Feedwater Heaters maintain separate steam and feedwater flows. The feedwater passes through multiple tubes while the steam condenses on the outside of them. The condensed steam is drained back to the condenser as water. To calculate the steam mass flow required to heat the feedwater a heat and mass balance is carried out on the heater. Mateam Alsteam = Miceduater ARteedvater When determining the cycle efficiency these mass flow rates may be handled as fractional values. If the total steam flow rate from the boiler to the turbine is unity and the extracted steam flow to the heater is m then the balance leaving the turbine is (1-m). The mass balances for direct contact and surface (tubed) heaters then become: ™ Atom = (1m) Ahtccdwater direct contact heater m Afsteam = 1 Ateedwater surface (tubed) heater Since extraction steam is drawn from the turbine part way through its expansion, the work done in the turbine is as follows: Wartine = 1 Abfirst pa + (1 - m) Afsecond part The heat input to the boiler is given by: boiler = 1 Alpoter The cycle efficiency then becomes: Moyle = (Wturine ~ Wpumps) / (Aloiter) When using a direct contact feedwater heater two stages of pumping are required since the steam and water are mixed at a pressure between those of the condenser and boiler. For a surface (tubed) feedwater heater one pump will suffice. Note that in some calculations feedwater pump work may be neglected but it is not negligible and must be taken into account unless otherwise indicated.CHE 2012 Steam Power Cycles Page 7-14 ‘As mentioned earlier all large steam power plants have a series of feedwater heaters. The calculation of cycle efficiency on such plants is no more difficult than for one with a single heater but rather tedious. Each heater has a different mass flow rate which must be calculated by doing a mass balance on each one. Usually the condensed steam drain flow is cascaded down to the next lower pressure feedwater heater and finally to the condenser. The heat balances between the heaters are therefore linked through a series of simultaneous equations. The cycle efficiency is the work from each section of the turbine minus the pump work all divided by the heat input from the boiler as before. 1) = (ZWurtine - Woump) / (Aeoiter) FEEDWATER HEATING HEATER HEAT BALANCE MULTIPLE HEATERS aE 2 1 “O ole Fen 2 : Flow SET e 48 ee fh mF mene NAD fate SMa yer -m avenge (tema yn) meh) = 104=n) ou won) mihon) +e) = 1 =m) newia‘Steam Power Cycles CHE 2012 Page 7-12 AGWASSY INVL FOVHOLS ONY HOLVYaVSG G3laMAWNIS 431000 NIVUd 2 NaLVaHUadNs3a HLM UaLV3H USLVMGaa4CHE 2012 Use of Steam Tables Page B-1 APPENDIX B USE OF STEAM TABLES GENERAL THEORY Fluid Properties The properties of any fluid can be represented by mathematical equations. This is convenient for ideal gases but not for non-ideal gases nor for fluids that change phase such as steam. These equations can be translated into a graphical representation such as a T-s diagram which shows lines of constant properties. The properties at discrete points on the graphical presentation can be determined and tabulated as in steam tables. T-s Diagram and Tables FIGURE 1 oreo On a T-s diagram consider the heating of water at constant pressure (say atmospheric pressure). It starts off as being subcooled. As heat is added its temperature and entropy increase until it begins to boil at saturation conditions. While boiling no further rise in temperature occurs but the entropy increases due to the heat added. Eventually only saturated steam is present and further heating produces superheated steam with increasing temperature and entropy as more heat is added. If this is done at different pressures a family of constant pressure lines is produced. If all the points where the water begins to boil are joined the saturated water line is obtained. On the other side of the diagram the saturated steam line joins all the points where the water has fully evaporated. The saturated water line together with the saturated steam line for the bell shaped curve shown in the figure. Inside this bell shaped curve is the water-steam mixture where the temperaturePage B-2 Use of Steam Tables CHE 2012 (saturation temperature) corresponds with the pressure at which evaporation takes Place. Outside the bell shaped curve on the left hand side the water is subcooled and outside on the right hand side the steam is superheated. There are separate tables for each of these three regions. However in the saturated region (steam-water mixture region) there are two sets of tables with one based on temperature and one based on pressure to facilitate their use depending upon whether the temperature or pressure is known. In this region the quality x defines the mass fraction of steam present in the mixture. The tables are set out as follows: Table A.1 Saturated Mixture based on Temperature (pages 649 to 651) Table A.2 Saturated Mixture based on Pressure (pages 652 to 654) TableA3 — Superheat Steam given Temperature and Pressure (pages 655 to 662) Table A.4 — Subcooled Water given Temperature and Pressure (page 201 and pages 663 to 664) (note page 201 is for lower pressure) Thermodynamic Processes Having identified where on the T-s diagram the process starts the next step is to determine the process, that is, which parameter remains constant. This may be constant pressure (as in a boiler) constant entropy (as in a nozzle, turbine or pump) or constant enthalpy (as in a throttle). This determines where the process ends. The start and end points may be in different regions of the T-s diagram which means switching from one table to another. Quality and Interpolation While the starting point of a process is usually defined by round numbers which can be found directly on the tables the finishing points often lie off the discrete points in the tables. In the wet mixture region therefore the quality is often an obscure number. Similarly in the subcooled region or superheated region the final answer lies between discrete points and interpolation is required Since discrete points in the steam tables are close together linear interpolation between points is sufficiently accurate for all calculations.CHE 2012 Use of Steam Tables Page B-3 Charts of Constant Properties Critical Point Constant hy ‘constant T FIGURE 2 one The T-s diagram shown above shows a few key lines of constant properties so that the general direction of the process can be determined. Constant entropy lines would of course be vertical. A diagram also widely used, the h-s diagram, is shown below. This is useful in showing turbine processes because the work done (Ah) is represented by a vertical drop on the chart and steam throttling (constant h) by a horizontal line. This diagram with some lines of constant parameters is drawn below. Constant, FIGURE 3 poreecas,Page B-4 Use of Steam Tables CHE 2012 COMMON EXAMPLES Heat Exchanger For a heat exchanger the terminal conditions are usually specified as a temperature and pressure or as some conditions being saturated. Enthalpies can be found directly from the tables. Steam Turbine Expansion into Wet Region The initial temperature and pressure are usually given as well as the final pressure. The following routine can then be followed: Given p; and ty Find hy and s; from superheated steam table for isentropic conditions + Xp Sig At Pa in Saturated tables based on pressure Hence x2 ha = hr + x2 hts at pe in saturated tables based on pressure Steam Turbine Expansion or Throttling in Superheated Region The initial temperature and pressure are usually given as well as the final pressure. If expansion then s2 = s+. If throttling then ho = hy, Now s2 or he will lie between two discrete points on the superheated steam table so interpolation at pressure p2must be used between these points to find the temperature or other parameter. Pumping in Subcooled Region When pumping saturated or subcooled water it will become or remain subcooled. Usually pressure and temperature are given as well as the final pressure. Find hy and s; from the subcooled water tables. For pumping s2 = si but s: will lie between two discrete points at pz on subcooled water tables so interpolation at pressure p2 must be used to find the temperature and other parameters. Table Checks Sometimes it is not obvious which table should be used. If the temperature is too low for the given pressure in the superheated steam table the fluid is likely to be in the subcooled water region. Similarly if the temperature is too high for the pressure in the subooled water region then the fluid is likely to be superheated. In the water- steam mixture region the quality x must always range from 0 to 1. If itis greater than 1 then the fluid is in the superheated region and if itis less than 0 then it is in the subcooled region. Always be aware of the corresponding saturated conditions for any given temperature or pressure. These are identified in all the tables.CHE 2012 Use of Steam Tables Page B-5 Note: Table A.4 is labelled "Compressed Liquid (Steam). This is subcooled water. Table 4 on page 201 gives values for subcooled water below 5 MPa and is useful for low pressure conditions. In this table the values in italics are so called metastable conditions which are transient conditions under which the water will flash to steam. These are useful for interpolations if necessary. INTERPOLATION Basic Principle ‘Any curved line on a thermodynamic chart is a graphical representation of a mathematical equation relating the properties defined by the axes. Tabulated values in thermodynamic tables are the values at discrete points along the line. If these Points are close enough the line between them can be considered as being straight that is the whole curved line can be thought of as a series of short lines which change direction very slightly at each point. Therefore, to find values at intermediate Points not given in the tables, linear interpolation may be used. Linear Interpolation The values given in Steam Tables are those at discrete points along selected lines of constant parameters. In linear interpolation it is assumed that there is a straight line between two consecutive points. Hence simple ratios can be used to find any intermediate value between the points as illustrated in Figure 4 t si 5 a = 06a 8 = 06 (23023-20933) = 12.54 hy = 2093341286 = 221.87 FIGURE 4 peneangPage B-6 Use of Steam Tables CHE 2012 Sometimes the reverse procedure has to followed simply because of the way the tables are structured. For example, instead of having to find the thermodynamic property at a particular temperature, one has to find the temperature at which a particular property occurs. This is illustrated in Figure 5. “DIRECT” INTERPOLATION 200 AAAA 240 af a8 a0 aaa “REVERSE” INTERPOLATION t woo nasa 5 T ? ~ wm A f \ soo eae ure s re Multiple Interpolation SUPERHEATED STEAM 8.4MPa §20°C FIGURE 6 BBBB -AAAA 0 a) AAAA + 8 (reverse of above) BEBE ~AAAA = 72z2-AAAA 400+ $ (100) In the superheated and subcooled regions of the tables it is often necessary to do a three way interpolation to find a value between four points. The situation can be visualised as a curved surface lying between three axes as shown in Figure 6 where the properties at X are to be found,CHE 2012 Use of Steam Tables Page B-7 Three interpolations are required to find the value at X. The procedure is shown in Figure 7. “MULTIPLE” INTERPOLATION (as in Figure 6) 10 13 20 600 AAA XXX Coe 660 2 700 Bees yyYY ~—DDDD Find 200 and YYYY then 7 FIGURE 7 orzeoan Create a table as in Figure 7 so that the working can be checked and the values verified (the values should always be between the known values - useful check). Note that, in an examination, by showing the values read from tables, as indicated by AAAA, BBBB, etc. and completing the mini tables as shown in Figures 5 and 7, some credit may be given for the intermediate working if the final answer is not correct.